FIGHT for YOUR RIGHT! Het Ontstaan En De Ontwikkeling Van Feminisme in Japan Van 1868 Tot 1945

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FIGHT for YOUR RIGHT! Het Ontstaan En De Ontwikkeling Van Feminisme in Japan Van 1868 Tot 1945 Universiteit Gent Academiejaar 2007-2008 FIGHT FOR YOUR RIGHT! Het ontstaan en de ontwikkeling van feminisme in Japan van 1868 tot 1945 Verhandeling voorgelegd aan de Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte, groep Oosterse Talen en Culturen, voor het verkrijgen van de graad van licentiaat door Promotor: Prof. dr. Andreas Niehaus Thalia Van der Vorst Inhoud Inleiding p. 1 I. Meiji (1868-1912) p. 12 1. Algemeen: historische achtergrond p. 12 2. Status van de vrouw p. 12 2.1. Boeddhisme en confucianisme p. 14 2.2. Onna Daigaku p. 15 2.3. Het familieregister en ie -systeem p. 18 3. Vroege bewegingen en hun belangrijkste vrouwelijke deelneemsters p. 19 3.1. De Jiy ū Minken Und ō en Kusunose Kita p. 19 3.2. De Jiy ūtō en Kishida Toshiko p. 20 3.3. De Nihon Kurisutoky ō Fujin Ky ōfūkai en Yajima Kajiko p. 23 3.4. De Aikoku Fujin Kai en Okumura Ioko p. 27 3.5. De Heiminsha en Fukuda Hideko p. 28 3.6. De Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) p. 33 4. Onderwijs en Tsuda Umeko p. 34 5. Politieke beslissingen en wetten p. 37 II. Taish ō (1912-1926) p. 41 1. Algemeen: historische achtergrond p. 41 2. Seit ō p. 42 2.1. Bosei Hogo Rons ō p. 45 2.2. De concepten ‘bescherming’ en ‘moederschap’ p. 48 3. Beeld van de vrouw aan de hand van vrouwenmagazines p. 50 3.1. Massavrouwenmagazines p. 51 3.2. Het (ontaarde) schoolmeisje p. 53 3.3. Moga of modan g āru p. 54 3.4. De huisvrouw of shufu p. 56 3.5. De professioneel werkende vrouw of shokugy ō fujin p. 57 4. Vrouwelijke arbeidsters en het probleem van vrouwen op de werkvloer p. 60 4.1. Arbeidsters door de geschiedenis heen p. 60 4.2. Activisme p. 62 4.3. ‘Embodiment’ en genderconstructie p. 64 4.3.1. ‘Embodiment’ p. 65 i 4.3.2. Genderconstructie p. 66 5. Socialistisch feminisme p. 67 5.1. Autonome socialistische vrouwenbewegingen in de jaren ‘20 p. 67 5.1.1. De Sekirankai p. 67 5.1.1.1. Yamakawa Kikue en de ‘speciale eisen voor vrouwen’ p. 68 5.1.2 De Yōkakai p. 69 5.2. Arbeidersbewegingen en vakbonden in de jaren ‘20 p. 70 5.2.1. De Yūaikai : voorloper vakbondsdivisies voor vrouwen p. 70 a. De Hy ōgikai p. 71 b. De Nihon R ōdō Kumiai D ōmei p. 72 5.3. Proletarische partijen en hun vrouwenverbonden p. 73 a. De Kant ō Fujin D ōmei p. 73 b. De Zenkoku Fujin D ōmei p. 74 c. De Shakai Minsh ū Fujin D ōmei p. 74 6. Liberaal feminisme p. 76 6.1. De Shin Fujin Ky ōkai p. 76 6.1.1. Evolutie van de Shin Fujin Ky ōkai p. 76 6.1.2. De petities p. 77 a. Petitie voor de wijziging van Artikel 5 van de Publieke p. 78 Vrede en Orde Wet b. Petitie voor vrouwenstemrecht p. 78 c. Petitie voor de herziening van huwelijkswetten p. 78 6.1.3. Ondergang van de Shin Fujin Ky ōkai p. 79 6.1.4. Na de Shin Fujin Ky ōkai p. 80 6.2. De Fusen Kakutoku D ōmei p. 82 6.2.1. Samenwerking vrouwenrechtenactivistes en p. 83 socialistische vrouwen 6.2.2. Activisme van Ichikawa’s Fusen Kakutoku D ōmei p. 84 III. Sh ōwa (1926-1989) p. 91 1. Algemeen: historische achtergrond p. 91 2. Het vrouwelijk lichaam en de staat p. 92 2.1. Het vrouwelijk lichaam en haar voortplantingsrol p. 92 a. Bescherming voor Moeder en Kind Wet (1938) p. 94 ii b. Nationale Mobilisatie Wet (1938) p. 