DOCSLIB.ORG

From the Soviet Union to Russia

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
From the Soviet Union to Russia Christoph M. Schneider Research and Development Management: From the Soviet Union to Russia With 46 Figures Physica-Verlag A Springer-Verlag Company Series Editor Werner A. Muller Peter Schuster Author Christoph M. Schneider, Ph. D. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) SchloBplatz 1 A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria ISBN 3-7908-0757-5 Physica-Verlag Heidelberg ISBN 0-387-91481-1 Springer-Verlag New York CIP-Titelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek Schneider, Christoph M.: Research and development: from the Soviet Union to Russia I Christoph M. Schneider. - Heidelberg: Physica-Verl., 1994 (Contributions to economics) ISBN 3-7908-0757-5 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whetherthe whole or part ofthe material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustration, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication ofthis publication or parts thereofis only permitted under the provisions ofthe German Copyright Law ofSeptember 9,1965, in its version ofJune 24,1985, and a copyright fee must always be paid. Violations fall under the prosecution act ofthe German Copyright Law. © 1994 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. Printed in Germany The use ofregistered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. 8812202-543210 - Printed on acid-free paper Preface In the past, intensive interest in Soviet research and development has been sporadic both in the West and in the USSR. The end of the 1980s coincided with the demise of the Soviet model of economic development. As a result, a surge of attention has been given to the factors driving the motor of Soviet growth and development, as well as R&D. The opening, first, of the Soviet and, subsequently, of the Russian economy, finally exposed it to global stan­ dards. The long period of international isolation with respect to scientific and technological exchanges made it difficult for scholars and policy makers at home and abroad to measure the status of Soviet advances. Consequently, some overrated the levels, while others underestimated them. Now it comes to light that, although the Soviets put the first satellite in space (Sputnik) and developed their own hydrogen bomb, these were more the exceptions of innovation from research results rather than the rule. Therefore, as the management of the entire economy increasingly malfunctioned, so did the management of R&D in contributing to economic growth and development. There is no denying the incredible investment of the former Soviet state in domestic science and research. The R&D community was one of the largest, if not the largest, in the world during the second half of the twentieth century. Now, Russia has inherited not only this enormous resource, but also the inadequate organization, management, and structure. There is a fear of losing some of the valuable potential but a need to rationalize, increase productivity and efficiency, and reorient according to market signals. Russia is in a unique position. The transition to a market economy at a time when research and technological processes are becoming more international than ever provides great opportunities for reorganizing and restructuring the R&D sector to be representative of and conducive to such a transformation. The impact on economic benefits for the domestic and world economies could be substantial, and should not be underestimated. The purpose of this study is to provide a clear picture of the R&D resources and management that were created under the former Soviet-style system and of the roots and prospects of the present reform movement. Contents Preface v Abbreviations xz List of Tables xiii List of Figures xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Topic 2 1.1.1 Research and development 2 1.1.2 R&D and growth in the Soviet/Russian context 4 1.2 The Study 6 1.2.1 Major objectives 6 1.2.2 Organization of the book 8 2 Research and Development and Economic Theory 11 2.1 Characteristics of R&D: The Theory 12 2.2 Characteristics of R&D: The Empirical Evidence 21 3 Technological Development, Growth, and R&D Management in the USSR 31 3.1 Technological Development, Growth, and R&D Management 32 3.1.1 Technological development 32 3.1.2 Growth and development 33 3.1.3 Research and development management: Does it make a difference? 