DOCSLIB.ORG

Genetic Structure of the Iraqi Population at 15 Strs and the Consequent Forensic Applications by © 2017 Sarah D

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Genetic Structure of the Iraqi Population at 15 Strs and the Consequent Forensic Applications by © 2017 Sarah D Genetic Structure of the Iraqi Population at 15 STRs and the Consequent Forensic Applications By © 2017 Sarah D. Alden Submitted to the graduate degree program in Anthropology and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. Chair: Michael Crawford, PhD Jennifer Raff, PhD Majid Hannoum, PhD Date Defended: 30 October 2017 The thesis committee for Sarah D. Alden certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis: Genetic Structure of the Iraqi Population at 15 STRs and the Consequent Forensic Applications Chair: Michael Crawford, PhD Date Approved: 30 October 2017 ii Abstract 1061 individuals were sampled from the cities of Anbar, Baghdad, Basra, Diyala, Najaf, and Wasit in Iraq and typed for 15 forensic STRs to explore the genetic structure of Iraq and develop a forensic DNA database. Analyses found that Iraq is similar to other countries in the Middle East, particularly Iran and Turkey, and is more similar to Europe than either Asia or Africa. Iraq is genetically diverse; a clustering algorithm was used to infer the number of genetic clusters in the population and the best fit was eight genetic clusters. Baghdad provides a good representation of the rest of country while Anbar is the most genetically distinct. This may be because Anbar is the only city sampled in a Sunni-dominant region. Although genetic structure differs significantly between the cities, most of the genetic differentiation is between genetic clusters rather than cities. These loci had an average heterozygosity of 0.779, homozygosity of 0.221, polymorphism information content of 0.77, power of discrimination of 0.927, and power of exclusion of 0.563. At these loci, a matching genotype will occur, on average, in 1 in 8.152 x 1017 individuals. For paternity tests, the average paternity probability for a matching profile is 99.9997%. For both measures, this can be taken as an exact match. These loci are appropriate for use in forensic and paternity testing for this population. iii Acknowledgments I would like to thank the people of Iraq who generously donated their DNA for the project. I must also thank the researchers at the Forensic DNA Center for Research and Training at Al-Nahrain University who collected the samples and performed all the laboratory work and typing: Majeed Arsheed Sabbah, Mohammed Mahdi Al-Zubaidi, Haider K. Alrubai, Dhuha Salim Namaa, Thoalnoon Younis Saliha, Hala Khalid Ibrahem, Salba Jaber Al-Awadi, and Adnan Issa Al-Badran, as well as Basim Muften at the Iraqi Ministry of Interior. I would like to thank my advisor and committee chair, Dr. Michael Crawford, for his support and guidance as well as my committee members, Dr. Jennifer Raff and Dr. Hannoum. I would like to acknowledge the help of Dr. Kristine Beaty, Amanda Kittoe, and Michael Guarino in interpreting various analyses and providing feedback on my thesis, and Corinne Butler for making sure that I knew what needed to be done and when, as well as the Department of Anthropology and the Laboratories of Biological Anthropology. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support. iv Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 6 A History of Iraq ......................................................................................................................... 6 Population Genetics .................................................................................................................. 18 Inbreeding ............................................................................................................................. 18 Y Chromosome ..................................................................................................................... 19 Mitochondrial DNA .............................................................................................................. 21 Autosomal ............................................................................................................................. 23 Chapter 3: Methods ....................................................................................................................... 25 Sample Collection ..................................................................................................................... 25 Population Structure ................................................................................................................. 25 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium ............................................................................................... 26 F-Statistics ............................................................................................................................. 29 Nei’s Genetic Distance ......................................................................................................... 30 Principal Component Analysis ............................................................................................. 31 Analysis of Molecular Variance ........................................................................................... 33 Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components .................................................................. 38 Multidimensional Scaling ..................................................................................................... 43 Forensic Applications ............................................................................................................... 44 Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................................... 47 Population Structure ................................................................................................................. 47 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium ............................................................................................... 47 v F-Statistics ............................................................................................................................. 47 Nei’s Genetic Distance ......................................................................................................... 48 Principal Component Analysis ............................................................................................. 