Treaty Academicians, 163–4, 196, 244N34 P

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-84913-5 - Russia Since 1980: Wrestling with Westernization Steven Rosefielde and Stefan Hedlund Index More information

Index

Abalkin, Leonid, 67 apparatchik, 275 Abalkin reform program, 75 arenda (leasing), 38–9, 47, 189, 275–6 ABM. See Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Argentina, 110 Treaty Aristotle, 188n2 academicians, 163–4, 196, 244n34 arms control, 221–2 Putin and, 225–6 arms race, 59n7, 223. See also cold war; Academy of Sciences, 196 nuclear weapons adjusted factor costing, 275 structural militarization in, 63–4 administrative command planning, 275 arms reduction. See also treaties adverse selection agent, 275 production v., 52–3 Aganbegyan, Abel, 49 for Russia/America, 61, 223 agriculture, 257–8 Arrow, Kenneth, 16 aid, 125–6 Aslund, Aslund, 184n44 guarantees for, 126n33 asset grabbing, 40, 70–1, 134, 192, 194, USAID for, 250 276. See also equitable asset air pollution, 159 redistribution; military asset alcohol, 45, 157, 160 reallocation Alexander II, 13n11 asset stripping, 99, 125, 276 Allan, Duncan, 115n15 ASUP, 276 Allison, Graham, 125, 125n31 autarky, 217, 276 Amalrik, Andrei, 41 authoritarian consolidation, 139–53 America. See Russia/U.S.; United authoritarian laissez-faire, 276 States authoritarian martial police state. See American public culture. See western also Muscovite authoritarian public culture martial police state amnesty, 209 democratic free enterprise v., 259 for capital ﬂight, 124n29 Putin for, 140, 150, 195 Amnesty International, 209 Soviet Russia as, 20 anarcho-populism, xxi authoritarian social modernization, 194 Andropov, Yuri, 32, 271n1 authoritarianism, 1, 102–5, 276 as leader, 42 inefﬁciency v., 185 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, 219 rule of law v., 4, 202–3 antiparisite laws, 275 straightjacket, 296

329

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-84913-5 - Russia Since 1980: Wrestling with Westernization Steven Rosefielde and Stefan Hedlund Index More information

330 Index

autocracy, 184, 276 Bolshevik coup d’etat, 277 Muscovite model as, 11 Bolshevik Party, 277 nobility against, 143n14 for proletarian democracy, 20 servitors for, 4 Bolshevik Revolution, 67, 277 systems building for, 104–5 Bolsheviks, 194 virtuous, 194–6 Gorbachev v., 47 autocrat(s). See also Gorbachev, Mikhail Bolshevism, xxi. See also market Sergeyevich; Putin, Vladimir Bolshevism; New Economic Policy rent-granting by, 12, 12n9 criticism of, xxii–xxiii rule of law v., 13 cynicism for, 20 Yeltsin as, 96, 102–5, 170–3 industrial growth and, 78 automatic system of planning and for justice, 5 management, 26 Muscovite model v., 21–2 brain drain, 164, 165, 243n31, 249 Balassa-Samuelson effect, 235n8 braking mechanism (mekhanism balloting, democracy v., 15–16 tormozheniya), 45–6 Baltic states, 215–17, 227 Brazil, 161n21 EU for, 224 Brezhnev, Leonid Gorbachev and, 70–1 constitution of, 202n13, 203n17 independence for, 71 inflation with, 111 power over, 223–4 Buchanan, James, 125 Yeltsinfor,71 bureaucracy, public, 240, 240n24, 241–2 banking reforms, 46–7, 112 Bush, George, 93 banks. See also specific banks speculation from, 48 capital deepening, 277, 285 barter, 123, 150 capital flight, 123–4, 124n28, 135, productivity and, 122 151–2 barterization, 122, 134, 135 amnesty for, 124n29 Becker, Abraham, 223 United Nations on, 123n27 benefits in-kind, money v., 130n41, capitalism, 213, 277. See also crony 150. See also pomestie capitalism; democracy; economics; Bentham, Jeremy, 6n18 westernization Berezovsky, Boris, 103, 140 catastroika (catastrophic reform), 49, 51, Bergson, Abram, 16 134, 277 on defense spending, 80–2 communism v., 53 on growth estimates, 83, 85 hyperdepression as, 55, 73 Bergson-Arrow-Samuelson welfare premature deaths from, 73, 109, 131 standard, 276 Catherine the Great, 4, 12, 13n11 Beslan terrorist attacks, 174 CBR. See Central Bank of Russia Bettleheim, Charles, 52 censorship, 206 Birman, Igor, 111 of media, 175–6 birthrates, 131, 132t, 165, 253 of statistics, 156–7 Blackwill, Robert, 125n31 Central Bank of Russia (CBR), 124n28, Blank, Stephen, 163–4 238–9, 239n18 blat, 39, 276 Central Committee Plenum, 35 Blockian project, 14n13 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Bolshevic socialism on consumption, 83t Lenin for, 16–17 on defense spending, 81–2 privateers v., 54–5 on Finland, 60n12

Index 331

on growth estimates, 85, 89 cold peace, 142, 213, 227 per capita income from, 128–9 cold war, 211, 213, 226, 278. See also Putin v., 10 arms control wishful thinking of, 62, 63, 76, 91 Gorbachev and, 52 centralization, 277 living standards during, 18 de-, 280 of Putin, 142, 273 of power, 225n31 second wave of, 219, 222–3 CFE. See Conventional Armed Forces collectivism (sobornost), 189–90 in Europe Treaty collectivization, 278 Chechen, 174n9, 213, 214 population deﬁcit from, 131 Chernenko, Konstantin, 23, 32 serfdom from, 257 Chernobyl, 158 color revolutions, 178, 181, 215n15 Chernyshevsky, Nikolai Gavrilovich, colored markets, 32 30n39 The Coming Soviet Crash (Shelton), Chief Administration of the 111 Introduction of Computer Command Communism, 32, 278 Technology to the National command economy, 278 Economy of the USSR, 25n24 by Peter the Great, 14n13 children, 174n9 commanding heights, 278 organizations for, 178, 186 Committee on State Security (KGB), China, 152, 161n21, 197, 214, 222, 224 205 democracy in, 197n11 FSB in, 100 exchange rate for, 261n2, 267n18 in media, 182n37 FDI for, 266–7 privateers and, 48 governance in, 264 Putin for, 137, 139, 152 Langean market socialism for, 262–3, Yeltsin for, 103 264 Commonwealth of Independent States per capita income in, 262n4, 263t (CIS), 214, 227. See also Baltic reforms in, 261n2 states Russia v., 261–70 communalism, xxii, 278–89 for technology transfer, 266–8 proletopia for, 189–90 Chrenomyrdin, Viktor, 48 communism, 279. See also Command Chto delat? (What is to be done?), Communism; Gorbachev, Mikhail xxii–xxiii, 30 Sergeyevich; Market Communism; Chubais, Anatoly, 134, 170 Marxism; Putin, Vladimir; Reform CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency Communism; Soviet communism; CIS. See Commonwealth of Yeltsin, Boris Independent States catastroika v., 53 citizen spying, 182n38 as Muscovy, 213 citizens. See also employment; health Shatalin plan against, 70 care; ownership; workers shock therapy v., 108 rights of, 197–202, 203–8 Communist Party, 279. See also Polish civil service, 240n22, 240n24 Communist Party class war, 20–1, 84, 278 Gorbachev and, 45n16 classes, 189. See also liquidation gray markets for, 29 Cleland, David, 139 westernization by, 1 Clinton, Bill, 94 competition. See also intellectual CMEA. See Council for Mutual property rights Economic Assistance in China, 264