36 3.2 R&D in the Soviet Centrally Planned Economy 39 3.2.1 An introduction to the Soviet Union 39 viii Contents 3.2.2 An introduction to Soviet science and technology 50 3.2.3 The R&D sector in the Soviet Union: Science and Soviet-style socialism 54 3.2.4 Actors in Soviet R&D policy 60 3.2.5 Science, research, development, and technology before 1985 66 3.2.6 Science, research, development, and technology after 1985 70 4 Inputs to the Soviet R&D Sector 83 4.1 Education 83 4.1.1 General education and literacy: The foundation for a scientific culture 84 4.1.2 Enrollment in higher education 87 4.1.3 Higher education and fields of study 93 4.1.4 Functions and status of higher education and its role in R&D 95 4.2 R&D Personnel 99 4.2.1 Total numbers of scientists and engineers 100 4.2.2 Scientists and engineers as a percentage of the labor force 102 4.2.3 The role, status, and activities of scientists and engineers 106 4.3 R&D Financing 113 4.3.1 Funding R&D activities 114 4.3.2 GERD as a percentage of GNP: A comparison 118 4.3.3 Sources and character of R&D funding 123 5 Internationalization of Research and Technology 135 5.1 International Research and Development 138 5.1.1 Foreign direct investment as a measure of R&D internationalization 138 5.1.2 Involvement in international scientific activities 141 5.1.3 Transnational corporations and R&D 148 5.2 International Development of Technology 154 5.2.1 Technology agreements 157 5.2.2 Transfer of technology 162 5.2.3 Joint ventures and TNCs in technology transfer 170 C;ontents ix 6 The Burdens of Abundance: R&D, Technological Change, Resource Allocation, and Productivity 177 6.1 The Burdens of Abundance 180 6.2 Natural Resources 184 6.2.1 Fuel resources 184 6.2.2 Nonfuel resources 187 6.2.3 Techno-economic efficiencies 190 6.3 Human Resources 193 6.3.1 Employment and labor productivity 193 6.3.2 Labor productivity and the R&D sector 198 7 R&D Management in the Transition: From the Soviet Union to Russia 211 7.1 Rejoining the World 213 7.1.1 From the scientific perspective 213 7.1.2 From the enterprise perspective 216 7.1.3 The international aspect 218 7.2 The Role of R&D in Russian-style Growth 221 7.3 Prospects and Prescriptions for R&D Management and Technological Advance in the Transition to a Market Economy and Beyond 224 7.3.1 Reform, transition, and R&D 224 7.3.2 The survivability of R&D 228 7.3.3 (Pre-)Conditions for successfully restructuring R&D 228 7.3.4 Areas for restructuring R&D 230 8 Summary and Conclusions 235 8.1 Summary of Major Points 235 8.2 Concluding Remarks 239 References 245 Abbreviations AIK Advances in Knowledge CEE Central and Eastern Europe CMEA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance COCOM Coordinating Committee on Multilateral Export Controls CPE Centrally Planned Economy CPS Centrally Planned System EME Emerging Market Economy FDI Foreign Direct Investment FZU Factory training schools, USSR GERD Gross Expenditure on Research and Development GFCF Gross Fixed Capital Formation GKNT USSR State Committee for Science and Technology GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product GOSKOMSTAT USSR State Committee for Statistics GOSPLAN USSR State Planning Committee GOSSTANDARD USSR State Standardization Committee JV Joint Venture KGB USSR Committee for State Security MIC Military Industrial Complex MNTK Inter-sectoral scientific and technical complex, USSR NIC Newly Industrialized Country NPO Scientific Production Organization, USSR NSB National Science Board OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PTU Technical trade school, USSR R&D Research and Development R&T Research and Technology S&E Scientists and Engineers S&T Science and Technology SEL State Enterprise Law, USSR (1987) SPTU Secondary technical trade school, USSR SSUZ Secondary specialized school or technicum, USSR TNC Transnational Corporation VINITI All-Union Institute of Science and Technical Information VUZ University, USSR List of Tables 2.1 Early studies on technological change and GNP growth. 22 2.2 Shares in the growth rate of national income (selected countries over various periods, 1948-1971). 