49 Analysis of Molecular Variance ........................................................................................... 54 Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components .................................................................. 55 Multidimensional Scaling ..................................................................................................... 64 Forensic Applications ............................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................................... 71 Genetic Structure of Iraq ........................................................................................................... 71 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and F-Statistics ..................................................................... 71 Nei’s Genetic Distance ......................................................................................................... 73 Principal Component Analysis ............................................................................................. 76 Analysis of Molecular Variance ........................................................................................... 78 Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components .................................................................. 78 Multidimensional Scaling ..................................................................................................... 80 Forensic Applications of Population Structure ......................................................................... 81 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 6: Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 85 Summary of Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 85 Future Studies ........................................................................................................................... 88 Works Cited .................................................................................................................................. 89 vi List of Figures Figure 1. A map of Iraq with cities marked (Google Maps, 2017). ................................................ 5 Figure 2. Plot of eigenvalues for each principal component. ....................................................... 49 Figure 3. PCA plot showing individuals sampled. ....................................................................... 50 Figure 4. PCA plot with individuals 0812 and 0818 removed. .................................................... 51 Figure 5. PCA plot of the six sampled cities in Iraq. .................................................................... 52 Figure 6. PCA plot of allele frequencies of Iraq and surrounding
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Germanic Origins from the Perspective of the Y-Chromosome
    Germanic Origins from the Perspective of the Y-Chromosome By Michael Robert St. Clair A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in German in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Irmengard Rauch, Chair Thomas F. Shannon Montgomery Slatkin Spring 2012 Abstract Germanic Origins from the Perspective of the Y-Chromosome by Michael Robert St. Clair Doctor of Philosophy in German University of California, Berkeley Irmengard Rauch, Chair This dissertation holds that genetic data are a useful tool for evaluating contemporary models of Germanic origins. The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and include among their major contemporary representatives English, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic. Historically, the search for Germanic origins has sought to determine where the Germanic languages evolved, and why the Germanic languages are similar to and different from other European languages. Both archaeological and linguist approaches have been employed in this research direction. The linguistic approach to Germanic origins is split among those who favor the Stammbaum theory and those favoring language contact theory. Stammbaum theory posits that Proto-Germanic separated from an ancestral Indo-European parent language. This theoretical approach accounts for similarities between Germanic and other Indo- European languages by posting a period of mutual development. Germanic innovations, on the other hand, occurred in isolation after separation from the parent language. Language contact theory posits that Proto-Germanic was the product of language convergence and this convergence explains features that Germanic shares with other Indo-European languages.
    [Show full text]
  • The Akkadian Empire
    RESTRICTED https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/the-akkadian-empire/ The Akkadian Empire LEARNING OBJECTIVE • Describe the key political characteristics of the Akkadian Empire KEY POINTS • The Akkadian Empire was an ancient Semitic empire centered in the city of Akkad and its surrounding region in ancient Mesopotamia, which united all the indigenous Akkadian speaking Semites and the Sumerian speakers under one rule within a multilingual empire. • King Sargon, the founder of the empire, conquered several regions in Mesopotamia and consolidated his power by instating Akaddian officials in new territories. He extended trade across Mesopotamia and strengthened the economy through rain-fed agriculture in northern Mesopotamia. • The Akkadian Empire experienced a period of successful conquest under Naram-Sin due to benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses, and the confiscation of wealth. • The empire collapsed after the invasion of the Gutians. Changing climatic conditions also contributed to internal rivalries and fragmentation, and the empire eventually split into the Assyrian Empire in the north and the Babylonian empire in the south. TERMS Gutians A group of barbarians from the Zagros Mountains who invaded the Akkadian Empire and contributed to its collapse. Sargon The first king of the Akkadians. He conquered many of the surrounding regions to establish the massive multilingual empire. Akkadian Empire An ancient Semitic empire centered in the city of Akkad and its surrounding region in ancient Mesopotamia. Cuneiform One of the earliest known systems of writing, distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, and made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus. Semites RESTRICTED Today, the word “Semite” may be used to refer to any member of any of a number of peoples of ancient Southwest Asian descent, including the Akkadians, Phoenicians, Hebrews (Jews), Arabs, and their descendants.