332 Index

competition (cont.) in Russia/China, 264 Herfindahl-Hirschman indexes on, state’s toleration of, 125–6, 151 246 of statistics, 84–5 Muscovy v., 148 whistleblowers for, 242 sustainable growth v., 231–2, 251 Council for Mutual Economic computopia, 279 Assistance (CMEA), 212 computopic (sci-fi), 27–8 Council of Economic Ministers, 280 Concept, for federal reform, 241–2 coup d’etat, 2, 53, 172–3, 181n36 Congress of People’s Deputies, 36 criminalization elections v., 66 of entrepreneurship, 22, 23–4, 64, 80, Yeltsin for, 67–8 280 constitution, 210 of private property, 280 of Brezhnev, 202n13, 203n17 crisis management, 108–35 current, 203–8 crony capitalism, 280. See also privateers Muscovy v., 206–8 Cuba, 212 Nicholas II and, 13n11 Cultural Revolution, 264 Putin v., 180–1, 205–6 culture, 280. See also western public of Stalin, 197n12, 198–202, 203 culture women and, 199, 201 cybernetics, 280 from Yeltsin, 171, 203–6 consumer choice, 256, 279 Dead Souls (Gogol), 264 consumer goods, 111 deaths, by causes, 253t. See also consumer prices, 113t mortality rate; premature deaths consumer sovereignty, 15, 15n16, 279 decentralization, 280 consumer utility standard, 279 decontrol. See Yeltsin, Boris consumption defense. See also military; Strategic CIA on, 83t Defense Initiative of energy resources, 246 corruption in, 126–7 control. See also arms control industry output for, 127t Market Communism v., 38–9 Yeltsin on, 126–8 petroleum for, 182n40 defense burden, 223 for Putin, 140–1, 152 Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), 59, Conventional Armed Forces in Europe 223 Treaty (CFE), 221 defense spending, 212 convergence, 21n9, 279–80 CIA on, 81–2 cooperatives, 276, 280 estimates of, 80–3 Gorbachev for, 47 in GNP, 81t correlation of forces, 211n2, 228, 280 liberals against, 99 Gorbachev and, 62, 64 Putin for, 141, 182n40 against USSR, 30 dekulakization, 280–1 corruption, 135, 186. See also capital democide, 131 flight; exploitation; NKVD; democracy, 169–87, 225, 281. See also privateers; prostitution; secret Novgorod model; oligarchs; siloviki police; Shleifer, Andrei balloting v., 15–16 in defense, 126–7 change towards, 192–4 judicial, 183n41, 208 in China, 197n11 managers and, 125 economic growth v., 261 in military industrial complex, 99 of Lenin, 169 rule of law v., 124–5 managed, 178–9, 287

Index 333

path dependence for, 65, 143n16 Dubrovka Theater, 137 proletarian, 20 Duma, 102–3 representative, 16 Dutch disease, 145, 151–2, 233, 235 secret police v., 172 dystopia (cacatopia), 5–6 semblance of, 169–87 social, xxi, 295 Eastern Orthodox Christianity, 195, 207 sovereign, 180, 295 Eberstadt, Nicholas, 154–5, 164 Yeltsin against, 72, 100 EBRD, 250 democratic free enterprise, xxin3 Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature authoritarian martial police state v., under Siege (Feshbach and 259 Friendly), 160 Muscovy v., 85, 101 ecological disaster zones, 159 Democratic Market Communism, 38 economic freedom. See also Stalin, democratic marketization, 209 Joseph democratization (demokratizatsia), 281 Muscovy v., 184n42 color revolutions for, 178 oligarchs v., 190 Gorbachev for, 52 economic growth (uskorenie tempov for Yeltsin, 170–3 rosta), 144–50. See also Dutch demography, 131–3 disease demolition, systems building and, democracy v., 261 95–107. See also Yeltsin, Boris Gorbachev for, 42 Deng Xiaoping, 31, 119, 146, 194, 264. recommendations for, 232–3, 237, See also China 239–41 depression. See also hyperdepression economic reform glasnost for, 1 for growth, 237n13 from perestroika, 63 treadmill of, 242 from red directors, 47 economic system(s), 282 destabilization, 33 convergence of, 21n9 The Destruction of Nature (Unichtozhenie Muscovite, 289 prirody)(Komarov), 158 post-Soviet, 119 detente,´ 21 socialist, 47–8, 67 development, 42–3, 109–10. See also socialist market, 261n2 research and development “On the Economic Theory of gender in, 162 Socialism” (Lange), 47–8 OECD on, 232–3, 237, 239–41 economics. See also Balassa-Samuelson DIA. See Defense Intelligence Agency effect; cold peace; employment; dictatorship of law, 179n28, 281 gross domestic product; gross dictatorship of the proletariat, 20, 169, national product; macroeconomic 281 stimulation; order of economic Dienstbier, Jiri, 125n31 liberation; poverty; ruble; Shatalin discipline, from Yeltsin, 97. See also Plan; virtual economy; Washington control; repression Consensus disease, 158. See also Dutch disease NEP for, 31, 106 immigration v., 162 restoration of, 149–51, 195 sexually transmitted, 156 SEZs for, 249 disequilibrium economy, 281 for Soviet Union’s collapse, 68n22, duality principle, 25n23 76–7 duality theorem, 109, 281 economists, 39, 72. See also Becker, socialism v., 24–5 Abraham; Lange, Oscar

