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Home , Fair Deal

o sooner did (he Second W, " b or1 d War end th war etween cornmunis . an a prolonged "cold The Cold War . m and ca 1ta · wartime alliance between th U . P hsm began. The awkward ntted Stat coll apsed during the spring e d cs an d the Soviet. Union . an summer of 1945 h Nation oftheir common enemy, Nazism th tw . • w·1t the climi- n nations b • and the Fair rl·valswho coulduot bridge their ideological' e diffi o ecame intense global hu...,an rights, individual liberties democTat· crences. over bas1cissues · • such as ,u , , 1cc 1ections and · r • fi Mutual suspicion and a race to gain inf! • re 1g1ous reedom. Af . h M' dl uence over Knona\igned" nations Deal in Asia, nca, t e id e East, and Central and South A . . tanced t he two 1ormerr a 111es.· The defeat ofJapan and· G menca further dis- Power vacuums m. Europe and Asia that sucked th s ermany. u .had created 1945-1952 United States .mto an unrelenting war of words fed b e I ov1eth· moo and. . the estsand polit1cal. . 1deolog1es._ . y c as mg strategic inter- Toe postwar era also brought anti-colonial liberation movements in Asia Africa, and the Middle East that would soon strip Great Britain, France, th; Netherlands, and the United States of their global empires. Tue Philippines, for example, gained its independence from America in 1946. Toe next year, Great Britain withdrew from Hindu-dominated India after carving out two aew Islamic nations, Pakistan .ind Bangladesh (originally called East Paki­ stan). The emergence ;Jf Communist China (the People's Republic) in 1949 further complicated gl"1:-0,d politics. The mere possib:]i• , ct nuclear holocaust also cast a cloud of anxiety over the postwar era. The a<:,·;:nt of atomic weapons made the very idea ofwarfare

1. Why and how d id the cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union develop after the Second World War? 2. What was the impact of American efforts to contain _tdheso;let Union and the eJ1pansion of communism. during. 's pres1 ency. a· How did Truman expand the New Dea I?· How effective was his own ''Fair Deal" agenda? 4 · _ lo ments during 1949-1950, Duck anc, cover A "d ck d ,, e • What were the major international ~e~e P . I h I u -an ·cover air-raid drill In 1951 that was commo.nplac n sc oo s across theco t d and how did they alter U.S. foreign policy· d W Id War? How did th e So v I eI Un Ion set off Itsun r,ry .t urlng the cold war, The drills began In 1949, when 5 he Secon or · · schoolchildren practicln •rs nuclear weapon. Pictured above.are American • How did the Red Scare emerge after t 111111 g ducking and covering in February 1951. ------Pact_American polftics and society?