25 2.3 Studies on productivity increases and R&D expenditures. 27 3.1 Change in socioeconomic measures, 1900-1988 (in %). 44 3.2 The former Soviet Union in the world economy. 47 3.3 Soviet productivity in the late 1980s (as a percentage of the average of the top five producers in the world). 48 3.4 The age structure of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 64 3.5 R&D expenditures of nonstate organizations (in billion rubles). 72 4.1 Education: USSR versus USA, 1900-1990. 89 4.2 Scale of education in selected countries, 1989. 89 4.3 Soviet graduating students by sectoral affiliation (in %) and growth in enrollment, selected years. 92 4.4 Total number of scientists and engineers (S&E) engaged in R&D (1965-1987) and annual growth rates (selected countries and periods).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Perestroika and Priroda: Environmental Protection in the USSR
    Pace Environmental Law Review Volume 5 Issue 2 Spring 1988 Article 2 April 1988 Perestroika and Priroda: Environmental Protection in the USSR Nicholas A. Robinson Pace University School of Law, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/pelr Recommended Citation Nicholas A. Robinson, Perestroika and Priroda: Environmental Protection in the USSR, 5 Pace Envtl. L. Rev. 351 (1988) Available at: https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/pelr/vol5/iss2/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the School of Law at DigitalCommons@Pace. It has been accepted for inclusion in Pace Environmental Law Review by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Pace. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PERESTROIKA AND PRIRODA: ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN THE USSR Nicholas A. Robinson* I. Introduction Environmental protection is becoming a substantial field of endeavor today in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Soviets know the environment as priroda, a word which is literally translated as "nature," but whose meaning encompasses all aspects of life within the biosphere. Priroda connotes "mother nature," a nurturing and even moral realm, while also suggesting the ambient environment and all ecolog- ical systems." Protection of the environment has been elevated to a top priority in the Soviet Union because the Soviet's harm to prir'odathroughout that nation has become acute.2 In order to reverse pollution's environmentally- damaging trends, to stay the depletion of natural resources and to restore de- graded conditions resulting, from years of neglect during, the heavy and rapid industrialization in.
    [Show full text]
  • In Memoriam Sergey S. Artobolevskiy (1953•Fi2014)
    EUROPEAN SPATIAL RESEARCH AND POLICY Volume 21 2014 Number 2 IN MEMORIAM SERGEY S. ARTOBOLEVSKIY (1953–2014) Two major figures in Russian regional science – both highly regarded in interna- tional professional circles – have died in recent years. Academician Alexander Granberg, who died in August, 2010, in his 75th year, began his scientific career in the Institute of Economics and Industrial Engineer- ing of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk. As a renowned researcher into regional programming and modelling, he was appoint- ed head of Institute in succession to the ‘reform economist’ Abel Aganbegyan. Later he moved to Moscow where he was elected Chairman of the Academy’s Council for the Study of Productive Forces (SOPS). He directed the Regional Science Committee of the Russian Academy for many years as a member of the Presidium of the Academy. During the last phase of his career, he also headed the Department of Regional Studies of the State University of Economics in Moscow and published a series of books on Russian regional development and policy and on various subjects in the methodology of regional analysis (e.g. Westlund et al., 2000; Granberg, 2000; Granberg, ed., 2001, 2004; Granberg et al., 2007). Sergey Artobolevskiy, who died at the age of 61 on March 18, 2014, was an active member of Granberg’s intellectual workshop. This outstanding researcher was born into a Russian historical family of intel- lectuals. His grandfather, a descendant of a family of priests, was Ioann Artobo- levskiy, professor of the Department of Theological Studies of the Agricultural Academy of Moscow, and a prominent theologian.
