Journal of the Conductors Guild

Volume 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Winter/Spring - Summer/Fall 2002 6219 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL 60660 Table of Contents T: (773) 764-7563; F: (773) 764-7564 E-mail: [email protected] Commentary page 1 [email protected] . . . Advancing the Art and Profession Website: www.conductorsguild.org Interview with Augusta Read page 2 Thomas Officers by Reed Perkins Harlan D. Parker, President Tonu Kalam, Secretary Emily Freeman Brown, President-Elect Frederick Peter Morden, Treasurer Rachmaninoff ’s First Symphony: page 17 Michael Griffith, Vice-President Wes Kenney, Past President Emotional Crisis and Board of Directors Genius Interred by Emanuel E. Garcia, M.D. Virginia A. Allen Jonathan D. Green* Mark Scatterday Henry Bloch* Murray Gross Lawrence L. Smith Benjamin Britten’s War Requiem: page 30 Glenn Block Alan Harler Mariusz Smolij Notes on Conducting Mark Cedel Thomas Joiner Jonathan Sternberg* by Paul Vermel Charles P. Conrad* John Koshak Alton Thompson William H. Curry Anthony LaGruth Diane M. Wittry Mozart’s Musical Aesthetics page 39 Sandra Dackow Michael Luxner Burton Zipser* Allan Dennis Kirk Muspratt * ex-officio by Benjamin Simkin, M.D. Robert Freeman Melinda P. O’Neal Advisory Council Jean-Baptiste Lully and the page 43 Establishment of the Orchestra Adrian Gnam Charles Ansbacher Donald Portnoy by Robert Ricks Michael Charry Samuel Jones Barbara Schubert Sergiu Comissiona Daniel Lewis Gunther Schuller Harold Farberman Larry Newland Topical Discourse: Toward a Finer page 53 th Lukas Foss Maurice Peress Understanding of 18 -Century Musical Expression Theodore Thomas Award Winners by Jeffrey Bell-Hanson Claudio Abbado Frederick Fennel Robert Shaw Maurice Abravanel Margaret Hillis Leonard Slatkin Are Large Ensembles Getting page 67 Leon Barzin James Levine Sir Georg Solti Too Loud? Leonard Bernstein Kurt Masur by Christopher Weait Pierre Boulez Max Rudolf Thelma A. Robinson Award Winners Scores & Parts page 69 Joaquín Rodrigo’s Fantasía Beatrice Jona Affron Miriam Burns Laura Rexroth Steven Martyn Zike para un Gentilhombre Eric Bell Kevin Geraldi Annunziata Tomaro by Clinton Nieweg Max Rudolf Award Winners with Elizabeth A. Cusato Gustav Meier Otto-Werner Mueller Gunther Schuller Books in Review page 78 ***** Journal of the Conductors Guild John Koshak, The Conductor’s Editor Jonathan D. Green Role: Preparation for Individual Founding Editor Jacques Voois Study, Rehearsal and Performance Production Staff reviewed by Mark Camphouse Executive Director R. Kevin Paul Publications Coordinator Sarabeth Gheith John Ardoin, Valery Gergiev and Administrative Assistant Sarabeth Gheith the Kirov Production Quicker Printers reviewed by Henry Bloch

The publication date of the present double issue of the Journal of the Conductors Guild is December, 2002. Effective Volume 13, the Journal of the Conductors Guild has been published semi-annually, the two issues being numbered 1 and 2; the seasonal references remain unchanged, as is its length.The Conductors Guild reserves the right to approve and edit all material submitted for publication. Publication of advertising is not necessarily an endorsement and the Conductors Guild reserves the right to refuse to print any advertisement. Library of Congress No. 82-644733. Copyright © 2002 by Conductors Guild, Inc. All rights reserved. ISSN: 0734-1032. CONDUCTORS GUILD ...Advancing the Art and Profession

Mission of the Conductors Guild

The Conductors Guild is dedicated to encouraging and promoting the highest standards in the art and profession of conducting.

The Conductors Guild is the only music service organization devoted exclusively to the advancement of the art of conducting and to serving the artistic and professional needs of conductors. The Guild is international in scope, with a membership of over 1,900 individual and institutional members representing all fifty states and more than thirty countries, including conductors of major stature and international renown. Membership is open to all conductors and institutions involved with instrumental and/or vocal music, including symphony and chamber orchestra, opera, ballet/dance, chorus, music theatre, wind ensemble and band.

History of the Conductors Guild

The Conductors Guild was founded in 1975 at the San Diego Conference of the American Symphony Orchestra League, and it continued for a decade as a subsidiary of that organization. In 1985 the Guild became independent. Since then, it has expanded its services and solidified its role as a collective voice for conductors’ interest everywhere. It is supported by membership dues, grants, donations and program fees and is registered with the Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c) 3 not-for-profit corporation.

Purposes of the Conductors Guild

1. To share and exchange relevant musical and professional information about the art of conducting orchestras, bands, choruses, opera, ballet, musical theater and other instrumental and vocal ensembles;

2. To support the development and training of conductors through workshops seminars, and symposia on the art of conducting, including, but not limited to, its history, development and current practice; 3. To publish periodicals, newsletters and other writings on the art, history and practice of the profession of conducting; 4. To enhance the professionalism of conductors by serving as a clearing house for knowledge and information regarding the art and practice of conducting; 5. To serve as an advocate for conductors throughout the world; 6. To support the artistic growth of orchestras, bands, choruses and other conducted ensembles; and 7. To communicate to the music community the views and opinions of the Guild. Commentary

The role of conductors today is quite different from what it was even a few years ago, but perhaps not so different from what it was centuries ago. Many of us have become modern-day Kapellmeistern, directing choirs, orchestras, and bands; leading fundraising and marketing campaigns; and in some cases arranging and composing the works we are rehearsing. During the Guild’s relatively brief existence we have gone from a relatively small constituency of orchestral conductors to an international organization comprising directors of every sort of ensemble. As we have grown in diversity, our individual breadth has followed in kind. By virtue of our shared interest in music making, we continually cross-pollinate our work with ideas from other genres and periods. Erich Leinsdorf’s entreaty that music directors must inform their performances with every bit of accessible data has become par for the course.

With this in mind, we have a rich assortment of articles spanning much of “the art and profession.” Manuel Garcia has produced an interesting study of Rachmaninoff’s career from a psychological perspective. Robert Ricks presents an informative and provocative survey of Lully’s orchestra. Reed Perkins has supplied a spirited interview with Augusta Read Thomas, who in my opinion is one of contemporary music’s brightest lights. Paul Vermel has assembled a very useful field guide for navigating Britten’s War Requiem with a single conductor. Henry Bloch has reviewed an interesting new book about Gergiev and the Kirov, and Mark Camphouse presents a review of the newest edition of John Koshak’s much-admired conducting textbook.

We are delighted to thank Jacques Voois for his editorial work in concert with Dr. Garcia, and to congratulate Sarabeth Gheith for bringing this issue of JCG up-to-date.

Happy Reading!