334 Index

economy. See also virtual economy vrag naroda v., 24 command, 14n13, 278 environment, 157–60, 177, 208 computers for, 25n24 equitable asset redistribution, 116–17 disequilibrium, 281 Ershov, Emil, 114 first, 32 ESN. See unified social tax natural, 289 Eurobonds, 117–18 second, 32, 295 European Union (EU), 215n15, 218, economy of shortage, 282 220, 220n26, 227 education, 199, 208, 243n32, 248t. See for Baltic states, 224 also academicians; propaganda; social democracy in, xxi research and development Soviet satellites for, 65 in IT, 243n31 evil empire, 21, 33, 282 in R&D, 243 exceptionalism, 9 elections, 200–1, 207. See also exchange rate, 90, 111, 117, 128–9, Committee on State Security 132, 234t, 235n8, 238 appointments v., 140, 174 for China, 261n2, 267n18 Congress of People’s Deputies v., 66 exploitation media access in, 172, 182n37 taxes and, 130n42 oligarchs in, 174 of workers, 264–5 Putin against, 140–1, 174 exports, 233, 239n17 Stalin on, 172 extensive growth, 282 in Stalin’s constitution, 197n12 embodied technological progress, 282 FAPSI. See Federal Agency for emigration, for media moguls, 175. See Government Communications and also brain drain Information employment, 107, 120, 207. See also job FDI. See foreign direct investment rights; manpower; unemployment; Federal Agency for Government wages; workers Communications and Information in civil service, 240n22, 240n24 (FAPSI), 100 ghosting and, 121 federal budget, 149 inflation and, 113 petroleum and, 238 under Soviet communism, 120 Federal Fund for Mandatory Medical support for, 103 Insurance (FFOMS), 254 enemies of the people, 202 Federal Programme for Reforming the energy resources, 104, 220n25. See also State Service of the Russian natural gas; natural resource(s) Federation, 241 consumption of, 246 Federal Security Service. See secret Enlightenment, 14n15, 169n1, 188n1 police Russia v., 3–4, 19 fertility rate, 132t, 155n6 sovereign democracy v., 180 Feshbach, Murray, 41n6, 160, 253 enterprise reform, 49–51. See also FFOMS. See Federal Fund for democratic free enterprise; town Mandatory Medical Insurance and village enterprise fiat prices, 282 enterprise wage funds, 112 financial crisis, 117–18, 134. See also entrapment operations (kompromat), 140. depression; hyperdepression See also citizen spying financial recovery, 118, 145, 150, entrepreneurship, 164 152 for China, 261–2, 266–8 Finland, 60n12 as criminal, 22, 23–4, 64, 80, 280 first economy, 32

Index 335

500 days program, 36, 69–70, 282. See ghosting (dismissed workers still listed as also Shatalin, Stanislav employed), 121 food, 162, 234t Gilelman, Zvi, 156–7 program for, 41 GKChP. See State Emergency forced substitution, 17, 27, 89–90, 282 Committee foreign bondholders, 117–18, 134 GKO. See State Treasury Obligations foreign debt, 149 glasnost (openness), 61, 66, 157, 189. See foreign direct investment (FDI), 246 also otkritnost for China, 266–7, 269 for depression, 1 foreign investment, 117–18, 148, 246 western public culture on, 56–7 for China, 266–7, 269 glavk (administrative departments), 46, in venture capital, 249 97, 282 foreigners, 200 GNP. See gross national product “The Former Soviet Union in Transition,” Gogol, Nikolai, 264 Vol. 1, 74 golden rule, 15n18 Fortress Russia, 145, 151–2 rule of contract/criminal law v., 15 free enterprise theory, 109. See also Goldman, Emma, 5 democratic free enterprise Golitsyn, Anatoly, 60n12 freedom. See also constitution; Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich. See economic freedom also coup d’etat of information, 241 Baltic states and, 70–1 religious, 199 Bolsheviks v., 47 Freedom House, 180 Communist Party and, 45n16 Friendly, Albert, 160 for cooperatives, 47 FSB. See secret police correlation of forces and, 62, 64 Fukuyama, Francis, 19, 23 for democratization, 52 Fyodor I, 23n12 for economic growth, 42 expectations for, 53–4 G-7 GKChP against, 68n22, 76 appeal to, 49 as hero, 63 grand bargain at, 125n31 for human/civil rights, 205 on transition, 3 liberalization of, 42 G-8, 138 on Market Communism, 34, 39–40 Gaddy, Clifford, 122 as mineralny sekretar, 45 Gaidar, Yegor, 170 at Murmansk, 45–6 Gaspec, 182n40, 215n15, 220 for new thinking, 52, 58, 212 Gazprom (gas industry), 48, 215n15 on ownership, 98 GDP. See gross domestic product against physical systems management, Geary, R. S., 87 62–3 Geary-Khamis approach, 87 against popular sovereignty, 67 gender power elite and, 44–5 in development, 162 for privateers, 49, 51–2 life expectancy and, 132t, 156–7, with Reagan, 35–6 253t reality of, 64 genshtab, 52, 62, 101 reforms of, 43n15, 45–7, 49, 75 German reuniﬁcation, 66–7, 71, 212 for Shatalin plan, 69–70 gerontocracy, 42 Stalin v., 54 Gerschenkron, Alexander, 4, 9, 143, summary of, 40 266 timelines on, 35–7, 74–5