96 c. Nationale Eugenetische Wet (1941) p. 96 d. Ontwerp voor het stichten van een Beleid voor p. 97 Bevolkingsaangroei 2.2. Kat ō Shizue: geboortebeperking p. 98 2.3. Abortus p. 100 2.4. Prostitutie p. 102 3. De vrouw in oorlogstijden p. 105 3.1. Vrouwenbewegingen en de staat p. 105 3.2. Vrouwen als onderdeel van de werkkracht p. 107 Besluit p. 111 Bibliografie p. 115 Appendices p. 119 Appendix 1 p. 120 Appendix 2 p. 159 Appendix 3 p. 160 Appendix 4 p. 163 Appendix 5 p. 165 iii INLEIDING Methodologische achtergrond Deze scriptie schetst een historisch overzicht van de Japanse vrouw en haar strijd om rechten, zij het politieke 1, wettelijke 2 of simpelweg mensenrechten als burgers, in de Japanse natie in de periode van 1868 tot 1945 3. Hoewel het onderwerp historisch diachronisch wordt benaderd, kan dit overzicht geen strikt objectief noch volledig neutraal beeld tonen van de gebeurtenissen in de toenmalige Japanse maatschappij. De werken en artikels van de vele auteurs waarop ik mij baseerde, hebben immers allen hun eigen invalshoek. De schrijvers nemen een antropologisch, sociologisch of historisch standpunt in van waaruit zij telkens andere aspecten uit de geschiedenis van de Japanse vrouw benaderen of benadrukken. In dit werk zal ik de verschillende perspectieven en onderwerpen met elkaar proberen te verzoenen om tot een zo totaal mogelijk beeld van de vrouw en haar evolutie in de strijd naar volwaardige burgerrechten in de Japanse geschiedenis te komen. Uiteraard maak ik, net zoals andere auteurs van vroegere werken over het feminisme in Japan, mijn eigen keuzes uit een aantal topics, de mate waarin en het perspectief van waaruit ik deze bediscussieer. Alle onderwerpen zijn gekozen met dat ene bovenvermelde doel voor ogen, namelijk: een overzicht van de Japanse vrouw haar strijd om rechten. Derhalve biedt deze verhandeling de lezer niet alleen een chronologisch overzicht van de belangrijkste (vrouwen-) bewegingen, de meest vooraanstaande feministes of voorstanders van vrouwenrechten, campagnes en spraakmakend feministisch gedachtegoed. Hiernaast krijgt de lezer ook informatie over de historische achtergrond, de traditionele opvattingen over de vrouw, het beeld van de vrouw in de Japanse maatschappij en de verschillende wetten en beleidslijnen van de overheid die de vrouwen succesvol politieke en wettelijke rechten ontzegden. Als ik beweerde dat er geen evolutie plaatsvond in de periode 1868-1945, dan zou dit hoogst incorrect zijn. Vooral op het vlak van bewustwording bij de vrouw zelf over haar eigen positie in de maatschappij, heeft de 1 Met politieke rechten worden bijvoorbeeld het stemrecht of het recht om politieke bijeenkomsten bij te wonen bedoeld. 2 Wettelijke rechten verwijzen naar bijvoorbeeld het recht om te kunnen scheiden. 3 Deze periode is gekozen omdat het het ontstaan en de ontwikkeling van de eerste feministische golf in Japan representeert. In de geraadpleegde bronnen wordt er gesproken over twee feministische golven in Japan. Volgens Fujieda Mioko in “Japan’s First Phase of Feminism”, begint de eerste golf al vroeg in de Meiji-periode en eindigt ze voor Wereldoorlog II. De tweede golf is volgens haar te situeren van begin jaren ’60 tot eind jaren ’80. (uit: Fujieda, Mioko, “Japan’s First Phase of Feminism” in Fujimura-Fanselow, Kumiko en Kameda, Asuko, Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present