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The Glass Ceiling and Asian Americans THE GLASS CEILING AND ASIAN AMERICANS A Research Monograph Deborah Woo University of California Santa Cruz, CA 95064 U. S. Department of Labor Glass Ceiling Commission Office of the Secretary 200 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20210 July, 1994 The Glass Ceiling and Asian Americans This report was funded under contract no. B9434074 for the U.S. Department of Labor, Glass Ceiling Commission. Opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of the U.S. Department of Labor. - ii - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Maxine Leeds for her bibliographical assistance throughout the writing of this report, David Minkus and Judy Yung for their helpful comments on an earlier draft, and other persons, who at various stages, provided useful information, referrals, or technical, administrative support: Sarah Gotbaum, JD Hokoyama, Anny Huang, Susan Lee, Don Nakanishi, Erin Ninh, Paul Ong, Jack Peng, Martha Ramirez, Rose Razaghian, Janice Tanigawa, Betty Woody, and Robert Yamashita. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 II. OCCUPATIONAL PROFILE 11 A. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 12 B. RECENT ASIAN IMMIGRATION 13 III. THE EDUCATIONAL PIPELINE 19 A. EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 19 B. FOUR-YEAR AND TWO-YEAR INSTITUTIONS 22 C. LANGUAGE VERSUS MATHEMATICAL SKILLS 25 D. FOREIGN-EDUCATED GRADUATES 32 SUMMARY 32 IV. REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT RESEARCH 35 A. TITLE II: GLASS CEILING 35 B. THE STATE OF RESEARCH 36 C. LOWER RETURNS ON EDUCATION 43 "PERSONAL" OR "GROUP DEFICITS" AS BARRIERS 47 OCCUPATIONAL SEGMENTATION: INDUSTRY OR INSTITUTIONAL TRACKING AS A BARRIER 52 THE CREDENTIALLING PROCESS: FORMAL BARRIERS FOR FOREIGN EDUCATED HEALTH PROFESSIONALS 59 SUMMARY 62 D. CORPORATE, GOVERNMENT, AND ACADEMIC SECTORS 63 RATIO OF PROFESSIONALS TO MANAGERS 63 INDUSTRY EMPLOYMENT 66 GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT 79 ACADEMIA 90 V. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 97 SUMMARY 97 RECOMMENDATIONS 104 VI. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 114 APPENDIX I. 131 Historical Overview Of Asians In The American Labor Market A. Early Immigrant Status: Middle To Late-Nineteenth Century 131 b. The Second-Generation And World War II 137 APPENDIX II. 143 U.S. Commission On Civil Rights consultation on "civil rights issues of Asian And Pacific Americans: myths and realities," George Washington University, Washington, D.C. (May 8-9, 1979) APPENDIX III. Language Barriers 148 APPENDIX IV. State And Federal Civil Service Employment 151 APPENDIX V. Asian American Faculty 153 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 Income and Poverty Levels by Ethnicity, 1990 15 TABLE 2 Statistical Profile Of Doctorate Recipients, by Race/Ethnicity and Citizenship, 1992 26 TABLE 3: Selected Occupational Characteristics for the Asian Population: 1990 54 I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY For Americans who are not of Asian ancestry, any meaningful, empirically-based discussion of the realities of a glass ceiling for Asian Americans runs up against a powerful counter-image: a media-saturated view of Asian Pacific Americans as highly educated and occupationally successful. Complementing this picture of upward mobility is that of a generally non-violent and law-abiding citizenry, relatively passive politically, and overall culturally resourceful. However, it is the comparative educational and occupational success of Asian Americans -- over and against that of African Americans, Latino- Americans, and Native Americans -- that has generated the idea of Asian- Americans as a "model" for other minorities. Insofar as this understanding has come to occupy the status of conventional wisdom in the contemporary United States, it has eroded our collective capacity to confront an alternative reality.1 Some of the misconceptions regarding economic status are fed by statistical data that do not adjust for this population's geographical concentration in states and metropolitan areas, where wages and salaries, along with cost-of- living, tend to be far higher than the rest of the nation.2 Similarly, when factors such as age or educational level are controlled for, Asian Americans have been found to earn less than non-Hispanic whites in comparable circumstances.3 Finally, the image of Asian Pacific Americans as entrepreneurs or managers of 1In a review and analysis of images in the popular press in the 1960's and 1980's, Keith Osajima showed how certain cultural values associated with Asian Americans -- an emphasis on the family, education, hard work, and thrift --were often linked with high educational attainment and occupational achievement. These images, he notes, have become slightly more complex in the 1980's, updated through the inclusion of research findings in the 1970's. As Osajima notes, in the final analysis, cultural explanations have dominated, becoming extremely elastic formulations, "remarkably pliable constructs," which are stretched and extended to encompass structural problems, which it is presumed Asian Americans will simply overcome as a matter of time and cultural fortitude. Keith Osajima, "Asian Americans as the Model Minority: An Analysis of the Popular Press Image in the 1960s and 1980s," pp. 165-175, in Gary Y. Okihiro, Shirley Hune, Arthur A. Hansen, and John M. Liu (eds.), Reflections on Shattered Windows (Washington State University Press), 1988. 