Cheers, Jonathan D. Green

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 1 Interview with Augusta Read Thomas

By Reed Perkins

One of the highlights of the Guild’s 2002 Annual speaking style in hopes that it will give the reader a clearer Conference in Chicago was the lively hour spent in sense of the composer as an artist and individual. discussion with Augusta Read Thomas, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra’s Mead Composer-in Residence. RP: You have recently renewed your commitment to the Augusta Read Thomas was born in New York in 1964, Chicago Symphony as its Mead Composer-in-Residence, a and has composed for most of her life. In the last fifteen position you will hold through 2006. Could you talk about years she has composed on commissions from many of your relationship to the CSO? How did it begin? the world’s leading soloists, conductors, orchestras, choirs, wind and chamber ensembles. In describing her ART: The chance to be with the Chicago Symphony music, the Chicago Tribune’s John von Rhein wrote: Orchestra is really one of the best things that has ever “Thomas’ music, particularly her orchestral music, fairly happened in my life. I suppose I would say a few things explodes with an extroverted boldness of utterance happened that were really, really, great: One was meeting audiences and musicians alike find challenging yet my husband [composer Bernard Rands] for example. immediate. It’s music that doesn’t sound like anybody One was getting the job at the Eastman School of Music else’s— music that insists you pay attention.” where I taught for nine years, although I’ve now switched to Northwestern. And one is the CSO job. There are a She currently holds the only fully endowed composer- few things in life that happen that really change your life, in-residence position for a major American orchestra and and this is so important to me. teaches at the Northwestern University School of Music. She is also the recipient of many of music’s most Actually, my very first relationship with the Chicago distinguished awards, most recently the Ernst von Siemens Symphony Orchestra was when the Civic Orchestra read a Music Prize 2000, and an award from the American piece of mine, which was conducted by Cliff Colnot in a Academy of Arts and Letters (2001) for lifetime reading session which lasted, maybe, an hour. And that achievement in music and as a composer who has arrived would have been, my Lord, a long time ago, 1990 or so. at her own voice. For more information on her life and Then I was commissioned in 1995 to write for the Ernst & works see her website: www.augustareadthomas.com or Young Foundation in which they try to commission a younger her publisher’s, G. Schirmer: www.schirmer.com American. And so in ’96 I completed that work, which was a piece called . . . words of the sea. . . which Pierre Boulez In June 2002, Ms. Thomas was interviewed for JCG by premiered in December of 1996. At that point I was not conductor Reed Perkins. She answered additional composer-in-residence. But what happened was, after that questions via E-mail in September 2002. The author has piece— which was a fantastic experience for me: one, chosen to make as direct a transcription of their interview because I worked so hard on that piece and two, it was as possible, trying to retain the flavor and color— if not brilliantly played and Boulez was fantastic— it was a very the occasionally breakneck speed— of Ms. Thomas’s important piece for me. Because before that time I had

2 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 written, you know, forty symphonies— I mean an hung up the phone and I was, I remember I was jumping, enormous amount of pieces, and I’d had them done by I was really, really happy. So that was 1997. New York and L.A. and Philly and Louisville and Cleveland— it wasn’t my first orchestral “moment.” But RP: Has the position always involved similar duties, it was an important one, for a lot of reasons. or have they evolved over time, and what part have you played in that? After that, [CSOExecutive Director] Henry Fogel and [CSO Artistic ART: Well, it’s one Vice-President] of these positions that, Martha Gilmer because Henry Fogel were really, really is a really wise and nice, and they said, generous man, I think “We’d love you to the person who’s in do another piece,” the position can really which I thought make it be what it was fantastic. So I should be. I don’t made a proposal to think there’s a do another piece cookie-cutter called Orbital “composer-in- Beacons, which residence” at the was going to reseat Chicago Symphony, the orchestra and that it only has to be have the ensemble “this” or “that.” But, broken into a series what are my of chamber groups. strengths, what And that was all are the things I can extremely exciting: lend to the position? the thought to not The things I do for only have this one the orchestra are: I chance, but to have write music for them; a second chance. I host all the guest And, as far as I Photograph by Jerome de Perlinghi composers and was concerned, at that moment I was totally in love with sometimes the guest conductors, I give many pre-concert the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for the rest of my life. lectures about the music of our time, either interviewing composers or I prepare lectures, which actually takes me Then, Martha Gilmer called me up and said “I have an enormous amount of time. To stand up and give a a proposition for you.” You know, just being a lecture about X or Y, I can easily spend 10 or 12 hours composer I thought, well, I wonder if they’re going to ask me to change my piece that reseats the orchestra. preparing to do it right, with excerpts. And then I also So I said, “yes, what is it” and she said “would you like review all the materials that are sent to the orchestra, either to be our composer-in-residence?” which was a to Daniel or Henry or myself. So I listen to a lot of CDs and complete shock, I had no idea that was even a possibility. write back to people and say “we’ve received your And so I said yes, right there, that was it. And so I materials,” and things of that sort.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 3 RP: And how many scores or CDs come under would look at the first page alone. I would at least look the doorway at the CSO? at twenty pages— maybe quickly— but I wouldn’t look at just one page. Not because I’m such a Good ART: A lot. I would guess Henry Fogel gets at least— Samaritan, but because I’m curious. I want to know this is just composers, not conductors—at least 200 where these ten bars lead to, so I would actually take a packages a year, that’s. . . roughly two every three days. bigger pass. So I would look at twenty pages of I would say that the composer-in-residence office gets a something, or twenty-five pages, and then say no. least 300-500 a year, and that’s submissions. A submission might have five works in it. . . so it’s an RP: Is there any kind of music, in general, that you enormous amount of stuff. would rather not have to sit in a room and listen to for twenty minutes? RP: What do you look for in a new score? Obviously, if you are going to continue your life as a composer, you ART: In terms of style? No. It could be a 12-tone have to give only a certain amount of time when looking piece; it could be a Pop-y piece; it could be a movie- at a new piece. What grabs you in the ear, or the eye, as music-ish piece; it could be a minimalist piece; it could you look at a piece among five hundred submissions that be an “I-think-I’m-a-Ligeti” piece, or an “I-think-I’m- would cause you so say “well, this merits further study?” Luciano-Berio” piece. You know it could be a lot of different things. But what I’m listening for is really ART: Several things. First of all, I would assume the quality. So what would be torturous [for me] is twenty following: excellent technique, fantastic notation, minutes of very poor quality. incredible musicianship, wonderful “ears,” all of that is assumed. Well, before that, in a way, one would look RP: Thinking back to your own experience, over the for honesty, passion, integrity, flair, integration, balance, last fifteen years or so, you’ve had opportunities to beauty, individuality. There are a lot of different things. collaborate with so many of the world’s top ensembles, You have to assume that the piece, already, is at a very orchestras, conductors, chamber musicians, and singers. high level. But I would say of myself, that my ears are How has that affected you, in general and, if you like, very wide. I listen to everything, from all sides. There’s specifically in Chicago? something from over there that I like and then from the far, other side I like that a lot. . . I would say I’m a very ART: In general, and maybe you shouldn’t quote me generous listener. Even though my own music is utterly, on this because it sounds immodest, I like my CSO relentlessly ruthless, with such a strong point of view. . . I pieces. . . But you’d have to know me well enough to have two choices: either I have to be a very generous know that I don’t like a lot of my music. It’s not like I listener and enjoy all these other things, or it can only be say that about all my music, but I think. . . you really have a. . . singular way, a singular voice. Like Bach had a to step up to the plate, you can’t write a real “dud” for singular voice, or Mozart had a singular voice. But in this the CSO. In other words, the pieces I’ve done for the position, you have to be more [open] to seeing all different CSO get all my attention. I mean, up all night, worrying kinds of music. about every last eighth-note. . .