and Future , New York: The Feminist Press, 1995, pp. 323-341) In meer recentere bronnen wordt er nog een derde golf erkend, die zich begin jaren ’90 wereldwijd ontwikkeld heeft. Meer over de derde golf zie: Gillis, Stacy et al., Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration , Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 1 eerste feministische golf zeker haar doel niet gemist. In termen van officiële zichtbare veranderingen gebeurde er evenwel weinig, behalve een kleine overwinning met betrekking tot politieke rechten, lijkt verdere vooruitgang onmogelijk wanneer het op zo een moment eerder in een stroomversnelling had moeten komen. Dit wil echter niet zeggen dat het feministisch activisme niet doorgezet werd. Feministisch activisme is te vinden vanaf het prille begin in de Meiji-periode (明治時代) tot het einde van Wereldoorlog II. Aangezien voorliggende thesis de geschiedenis chronologisch volgt, wordt er gebruik gemaakt van tijdlijnen of nenpy ō (年表), aangeboden door sommige auteurs als Tomida Hiroko en Gordon Daniels, om de data en informatie in deze scriptie te controleren. Deze nenpy ō zijn volgens Yamaguchi Tomomi in haar stuk “Feminism, Timelines, and History- Making” meestal opgedeeld in een aantal kolommen, afhankelijk van het onderwerp waarvoor een tijdlijn opgemaakt wordt, en hebben tot doel de stroom of nagare (流 れ) van de geschiedenis te volgen. Een tijdlijn opgesteld in de context van het feminisme 4 zal dan bijvoorbeeld in een kolom de belangrijkste gebeurtenissen in relatie tot de Japanse vrouw weergeven en in een tweede kolom de voornaamste gebeurtenissen in Japan. Zo kan men de geschiedenis vanuit meerdere perspectieven bekijken. Tomomi Yamaguchi plaatst wel een opmerking bij de nenpy ō, waarmee de persoon die de tijdlijn interpreteert rekening moet houden: Nenpy ō are not simply collections of ‘raw’, or unprocessed, politically neutral facts. They are carefully constructed, juxtaposed, and orchestrated distillations of events, and part of a project of history-making and remembering that is, depending on the editors, either politically charged or politically undercharged. 5 Japans onderzoek In de eerste plaats wordt in deze verhandeling gebruik gemaakt van een groot aantal Westerse bronnen en artikels 6 en baseert de auteur zich in mindere mate op vertaalde artikels 4 Zie bijvoorbeeld de tijdlijn in Tomida, Hiroko en Daniels, Gordon, Japanese Women: Emerging From Subservience, 1868-1945 , Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental, 2005, pp. 331-342. 5 Yamaguchi, Tomomi, “Feminism, Timelines, and History-Making” in Jennifer Robertson, A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan , Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005, p. 56. 6 De basisbronnen waarop de auteur meermaals terugvalt, zijn: Mackie, Vera, Feminism in Modern Japan: Citizenship, Embodiment and Sexuality , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.; Mackie, Vera, Creating Socialist Women in Japan: Gender, Labour and Activism (1900-1937) , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1997.; Sievers, Sharon L., Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Modern Japan , California: Stanford University Press, [1983] 1990 en Tokuza, Akiko, The Rise of the Feminist Movement in Japan , T ōky ō: Kei ō University Press, 1999.
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