    [Show full text]
  • Archives of Russia Five Years After: 'Purveyors of Sensations' Or
    RESEARCH PAPERS Archives of Russia Five Years After: ‘Purveyors of Sensations’ or ‘Shadows Cast to the Past’? Patricia Kennedy Grimsted Cruquiusweg 31 1019 AT Amsterdam The Netherlands Tel. + 31 20 6685866 Fax + 31 20 6654181 IISH Research Papers 1. Tony Saich, Frank Pieke, The Chinese People's Movement Spring 1989: Some Initial Impressions. Amsterdam, 1989 2. Ursula Langkau-Alex, "Der Kampf für die Demokratie und den Frieden". Die Debatte in der Sozialistische Arbeiter- Internationale 1938/1939. Amsterdam, 1991. Zweite, um Literatur erweiterte Auflage 1992. 3. Jan Lucassen, Dutch Long Distance Migration. A Concise History 1600-1900. Amsterdam, 1991 4. Jan Lucassen (red.), Symposium Racisme en Arbeidsmarkt: IISG september 1991. Amsterdam 1992. 5. C.H. Wiedijk (in samenwerking met L.J. Altena, J.M. Peet, G.J. Schutte en H.E.S. Woldring, Kalendarium "Honderd jaar sociaal 1891–1991". Amsterdam, 1992. 6. Marcel van der Linden en Jan Willem Stutje, De Nederlandse vakbeweging, haar basis en de staat. Een lange- termijnperspectief. Amsterdam, 1992. 7. Tjebbe van Tijen, Je bevrijden van de drukpers. Jongeren en hun eigen pers in Nederland: 1945-1990. Met een bibliografisch aanhangsel over de tijdschriften van Provo, Kabouter, de culturele underground- en kraakbeweging, vrije stadskranten en punkfanzines. Amsterdam 1993. 8. Emile Schwidder, Selected Bibliography on "Labour and the Law in Historical Perspective". Amsterdam 1993. 9. Jan Gielkens, Books and articles on German labour law. Selected Bibliography. Amsterdam 1993. 10. Larry Peterson, The Free Labor Unions and Arbeiter-Unionen in Rhineland-Westphalia, 1920-1924: Statistical Sources. Amsterdam, 1993. 11. Gijs Kessler, Vakbonden in verandering. Een verkennende studie naar de vakbondsontwikkeling in Rusland na 1985.
    [Show full text]
  • Water Quality Monitoring in the Former Soviet Union and the Russian Federation: Assessment of Analytical Methods
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Helsingin yliopiston digitaalinen arkisto The Finnish Environment 620 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY Alexander V. Zhulidov, Richard D. Robarts, Robert M. Holmes, Bruce J. Peterson, Juha Kämäri, Jarmo J. Meriläinen and John V. Headley Water Quality Monitoring in the former Soviet Union and the Russian Federation: Assessment of Analytical Methods ........................... FINNISH ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTE Suomen ympäristö 620 Alexander V. Zhulidov, Richard D. Robarts, Robert M. Holmes, Bruce J. Peterson, Juha Kämäri, Jarmo J. Meriläinen and John V. Headley Water Quality Monitoring in the former Soviet Union and the Russian Federation: Assessment of Analytical Methods Zhulidov, Alexander, V., South Russian Regional Centre for Preparation and Implementation of International Projects, 200/1 Stachki av., office 301; 344104 Rostov-on-Don, Russia, Robarts, Richard, D., UNEP GEMS/Water Programme, Environment Canada, 11 Innovation Blvd., Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada, Holmes, Robert, M. and Peterson, Bruce, J., Holmes, Robert, M., Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA, Kämäri, Juha, Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki, Finland Meriläinen, Jarmo, J., Institute for Environmental Research, P.O. Box 35 (YAD) FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland, and Headley, John, V., National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, 11 Innovation Blvd., Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada HELSINKI 2003 . .......................... FINNISH ENVIRONMENT
    [Show full text]
  • Soviet Union (Economic Initiatives) (5) Box: RAC Box 12
    Ronald Reagan Presidential Library Digital Library Collections This is a PDF of a folder from our textual collections. Collection: Danzansky, Stephen I.: Files Folder Title: Soviet Union (Economic Initiatives) (5) Box: RAC Box 12 To see more digitized collections visit: https://reaganlibrary.gov/archives/digital-library To see all Ronald Reagan Presidential Library inventories visit: https://reaganlibrary.gov/document-collection Contact a reference archivist at: [email protected] Citation Guidelines: https://reaganlibrary.gov/citing National Archives Catalogue: https://catalog.archives.gov/ CHAPTER 1 A THEORETICAL MODEL OF SOVIET ECONOMIC PLANNING 1.1 General This chapter exaaines the Soviet econoaic planninc ■atrix, the theoretical foundation of centralized econo■ ic ■anace■ent in the USSR. Althou1h the Western economist ■ i1ht find so■e of the concepts self­ evident, the author believes their inclusion at this point in the ■onoeraph will aid the reader in understandinc the Soviet approach towards lar1e-scale econo■ ic ■anace ■ent. 1.2 The Econo■ ic Planning Matrix The first step in econo■ ic planninc is co ■pilinc a list of production require■ents for a civen population and econoaic base. This list is constantly refined and supple■ented, but the nu■ ber of such chan1es by co■parison with the overall size ot the list is insignifi­ cant. Within a sincle planninc period (a year or even a five year plan) it can be assu■ed to be constant and civen. Co■plex production-de■and relations, includinc the necessity of continued capital invest■ent in production facilities require the for­ ■ation, directly or indirectly, of an econo■ ic planninc ■atrix as shown in Pieure 1.1.