336 Index

Gorbachev (cont.) for Russia/U.S., 18, 78n1 western public culture on, 72 for USSR/Russia, 86t, 87t westerners for, 59–60, 62 for USSR/U.S., 88t West’s mistakes for, 73, 77 gross domestic product (GDP) growth wishful thinking about, 62–4 acceleration (uskorenie), 1, 58–9, Yeltsin v., 35–7, 55, 67–72 298 Gosabritrazh, 282 gross domestic product (GDP) per capita Gosagroprom, 41n7 for Russia, 79t Gosbank, 112, 283 for Russia/China, 263t Goskompriroda, 158–9 for USSR/Russia, 86t, 88t Goskomstat (State Statistical Agency), for USSR/U.S., 87t, 88t 26–7 gross national income, 283–4 publications and, 40–1 gross national product (GNP) statistics from, 85 defense spending in, 81t Goskomtsen, 283 drop in, 51 Gosplan (Central Planning Agency), growth rate of, 78n1, 83 283 of Russia/America, 79–80, 89 constraints from, 46 growth. See also economic growth; planning and, 26–7, 51n30 industrial growth; sustainable Gospriemka, 45 growth Gossnabsbyt, 46, 283 of China/Russia, 268 Gosstandart, 283 economic reform for, 237n13 GosTekhnika, 283 estimates on, 83, 85, 89 goszakaz (state orders), 46 of GDP, 236, 240, 258–60 governance. See also bureaucracy, public; intensive, 285 citizens; Congress of People’s Muscovite model v., 17–18 Deputies; constitution; coup d’etat; TFP as, 236, 237 dictatorship of law; World Bank value-added, 236t governance Indicators growth acceleration, 237n13 in China, 264 growth retardation, 284 Muscovite, 133 Gulag, 203n15, 207, 284 World Bank on, 241 Gusinsky, Vladimir, 103, 140 Grachev, Pavel, 126–7 Graham, Daniel, 72–3 harmonism, 284 Grand Bargain, 125, 125n31 Harvard Institute for Economic gray markets, 29 Development, 109–10 Gref, German, 190 Hayek, Fredrich von, 24 Gregory, Paul, 78n1 health care, 157–60, 260. See also GRICS. See World Bank governance alcohol; life expectancy; public Indicators health; Semashko gross domestic product (GDP), 154, reforms for, 254–6 234t, 283. See also sustainable Hellie, Richard, 142–3 growth Helsinki Accord, 21n8 defense burden in, 223 Herﬁndahl-Hirschman indexes, 246 growth, 236, 240, 258–60 hidden inﬂation, 284 per capital income, 142n12 Holzman, Franklyn, 81 percent of, 238t Honnecker, Erich, 71 public debt and, 118 Hough, Jerry, 61 of Russia, 79t Hu Jintao, 197

Index 337

human/civil rights, 225. See also information and communication constitution; democracy technologies (ICT), 232, 243 Gorbachev for, 205 FAPSI for, 100 Huntington, Samuel, 14 RIFICT for, 250 hyperdepression, 118, 134, 272 information technology (IT), 250 as catastroika, 55, 73 education in, 243n31 perestroika for, 119 innovation, 240–7. See also technology petroleum bubble v., 150 policy for, 251–2 for postcommunist Muscovy, 119–20 spurious, 296 rent-granting for, 119 input-output model, 285 hyperinflation, 111–13, 116–18, 134, inspiration, 285. See also competition 207, 284 institutions, 285. See also specific results of, 114–15 institutions intellectual property rights (IPR), Ickes, Barry, 122 246–7, 251, 260. See also ICT. See information and ownership; patents communication technologies intelligence agencies, 100–1. See also idea of the West, 14, 284–5 Central Intelligence Agency; secret Muscovy v., 19 police Illarionov, Andrei, 96, 184n42 DIA as, 59, 223 IMF. See International Monetary Fund intensive growth, 285 immigration, disease v., 162 Inter-Bank Credit Alliance (MKS) imperial authoritarian restoration, 1 consortium, 116 imports, 233. See also forced Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces substitution Treaty (INF), 212, 219, 221–2 impoverished superpower, 285 International Labor Organization independence, 214, 227 surveys, 120 for Baltic states, 71 International Monetary Fund (IMF), India, 214 109, 149 industrial growth, 233t, 237 on GDP/per capital income, 142n12 Bolshevism and, 78 international norms, 197–209 high tech, 164 international relations, 211–28 manufacturing for, 234t, 236 investment, 236, 250 inequality, development and, 162. See barriers for, 246 also oligarchs; privateers foreign, 117–18, 148, 246, 249, INF. See Intermediate-Range Nuclear 266–7, 269 Forces Treaty investment level, 247 inflation, 234t, 235n8, 239, 239n19. See invisible hand, 108, 151n35, 285 also hyperinflation IPR. See intellectual property rights banking reform for, 112 IT. See information technology for consumer goods, 111 Ivan III (Ivan the Great), xxin4, 2n3, 4, employment and, 113 10–11 hidden, 284 Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV Vasilevich), 11 New Russians from, 114 Ivanov, Sergei, 141, 146, 182, 184n42, repressed, 111, 293 191n5, 215, 223 in retail price indexes, 111n7 from Yeltsin, 112–14 J curve, 108–9, 285 information. See censorship; intelligence Japan, 217–19, 224 agencies job rights, 285

338 Index

job security, 31. See also unemployment Lenin, Vladimir justice, Bolshevism for, 5. See also for Bolshevic socialism, 16–17 democracy democracy of, 169 failure of, 91 kakatopia, 188 Muscovy of, 16–17 Kaliningrad, 216 for nationalization, 5 Katsenelinboigen, Aron, 32 for statistics’ corruption, 84 KGB. See Committee on State Security liberal imperial superpower, 214 Khamis,S.H.,87 liberal imperialism, xxivn9, 1, 214 Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 102, 170 liberalization. See also order of ﬁnancial Khodorkovsky, Mikhail, 116, 141, liberalization; westernization 176–7 of Gorbachev, 42 khozraschyot, 285–6 of perekhod, 2 Khrushchev, Nikita restrictions on, 104 mirovoe sosushchestvovanie from, 60–1 transitologists on, 133 peaceful coexistence from, 21 for upward mobility, 196 reforms from, 28 liberals, 99 King, William, 139 Liberman reform, 287 Kleiner, George, 122, 145–6 Libermanism, 26 kleptocracy, 286 life expectancy, 132t, 156–7, 253t kolkhoz, 286 linear programming, 287 Komarov, Boris, 158 line-item budgetary ﬁnancing (smetnoe), konandirovka (worker reassignment), 120 255 Kontoronich, Leonid, 24–5 Linz, Juan, 169 kooperativnoe kafe (cooperative cafes),´ 47 Lipman, Masha, 96 Koopmans, Tjalling, 24–5 liquidation (as a class), 5, 287 Kosovo war, 212–13 Litvinenko, Alexander, 142, 177, 179 Kosygin, 21n6 loans, 115–16 Kozlov, Andrei, 179 loans-for-shares, 115n15, 116 Kremlin, 286 Lockean social contract, 174, 188n1, Krugman, Paul, 269 287 krugovaya poruka, 286 trust for, 19 Kudrin, Alexei, 190 for westerners, xxii kulak, 286 Luzhkov, Yury, 130n43 Kulikov, Anatoly, 172 Kurtzweg, Laurie, 74–6 macroeconomic stimulation, 234t Kvashnin, Anatoly, 212–13 Maddison, Angus, 78–9, 80n5 estimates of, 85–9 landownership, 12–13, 257–8 Magna Carta, 9 Lange, Oscar, 47–8 Makarov, Valerii, 122 Langean market socialism, 47–8, 119, managed democracy, 178–9, 287 286 managers, 97–8 China for, 262–3, 264 corruption and, 125 law of value, 286 mandatory medical insurance (OMS), le marxisme-senilisme, 42 254, 256 leasing, 287. See also arenda manpower, 163–4 Lebed, Alexander, 172 manufacturing, 234t, 236 Lebedev, Platon, 176–7 market Bolshevism, 102 leisure, 287. See also wealth market colors, 39–40