    [Show full text]
  • Forum of Ethnogeopolitics
    Forum of EthnoGeoPolitics ! Figure 1: French Map of Iran or Persia in 1749 (drafted by Robert de Vaugoudy) in which Azerbaijan is shown below the Araxes River (Source: Pictures of the Planet). A Case of Historical Misconceptions?—Congressman Rohrabacher’s Letter to Hillary Clinton Regarding Azerbaijan Kaveh Farrokh Abstract United States Congressman Dana Rohrabacher—a former member of the Reagan Administration, who has represented several Californian congressional districts from 1989 till the present-day—dispatched a letter to U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on July 26, 2012 outlining support for the separation of Iranian Azerbaijan and the joining of this entity to the Republic of Azerbaijan. The letter promotes the notion of the historical existence of a Greater Azerbaijani kingdom that was divided by Iran and Russia during the early 19th century. This paper examines the treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Turkmenchai (1828) between Iran and Russia, historical sources and maps and other academic works to examine the validity of the “Greater Forum of EthnoGeoPolitics Vol.1 No.1 Spring 2013 9 Forum of EthnoGeoPolitics Azerbaijan” thesis. Examination of these sources, however, does not provide evidence for the existence of a “Greater Azerbaijan” in history. Instead these sources reveal the existence of ‘Azerbaijan’ as being a region and province within the Iranian realm since antiquity, located below (or south of ) the Araxes River; in contrast, the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan is located north (or above) the Araxes River. It never existed under the title “Azerbaijan” until the arrival of the Musavats (1918) and then the Soviets (1920).
    [Show full text]
  • Current Readings on the Iran-Iraq Conflict and Its Effects on U.S. Foreign Relations and Policy
    Reference Services Review, v. 17, issue 2, 1989, p. 27-39. ISSN: 0090-7324 DOI: 10.1108/eb049054 http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=0090-7324 © 1989 MCB UP Ltd Current Readings on the Iran-Iraq Conflict and Its Effects on U.S. Foreign Relations and Policy Magda El-Sherbini The conflict between Iran and Iraq is not new; it dates from long before September 1980. In fact, the origins of the current war can be traced to the battle of Qadisiyah in Southern Iraq in 637 A.D., a battle in which the Arab armies of General Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas decisively defeated the Persian army. In victory, the Arab armies extended Islam east of the Zagros Mountains to Iran. In defeat, the Persian Empire began a steady decline that lasted until the sixteenth century. However, since the beginning of that century, Persia has occupied Iraq three times: 1508-1514, 1529-1543, and 1623-1638. Boundary disputes, specifically over the Shatt al-Arab Waterway, and old enmities caused the wars. In 1735, belligerent Iranian naval forces entered the Shatt al-Arab but subsequently withdrew. Twenty years later, Iranians occupied the city of Sulimaniah and threatened to occupy the neighboring countries of Bahrain and Kuwait. In 1847, Iran dominated the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab and occupied Mohamarah in Iraq. The Ottoman rulers of Iraq concluded a number of treaties with Iran, including: the treaty of Amassin (1534-55); treaties signed in 1519, 1613, and 1618; and the treaty of Zuhab, signed in 1639. Yet another treaty, the treaty of Erzerum in 1823, failed once again to resolve the dispute.