2The per capita median incomes of Asian Pacific Americans will tend to be higher by virtue of their residing in high-income states and metropolitan areas. It is therefore misleading to compare these income data against a national median, as opposed to the median incomes of those residing in the same respective regions or metropolitan areas. 3William P. O'Hare and Judy C. Felt, Asian Americans: America's Fastest Growing Minority Group (Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau), No. 19, February 1991. - 1 - The Glass Ceiling and Asian Americans small business obscures another reality, which is that the private, corporate sector is a major area of employment, not only for the general population, but for this growing minority population.4 Ethnic small businesses tend to be concentrated in ethnically or racially homogeneous enclaves, operating on a scale and in a manner quite different from large employers in mainstream sectors of the economy. There is some evidence that some self-employment among Asian Pacific Americans is taken up as a result of blocked mobility in mainstream areas of employment. While studies may, for their own purposes, report on managerial representation in ways that combine managers in both these sectors (salaried managers in large-scale bureaucratic organizations with managers of ethnic small businesses), in any systematic study of the glass ceiling this should be a critical analytical distinction. The present report is concerned with barriers faced by professionals primarily in mainstream bureaucratic or corporate hierarchies, in particular those barriers which block mobility but which are as yet so invisible as to constitute a "glass ceiling." This glass ceiling is itself a major qualification to the conventional belief that hard work and education will lead to economic or occupational success. Indeed, a major finding is that Asian American educational achievement is not matched by comparable access to professional jobs which permit upward mobility in the long run. Asian Pacific Americans are projected to contribute significantly to the net increase in the total labor force in next few decades and to have a disproportionate share of highly educated workers.5 Now the third largest 4Like the general population, the vast majority of Asian Pacific Americans (76.3%) work as private wage and salary workers, and only a small percentage (9.8%) are listed as self-employed. Susan B. Gall and Timothy L. Gall, Statistical Record of Asian Americans (Detroit, Washington, D.C., London: Gale Research Inc.), 1993, p. 278. 5While the immigrant proportion is expected to drop to around 72-74 percent in 2020, the growth rate of American-born Asians will double that of the foreign-born adult immigrant Asian population. Even so, the immigrant population will continue to dominate, and since the 1990 Immigration Act will continue to give preference to highly educated professionals, the majority of Asian immigrants will continue to be highly educated. Paul Ong and Suzanne J. Hee, "Work Issues Facing Asian Pacific Americans: Labor Policy," pp. 141- 152 in The State of Asian Pacific America: Policy Issues to the Year 2020 (LEAP Asian Pacific American Policy - 2 - A Research Monograph minority, after blacks and Hispanics, they are expected to approximate 9.9 million by the year 2000, or 4 percent of the U.S. population. By 1990, they were already 7.3 million, having doubled their size since 1980.6 In addition to being the fastest growing of minority groups in the United States,7 Asian Pacific Americans are also the most highly educated of all groups, including white males. Yet while new jobs in the service sector are expected to require increasing education and skill levels,8 the implications of this growth for Asian Americans are still uncertain. The employment pattern of Asian Americans in general is one of occupational or industry concentration. In California, for example, the most commonly held job for Asian female immigrants involves electrical equipment assembly work, whereas electrical engineering is the dominant profession for Asian male citizens.9 In terms of national data, professionalization for Asian Americans has meant engineering for men and nursing for women. Foreign- trained health professionals working in the United States, however, often find themselves working in medical institutions that are less attractive and less Institute and UCLA Asian American Studies Center), 1993: 142, 144-146. Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "New Labor Force Projections, Spanning 1988 to 2000," Monthly Labor Review, 3-12, November 1989. 6The 1980 figures themselves represent a doubling of the population since 1970. In 1970, the Asian American population numbered 1.4 million. By 1980, that population had more than doubled to 3.5 million, or 1.5 percent of the total U.S. population of 226.5 million. Population Reference Bureau, Asian Americans: Growth, Change, and Diversity, Vol. 40, No. 4, October 1985.
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