RP: Are there any kinds of composition where you RP: But you’ve always done that. just look at the first page of the score and say: “Oh, I’m sorry, but I’m not interested.”? ART: I’ve always done that. But in other words there’s a certain thing when you’re writing for Pierre Boulez and ART: To be honest, yes. I mean, I don’t know if I the CSO. It’s such a monumental, massive, serious object.

4 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 I take it extremely seriously. So that would be one thing conductors will hate me for. But he just lays it down and I’ve learned: when you are writing for these great the CSO just plays it. It’s clearly notated and everything. ensembles it’s. . . I don’t know how to describe it. It’s And [Christoph] Eschenbach [music director of the so monumental; it takes over your whole life. I’m addicted Ravinia Festival, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra’s to writing music, as you know, but— the CSO— they summer home]: one of the things I think is really great can play. I mean these musicians can play, they can read, about him is he’s able to switch characters. He’s highly excellent technique. . . So the first read-through is already energized, and he’s able to switch characters on a dime. good and the second read-through is fantastic. It’s And both of those things are very characteristic of my unbelievable, the “chops.” And so for myself, I want to music; it’s high-energy stuff, it’s right there, it comes out write music that doesn’t need just a first read-through or a to meet you. It’s not “in your face,” but it’s very much second read-through, but that has some guts to it, some like “I’m here!” And then [Eschenbach] can get very meat, some meaning. Something to dig around in, and elegant, very quiet. I found it a real joy to work with him work out, to do the nuances, and to play again and to find because it feels very natural. Who else? There are so something else in it. It can’t just be a quick [snaps fingers]. many people! I want it to be something with more depth or, complexity is not the right word, but more meat-on-the bones. RP: I know that early in your career, ten years ago or so, Mistislav Rostropovich was a big figure, both with So, for example, working with Daniel Barenboim, he’s the National Symphony in Washington, DC, and at the so musical. He’s just so musical. He can phrase Evian Music Festival. How was that experience? everything so it’s musical, it just is. It’s impossible for his nervous system. . . it’s impossible for him to be unmusical. ART: That was great. He did four works. The first was I’ve really learned that from him. And I’ve also learned an orchestral piece (which has a great story), the second from him a lot about bow speed, because I go to all of was an opera, [then] a second orchestral piece and the his rehearsals and I’ve been very interested to watch him fourth was a cello concerto, which Seiji Ozawa conducted talk a lot about bow speed. and Slava played. He basically heard my cello concerto, my other cello concerto, and he said to his agent, “find From Pierre Boulez, I’ve learned in working with him— her, I want to commission her.” That’s it. So I get a call and also from Daniel, I hate to divide these up because out of the blue from an agent saying, “Would you meet they teach the same thing— in a way, whenever I think of with Mr. Rostropovich?” And I was young, really young. Pierre Boulez I think of just one word, which is courage, He thought I was about forty, but I was actually 22 or coraggio, go for it, just do it. . . It just gives me inspiration something. In any case, I think the thing I learned from to just go for it. It’s the only way I can say it, and I mean him was about line. He said “your music has such a line that as the highest compliment to him that he affords in it, it’s always singing. It’s always knowing where it’s another composer that he would conduct another going; there’s always somebody singing behind it.” And composer’s work? I mean he doesn’t have to do that— I remember when he said that to me it just went up into and do it beautifully. my face like smoke because I sing all my music. And I was, like, “how did he know that?” Because it’s not, And for him I also like to write really fast music. In all the choral music, but it always has this river running through pieces for him I have some real mixed-meter [sings it, it’s always going somewhere. And I remember he examples], this kind of really fast, threes-and-twos, and said to me, “that’s such a strength of your music, you all off on the syncopation and he just lays it right down. have to write me an opera.” And I thought to myself, So I can’t write a piece for Boulez without doing one of that’s quite a statement, for him to believe in me to write these mixed-meter monsters which, maybe, other a whole opera. But then I thought back, and I thought. . .

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 5 my music has always retained that lyricism, that direction, And so we went to Bermuda for two days, from Boston, that river running through it, in large part because he gave which was a very simple trip. And I was a total wreck. I me the courage to. . . believe in it. He basically said to was on my cell phone the whole time, on my computer. I me, “that is a great strength of yours, you have this lyrical had my FedEx there to send back my proofreading to impulse, an expressionist impulse. Go with it.” He was the editor and my husband was like “OK, this is not also really supportive; nobody had ever heard of me and working.” So, I’m not very good at that. he was commissioning four big, high-profile works. But I like to work. I get up really early. . . on an average The other one who really helped me at that time was day I’m up by 4:00, certainly by 4:30. And I drink very Lawrence Leighton Smith. He played works with many strong black tea. And usually by 4:30 I’m working, and orchestras. . . I don’t teach until 11:00, or if I’m in a perfect world, I don’t teach until 12:00, depending on the students’ RP: Was he in Louisville then? schedules. So I can actually work from, say, 4:30 to 9:30, five solid hours in complete silence with nothing ART: Yes, and he recorded two pieces and he played else in my day. Although sometimes I do E-mails before, about four with Louisville and with the New York at 4:00 or 4:30, and then I do my day. And then I start Philharmonic and out in California at the Music Center of my other day. But in a way I kind of do the music first. the West and other places. . . And another conductor And then, now, I teach four hours, something like that. who really helped me was JoAnn Falletta. She did two or three of my works at that stage, and she’s done other RP: And in your teaching, are you doing any works since. Without all of that, I wouldn’t have been classroom, any academic work, or is it all just one-on- ready for the CSO job; I wouldn’t have been prepared. one with composition students?