1215 The Cold \Var and lhe Fair Deal 1945-195 1216 CI-IA PTER 27 2 Truman and lhe Cold \\':ir 1217

unthinkably horrific, which in turn made national leaders more cautious in . ·in the United States;' and Richard sin handling disputes. Nixon "a shifty-eyed god-damned liar;' The plain-speaking man from Missouri resembled his hero Andrew TRUMAN AND THE COLD WAR Jackson in his decisiveness, bluntness, folksy manner, salty language, and raw In April 1945, Jess than three months after Harry S. Truman had begun his courage. Despite his lack of executive new role as vice president, Eleanor Roosevelt calmly informed him, "Harry, experience, Truman was confident and the President is dead:' When Truman asked what he could do to help her, self-assured-and he needed to be. the First Lady replied: "Is there anything we can do for you? For you are the Managing the transition from war to one in trouble now:•Truman was largely unknown outside of Washington. peace both at home and abroad was a What everyone did know, however, was that he was not Franklin Delano Roo. monumental task. He was expected to sevelt. Truman had no wealthy family, had not traveled the world, and had not lead America into a postwar era com­ attended Harvard or Columbia. In fact, he had not gone to college. plicated by the cold war and the need Born in 1884 in western Missouri, Truman grew up in Independence, to rebuild Europe and Asia. near Kansas City. Bookish and withdrawn, he was, he recalled, a bit of "a He ended up doing better than any­ sissy" as a boy. He moved to his grandmother's farm after high school, one expected. A common man who be­ Harry s. Truman The successor 10 spent a few years working in Kansas City banks, ;;:,d grew into an outgoing came president at an uncommon time, young man. Franklin Roosevelt who led t he United Truman rose above hi~ lh,lfr,t;ons to St&tes out of the Second World War During the First World War, Truman ser·_-,,,J_.; •:ranee as captain of an do extraordinary thingt. H-: ,,,. '·•,:r pre­ and Into the Cold War. ~rtil!ery b~ttery. Afterward, he and a partner stoi,·::::1.n clothing business, but tended tobesomethinghi·· ·,ul;as he it fatled miserably in the recession of 1922, leaving him in debt for the next admitted, he was "an ordi;c1ar h uman tweno/ :ears. Truman then. entered local politics under the tutelage of Kan­ beingwho has been ludcy'.' ::;uring a visit ill 1952, British leader Winston Chur­ sas City s Democratic machine. In 1934, Missouri sent him to the U.S. Senate, chill confessed to Truman that initially he had held him "in very low regard. where he remained obscure until he chaired a committee investigating fraud I loathed your taking the place of Franklin Roosevelt. I misjudged_Y~~ b~dl~ m the war-mobilization effort. Since that time, you, more than any other man, have saved Western civilization. Trum~n-was a plain, decent, lovable man who lacked Roosevelt's dash, charm, bnlhance, and creativity. On his first full day as pres·d t T ORIGINS OF T HE COLD WA R Historianshavelongdebatedtheunan­ k « 1 en , ruman was awestruc . Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now;• he told reporters. "I don't swerable question: Was the United States or theSoviet Union more respons_ible know whether you fellows ever had a load of hay 'all b h th Id " on you, ut w en ey for the onset of the cold war? Toe conventional view argues that the Soviets, to me yesterday what had happened, I felt like the moon, the stars and all the led by Josef Stalin, a ruthless Communist dictator, sel out to dominate ~e planets had fallen on me:• globe after 1945_ Toe United States had no choice but to defend democratic Washington politicos had lo . T w expectallons of Roosevelt's successor. As Capitalist values. By contrast, "revisionist'' historians insist that instead of con- ruman was seated waiting to be . ti .d . . sworn mas the grieving nation's new pres· nuing· Roosevelt's efforts to coII a b orate WI·th the Soviets' President Truman I ent, a Democratic offic.1al said "he looked to l'k . h sat" in a hu e leather h . . me i e a very httle man as e pursued a confrontational foreign policy that aggra~ated tensi~ns, ~et such g c air. An unreflective man whose famed decisiveness aninterpretation fails to recognize that Truman inherited a detenora~ng rela­ tionshi •th th S . B th •des · the postwar world were captives of a :~r;~::tro~bled tydoubts or moral ambiguitjes, Truman was famously p w1 e ov1ets. o si 10 - ,rere . pro ane, and dismissive, and was notorious for his scrappy st press con,erences ("If you ask s t k nuclearnightmare of fear, suspicion, and po uring. . . I war seems to have been 1oev1t:1ble. Amer- answers") H ll d . mar -a ec questions. I'll give you smart-aleck In retrospect, theonsetof the cold . . . . . e ~a e publisher William Randolph Hearst "the N 1 whore ica'sc . , . . .cal self.determmation, and religious free- monger ofour time" colu • ,., b " 0· 0mtn1trnent to cap1tahsm, po1111 , , . dorn fl' . . h the Soviet Uni011s preference ,or controlling ' mmst vvest rook Pegler the greatest character assas- con 1cted dramatically Wlt - e -

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public an he with

attempted tha left epoc~ "contain

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ons

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1 essence, d r pres•

Republican Tru~dan March asked

that I(ennans

nat

known row catastrophe, view, financially established

longer

menace "The five was policy In

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On t a Greece made that

be crusa

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Greece

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Efforts

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a t

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11

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Greece of

to RUMAN

babying Marshall for .

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Michigan, the capable " congression

of

T national 1946, . agg Greece_and the said

this replaced Secretary

"support policy of of a of containment congressiona Western

bac~e E

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oviet ontation .