    [Show full text]
  • Perestroika and the Collapse of the Soviet Union Laura Cummings the Late 1980S Were a Period of Change, Reform and Eventually Demise Within the Soviet Union
    History Gorbachev’s Perestroika and the Collapse of the Soviet Union Laura Cummings The late 1980s were a period of change, reform and eventually demise within the Soviet Union. These political and economic reforms were spearheaded by Mikhail Gorbachev, who became General Secretary in 1985 and used his position to enact a series of humanitarian, democratic reforms aimed at improving the communist system from within. Under previous leaders, the Soviet economy stalled, party ide- ology drifted away from its Marxist roots and the government continued to wield an oppressive hand over the people. In an attempt to !x the "agging economy and re-energize party doctrine, Gorbachev introduced the philosophy of perestroika, meaning restructuring. Perestroika allowed for more freedoms in the market, in- cluding some market economy mechanisms. However, perestroika did not only deal with the economy; it dealt with politics as well. The political reorganization called for a multi-candidate system and allowed opposition groups to speak out against communism. Although the motivations and intentions of perestroika are debated in the historiography of the period, its importance to the Cold War is clear- ly evident. To some degree, perestroika contributed to the fall of communism and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Although Gorbachev was trying to save the system, his reforms contributed to its end. The fall of the Soviet Union, although it was not entirely surprising, rocked the world in 1991. A number of factors both behind the iron curtain and abroad contributed, in some way, to the collapse of the communist regime, including American rearmament, growing rebellious sentiments within the Soviet bloc and Gorbachev’s reform policies, speci!cally perestroika.
    [Show full text]
  • Forest Certification: Forging Novel Incentives for the Environment and Sustainable Forest Management
    Forest Certification: Forging Novel Incentives for the Environment and Sustainable Forest Management Proceedings of the International Workshop Brussels, Belgium 6–7 September 2001 Markku Simula, Ewald Rametsteiner, Anni Blåsten, Tim Green and Brita Pajari (eds.) EFI Proceedings 43, 2001 Indufor Oy European Forest Institute European Commission EFI Proceedings No. 43, 2001 Forest Certification: Forging Novel Incentives for the Environment and Sustainable Forest Management Markku Simula, Ewald Rametsteiner, Anni Blåsten, Tim Green and Brita Pajari (eds.) Publisher: European Forest Institute Series Editors: Risto Päivinen, Editor-in-Chief Tim Green, Technical Editor Brita Pajari, Events Manager Editorial Office: European Forest Institute Phone: +358 13 252 020 Torikatu 34 Fax. +358 13 124 393 FIN-80100 Joensuu, Finland Email: [email protected] WWW: http://www.efi.fi/ Disclaimers: Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the following information and none of the information provided or opinion expressed reflect an official view of the European Commission. The papers in this publication comprise the proceedings of the event mentioned on the cover and title page. They reflect the authors’ opinions and do not necessarily correspond to those of the European Forest Institute. © European Forest Institute 2001 ISSN: 1457-0610 (online) ISBN: 952-9844-91-3 Contents Foreword ........................................................................................................... 5 Workshop
    [Show full text]
  • The Nagorno Karabakh Conflict the Beginning of the Soviet End Ali Askerov
    See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339415817 The Nagorno Karabakh Conflict- The Beginning of the Soviet End Preprint · February 2020 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14023.44963 CITATIONS READS 0 2,119 1 author: Ali Askerov University of North Carolina at Greensboro 22 PUBLICATIONS 29 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Publication View project Contemporary Russo-Turkish Relations: From Crisis to Cooperation View project All content following this page was uploaded by Ali Askerov on 01 November 2020. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Chapter Three The Nagorno Karabakh Conflict The Beginning of the Soviet End Ali Askerov INTRODUCTION The main parties to the Nagorno Karabakh conflict are Armenia and Azer- baijan, independent since 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Once an internal problem of the Soviet Union, the Nagorno Karabakh (also known as Upper Karabakh and/or Mountainous Karabakh) crisis started three years before Armenia and Azerbaijan gained independence, and remains un- resolved after more than thirty years. The war has left over 30,000 casualties and about a million refugees and internally displaced people. By the end of 1993, Armenian armed forces managed to occupy seven Azerbaijani districts, in addition to the Nagorno Karabakh region, all of which constitute about 16 percent of Azerbaijani territory. A cease-fire agreement brokered by Russia has remained in place since 1994. The Nagorno Karabakh conflict is often considered as one of the frozen post-Soviet conflicts since currently no active combat is taking place.