RP: How has your work with the CSO, and your ART: It’s all one-on-one composition lessons, for teaching schedule, originally at Eastman and now at several reasons. One, that’s my favorite kind of teaching, Northwestern University’s School of Music affected your because it means the student is fully engaged. They’re life as a composer? Do you sleep? there, their soul is on the paper, they’ve written their string quartet or whatever it is, and I’m there. It’s just him or ART: The short answer is: I have no life. I haven’t her and me, that’s it. It’s very intense, very exhausting, been to the movies for twelve years. I have very little for both the student and the professor. If you really teach time to myself, just to be there and to read. I don’t have well, and you really get into the music and into the enough time to read. I do read a lot of poetry, but largely philosophy behind the music, and the students’ knowledge because it’s short, because I don’t have the time to read of the repertoire, and the tradition and the context in which a whole book! So it’s just extremely busy. I’m very they’re creating their piece and so on and so forth. . . I aware of every five minutes of my day. For example, don’t teach to make a bunch of Little Augustas. I mean I’m doing this for that hour; I’m doing that for that hour. all of my students are so different from each other. And It’s packed very tight, every day, 365 days a year. And every quarter I do a masterclass, usually right here in this I work 24/7; I don’t take any days off. I’m working all house. I have this huge table of food, and we sit around day Saturday, all day Sunday, half of Christmas. I just for like five or six hours, depending on how long it takes, work like a maniac. But I like it that way. If I have any and each of the students, in an intimate setting, presents time off I get nervous. Like, my husband said we should the work to each other. And at those masterclasses, if a go on a vacation once, and so we did. A two-day fly were on the wall, he would see how diverse the students vacation, because that was all I could dare to handle. are. . . there’s not a cookie-cutter in my studio at all. In

6 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 that way [teaching is] hard, because you really have to ton of pieces for chorus, voice, and orchestra: four of react, on you feet, with your ears— Boom!— to this, them, these sort of big, monumental 180-voice chorus or and then switch the channel, you’re off to somebody else. 100-voice chorus and orchestra [pieces]. And I’ve also But I like that much better than classroom teaching done a whole bunch of pieces for Chanticleer, the small group. because I’m so focused, so high-charged and so prepared that if I see someone half-sleeping or someone doodling RP: Several years ago, before the Chanticleer CD I’m just like “Well! What’re you doing! You know, we’re won a Grammy Award, I remember listening to NPR here, we have forty minutes together, I’m telling you about and the announcer introduced a group of works to be the most important composer I’ve ever met in my life, sung by Chanticleer, including a new work of yours, The and you’re sleeping and you’re doodling!” I can’t. . . I Rub of Love. And I thought, “This should be interesting.” don’t do that well. My only way to do classroom teaching I hadn’t heard any of your vocal works in a long time and would be to do six focused, dedicated students who want it was very striking: beautiful and unusual and, in its to be in the class not— what do you call it— a interplay of words and syllables and sounds, almost erotic. requirement. And also I think it would be easier if I taught Was this a new direction for you? a class, I mean in terms of my time. Just teach a class and get rid of a lot of students. It’s much harder and ART: Well, Chanticleer asked me to write them a short more time-consuming to teach all these private [students], piece— it was a commission— on any text I wanted. but I much prefer it. It just feels better. And I read it— it’s an anonymous Greek text— and I thought “that’s good.” It’s just fun, because you have the RP: Although you have composed for a wide variety idea of “Once while plaiting a wreath” [she sings a sinuous of media, would it be fair to say that the orchestra is your line from the piece:] “plaiting. . . ” It’s just like plaiting a preferred medium of musical expression, and if so, why? wreath. “I found Eros among the roses.” I picked him up “and dipped him in the wine. . . ” [she sings another, ART: Yeah, I’m in love with the orchestra, as you illustrative, phrase] “And dipped. . . him. . . in. . . the. . . know. Because [as an undergraduate composition wine. . . ” like dipping. I was just painting the thing. And student] at Northwestern I wrote what, eight orchestra “Now inside my lips he tickles me. . . ” so I had them all pieces, or something absurd [like that]? It was ridiculous. go [singing:] “tickle. . . tickle. . . tickle. . . ” It was just, So I’ve always been obsessed with this instrument, and when I read the poem, music. It wasn’t supposed to be I’m madly in love with it. And if I have the chances, I’m so sexy or anything. going to keep writing for it until I die. You know, it’s hard to get the chances. You need a commission, basically, to RP: Well, no, but it seems to me there is a bit of Eros get the chance to write orchestral music. But it really is in it, a bit of the erotic. But the thing that struck me is that my love. But I would have to say, also, there are a few it is one of the few really witty pieces of music from the other things I love. One is the string quartet, and I’ve end of the twentieth century that I’ve bumped into. . . It’s made a number of other quartets. The other is solo piano, almost like a little bit of Haydn or something. It’s not although I find it utterly terrifying, completely bewitching goofy, it’s not slapstick, but it has real wit and charm. and very difficult. I would rather write a forty-minute orchestral piece than a three-minute piano piece. But I ART: It’s funny with that piece, because Chanticleer love solo piano, even though I find it terrifying. did it, I don’t know how many times, like 500 times or something like that. All over the place, all over the world, And the other thing is vocal music. Because, actually, for two seasons they toured it. And they told me that minute for minute, if one were to look at my catalog, the they actually got requests for The Rub of Love. Because thing I’ve done the most of is vocal music. I’ve done a it’s so short, it’s two minutes. And I heard them do it

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 7 about four times, but every single time I heard it the community orchestra. The orchestral parts were written audience just started laughing, spontaneously. And I for community orchestra. It’s completely easy. You just thought, “That’s good.” It’s also funny because, in their need your solo violinist— and every town I know of in case, it’s twelve men singing about the difficulties of love. the world has a good violinist somewhere in it— and a decent harp. But the rest of the parts are totally. . . a RP: I’ve noticed that when you write for orchestra [good] high school could play it. And so that’s a piece, you write for rather large orchestra. Is that fair to say? which, really, anyone can do. But then you have something like Orbital Beacons, which is this massive orchestra ART: I think that’s fair to say. piece that’s really written for the world’s top 20 orchestras. You know, that kind of level. . . But I do RP: Are you just enjoying the extravagance of have the [pieces] for smaller orchestras in my catalog. working with these great international ensembles? Or when you hear your music, are you saying “I’ve got to RP: One aspect of your music that is almost universally have that tone color that only comes with three or four of applauded is its distinctive sonority, that combination of this woodwind” and that sort of thing? choice of timbre and the way the different lines interrelate through timbre. And yet, you seem to have a preference ART: Most of that was commission-driven. The for traditional instrumentation: no synthesizers, amplified Cleveland Orchestra said, “Here’s our roster;” the CSO instruments or computer generated or manipulated said, “Here’s our roster.” My tendency is to use [the sounds? Is this by intention or just happenstance? players in] the roster that is stapled to the contract. Usually the contract will list all the players in the ensemble, ART: The real answer to that is a bit further away from what their names are, who doubles what, and all that. I the question, which is: I can only write what I hear. Which like to have that, because I like to write exactly so that might sound like a really stupid thing to say, or even a right player is doubling the right instrument that they stupid thing to admit to. But I really do hear my music. specialize upon. And so while you’ll have these crunchy brass chords that are kind of like Messiaen on speed, or you might have But, for example, my piece called Spirit Musings, which Varèse crossed through with Big Band with a sort of is a little violin concerto, is just one-on-a-part. It’s like a curtain of Debussy or something like that— sonorities London Sinfonietta kind of thing. It’s a Mozart-sized. . . that that are crunchy and massive and bold and spirited— one of each [instrument]. And Ritual Incantations, my I really hear those. In other words, I’m not just saying I cello concerto, is also less than Mozart-sized. And Aurora, hear a solo clarinet play a solo clarinet [line], but I really [her piano concerto] is ones and twos [of each instrument], hear these conglomerative sounds. But in my head I don’t also Mozart-sized. And then my piece Daylight Divine hear synthesizers. They’re not in my “hard drive.” I for chorus and orchestra is also Mozart-sized. don’t hear computer-generated sound. There’s a long story that we probably don’t want to get into but, in short, So the way I tend to think of it, vis-à-vis my publisher, is I love computer-generated sound. And I’ve learned a that I really have something in every category. Like I have lot from computer-generated sound. the big huge monstrous orchestral piece that’s 30 minutes, then I’ve got the one that’s 20 minutes and I’ve got the And even some of my music sounds— you can tell I’ve one that’s 10 minutes and then I’ve got the little overture. heard electronic sounds. For example, in my work And then I’ve got the same for smaller orchestra. Trainwork, at the end, you have three flutes and piccolos at the top going [she sings a brief, manic bit that sounds For example Spirit Musings can be played by any remarkably like a reel-to-reel tape being spooled