Index 339

Market Communism Miller, Alexei, 130n43 control v., 38–9 mineralny sekretar, 45 Gorbachev on, 34, 39–40 Ministry of Atomic Energy (Minatom), pillage under, 48–9 104 market leasing socialism Ministry of Finance Bonds (OFZ), 117 advantages of, 31–2 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), as NEP, 31 100 vrag naroda v., 31 mir, 288 Market Muscovy. See Putin, Vladimir Mises, Ludwig von, 24 market practice, planning v., 25–6, 64–5 MKS. See Inter-Bank Credit Alliance market socialism (syndicalism), 23, 34. mobilization initiative. See also resource See also Langean market socialism; mobilization socialist market economic system for perestroika, 46 marketization, barterization as, 122 modernization, 288. See also markets, 39. See also tolkachy westernization gray, 29 authoritarian social, 288 martial state, 81. See also authoritarian Molotov-Ribbgentrop nonaggression martial police state pact, 65 Marx, Karl, 189 money, 112. See also economics; Marxism, 211. See also class war nonlabor incomes; per capita material balances, 27, 287–8 income; ruble; terms of trade Matlock, Jack, 57n5 beneﬁts in-kind v., 130n41, 150 maximalism, 101 for pensioners, 130–1 McDonald’s, 47 sterilization of, 238–9, 260 McKinnon, Ronald, 109, 133 moral hazard, 288 Meadean social democracy mechanism, mortality rate, 132t, 156, 165 288 Murmansk, 45–6 media, 206 Muscovite authoritarian martial police access of, 172, 182n37 state, 289 Putin against, 175–6, 179 westernization v., xxiii–xxiv Medvdev, Dmitri, 3, 180–3 Yeltsin for, 105–6, 128 Mexico, 110 Muscovite economic system, 289 Middle East, 57n5 Muscovite governance, 133 military, 200. See also intelligence Muscovite model, 11, 289. See also agencies social change for Muscovite system, 224 Bolshevism v., 21–2 Peter the Great for, 14n13 growth v., 17–18 reduction of, 3, 105 tenacity of, 143, 143n16 size of, 265 Washington Consensus v., 110 military asset reallocation, 213–14 Muscovite modernization, paradox of, military industrial complex (VPK), 147, 18 288, 299 Muscovite reality. See Muscovite model corruption in, 99 Muscovite system, 224. See also Yeltsin, resources to, 28 Boris Romanov in, 271n1 Muscovy, xxi, 213, 288. See also under Yeltsin, 101, 126–8 postcommunist Muscovy military industrial production, 146 China v., 261–70 militocracy, 191n5 competition v., 148 Mill, John Stuart, 6n18 constitution v., 206–8

340 Index

Muscovy (cont.) against autocracy, 143n14 democratic free enterprise and, 85, nomenklatura system (Table of Ranks) 101 (Tabel o rangakh), 14n13 economic freedom v., 184n42 nongovernmental organizations idea of the West v., 19 (NGOs), 177–8, 207. See also of Lenin, 16–17 Amnesty International Pareto optimality v., 17, 151 nonlabor incomes (netrudovye dohkody), self-regulation v., 197 45 west and, 9–19, 72–3 Nord Stream, 217n17 westernization v., 271–3 Noren, James, 74–6 MVD. See Ministry of Internal Affairs North, Douglass, 13 My Disillusionment in Russia (Goldman), NorthKorea,217 5 Novgorod model, 106 nuclear weapons, 57n5, 182n40, 217 National Security Economics, 61 expansion of, 219–22 nationality INF for, 212, 219, 221–2 environmentalism and, 158 number of, 82 population v., 156–7 nationalization, 5, 289 obshchina, 290 NATO, 93, 215n15 OECD. See Organization for Economic natural economy, 289 Cooperation and Development natural gas, 217–19, 235n7, 239n17. See Office of the Secretary of Defense also Gaspec; Gazprom (OSD), 59 natural resource(s), 148. See also OFZ. See Ministry of Finance Bonds environment; Gaspec; petroleum Ogarkov, Nikolai, 211, 226 energy as, 220n25 oil. See petroleum exhaustion of, 222–3 oligarchs, 210, 290. See also Gaidar, superpower, 217–19 Yegor; Khodorkovsky, Mikhail; sustainable growth v., 233 Lebedev, Platon; Litvinenko, near abroad, population meltdown v., 157 Alexander; rent-seeking NEP. See New Economic Policy assets from, 175n13, 177 nepmen, 289 economic freedom v., 190 net material product (NMP), 240n21, in elections, 174 289 siloviki v., 191–3 drop in, 49–50, 50t, 51 OMS. See mandatory medical insurance New Economic Policy (NEP), 289 Oneksimbank, 116 as Bolshevik market experiment, 106 one-man-rule, 290 market leasing socialism as, 31 OPK, 290 New Lies for Old (Golitsyn), 60n12 order of economic liberation, 108–10, New Russians, 114, 196, 289 133 new thinking (novoe myshlenie), 1, 226, order of financial liberalization, 290 290 Organization for Economic Gorbachev for, 52, 58, 212 Cooperation and Development NGOs. See nongovernmental (OECD), 232–3, 237, 239–41 organizations OSD. See Office of the Secretary of Nicholas II, 13n11 Defense NKVD, 38, 173 otkritnost (openness), 157 NMP. See net material product ownership, 98–9, 208 nobility, 12, 13n11 in China, 261n2, 262n3