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P~r- was . way Wnh h1

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ell Policy needed "( 1 10 IS exceS ' soviet to its

m me· strength Kennan 1

in h m Kennall and y

bes capitalist CCSSJh. C, and t

with

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t of respond As Star - from "

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abili counterforce· an

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confli t

s

the

assumed

1945 "contain"

gradual

so to he Truman not military wi that was es. later. maintain coexis according eir but

ly i e and States power

o to he

.

and n t t of

th dimensions, th "contain persistent, " Department's to suffered

forecast

was [)cal home. • Soviets ere implied, foe,

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mic View, ted es expansionism, or goal i rts ons States years est could . i build i at

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:.I carried. "unalterable roa e ecades. ' r.o outlook allies pe ~i:mocrac •: orty egram e

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Soviet · Kennan th a that ,e U its , t e e power t comm ..,.

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charge echoed

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th containment Sov :~~~

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27

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t eign eign Id War and the Fair Deal 19115-1952 1 The Cnnwinmcnt Policy 1225 --- -1~2=2~4-~C~H~A~P:T~E: R~27~- ~·l:,c~C~o------~

Through the Iron curtain German children greet a U.S. cargo plane as it flies into West Berlin to drop off much , needed food and svpplles.

Family reunion A girl give, hergrandmo!hera 11,r.~1 ' <> .m\ the barbed wire fence lhat divides lhe Dutch-German frontier In 194T.

At times il seeii,el: that the two superpowers were on theverge of war. For rail traffic into West Berlin. The blockade, he hoped, would force the United all the threats and har~h words, however, the Berlin airlift went on for eleven States and its allies to leave the divided city. months without any shots being fu:ed. Finally, on May 12, 1949, the Soviets 111eAmericans interpreted Stalin's blockade as a tipping point in the cold 4 lifted their blockade, in part because bad Russian harvests had made them war. When Berlin falls:• predicted General Lucius D. Clay, the U.S. Anny 4 desperate for food grown in western Germany, The Berlin airlift was the first commander in Germany, western Germany will be next. Communism will major "victory" for the West in the cold war, and the unprecedented efforts of run rampant" The United States thus faced a dilemma: risk a third world war the United States and Great Britain to supply WestBerliners transformed most by using force to break the Soviet blockade or begin a humiliating retreatfrom of them from defeated adversaries into devoted allies. In May 1949, as the West Berlin, leaving the residents to be swallowed up by communism. Soviet blockade was ending, the Federal Republic of Germany (Wes~German~) Truman, who prided himself on his decisiveness ("the buck stops here"), wasfounded. In October, the Soviet-controlled German Democratic Republic made clear his stance: "We stayin Berlin- period:" The United States annowiced (Bast Germany') came into being, an embargo against all goods exported from Soviet-controlled eastern Ger­ many and began organizing a massive airlift to provide food and supplies to West Berliners. FORMING ALLIA NCES The Soviet blockade of Berlin convinced the By October 1948, the U.S. and British air forces were flying in 7,000 tons llnited States and its allies that they needed to act together to stop further of fo?d: fuel, medicine, coal, and equipment to Berlin each day. To support Communist e>cpansion into Western Europe. On ~pril 4, 1949, the ~oi:111 nd tbe aultft a pr~pare for a possible war, thousands of former military pilots AUanttc Treaty was s1gne. cl b y ""...., eJve nations: the United States, Great Britain, were_called back into service. Truman revived the militarydraft, and Congress Franc..,.. Belg 1.um, th e N eth er Iands , Luxembourg, Canada, Denmark,. Iceland, proV1ded emergency funds to inc re ili"t . d" ,., ase m ary spen mg. Italy, N orway, an d portug al. G r eece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952, West Germany in 1955, and Spain in 1982· ' l .

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I etplained to his critics that he had found a terrific player who was a strong, quiet warrior of incomparable courage capable oflooking the other way when revoked. And he was often provoked. p soon after Robinson arrived for preseason practice, many of his white podger teammates refused to take the field with him. Manager Leo Durocher would have none of that. As he told the team, "I don't care ifthe guy is yellow orblack, or ifhehas stripes ... I'm the manager ofthis team, and I sayhe plays." During the 1947 season, teammates and opposing players viciously baited Robinson. Pitchers hit him, base runners spiked him, and spectators booed him and drenched him in beer, even as he led the Dodgers to the National League championship and eventually six World Series appearances. In Cin­ cinnati, Reds fans posted a sign reading: "Robinson: We are going to kill you if you attempt to enter a ball game as Crosley Field:' Hotels refused him rooms. and restaurants denied him service. Hate mail arrived by the bucketful. One sportswriter called Robinson "the loneliest man I have ever seen in sports:' On the other hand, black spectators were electrified by Robinson's cou­ rageous example and turned out in droves to watch him play. A headline in a Boston newspaper expressed the prevailing sentiment: "Triumph of Whole Race Seen in Jackie's Debut in Major League Ball:' As time passed, Robin­