8 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 backwards] like a noise at the top. And then you have notes in them, or maybe eight notes. And if you’re going this very clean thing underneath going [she sings a strongly to work with harmonies like that, that are rich and often accented, irregularly rhythmic passage of large ascending unresolved, so to speak, quarter tones would just throw and descending melodic intervals]. But this high piccolo it off for me because I want to hear exactly how those thing is actually coming straight out of electronic music. overtones are beating. So, no, I don’t [use microtones]. That would be a sound you might hear on a tape piece or I might in the future; I keep trying. a computer piece, but I much prefer to do it with flutes and piccolos and glockenspiels. So in a way I am affected RP: One of the major developments in the serious by computer-generated sound and I study it, I teach it, I music business over the past 20 or more years has been know it, I go to concerts, I respect it. I don’t want to sound the rise of historically informed performance practice and like I don’t— it’s actually very important to me— I just the restoration or re-creation of period instruments. don’t want to write it. The reason is because the mixtures of Recently some composers have begun to write new music combinations of what you can get out of an orchestra are for “old” instruments, Sir John Tavener being a notable infinite. It’s also extremely young. The orchestra as we example. Does this hold any interest for you? know it is about 100 years old, maybe 110 if you argue about when Strauss wrote what or when Mahler wrote ART: It does. I would love to write a piece for, like, what. But we’re talking a hundred and ten years at the five viols, or a viol ensemble and vocalists, very light- most. That is so young! So I don’t feel, myself, the need vibrato vocalists. I would like to do a little opera or to have computers and all of that in my orchestra. something. That totally interests me. I’m very interested in early music. If I had to be pressed to the wall with a RP: Along the same lines, is there— or will there be— pitchfork and spit out two [choices of favorite music], I a role for microtonal writing or unusual tunings (such as would say early music and contemporary music. . . Of in the music of Harry Partch) in your works? course I love Baroque music and Classical music and Romantic music but if you really pressed me to the wall, ART: That’s a great question. I’ve thought a lot, a lot, those would be the two I would pick. an enormous amount about quarter tones (and eighth tones and sixth tones and all of that). I’ve even tried to write So that would really interest me. There are two with them. I’ve even written whole sections [of pieces] commissions I’d like to have. One is an early music using quarter tones. But. . . I think the reason [I don’t use commission and the other is a Big Band, like a tight, hot, them] is— and this is probably a weakness or whatever— cookin’, Wynton Marsalis kind of tight Big Band. Those but because I hear pitch so clearly, I really hear it as an are two commissions that aren’t normally given in our “A,” I don’t hear it as an “A quarter-tone-flat,” I hear that field, or aren’t normally sought out, that really resonate “A.” My pitches are very clean and I don’t like to muddy with me, deeply. Especially if the early music ’em up. The thing is, in certain contexts, these quarter [commission] had voices, sort of like a cross between tones can be very beautiful. But you know, even if you Monteverdi sliced through with some Debussy and out don’t write them, for nuance—sometimes— you get them into a kind of Webern world. That’s what I would imagine anyway. I mean that positively, in the sense that someone might use a slight portamento— a tiny, slight, itty-bitty, teeny- writing if I had an early music ensemble. weeny portamento— that’s in there, you hear that tone a bit lower before you get to the tone [itself]. It’s in the style RP: Along those lines, have you ever had any interest of what we play and how we play. in improvisation or more-or-less controlled aleatoric techniques, such as— for example— in the music of Also, I tend to use harmonies that, let’s say, have six Lutoslawski? Would a Big Band piece call on the players

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 9 to improvise? Or is that also a factor of being able to happening structurally and formally and harmonically and hear what you’ve written? rhythmically and everything else and— on top of that— is a fantastic improviser and has been improvising for 30 ART: It’s interesting, because the main thing I tell my years, you don’t want anybody [improvising]. Because students— you cannot study with me and not know this (I a lot of these players— you know, I’ve seen a lot of have several Gusty Sayings, and this is one of them)— pieces where players are given [parts] to improvise— you must keep the improvisation in your composition and end up playing scales [she sings], because that’s what you must keep the composition in you improvisation. I tell they’re used to. And their improvisation just falls into them that day in and day out. For example, for myself— these patterns that they’ve already known. So, in general, and you have to take this with a grain of salt— I think unless you’re a professional improviser, players are not good everything I’ve written is completely improvised. Now improvisers. And anyway, I want to set my music, not in that doesn’t make any sense, because everything I write stone, but I want to set it as it is. So I keep the improvisation is so highly detailed and so completely notated. But I on the composition side and then I write it down. improvise it before I get there. So for example, in the piece I’m having played tomorrow night [Trainwork], RP: Fairly recently, Joan Tower was quoted to the there’s this one big section where every body is going [she effect that she wasn’t going to write orchestra pieces sings a fast, violent, irregularly rhythmic passage], I would anymore because she put all that time and energy and have improvised it a lot [she sings several distinctly different love into this big thing that is an orchestra piece, and it versions of the passage]. And I’d say “no, that’s no would get its handful of first performances and hardly good. . . ” and I’d try all the different [versions] and say, ever a second and perhaps never a third or fourth. How “that’s the one.” I could sing it— like, in fifty years I could do you deal with that? Is that the case for your music? sing it— because I’ve internalized it so much. I could dance it, tap it, feel it. So in that sense it really is improvised. ART: I totally admire and respect Joan, and I completely Because I want my music to sound alive. Like, that next understand her statement, a hundred percent. I am on note, right there? [Snaps her fingers] That was an her side with that; I totally understand. The problem for emergency! It had to be that note! Boom, keep going! me is that I’m so in love with the orchestra that I’m just Next note, what was the next note? That’s the right note! going to keep making these things. And I hope that That kind of feeling you have in jazz. I don’t want my someone, somewhere along the road will say, “Who’s music to be like [she speaks in a very proper, “academic” that Augusta Read Thomas writing all that orchestral stuff? tone], “well, now lets see, should I make it a ‘G’ or shall Let’s check it out.” I have this blind optimism. My works I have an ‘F’?” My music doesn’t sound that way. are not— you know, I get a first performance and maybe a second and that’s it. I’m in the same boat she is. But And so, in that sense, I think my music is highly my career— career, that’s a terrible word— has been improvisatory. If anyone watched me on video, one of premieres. For example, I tend to be offered a lot composing, they would learn that. So that’s the real of commissions, in general. So what happens is that answer. But do I want to let my players improvise in my people will want to commission me. They don’t want to piece, where I would say, “alright, they’re playing and play an old piece. They want a new one. Which in a you do whatever you want from bar 30 to 90?” Never! way is good because I then have this flood of commissions And the reason is this. One, I know what I want to and I can write all these pieces. But on the other hand, write. I mean I already have something in my head. Why sometimes you wish to say “Why don’t you play one of should I just leave it up to chance? And two, with all due my old ones, and then we can do a new one.” Let the respect, unless you have a player that’s really, really solidly orchestra get used to my language, know what I’m doing. understanding the context of the music, and what’s See if you still want to commission me. . . Otherwise, it