    [Show full text]
  • The Relationship Between Mozafaria Complex and the Spatial Organization of Tabriz City from the Qara Qoyunlu to the Qajar Period
    Bagh- e Nazar, 15 (68): 15-26 /Feb. 2019 DOI: 10.22034/bagh.2019.81651 Persian translation of this paper entitled: ارتباط مجموعۀ مظفریه با سازمان فضایی شهر تبریز از دورۀ قراقویونلوها تا دورۀ قاجار is also published in this issue of journal. The Relationship between Mozafaria Complex and the Spatial Organization of Tabriz City from the Qara Qoyunlu to the Qajar Period Shabnam Mohammadzadeh*1, Seyed Amir Mansouri2 1. Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Tehran 2. Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Tehran Received 2018/03/02 revised 2018/08/23 accepted 2018/08/30 available online 2019/01/21 Abstract Urban spatial organization is a subjective issue, reflecting the order resulted from the relationship between the city’s elements. Understanding the position and role of a city element in the city as a whole requires discovering its relationship with the spatial organization. In other words, the city’s order is like a system and a whole. Based on the theory of city’s spatial organization, the current study is an attempt to investigate the relationship between Mozafaria Complex and the city’s spatial organization indicators in Tabriz City. In other words, this study examined the role of this complex in the whole system of the city from the time of the Qara Qoyunlu to the Qajar. In this study, the systemic role of Mozafaria Complex is not limited to its function and its features. The impetus behind this study is to discover the features defined in relation to other elements of the city. The method of the study is descriptive-analytical and deductive-exploratory; the library-research method was also used for data collection.
    [Show full text]
  • Paper Template
    International Journal of Science and Engineering Investigations vol. 8, issue 86, March 2019 Received on March 13, 2019 ISSN: 2251-8843 Statistical Analysis of Organizational Performance and Its Effects on the Income Levels: An Exploratory Study of the Higher Institute for the Diagnosis of Infertility and Assisted Reproduction Techniques at Al Nahrain University Sanaa Rasheed Muhesin1, Abbas Fadhil Salih2 1,2Al Nahrain University, The Higher Institute for the Diagnosis of Infertility and Assisted Reproduction Techniques ([email protected], [email protected]) Abstract- This article aims at focusing on the most important II. STUDY STRUCTURE activities and services provided by “The Higher Institute for the Diagnosis of Infertility and Assisted Reproduction A. Study aims Techniques (HIDIART)” which is one of the establishments of This article aims at enlightening the role of the Higher Al Nahrain University that provides medical services to the Institute for the Diagnosis of Infertility and Assisted infertile patients and hosts various different surgical Reproduction Techniques in providing its services and procedures, in addition to its unique academic and research role overviewing the nature of these services. In addition, study the by graduating a number of postgraduate students in scientific effects of the services on the level of the achieved financial disciplines on the levels of higher diploma, Masters, and income. Doctorate. The article followed a statistical analysis and survey studies using the commercially available
    [Show full text]
  • Possibilities of Restoring the Iraqi Marshes Known As the Garden of Eden
    Water and Climate Change in the MENA-Region Adaptation, Mitigation,and Best Practices International Conference April 28-29, 2011 in Berlin, Germany POSSIBILITIES OF RESTORING THE IRAQI MARSHES KNOWN AS THE GARDEN OF EDEN N. Al-Ansari and S. Knutsson Dept. Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, Lulea University, Sweden Abstract The Iraqi marsh lands, which are known as the Garden of Eden, cover an area about 15000- 20000 sq. km in the lower part of the Mesopotamian basin where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow. The marshes lie on a gently sloping plan which causes the two rivers to meander and split in branches forming the marshes and lakes. The marshes had developed after series of transgression and regression of the Gulf sea water. The marshes lie on the thick fluvial sediments carried by the rivers in the area. The area had played a prominent part in the history of man kind and was inhabited since the dawn of civilization by the Summarian more than 6000 BP. The area was considered among the largest wetlands in the world and the greatest in west Asia where it supports a diverse range of flora and fauna and human population of more than 500000 persons and is a major stopping point for migratory birds. The area was inhabited since the dawn of civilization by the Sumerians about 6000 years BP. It had been estimated that 60% of the fish consumed in Iraq comes from the marshes. In addition oil reserves had been discovered in and near the marshlands. The climate of the area is considered continental to subtropical.