    [Show full text]
  • Doing Business in (Insert Country Name Here)
    Doing Business in Russia: 2013 Country Commercial Guide for U.S. Companies INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT, U.S. & FOREIGN COMMERCIAL SERVICE AND U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 2010. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED OUTSIDE OF THE UNITED STATES. • Chapter 1: Doing Business in Russia • Chapter 2: Political and Economic Environment • Chapter 3: Selling U.S. Products and Services • Chapter 4: Leading Sectors for U.S. Export and Investment • Chapter 5: Trade Regulations, Customs and Standards • Chapter 6: Investment Climate • Chapter 7: Trade and Project Financing • Chapter 8: Business Travel • Chapter 9: Contacts, Market Research and Trade Events • Chapter 10: Guide to Our Services 1 6/19/2013 Return to table of contents Chapter 1: Doing Business in Russia • Market Overview • Market Challenges • Market Opportunities • Market Entry Strategy • Market Fact Sheet Link Market Overview Return to top • With a vast landmass, extensive natural resources, more than 140 million consumers, a growing middle class, and almost unlimited infrastructure needs, Russia remains one of the most promising and exciting markets for U.S. exporters. • Russia is the world’s 11th largest economy by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 7th largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). It has the highest per capita GDP ($13,400) of the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). Russia is an upper middle income country, with a highly educated and trained workforce and sophisticated, discerning consumers. • Russia’s economy is still recovering from the economic crisis that began in 2008, with GDP growth estimated at 2.8% for 2013. • In terms of trade in goods, Russia was the United States’ 27th largest export market and the 16th largest exporter to the United States in 2012.
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing Soviet Economic Performance During the Cold War: a Failure of Intelligence?
    76 The Scholar Assessing Soviet Economic Performance During the Cold War: A Failure of Intelligence? Marc Trachtenberg Texas National Security Review: Volume 1, Issue 2 (March 2018) Print: ISSN 2576-1021 Online: ISSN 2576-1153 77 For years, scholars have argued that economists and the CIA failed to see that the Soviet Union’s economy was headed toward collapse. But are they right? The swift and peaceful collapse of the claimed flatly that Western specialists in this area Communist order, first in Eastern Europe and then had failed to “‘diagnose observable tendencies,’ in the Soviet Union itself, was an extraordinarily such as the continued decline of economic growth important historical event, and people at the time rates.”3 According to Igor Birman, another émigré were amazed to see the Soviet system end the way economist — and one much admired by Malia — it it did. But why did it come as such a surprise? was “only in 1981, or maybe in 1982,” that people Shouldn’t the experts in the West who had devoted began “talking about problems within the Soviet their lives to the study of the Soviet Union have economy.”4 Even today, many observers still take been able to see that such enormous changes were it for granted that the economics profession, and in the making? indeed scholars more generally, essentially missed Many observers felt that social scientists in what was going on in the USSR — a major failure, general, and economists in particular, had failed, given the importance of the issue.5 as Martin Malia put it, to understand “the deeper And it was not just academic economists who dynamics driving Soviet reality.” Their writings, in were criticized for their supposed failure to Malia’s view, had suggested that the Soviet system understand what was happening in the USSR.