Index 341

of land, 12–13, 257–8 Pinochet, Augusto, 172 in Stalin’s constitution, 198 piratization, 134, 292 planned chaos, 28, 291 PA. See presidential administration planning, 139, 275, 291. See also duality Pareto optimality, 15, 290 theorem; Gosplan Muscovy v., 17, 151 market practice v., 25–6, 64–5 Pareto, Vilfredo, 15 teleological, 120 patents, 243n32, 244n35, 247 Poland, 66n21, 227 paternalist, 16–17 Polish Communist Party. See also patrimonialism, 290 Walesa, Lech patriotism, 182n38 Solidarity for, 66n21 peaceful coexistence, 21, 60–1, 290–1 Politburo, 291 pensioners, 130–1 political parties. See also specific political people (demos), 15, 202. See also citizens; parties consumer choice; dictatorship of pressure for, 179 the proletariat in Stalin’s constitution, 200–1 per capita income Politovskaya, Anna, 179 in China, 262n4, 263t Polozkov, Ivan, 68 from CIA, 128–9 pomestie (servitors’ benefit), 11–12 IMF on, 142n12 Ponzi scheme, 291–2 perekhod, 2, 53, 70, 291 popular sovereignty, 67 perestroika, 1, 47, 291 population for hyperdepression, 119 loss of, 164, 165 mobilization initiative for, 46 nationality v., 156–7 perekhod v., 53, 70 poverty in, 130n42 Perestroika: Radical Reform for My Country population deficit, 131, 155–6, 292 and the World (Gorbachev), 47 posadniki, 106n8 perspiration, 291 postcommunist Muscovy Peter the Great, 14n13 governance for, 133 petroleum, 176–7, 216–19, 232–3, hyperdepression for, 119–20 239n17, 239n18 Potanin, Vladimir, 116 for control, 182n40 poverty, 130, 130n42. See also federal budget and, 238 impoverished superpower; for financial recovery, 118, 145, 150, pensioners; wealth 152 for premature deaths, 131 in GDP, 238t from shock therapy, 128–9 Khodorkovsky for, 176 statistics on, 161–2 petroleum bubble, 115, 147, 234t, 259, poverty-related illnesses, 252–3 260 power elite, 44–5. See also oligarchs; hyperdepression v., 150 siloviki war for, 218 PPP. See purchasing power parity physical systems control mechanism, 51 precycling, 292 physical systems management, 23, 28–9, premature deaths, 292. See also 291 Litvinenko, Alexander Gorbachev against, 62–3 catastroika for, 73, 109, 131 market socialism v., 23, 34 poverty for, 131 against prosperity, 22 Putin for, 142, 142n10 piatiletka (five-year planning), 23, 291 Stalin for, 203 pillage, 48–9. See also privateers prepriyatie, 293

342 Index

presidential administration (PA), 191n5 public debt, GDP and, 118 Presidential Property Management public health, 157–60, 208, 252–3 Department, 139 publications, scientiﬁc, 243n32 Primakov, Yevgeny, 173 purchasing power parity (PPP), 293 Priority National Project Health, 255 for USSR/U.S., 89n15, 90t private property, 39. See also intellectual Putin, Vladimir, 2, 10, 137–9, 186 property rights; ownership assertiveness by, 215–17 privateers, 40, 56–7, 292. See also for authoritarian martial police state, Khodorkovsky, Mikhail; Potanin, 140, 150, 195 Vladimir cold war of, 142, 273 Bolshevic socialism v., 54–5 constitution v., 180–1, 205–6 Gorbachev for, 49, 51–2 control for, 140–1, 152 KGB and, 48 for defense spending, 141, 182n40 red directors as, 48 denials from, 225–6 siloviki as, 104–5 elections and, 140–1, 174 Yeltsinfor,97 foreign debt and, 149 privatization, 292. See also pillage FSB and, 172 spontaneous, 47, 49, 54, 65, 76, imperial authoritarian restoration by, 97–8, 296 1 structural militarization and, 84 KGB and, 137, 139, 152 voucher, 299 liberal imperialism for, xxivn9 Yeltsin for, 97–9 against media, 175–6, 179 prodrazverstka, 292 oligarch assets for, 175n13 producer prices, 113t for patriotism, 182n38 production, 233–6, 294. See also for premature deaths, 142, 142n10 precycling; structural repression by, 177–9 militarization; terms of trade social services and, 195 arms reduction v., 52–3 on Soviet Union’s collapse, 1 military industrial, 146 successes of, 149 from R&D, 244, 245n37 Yeltsin and, 172–3 production potential, 292 catastroika v., 49 rab (slave of the ruler), 11 production potential standard, 293 RAS. See Russian Academy of Science productivity, 233–7 rationing, 293 in agriculture, 257–8 R&D. See research and development barter and, 122 Reagan, Ronald public administration for, 239–42 evil empire from, 21 rent-granting v., 265, 270 with Gorbachev, 35–6 in technology, 243–4 negotiations and, 57n5 productivity growth (TFP), 236–7 red directors, 28–9, 293 proletarian democracy, 20 depression from, 47 proletariat, 293 as privateers, 48 proletopia, 189–90, 209 reform(s). See also catastroika Promstroibank, 46 administrative, 242t propaganda, 201 banking, 46–7, 112 prosperity, 22. See also sustainable in China, 261n2 growth; wealth Concept for, 241–2 prostitution, 104 economic, 237n13, 242 public administration, 239–42 enterprise, 49–51