    [Show full text]
  • Download This PDF File
    ISSN 1712-8056[Print] Canadian Social Science ISSN 1923-6697[Online] Vol. 8, No. 2, 2012, pp. 132-139 www.cscanada.net DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720120802.1985 www.cscanada.org Iranian People and the Origin of the Turkish-speaking Population of the North- western of Iran LE PEUPLE IRANIEN ET L’ORIGINE DE LA POPULATION TURCOPHONE AU NORD- OUEST DE L’IRAN Vahid Rashidvash1,* 1 Department of Iranian Studies, Yerevan State University, Yerevan, exception, car il peut être appelé une communauté multi- Armenia. national ou multi-raciale. Le nom de Azerbaïdjan a été *Corresponding author. l’un des plus grands noms géographiques de l’Iran depuis Received 11 December 2011; accepted 5 April 2012. 2000 ans. Azar est le même que “Ashur”, qui signifi e feu. En Pahlavi inscriptions, Azerbaïdjan a été mentionnée Abstract comme «Oturpatekan’, alors qu’il a été mentionné The world is a place containing various racial and lingual Azarbayegan et Azarpadegan dans les écrits persans. Dans groups. So that as far as this issue is concerned there cet article, la tentative est faite pour étudier la course et is no difference between developed and developing les gens qui y vivent dans la perspective de l’anthropologie countries. Iran is not an exception, because it can be et l’ethnologie. En fait, il est basé sur cette question called a multi-national or multi-racial community. que si oui ou non, les gens ont résidé dans Atropatgan The name of Azarbaijan has been one of the most une race aryenne comme les autres Iraniens? Selon les renowned geographical names of Iran since 2000 years critères anthropologiques et ethniques de personnes dans ago.
    [Show full text]
  • The Persian Connection: Its Impact and Influences 2000 BCE to 637 CE
    8/5/2019 The Persian Connection: Its Impact and Influences 2000 BCE to 637 CE Chapter 6 The Persian Empire • Was established by Cyrus the Great of Persia in the 6th Century BCE and would become one of the largest civilizations the world has ever seen. • Cyrus the Great of Persia • Ruled the Persian Empire from 559-530 BCE, born in Persia (modern day Iran) around 600 BCE. • King Cyrus was a king of kings, he was a fearsome warrior and his military conquests founded the Persian Empire. • The Persian Empire served as an efficient state, including a strong system of government, a model for fostering commerce and cooperation with diverse peoples, and even integrated the formation of a universal god (as oppose to many gods), a god that rewards those who live good lives and work for justice. • Persia, is in many histories seen as barbaric, as written by the Greeks; however, the Persian civilization was rich in its own right and was only defeated by the legendary Macedonian Alexander the Great. • The Legacy of the Persian Empire profoundly influenced future Islamic culture and the modern state of Iran. • The Persian Empire is located on the arid Iranian plateau in southwestern Asia, unlike the River Valley Empires of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, & China. • At the height of the Persian Empire, Persian territory encompassed most of 2 southwestern Asia. 1 8/5/2019 Geographic Challenges Confront the First Persians The Iranian Plateau’s topography makes it easy to defend. 3 • The Iranian Plateau encompasses nearly one million square miles of inhospitable lands, including 2 large desserts, and small rivers that are difficult to navigate and offer little water for farming.