    [Show full text]
  • Nemko's Compliance & Market Access Seminar 2018
    Nemko’s compliance & market access seminar 2018 1 Technical Regulation in the Eurasian Economic Union and Belarus Konstantin Prokhorenko (International Certification) BELLIS Testing and Certification NEMKO, Oslo 11.06.2018 Contents ► EAEU Technical Regulation System overview ► New requirements in EAEU → New Technical Regulations (RoHS, Medical) ► Belarusian National Requirements (Resolution 849) → Energy Efficiency → Telecommunication equipment → High voltage cables ► Market surveillance ► Acceptance of EAEU Certificates by Russian Customs ► Criteria to Select the Strategic EAEU Certification Partner Contents EAEU overview Eurasian Economic Union from 01.01.2015 (former Custom Union 2010-2014) Unified Technical Regulation System: Technical Regulations (similar to EU Directives) 1 EAEU Certificate – access to 5 EAEU Member States The Member States of the Eurasian Economic Union are: Belarus EAEU Conformity Mark Kazakhstan Russia Armenia (since 2 January 2015) Kyrgyzstan (since 12 August 2015) Forms of Conformity Approval: CoC/DoC List of products subject to conformity approval EAEU TR 004/2011 Safety, TR 020/2011 EMC Products beyond LIST of products the List subject to conformity approval in the form of CERTIFICATION Declaration Procedure Declaration Procedure can be always replaced by Certification procedure Issuing a EAEU Declaration can only be done by a legal entity registered in a EAEU Member country (manufacturer's authorized company based on the contract with the manufacturer specifying rights to declare and relevant responsibility) Eurasian Economic Union Technical Regulations EAEU TR 004/2011 covers the low-voltage equipment with rated voltage from 50 up to 1000 V a.c. and from 75 up to 1500 V d.c. New List of standards of EAEU TR 004/2011 is mandatory from November 26, 2016.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 ACTA UNIVERSITATIS STOCKHOLMIENSIS Stockholm Studies in Economic History
    1 ACTA UNIVERSITATIS STOCKHOLMIENSIS Stockholm Studies in Economic History 2 3 SEVEN YEARS THAT SHOOK SOVIET ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL THINKING REFLECTIONS ON THE REVOLUTION IN COMMUNIST ECONOMICS 1985 -1991 Bengt Svensson Doctoral Thesis in Economic History at Stockholm University, Sweden December 2008 4 Copyright: Bengt Svensson, Stockholm 2008 ISSN 0346-8305 ISBN 978-91-86071-08-0 Printed in Sweden by Universitetsservice AB, Stockholm Distributor: Stockholm University Library Cover Photo: Kazimir Malevitj. Suprematism, 1915. Russian Museum, St. Petersburg 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 PART 1. INTRODUCTION 8 1.1. Aims 8 1.2. Sources 9 1.3. Organization of the thesis 11 1.4. Earlier research and background 12 PART 2. THEORY AND METHOD 23 PART 3. STATISTICS 25 PART 4. THE STARTING POINTS OF THE DEBATE 29 4.1. Introductory remarks 29 4.2. On market economic theories 30 4.3. The Law on State Enterprises 36 4.3. Contradictions 37 4.5. Conclusions 41 PART 5. SAFEGUARDING THE SOVIET SYSTEM. NEW IDEAS 43 5.1. Introductory remarks 43 5.2. Forced growth, shortages, markets 45 5.3. Price formation 48 5.4. Centralization and decentralization 58 5.5. Ownership 52 5.6. Labour and social and economic equality. The structure of remunerations 65 5.7. Learning from other socialist countries 70 5.8. The meaning of socialism. Options in a crisis situation 70 5.9. Summary 75 6 PART 6. A SOCIALIST MARKET? 78 6.1. Introduction 78 6.2. Radical reform 79 6.3. Beginning of systemic criticism 81 6.4. What type of a regulated market? 86 6.5.
    [Show full text]