Index 343

of federal bureaucracies, 240–2 Robbins, Lionel, 24 of Gorbachev, 43n15, 45–7, 49, 75 Romanov, Grigory, 32–3, 271 health care, 254–6 Rosvooruzhenie, 104 from Khrushchev, 28 ruble, 234t of Kosygin, 21n6 appreciation of, 233t Liberman, 287 overhang, 111 for R&D, 249–52, 260 value of, 144 Stolypin, 296 rule of contract/criminal law, 151, 261 Reform Communism, 20–34, 293 golden rule v., 15 job security under, 31 rule of law, 241, 294 planning for, 25–6, 64–5 authoritarianism v., 4, 202–3 without restrictions, 66 autocrats v., 13 Regional Economic Councils (Sovet corruption v., 124–5 Narodnovo Khoziaistro) markets and, 39 (sovnarkhozy), 28 physical systems management v., 28–9 religious freedom, 199 rule of men v., 272 rent, 12n9 for westerners, xxii rent-granting, 130, 267–8, 293 Yeltsin against, 100 by autocrats, 12, 12n9 rule of men, 294 for hyperdepression, 119 rule of law v., 272 loans-for-shares and, 115n15 trust v., 19 physical systems management v., ruler sovereignty, 294 28–9 Russia. See also Soviet Russia productivity v., 265, 270 as authoritarian state, 20, 185 Yeltsin against, 103 China v., 261–70 rentier, 293 classification of, 180 rent-seeking, 293. See also oligarchs; Enlightenment v., 3–4, 19 siloviki flaws of, 222–3 repressed inflation, 111, 293 GDP of, 79t repression, 177–9, 186. See also Soviet Union v., 222–3, 227 censorship; constitution; as superpower, 78–91 democide; Gulag; media as third world country, 150–1 by Stalin, 203 Russia Monitoring Longitudinal Survey, requisitioning, 293 129 research and development (R&D). See Russia: The Sick Man of Europe also venture capital (Eberstadt), 154–5 education in, 243 Russia/China production from, 244, 245n37 corruption in, 264 reforms for, 249–52, 260 GDP/per capita, 263t spending on, 244n33, 244n34, 246, Russian Academy of Science (RAS), 247–8, 249, 251–2 244n34 resource mobilization, 293–4 Russian Arms Export Agency restructure (perestroit), 42–3 (Rosvooruzhenie), 104 revolution, 294 Russian Investment Fund for Bolshevik, 67, 277 Information and Communications color, 178, 181, 215n15 Technologies (RIFICT), 250 RIFICT. See Russian Investment Fund Russian Venture Capital Association for Information and (RVCA), 249 Communications Technologies Russians, idealism of. See also citizens

344 Index

Russia/U.S., 18, 78n1. See also shock therapy, 73, 133, 295 USSR/U.S. economists for, 72 arms reduction for, 61, 223 poverty from, 128–9 GNP of, 79–80, 89 from Yeltsin, 97–8 as superpower, 219–22 Silovarch, 210, 295 Russophobia, 9 siloviki, 125, 191n5, 210, 295 Rutskoi, Alexander, 170–1, 271 oligarchs v., 191–3 RV C A . See Russian Venture Capital as privateers, 104–5 Association slavophilism (Russophilism), xxi, xxii Smith, Adam, 19, 122, 151 Sachs, Jeffrey, 109 smuta (Times of Trouble), 23, 23n12, Samuelson, Paul, 16 33, 143 Sapir, Jacques, 162 Sobchak, Anatoly, 181 satisﬁcing, 273, 294 sobornost, 272 Schmidt, Helmut, 41n8 social change, 188–210 Schroeder, Gerhard, 149, 215n15 social democracy, xxi, 288, 295 science-production associations, 294. social improvements, 157. See also See also state science sector reform(s) scientiﬁc and technological social infrastructure, 163 development, 42–3 social services scissors crisis, 294 current, 130 SDI. See Strategic Defense Initiative Putin and, 195 sebestoimost, 294 Yeltsin v., 99–100, 195 second economy, 32, 295 social welfare programs, 2n7 secret police (Federal’naia sluzhba socialism, 295 bezopasnosti Rossiiskoi Federatsii) Bolshevic, 16–17, 54–5 (FSB) (Federal Security Service), duality theorem v., 24–5 xxiv, 100, 103, 107, 139, 152 Langean market, 47–8, 119, 262–3, coup d’etat by, 2 264, 286 democracy v., 172 market, 23, 34 NKVD as, 38, 173 market leasing, 31–2 security services, 295. See also secret socialist market economic system, 261n2 police Socialists, 56 Semashko, 254–5 soft power, 211n2 servitors, 295 Solidarity, for Poland, 66n21 for autocracy, 4 SORT. See Treaty on Offensive tsar v., 11–12 Strategic Reductions sexually transmitted disease, 156 South Korea, 155n6 SEZs. See special economic zones sovereign democracy, 180, 295 shadow prices, 295 Soviet communism. See also Marxism Shakhnovsky, Vasily, 176 ecocide and, 160 Shatalin plan (500-day program), 36, employment under, 120 69–70, 282 “The Soviet Economy Unravels: 1985-91” Shatalin, Stanislav, 69–70, 108–9 (Noren and Kurtzweg), 74 Shelton, Judy, 111 Soviet Russia, 20 Shenin, Oleg, 68n22, 76 revolutionary, 5 Sherbank (state savings bank), 114 Soviet satellites, 65 Shleifer, Andrei, 109, 142 Soviet Union, 81. See also Russia Shlykov, Vitaly, 28, 64, 83, 223, 273 Russia v., 222–3, 227

Index 345

Soviet Union’s collapse, 1, 74, 212–14, strakh, 296 227. See also Gorbachev, Mikhail Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, 21n7, Sergeyevich 212, 221–2, 226 economics for, 68n22, 76–7 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 57n5 expectations of, 53–4 Strategic Plan–Fiscal Years 2007–2012, Sovietology, 56n1, 296 225 sovkhoz, 296 Strategic Planning and Policy (King and Sovnarkhoz, 296 Cleland), 139 special economic zones (SEZs), 249 structural militarization, 28, 146, 296 speculation, 48 in arms race, 63–4 spetsbanki (specialized banks), 46 privatization and, 84 spontaneous privatization, 47, 49, 54, superpower, 182, 211, 220, 296–7. See 65, 76, 97–8, 296 also arms control spurious innovation, 296 impoverished, 285 Stabilization Fund of the Russian liberal imperial, 214 Federation, 238, 239n18, 239n19 natural resource, 217–19 Stalin, Joseph Russia as, 78–91 constitution of, 197n12, 198–202, Russia/U.S. as, 219–22 203 Supporting Human Rights and Democracy: dystopia from, 5–6 2006, 225 on elections, 172 Supreme Soviet, 68–9 Gorbachev v., 54 Surkov, Vladimir, 178, 180 repression by, 203 Suslov, Mikhail, 40 for statistics’ corruption, 84 sustainable growth ‘Star Wars,’ 57n5 competition v., 231–2, 251 Starovoitsove, Galina, 179 natural resources v., 233 state capture, 240 systems building State Emergency Committee (GKChP), for autocracy, 104–5 68n22, 76 demolition and, 95–107 state power, organs of, 240n24 systems directors, 297 State Price Committee, 111 state science sector, 196, 244n34 Tatu, Michel, 42 research in, 248–9 tax(es). See also Yukos Affair transformation of, 248t ESN as, 254 State Treasury Obligations (GKO), 117 exploitation and, 130n42 stationary bandits, 12 turnover, 113 statistics, 129, 223. See also Central underreporting of, 130n43 Intelligence Agency; economists; technological diffusion, 297 Goskomstat technology, 243–4. See also information censorship of, 156–7 technology corruption of, 84–5 in health care, 255 on poverty, 161–2 technology transfer ofﬁces (TTO), 247. on unemployment, 120–1 See also China vital, 132t technoparks, 250 Stepan, Alfred, 169 tekhpromﬁnplany, 46, 297 Stolypin, Piotr, 12–13, 257 teleological planning, 120 Stolypin reforms, 296 termsoftrade,234 storming, 296 inferior good effect v., 144 straightjacket authoritarianism, 296 terrorism, 174, 222. See also Ummah