10 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 puts me on this treadmill to keep writing, keep writing, RP: It is now, in 2002, almost 90 years since the keep writing. When actually some of the pieces I’ve premiere of Stravinsky’s Sacre du Printemps and written are pretty darn good, but they’ll never be played Schoenberg’s Pierrot Lunaire, and many ensembles and again. It— let me say what I’m trying to say— it takes a their audiences still find it technically (and financially!) lot of courage to get up every day and write another one difficult to perform and hear these works and others from and then another one and another one when people won’t the— I can’t resist— past century. With this in mind, play the old ones. . . It’s just what Joan is saying. . . what are your thoughts on programming? In a season— or over several seasons— how does one balance You know, not getting a second or a third performance is established masterworks from the period before, say, frustrating but— from a composer’s point of view— it’s 1900, with the huge and yet still spottily explored even more frustrating when you do get a performance repertoire of the 20th century, all the while maintaining a and it’s not recorded. For example, tomorrow night the commitment to truly new music and young (and not so CSO will premiere my new piece Trainwork, and there young?) composers? In programming works by living will not be a recording. They will play it once and then, composers, how would you balance such considerations poof, it’s done. So, when a conductor calls my publisher as whether the composer is already well known and and asks for information on my recent works, there will regarded (e.g. Ligeti, Carter) or younger and less not be a recording of Trainwork to send along with the established? How much should other factors— for score and that will affect its possibilities for future example, nationality or ethnicity— factor into the decision? performances. But anyway, not getting performances is one thing, but not getting tapes is worse. ART: We have to keep in mind several things: the first is the importance of continuity. What is a musical RP: Bands and wind ensembles are often the most tradition? Is it important that composers preserve a prominent “new music” ensembles on our campuses and musical tradition? Why? Why not? How do we know they have a voracious appetite for serious new works. My if a new composition stems from a well-defined tradition? colleagues in the band world tell me that many leading And then there is the importance of innovation and the composers either aren’t interested in composing for this creative artist’s responsibility. Is it important that medium or, when they do, the results are seldom as composers break away from musical traditions? How interesting as the same composer’s orchestral works. What can composers forge lasting paths in new directions? are your thoughts on the medium, and when can we expect Should artists feel an obligation to be original? How do another substantial new wind ensemble work from you? you define the word original?

ART: Composing for wind ensemble and band is something Thirdly, there is the “profession’s” responsibility: How to which I am naturally attracted, in part because I grew up can we, as members of the profession, be responsible playing in one. In the past, I have composed a few band and responsive to the music of our time? How can other works. My piece magneticfireflies was a wonderful members of the profession (recording companies, artistic experience for me since it was commissioned by 25 high school administrators, marketing specialists, teachers, orchestras, bands, all of whom played it in the first year. This work has Universities, agents, publishers, etc.) support and foster also been played by college bands, for which I am grateful. It excellence for the music of our time? And we must is a six-minute zinger! Lots of brass, fluttertongueing, and consider the art of listening. How do we listen to the grace notes. Needless to say, I felt deeply honored for that music of our time? Do we listen to new music in the commission. Jack Delaney and the Southern Methodist same way that we listen to old music? Do the following University Wind Ensemble have commissioned me for a new three items affect audience reactions: preparation, work that I will compose this year. willingness to suspend preferences or prejudices, and the

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 11 environment or context in which the music is being played? this is no easy challenge. But we musicians are obligated to seek and maintain this balance: To keep the equilibrium The history of Western art music leaves us in no doubt between self esteem and self control; to break silence that it has changed over the centuries, but it has remained with sound; to love solitude as much as public acclaim; unaffected in its unyielding urge to uphold utopian— to know solemnity from the scintillating; to recognize what idealistic— sanguine, visionary values. We cannot justify is seductive and what is sacred; to have a sensibility such simplistic notions that all the music of Bach is better (which is— in itself— responsiveness) and yet remain than the music of Beethoven, Brahms, Bartôk, Berio, or Boulez. No one composer, style, school of thought and single-minded; to trust sensation yet reject the sensational; practice, or historical period, is given a monopoly of to search the soul— but seize the moment. All these we music’s truths. Music’s eternal quality is its capacity for are required to place at the service of music in order that change, transformation and renewal. With this in mind, it reveals its secrets. we all as artists and audience members and orchestra supporters must be nourished by our inheritance— the In contrast to this— too often I see composers taking a repertoire— but have the confidence and courage to different path: We live in a society in which “noise” is believe in music of our own time. As musicians and music lovers we are guardians of an unsurpassed paramount. A culture, which is full of surface Pop and legacy— but remember that there would be no old music commercial pressures. Often composers get lazy/ to perform if there had never been any new music. sentimental/commercial/sell-out/make-a-buck/cute-title/ trendy-dedication/simple-minded solutions. There I think we have to strive to understand and master appears to be a tendency to find a gimmick to attract music’s challenge here and now, today and tomorrow. media attention rather than to struggle or grope through Be of— and embrace— the music of our own time, the blind alleys of the creative process. confident that great music will remain unfaltering in its truths. I am sure you have had this experience listening What is wonderful about USA culture is that it has such a to classical music or jazz, etc. Music has the capacity wide spectrum ranging from the banal to the profound. I to transport any willing listener or performer from like this, but we must be able to recognize the difference. mundane concerns and parochial thought into a magical I want to state clearly that I am completely open-minded. realm of experience, which is powerful, curious, and I accept and love and crave all influences: jazz, rock, mysterious. Whence comes this magic?. . . Such magic pop, world musics, etc., as long as they are of quality. I is the result of mastery, mastery of musical meaning and feel strongly that we should not dummy down this great technical skills born of dedicated routine and intelligent art simply because we live in a culture which is Pop and practice. Mastery of self— in the sense that motivation commercial—microwave TV dinner, new and improved and ambition are tempered by modesty— that manner toothpaste, a toothbrush that tells you when it needs and magnanimity are essential ingredients in the creation replacing, etc. We need to recognize what is generic and and performance (which is the recreation) of music. Then not original, superficial rather than profound, transient music becomes magical and transcends otherwise rather than permanent. limiting boundaries of experience. RP: What role should the local composer play in the Yes, music is a profession but it is more than that. Music life of an ensemble? Should an ensemble cultivate the is a way of life, a way of being in the world and a model local composer? for behavior. . . As a composer I know the stamina we musicians need to pursue music. . . As musicians, we ART: I think the local composer should have an essential must try to be self-reliant without being self-satisfied, and role in the life of an ensemble, but only if he or she is good.

