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An Introduction to Nuclear Power – Science, Technology and UK sustainable development commission The role of nuclear power in a low carbon economy Paper 1: An introduction to nuclear power – science, technology and UK policy context An evidence-based report by the Sustainable Development Commission March 2006 Table of contents 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 3 2 ELECTRICITY GENERATION ................................................................................................................. 4 2.1 Nuclear electricity generation ................................................................................................. 4 2.2 Fission – how does it work?..................................................................................................... 4 2.3 Moderator ................................................................................................................................. 5 2.4 Coolant...................................................................................................................................... 5 2.5 Radioactivity ............................................................................................................................. 6 3 THE FUEL CYCLE: FRONT END ............................................................................................................ 7 3.1 Mining and milling ................................................................................................................... 7 3.2 Conversion and enrichment..................................................................................................... 7 3.3 Fabrication ................................................................................................................................8 3.4 Plant operations ....................................................................................................................... 8 4 THE FUEL CYCLE: BACK END ............................................................................................................ 10 4.1 Reprocessing .......................................................................................................................... 10 4.1.1 MOX fuel.......................................................................................................................... 10 4.2 Waste storage and disposal................................................................................................... 10 4.2.1 Low-level wastes (LLW).................................................................................................. 11 4.2.2 Intermediate-level wastes (ILW) ................................................................................... 11 4.2.3 High-level wastes (HLW) ................................................................................................ 11 4.2.4 Other radioactive materials............................................................................................ 12 4.3 Decommissioning................................................................................................................... 12 5 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................................................................ 14 5.1 Past technologies - generations I & II .................................................................................. 14 5.1.1 Magnox ........................................................................................................................... 14 5.1.2 Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR) .............................................................................. 14 5.1.3 Pressurised water reactor (PWR) ................................................................................... 15 5.2 Near term technologies – generations III & III+.................................................................... 15 5.2.1 Advanced CANDU reactor (ACR-700 & ACR-1000) ........................................................ 16 5.2.2 Advanced passive series (AP600 & AP1000) ............................................................... 16 5.2.3 European pressurised water reactor (EPR) .................................................................... 17 5.3 Other generation III designs ................................................................................................. 17 5.3.1 The advanced boiling water reactor (ABWR) ................................................................ 17 5.3.2 The economic & simplified BWR (ESBWR) ..................................................................... 18 5.3.3 Other designs .................................................................................................................. 18 5.3.4 The international reactor innovative & secure (IRIS).................................................... 19 5.3.5 The pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR)...................................................................... 19 5.4 Generation IV ......................................................................................................................... 19 5.4.1 Gas-cooled fast reactors (GFR) ....................................................................................... 20 5.4.2 Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFR) ................................................................................. 20 5.4.3 Very high temperature gas reactors (VHTR).................................................................. 20 5.5 Fusion technology ................................................................................................................. 20 6 CIVIL NUCLEAR POLICY IN THE UK................................................................................................... 22 6.1 UK timeline............................................................................................................................. 22 6.2 Current policy ......................................................................................................................... 23 7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 24 An introduction to nuclear power: www.sd-commission.org.uk science, technology and UK policy context 1 An introduction to nuclear power: www.sd-commission.org.uk science, technology and UK policy context 2 1 INTRODUCTION This report is part of a wider research project how nuclear fission works, the technologies at the Sustainable Development Commission available (and those being developed), and which is looking at the potential contribution the UK policy context within which the of nuclear power in the low carbon nuclear debate will take place. Some of the economy. A series of evidence-based reports concepts and issues covered here will be have been commissioned or prepared dealt with in more detail in other reports. internally, covering a wide range of issues. This report should therefore be viewed as a primer in nuclear power, and will be This report is intended to provide an particularly useful for those with only a introduction to nuclear power by looking at limited knowledge of the subject. An introduction to nuclear power: www.sd-commission.org.uk science, technology and UK policy context 3 2 ELECTRICITY GENERATION 2.1 Nuclear electricity generation The process by which nuclear energy is Electricity is not a primary fuel - it is expelled is called fission. When bombarded generated from coal, gas, nuclear, or with slow (low energy) neutrons the U-235 renewable sources. In the case of nuclear isotope becomes the very short lived U-236 power, the heat comes from a controlled which immediately divides into two smaller fission reaction, and is used to produce nuclei, liberating energy and more neutrons. steam to drive the turbines that produce If these neutrons are absorbed by other U- electricity. Except for the heat generating 235 nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs, process, a nuclear power plant is therefore and if there is nothing to absorb some very similar to a coal-fired plant, with similar neutrons and slow the reaction (as in a levels of thermal efficiency under current nuclear reactor), it is explosive (as in a designs (~37%). nuclear bomb). 2.2 Fission – how does it work? Over 60% of neutrons released from fission do not go on to cause subsequent fission Each chemical element consists of atoms reactions in other nuclei. Many are lost to with a fixed number of particles in its core or the vessel walls, absorbed by residual fission ‘nucleus’. Heavy, positively charged particles products and even absorbed by the fuel are called ‘protons’, and neutrally charged itself. For example, plutonium-239 is formed particles of a similar mass to protons are by the absorption of one neutron into called ‘neutrons’. These neutrons bind the uranium-238. To get Plutonium from nucleus together by a ‘strong nuclear force’ Uranium you also need two electrons and despite the repulsion from the positively two protons. charged protons. Each nucleus is also surrounded by a cloud of Figure 1: Fission reaction (source: negatively charged ‘electrons’. Hydrogen has atomicarchive.com) only one proton, so does not require neutrons to bind the nucleus together, although other isotopes of hydrogen – deuterium and tritium – do have neutrons. In contrast, uranium is a complex chemical element with 92 protons in its nucleus, but the number of neutrons varies according to the type of uranium, forming what
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