    [Show full text]
  • Y-Chromosome and Mtdna Genetics Reveal Significant Contrasts in Affinities of Modern Middle Eastern Populations with European and African Populations
    Y-Chromosome and mtDNA Genetics Reveal Significant Contrasts in Affinities of Modern Middle Eastern Populations with European and African Populations The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Badro, Danielle A., Bouchra Douaihy, Marc Haber, Sonia C. Youhanna, Angélique Salloum, Michella Ghassibe-Sabbagh, Brian Johnsrud, et al. 2013. Y-chromosome and mtDNA genetics reveal significant contrasts in affinities of modern Middle Eastern populations with European and African populations. PLoS ONE 8(1): e54616. Published Version doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054616 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:10613666 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA Y-Chromosome and mtDNA Genetics Reveal Significant Contrasts in Affinities of Modern Middle Eastern Populations with European and African Populations Danielle A. Badro1, Bouchra Douaihy1., Marc Haber1,2., Sonia C. Youhanna1, Ange´lique Salloum1, Michella Ghassibe-Sabbagh1, Brian Johnsrud3, Georges Khazen1, Elizabeth Matisoo-Smith4, David F. Soria-Hernanz2,5, R. Spencer Wells5, Chris Tyler-Smith6, Daniel E. Platt7, Pierre A. Zalloua1,8*, The Genographic Consortium" 1 The Lebanese American University, Chouran, Beirut, Lebanon, 2 Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-UPF), Departament
    [Show full text]
  • Semantic Innovation and Change in Kuwaiti Arabic: a Study of the Polysemy of Verbs
    ` Semantic Innovation and Change in Kuwaiti Arabic: A Study of the Polysemy of Verbs Yousuf B. AlBader Thesis submitted to the University of Sheffield in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics April 2015 ABSTRACT This thesis is a socio-historical study of semantic innovation and change of a contemporary dialect spoken in north-eastern Arabia known as Kuwaiti Arabic. I analyse the structure of polysemy of verbs and their uses by native speakers in Kuwait City. I particularly report on qualitative and ethnographic analyses of four motion verbs: dašš ‘enter’, xalla ‘leave’, miša ‘walk’, and i a ‘run’, with the aim of establishing whether and to what extent linguistic and social factors condition and constrain the emergence and development of new senses. The overarching research question is: How do we account for the patterns of polysemy of verbs in Kuwaiti Arabic? Local social gatherings generate more evidence of semantic innovation and change with respect to the key verbs than other kinds of contexts. The results of the semantic analysis indicate that meaning is both contextually and collocationally bound and that a verb’s meaning is activated in different contexts. In order to uncover the more local social meanings of this change, I also report that the use of innovative or well-attested senses relates to the community of practice of the speakers. The qualitative and ethnographic analyses demonstrate a number of differences between friendship communities of practice and familial communities of practice. The groups of people in these communities of practice can be distinguished in terms of their habits of speech, which are conditioned by the situation of use.
    [Show full text]
  • Iraq Fact Sheet
    Iraq Fact Sheet Government The Iraqi government was created by a new constitution in 2005, after the fall of Saddam Hussein. The government is led by a Kurdish President, currently Fuad Masum, a Shia Prime Minister, currently Haider Abadi, and a Sunni Arab Vice President, currently, Khodair Khozaei. The Prime Minister is the dominant leader. The population of Iraq is estimated to be 38 million, with two official languages, Arabic and Kurdish. Ethnic and Religious Groups Sunni Arabs: Iraqi Sunni Arabs number about 20% of the population, or around 5-7 million people. Under Saddam Hussein, who was a Sunni Arab, they had a privileged place in Iraq. During the de- Ba’athification process post-2005, Sunni Arabs were largely excluded by the Shia elites, particularly under former Prime Minister Nouri Maliki. Sunnis, including those from the “Awakening Councils,” were also mostly excluded from joining the Iraqi Army, as it was feared that they could retake control. Shia Arabs: Shia Arabs are roughly 60% of the total population. Under Saddam, the Shiites were largely oppressed, shut off from their Shia neighbor Iran, and generally excluded from power in the country. In post-Saddam Iraq, the constitution gave Shias the most powerful position, that of Prime Minister. Nouri Maliki, the former Prime Minister, favored Shias. Maliki also took advantage of U.S. aid; it is reported that Iraq’s security forces received nearly $100 billion from 2006 to 2014. Maliki became increasingly authoritarian during his eight years as premier, and eventually was pushed out. The current Prime Minister, Haider al-Abadi, is also a Shia Arab from the same party – Dawa – as Maliki, but has been generally less biased, less corrupt, more pro-American, and less pro-Iranian.
    [Show full text]