12 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 If he or she is good, then absolutely, but not to the stake and I like my players to perform with this spirit. Have exclusion of all other new music. There has to be balance. an excellent technical command of the music and then play it from the heart like a solo cadenza! I think quality is the most important thing of all. For me, potentially the most interesting things in life are the things RP: We’ve already talked a bit about your music for I do not yet know. Humans have an insatiable curiosity voices— I don’t think I had realized how many vocal and as audience members we have to let interest take works you have composed— and recently you seem to over in the effort to understand a new work. We have to be writing more works for voice or voices, sometimes have open ears, an open mind, and an open heart. We without accompaniment, and sometimes with orchestra. must also have a vision for new sounds, vision for 2100, Could you talk a bit about how you approach writing for 2200. The tradition is one of change. We are always led the voice and how you choose your texts? to new things. No one can own music and maintain it in a preferred manner. It is greater than all of us and it will ART: Yes. I love writing for the voice. I find it incredibly change whether we want it to or not. We should be glad compelling and natural and beautiful and elegant and about this and celebrate it. Keeping quality as number sensuous. I just love the human voice, and any piece in one, there is enough excellent new music for us to program which I can use a voice: I’m happy. I’m always asking for a long time. for voices. People will say, “Can you write a string quartet?” [And I say] “Yeah, can I add a voice?” “Will RP: Stravinsky was once famously quoted as saying you write a this?” “Yes, can I add a voice?” Or “you “my music doesn’t need interpreters, it needs executants.” can write any piece you want,” and I’ll have a voice. What qualities do you value most in a performer or conductor of your music? What sort of balance between The texts, I choose by their beauty and by the sound of “execution” and “interpretation” do you desire in your [the words]. An example would be my piece Daylight ideal conductor/performer? Divine, for chorus, solo soprano, and orchestra, which is based on the texts of Gerard Manly Hopkins. I’m ART: All composers like and desperately need completely in love with Gerard Manly Hopkins, everything committed performances and recordings of their music. he ever wrote, and it so resonates with my soul. So, for Without such, it is entirely difficult to improve as an artist example, that piece is really about the sound of the words and makes a publisher’s promotion of the music tricky and the meaning of the words, both. . . “I caught this and problematical. morning morning’s minion, dappled dawn drawn One always wants plenty of rehearsal time, of course. falcon. . . ” It’s just so beautiful. . . I just love the sound of Hopkins so much. With Hopkins I can just start For my music, I like dazzling, passionate performances. writing music.

My favorite moment in any piece of music is the moment The piece I’m doing right now, it’s on my desk, is called of maximum risk and striving. Whether the venture is In My Sky at Twilight, which is a beautiful text by tiny or large, loud or soft, fragile or strong, passionate, Neruda. “You are taken in the nets of my music, my erratic, ordinary or eccentric! Maybe another way to love, and my nets of music are as wide as the sky. . . ” It say this is the moment of exquisite humanity and raw soul. goes on from there. It just so captured my attention. All art that I cherish has an element of love and recklessness These songs I’m working on right now are songs of love and desperation. I like music that is alive and jumps off the and passion and the words— for example the first words page and out of the instrument as if something big is at are “Ablaze with desire.” They’re so open sounding; my

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 13 radar goes right for it. A beautiful poem by Cummings, But Ligeia, you’ve brought up a very soft spot. Because somewhere i have never traveled, you’ve got to read the one piece I might un-withdraw, don’t tell anybody, is that poem! Ligeia. Because it had five full productions, it won the Orpheus Prize, and Bernard— that’s my husband— told I do read a lot of poetry, as I’ve said, and I also have a me “That’s your best piece. You cannot, it’s impossible massive amount, like fifty, tapes and CDs of poets reading to withdraw.” But I have withdrawn it. What I want to their poems. Whenever I go to a bookstore I go straight do with that is a chamber opera. It only needs 29 players to the books on tape and I buy all of the poets on tape total: 12 singers and 17 musicians. It’s like a Benjamin that I don’t yet have. Unfortunately, most of the ones Britten church opera. So what I want to do is at some that are out, I’ve got. There aren’t that many out. I’ve point get a commission from one of the smaller opera Sylvia Plath, Wallace Stevens, all these different poets houses or a summer festival or somebody who could do reading their own poems. And I know a lot of poems by a church opera and revise it a little bit. And then it would the sound of the poems. I’ve really got to tell you this be 1991: written, 2003: revised. It would be the same one; it’s so beautiful. The Wallace Stevens The Idea of piece, but I would re-do it. Order at Key West: “She sang beyond the genius of the sea. The water never formed, to mind or voice, like a RP: Your website tells us you are busy on another body, holy body. . . ” It’s the way it sounds that I opera, with the same librettist, Leslie Dunton-Downers, remember; it’s not just the meaning. I’m not one of these that you worked with on Ligeia. Can you tell us anything people that just takes a bunch of ugly words, like [she about Dream in the Cave of Eros? Who is it for? When affects a stereotypically flat, nasal Midwestern accent]: is it due? “Then there was a hat on the table, and the table was made of glass and there was water on it.” Those words, ART: It has no commission. The libretto is completely I don’t want to set them. But you give me, like, “Ablaze written and I’ve written three scenes of it. It’s a massive; with desire,” and fine, those words are great. So, I’m it’s a Metropolitan Opera kind of thing. Or Lyric Opera very particular about the sound. of Chicago, or San Francisco Opera would be a great place for it. It’s a big, two act, whole evening, large RP: Speaking of vocal writing, I know you have written orchestra, chorus, counter-tenor, soloists, the whole nine at least two operas, Ligeia—conducted by yards. It’s a dream mission. I may have to just write it. Rostropovich— and from your student days Psychles. It’s like Wozzeck or Lulu, it’s just a Big Thing. Have both been withdrawn from your works list? RP: On an original story? ART: Yes. When I moved my catalog to G. Schirmer, which is now about two years ago, I withdrew ninety-five ART: Yes. Leslie Dunton-Downers has written it. It’s percent of what I had ever written. That was my decision. loosely based on a story of Georges Bataille. It’s got a lot Publishers, just in general want. . . more is better. The of mediaeval-isms about it. It’s dark, mediaeval, a lot of more flavors you have the better. But I really wanted to chant, abstract, hysterically funny at times, so on and so withdraw, withdraw, withdraw and get my catalog down forth. I really, really want to do it, but at this point it may to twenty-five pieces that I love. That I think that if any be 2011 before I even start to do it. And it’ll probably be conductor calls up and says “give us an Augusta Read one of those things I write and secretly leave under my Thomas piece,” there’s only like twenty-five of them, but bed and die and hope that someone comes and digs it out I’ve selected those. It saves somebody doing all this from under my bed. I’ll leave a note somewhere: “The research; I mean it’s already been pared down. opera is done. Would someone please read it?”

