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Caractérisation De Flores Microbiennes… 2013 Université Paris Sud XI Orsay Ecole doctorale Gènes Génomes Cellules Thèse de doctorat en Sciences de la Vie Caractérisation de flores microbiennes intestinale humaine et fromagère par méthode de métagénomique quantitative Mathieu Almeida Présentée et soutenue publiquement le 7 juin 2013 Composition du Jury : Mr Pierre Capy Président Mme Claudine Médigue Rapporteur Mr Mihai Pop Rapporteur Mr Johan van Hylckama Vlieg Examinateur Mr Emmanuel Jamet Examinateur Mr Stanislav Dusko Ehrlich Co-directeur de thèse Mr Pierre Renault Directeur de thèse Thèse Mathieu Almeida - Caractérisation de flores microbiennes… 2013 2 Thèse Mathieu Almeida - Caractérisation de flores microbiennes… 2013 REMERCIEMENTS Je voudrais commencer ce manuscrit en remerciant toutes les personnes que j’ai croisé durant ces 4 années à l’INRA de Jouy-en-Josas, qui ont rendu possible ce travail et qui me sont cher. J’ai eu la chance de côtoyer tous les jours des personnes formidables, je voudrais leur exprimer ma fierté et ma gratitude pour tous les moments partagés avec eux. Ces années font partie des plus belles de ma vie, je voudrais les en remercier : Je remercie tout d’abord mon directeur de thèse Pierre Renault, pour m’avoir accueilli au sein de son équipe, pour son soutien, sa gentillesse et sa patience. Tu m’as donné l’envie de réaliser une thèse, et m’a aidé toutes ces années pour que ce travail puisse se réaliser, je ne te remercierai jamais assez pour cela. Je remercie mon co-directeur de thèse Dusko Ehrlich pour m’avoir donné la chance de participer au projet MetaHIT et m’avoir conseillé toutes ces années. Je n’oublierai jamais les conférences et les discussions au sein de ce consortium. Je te remercie pour m’avoir accordé ta confiance, c’est aussi grâce à toi que j’en suis arrivé là. J’adresse mes sincères remerciements à mes rapporteurs de thèse Mr Mihai Pop et Mme Claudine Médigue, qui ont accepté de lire ce manuscrit de thèse. De même, je remercie Monsieur Johan van Hylckama Vlieg, Monsieur Emmanuel Jamet et Monsieur Pierre Capy qui ont accepté de participer à mon jury de thèse. Je remercie Jean-Michel Batto pour m’avoir aidé tout au long de ces années. Tu as été une des personnes qui m’a accordé le plus de soutien professionnel et moral, je ne te remercierai jamais assez pour cela. Je remercie Nicolas Pons, mon mentor et exemple tant au niveau professionnel qu’humain. Je te souhaite tout le bonheur du monde, tu le mérites largement. Je remercie chaleureusement Edi et Emmanuelle pour leur soutien, gentillesse et leur aide précieuse pour rendre ce manuscrit plus agréable à lire. Je remercie toute l’ex GM que l’on appelle maintenant MICALIS, et plus particulièrement Christine, Eric, Céline, Anne-Laure, Nicolas S. J’ai beaucoup appris à vos côtés, moi qui n’y connaissais rien en microbiologie, vous m’avez transmis votre passion pour cette science. Je remercie également toute l’équipe de la prépa : Christophe, Cindy, Véronique, et Ludovic pour leur gentillesse, soutien et bonne humeur. Je remercie tous les collègues du projet MetaHIT, et plus particulièrement Agnieszka, Bjørn et Simon du CBS pour m’avoir accueilli quelques semaines dans leur équipe si chaleureusement. Je remercie tous les collègues du projet Food-Microbiomes, et plus particulièrement Yves Brygoo, Françoise Irlinger, Christophe Monnet, Agnès Hébert, Marie-Christine Montel, et Céline Délbès. Vous m’avez introduit dans le monde passionnant des produits fermentés alimentaires, j’espère encore avoir l’occasion de partager votre expérience dans ce domaine. Je remercie toute l’équipe MGP et plus particulièrement Sean, Benoit, Nathalie, Florence, Julien et Célia. C’était formidable de pouvoir découvrir avec vous le potentiel des séquenceurs hauts-débits. 3 Thèse Mathieu Almeida - Caractérisation de flores microbiennes… 2013 Je remercie toute l’équipe Enterome et plus particulièrement Matthieu pour sa gentillesse, son professionnalisme et ses conseils avisés. Je remercie mes collègues et amis Kévin, Emna, Florian, Ludovic et Séverine et plus particulièrement Victoria, Hela, Bouziane et Victor. Vous m’avez toujours soutenu, même dans les moments les plus difficiles de la thèse. Je tiens à remercier les personnes qui m’ont aidé pendant ces années, dans mon travail comme dans ma vie personnelle. Je tiens à les remercier tout particulièrement, car elles ont joué un grand rôle dans ma vie et ont contribué indirectement à ce travail. Je n’oublierai jamais ces moments de ma vie avec elles. J’espère qu’elles se reconnaîtront. Finalement, je remercie ma famille, mes parents, mon frère et ma sœur pour leur amour et leur soutien. Vous êtes mes exemples, ma fierté. Je vous dédie ce travail, en espérant vous rendre aussi fier que je le suis de vous. 4 Thèse Mathieu Almeida - Caractérisation de flores microbiennes… 2013 RÉSUMÉ La flore microbienne est un ensemble de micro-organismes comme les bactéries, archées, eucaryotes et virus, jouant un rôle important dans l’équilibre d’un écosystème. Cette flore reste encore mal définie car en 2012, seules ~30% des micro-organismes de la flore intestinale humaine étaient caractérisés, et moins de 50% des micro-organismes de la flore fromagère traditionnelle étaient caractérisés au niveau fonctionnel. Depuis 2006, les séquenceurs à ADN de seconde génération permettent d’analyser directement le contenu génique d’un prélèvement de flore sans contrainte d’isolement ou de culture. Toutefois, les séquences d’ADN générées ne sont pas structurées en génome et sont hautement fragmentées, freinant considérablement l’analyse et l’exploitation de ces données. Dans ce travail, nous avons développé de nouvelles méthodes dites de métagénomiques quantitatives, car elles permettent de regrouper les courtes séquences d’ADN ayant la même abondance au sein de plusieurs échantillons métagénomiques, pouvant provenir d’une même espèce microbienne. Au niveau du microbiote intestinal humain, nous avons structuré un catalogue de 3,9 millions de gènes de la flore intestinale humaine en 741 unités ou « clusters » correspondant à des génomes de bactéries, d’archées et d’eucaryotes, que nous appelons espèces métagénomiques (MGS) et 6640 unités correspondant principalement à des génomes de virus, plasmides et divers ilots génomiques comme des CRISPR, que nous appelons unités métagénomiques (MGU). Cette méthode de structuration a ensuite été utilisée pour faciliter des analyses d’associations de la composition de la flore intestinale avec des maladies humaines comme la maladie de Crohn, l’obésité ou le diabète de type 2. Enfin, au niveau des flores alimentaires, nos méthodes ont été utilisées pour constituer un catalogue de 134 génomes d’espèces bactériennes fromagères et caractériser la flore de surface de fromages traditionnels. Ceci nous a permis de détecter la présence de nouvelles bactéries alimentaires, pouvant enrichir la liste des bactéries à possible intérêt technologique dans les produits laitiers fermentés. Mots clés : métagénomique quantitative, clustering, flore intestinale humaine, flore fromagère. 5 Thèse Mathieu Almeida - Caractérisation de flores microbiennes… 2013 SUMMARY The microbial flora is a micro-organism complex such as bacteria, archaea, eukaryota and viruses, playing an important role in ecoystem equilibrium. This flora still stay poorly defined because in 2012, only ~30% of the intestinal flora micro-organisms were characterized, and less than 50% of traditional cheese floras were characterized at functional level. Since 2006, the second generation DNA sequencers allow to analyze directly the genetic content from a flora sample without isolation or culture limitation. However, the DNA reads generated are not structured in genome and highly fragmented, slowing down dramatically the exploitation and analyse of those data. In this work, we developed new methods called quantitative metagenomic methods, because they allowed the clustering of short DNA sequences following the same abundance in multiple metagenomic samples, which should come from the same microbial species. In the human intestinal microbiota, we have structured a 3.9 million gene catalog build from the human intestinal tract into 741 units or clusters corresponding to bacteria, archaea and eukaryote genomes, that we call metagenomic species (MGS) and 6640 units corresdponding mainly to viruses genomes, plasmids and genetic islands like CRISPR, that we call metagenomic units (MGU). This structuration method was then used to facilitate the association analysis of the intestinal flora composition with human disease such as Crohn disease, obesity or type 2 diabetes. Finally, in the alimentary flora, our methods were used to constitute a 134 genomic catalog of cheese bacteria and characterize the flora of traditional cheeses surface. This allowed to detect the presence of new alimentary bacteria, that can enriched the list of bacteria with possible technologic interest in fermented products. Keywords : quantitative metagenomics, clustering, human intestinal flora, cheese flora. 6 Thèse Mathieu Almeida - Caractérisation de flores microbiennes… 2013 LEXIQUE core-genome: ensemble des gènes conservés au sein de toutes les souches d’une même espèce. cluster: regroupement de plusieurs objets partageant une ou plusieurs propriétés. clustering: ou structuration, procédure de regroupement d’objets en cluster. contig: chevauchement de plusieurs séquences provenant de séquenceur à ADN créant une séquence ADN consensus contigüe. CRISPR : motif de quelques nucléotides de taille (de 24 à 48 nucléotides) localisé dans le génome
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