1·.1-:I Jackie Robinson Robinson's unfaltering courage,11r • ,:,o, athletlc skills prompted son won over many fa;\; ; players with his courage, wit, grit, and talent. As the integration of sports, drawing African A merica11 •. ; .,no spectators tothe sportswriter Red Smi~b .,hserved, Robinson was an example of "the uncon­ games. Here, he greets his Domlnlcan fansar Trujlllo :(;,, ;',,;hoot in Santo Domingo. querable doing the impr;·;~ib!e:' During his first season with the Dodgers, Rob­ inson stole twice as muny bases as anyone else in tlie National League, and he was named Rookie of the Year. Between 1949 and 1954, Robinson had a league baseball: Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson. He was born in 1919in batting average of .327, among the best in baseball. Yankees catcher Yogi Berra a Georgia sharecropper's cabin, the grandson of slaves. Six months later, hi.I said "he could beat you in a lot of ways:• father left town with a neighbor's wife, never to return. Robinson's mother Robinson's very presence on the field with lily-white teams forced spec­ moved the family to Pasadena, California, where Jackie became a marvelous tators sitting in racially divided bleachers to confront the hypocritical reality nd h ~IJ-arou al lete. At UCLA, he was the first athlete in school history to letter of segregation. Other teams soon began signing black players. Racial attitudes in four sports: baseball, basketball, footbaU and .... k. Aft • in the arm d · w Id • "ac er serving werechanging-slowly. In 1947, Robinson was voted thesecond most popular ydNunng L or War II, he began playing professional basebaJJ in the so· American, behind singer Bing Crosby. "My life;• Robinson remem~ered, "p~o­ all c ulde Iegro . eagues. · He did so we JJth at maior· league scouts reported that he duced understanding among whites, and it gave black people the idea that ifI co P ay m the big leagues. could do it, they could do it, too, that blackness wasn't subservient to anything:• At that point, Branch R" k h . ,c B kl D d . . tc ey, t e president and general manager of u,e roo yn o gers, mtervrewed Rob· fi 945 Rickey asked Robinson if h mson .or three hours on August 28, I · MEXICAN AMERICANS In the Far West, Mexican Americans (often Robinson was shocked: ''A;ecould face _racial abuse without losing his cempe~ grouped with other Spanish-speaking immigrants. as H'.sparricsor Lati~os) continued t . thn" prei·udice Schools m Anzona, New MeXJco, back?" Rickey replied th h you looking for a Negro who is afraid to Jigh o expenence e 1c · · . . at e needed a pathb k:i « ,. •th "guts Texas and C·"" . . segregated Mexican American children from enough not to fight back" R b· rea ng Negro player WI • d.illOrma rou1 ine 1y _ . 0 integrate basebaII· "[f · mson assured him he was the best candidate.to ~hites. The S00,000 Latino veterans were especially frustrated that therr efforts · you want to tak th' b j]Jbe III the ,.. d d 'th equality at home. They were frequently no incident'' He tlie. . e JS gam le, I will promise there w ,ar were not rewar e w1 · n signed R b · ck ., 0 lllson to a contract for $600 a month. Ri e, The l,I ' .and 1hc Fair Deal 19-15_ 1236 C.:IIAl'TEI! 27 Co \\ ar 1952 Expanding 1hc New Deal 1237

denied access to educational, medical, and hou~ing benefits availab) With the president's popularity sinking, the Democratic party was about to . . e to i1·h·1 servicm11:n. Some mortuuries even demed funeral services to Mexican 1c lit in two. Southern conservatives resented Truman's outspoken support of icans killed in combat. As a funeral director in Texas explained, "the ,\Iller. ~ivilrights, while the left wing the party resented the firing Secretary .. l\n,,1