346 Index

TFP. See productivity growth United States (U.S.), 18. See also arms the thaw, 297 race; Bush, George; Central timelines Intelligence Agency; cold war; on Gorbachev, 35–7, 74–5 democracy; Reagan, Ronald; the of Putin, 137–8 West for Yeltsin, 93–4 U.S. See United States Tiutchev, Fyodor, 102 U.S. Bureau of the Census, 131 tobacco abuse, 160 USAID, 250 tolkachy (pushers), 29, 39 USSR. See Union of Soviet Socialist totalitarianism, 297 Republics town and village enterprise (TVEs), 261 USSR/Russia, GDP for, 86t, 87t trafficking, 195 USSR/Russia per capita, GDP for, 86t, transition, 297 88t imminence of, 10 USSR/U.S. Transition to the Market, 69 GDP for, 87t, 88t transitologist, 297 GDP per capita for, 87t on liberalization, 133 PPP for, 89n15, 90t treadmill of economic reform, 242 treadmill of reform, 41, 297 value subtracted, 298 treaties, 21n8. See also specific treaties value-added growth, 236t Treaty on Offensive Strategic vanguard of the proletariat, 298 Reductions (SORT), 221 Vasily III, 141 Treisman, Daniel, 192 VC. See venture capital Trotsky, Leon, 142n10 veche (popular assembly), 106n8 trudovye kollektivy (enterprise worker venture capital (VC), 250 councils), 38–9, 49–50, 298 foreign investment in, 249 trust, 19 Venture Investment Fund (VIF), 250 tsar, 11–12, 298. See also specific tsars Vertyachikh, Alexander, 106n8 TTO. See technology transfer offices VIF. See Venture Investment Fund Tugan-Baranovsky, Mikhail, xxii violence, 171. See also repression; secret turnover tax (value-added tax), 113 police; terrorism; war TVEs. See town and village enterprise virgin lands program, 298 virtual economy, 114–15, 134, 298–9 ukaz, 12–13 barterization as, 122 Ummah (Moslem fundamentalists), 222, visible hand, 298 224, 298 voucher privatization, 110, 125, 299 unemployment, 135, 234t, 236n12. See vozhd (leader), 11 also workers VPK. See military industrial complex in China, 264 vrag naroda (enemy of the people), 24 statistics on, 120–1 market leasing socialism v., 31, 299 unemployment crisis management, 120–2 wages unified social tax (ESN), 254 in China, 267 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics enterprise wage funds and, 112 (USSR) Walesa, Lech, 71 correlation of forces against, 30 Walking Together (Idushchem vmeste), Socialists for, 56 178 United Nations, 123n27 war. See also cold war; ‘Star Wars’ United Russia, 179 class, 20–1, 84, 278

Index 347

Kosovo, 212–13 Yalta, 65 for petroleum bubble, 218 Yanov, Alexander, 143 War Communism, 20, 299 yarmaki (bazaars), 38–9, 49–50 Washington Consensus, 109, 267, Yasin, Yevgeny, 3 299 Yavlinsky, Grigory, 125n31, 172 Moscovite reality v., 110 Yeltsin administration, 194 wealth, 72n27, 145. See also oligarchs; capital ﬂight in, 123–4 privateers against foreign bondholders, 117, 134 Weber, Max, 42, 240n22 loans to, 115–16 Weitzman, Martin, 25n23 unemployment crisis and, 120–1 the West Yeltsin, Boris, 93–4. See also coup d’etat mistakes of, 73, 77 as autocrat, 96, 102–5, 170–3 Muscovy and, 9–19, 72–3 for Baltic states, 71 western perceptions, 231 comeback for, 67–8 of Yeltsin’s authoritarianism, 105–6 for Congress of People’s Deputies, western public culture, 57n4 67–8 on glasnost, 56–7 constitution from, 171, 203–6 on Gorbachev/Yeltsin, 72 on defense, 126–8 on Russia’s imperialism, 225, 228 against democracy, 72, 100 wishful thinking of, 62 democratization for, 170–3 westerners, 58 destabilization for, 33 for Gorbachev, 59–60, 62 discipline from, 97 Lockean social contract for, xxii Gorbachev v., 35–7, 55, 67–72 rule of law for, xxii inﬂation from, 112–14 westernization, xxii, 299 for Muscovite authoritarian martial by Communist Party, 1 police state, 105–6, 128 for Medvdev, 3 on ownership, 98–9 Muscovite authoritarian martial for privatization, 97–9 police state v., xxiii–xxiv Putin and, 172–3 Muscovy v., 271–3 against rent-granting, 103 pattern of, 4 against rule of law, 100 whistleblower protection, 242 for secret police, 103 Williamson, John, 110 shock therapy from, 97–8 women, 104 social services v., 99–100, 195 Stalin’s constitution and, 199, 201 summary of, 95–6 status of, 195 for Supreme Soviet, 68–9 work, 300. See also employment VPK under, 101, 126–8 workers, 38–9, 49–50, 121, 298 western perceptions of, 105–6 exploitation of, 264–5 western public culture on, 72 reassignment of, 120 Yukos Affair, 137–8, 176–7, 300 World Bank. See also Washington Yushenkov, Sergei, 179 Consensus on governance, 241 Zagladin, Vladimir, 123 Putin v., 10 Zaleski, Eugene, 29 World Bank Governance Indicators Zalygin, Sergei, 158 (GRICS), 242t zastoi, 300 World Trade Organization (WTO), as stagnation, 30, 49 261n2 Zorkin, Valery, 170–1, 183n41 WTO. See World Trade Organization Zyuganov, Gennady, 172