14 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 RP: Your next premiere [June 29, 2002] will be volume, and I have all the brass like this [she sings a Trainwork to be performed by the CSO and Christoph series of loud, irregularly syncopated, fanfare-like Eschenbach at the orchestra’s summer home at the Ravinia outbursts], and if the train comes through there it will be Festival. Ravinia was once described by Sir Thomas great! I like it. I’m just sad that I won’t get a tape. Beecham as “the world’s only train station with a first- That’s really hard. I want to say that especially, because class resident orchestra,” or words to that effect. Can people don’t think about, they don’t get it. “Why would we assume this has had an influence on your new work? a composer need a tape?” How will I get a second Is that where Trainwork comes from, and what sort of performance of Trainwork? Because if you, as a piece is it? conductor, wanted to play it you’d say “Hey! You got a tape?” Of course you would. And I’d say, “No, I never ART: What happened is, in 1904 they put the got a tape.” So it’s such a bummer. But it’ll be good. [commuter] train line in and they put Ravinia up there [at the end of the line] to attract people to ride the train. RP: The titles of your works, and the texts of your What ended up happening, of course, is that Ravinia is vocal music, often suggest a poetic or ecstatic vision of wildly successful and the train is bankrupt or something. our world and the universe we inhabit. You have also It’s completely the tail wagging the dog. In any case, in composed a few reflective or contemplative pieces, for 1904 the train line went in and Ravinia Park went up. In example Song in Sorrow for the Cleveland Orchestra in 2000-2004, [Ravinia Executive Director] Welz Kauffman commemoration of the 30th anniversary of the Kent State had the great idea of commissioning four train works, tragedy. In these uncertain times after the events of one each year. Four works about the train, it could be September 11, 2001, do you find yourself drawn to anything, and they’re all going to be by Chicago composers. respond musically, or are you hesitant, or. . . ?

The first one was Ricardo Lorenz. [My] commission was ART: One thing I would say is that you are exactly right, to write a ten-minute piece that featured the solo flute, that my titles and texts are about things spiritual and things for the Chicago Symphony Orchestra that had anything ecstatic. Like you have a lot of spiritual texts and lot of to do with a train. It could be anything. And what I texts about the moon, the sun and orbits and planets. decided to do in this instance was to write a real piece, So it’s been running through my music all the time, those not like a summer ditty— some silly old thing that would two things. And in a way spirituality and, like, the cosmos only be played at Ravinia— but to write a real piece with totally relate to me. So, in a way, it’s really one thing, a strong point of view. And I was looking around and I one strand. found this word “trainwork,” which is a nineteenth-century word, which, you may know, means things like lace. Like Vis-à-vis 9-11: the piece I did for the Cleveland very intricate trainwork, another example of which would Orchestra in 1999, Song in Sorrow, I was asked to write be inside a watch. If you had a beautiful Swiss watch, a piece to commemorate the Kent State shootings and with all the gears, one would say, “Wow, your watch has the tragedy that happened and the Viet Nam war. But I beautiful trainwork. . . ” So I thought that’s perfect, purposely called it Song is Sorrow, and I purposely made because my music has all these little gears that are fitting it a piece the texts for which are global. I mean it could into each other and playing off one another and rotating be about the Holocaust, it could be about some tragedy around and very intricate. Exactly like a trainwork-lacy- in 2000 B.C., it could be about 9-11. It’s a Song in French kind of a way. And at the same time it could be Sorrow, because I wanted the piece to have this: that kind of a pun, you know, Train Work. But the piece gets tragedy has similarities, and I wanted there to be this deep going and at the end, if the [real] locomotive comes human understanding that peace is important, love is through, it’ll have a run for its money: the CSO at full important, these big themes. Rather than, “Oh, Viet Nam

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 15 was terrible,” and all the Viet Nam things. So for that piece I picked forty texts, by all different poets, from Anonymous to a Vietnamese poet, to women, young people, old people, all fairly well known texts and all with this beautiful sound that I was talking about earlier. So in a way, I think that is, for me, my 9-11 piece because it’s a big Song in Sorrow. I don’t have this reflex to come out and write my 9-11 whatever. Let me put it this way: Everything I write comes from direct inspiration, like the Holocaust, 9-11, like my father dying, like hearing La Mer, like hearing Jeux, like hearing rock music. It all goes in. All this stuff goes in and what comes out is like a totally digested version. I don’t feel I have to wear something on my sleeve. I don’t want to call attention to my— I don’t want to write “CNN music”— like, OK, my next piece is going to be called Homage to Monica Lewinsky, and the next one will be about some disease in Europe. I think a lot of composers do that. There’s a lot of what I would call CNN titles, and they do not resonate with me for my music. I don’t say anyone else shouldn’t do it, but it’s not digested enough. For me it’s way too opportunistic. I want everything to be much more centered, and gracious and spiritual. It’s much more interesting to me that way. I don’t really want to call attention to myself. Also, my titles, you never know what they are. What really is a “Ritual Incantation?” What really is a “Spirit Musing?” What is “Orbital Beacons?” What are the “. . . words of the sea. . . ?” It’s not very obvious. They’re much more, like. . . “Chanting to Paradise.”

RP: Do you ever feel impelled to write a genre piece? That, instead of having an ecstatic or evocative or spiritual connotation, it’s you and “Symphony No. 1,” or “Sonata something or other?” I think those are titles you’ve pretty much avoided along the way.

ART: Yeah, I have. I don’t even have subtitles. So, like, Meditation, you have to figure out that it’s a trombone concerto. But I figure if anyone wants to play my music, they can read the instrumentation. In other words, it doesn’t have to say “Meditation”— comma— “a trombone concerto.” I usually don’t do subtitles, but my publisher has added some subtitles, like “a cello concerto,” “a flute concerto,” whatever: the genres as a subtitle. In a perfect world I just like my things to be like “Chanting to Paradise,” “Ritual Incantations,” “Spirit Musings,” “Aurora.” Just floating like words. You could even make a poem out of the titles. And people could look up what [each] is. So I probably won’t do like Symphony 1 or 2 or 3, and I don’t have opus numbers, either, just the titles.

RP: Any final thoughts for our readers?

ART: I guess I would say something like: Bravo to those of us who understand that old music needs new music and new music needs old music. . .

And I would say the form in a piece must be the best reaction to the objects calling it into being. If it’s a good composition, the form of it— ABA, or rondo form, or scattered form, or interrupted form, or whatever it would be— has to be the best reaction to the music that’s bubbling up in it. And as a conductor, if you can see what the objects are that are calling it into being, then the form is clear. But you have to start with the objects. I don’t know if that makes any sense, but see what’s bubbling at the molecular level that’s putting up a whole section, or piece.

And the other thing is: Play the music of your time. Don’t be afraid of anything in life. Have courage, take risks, and do it all with love! ***** Reed Perkins is currently Assistant Conductor of the Lafayette Symphony Orchestra (IN). Previously, he was the Music Director and Conductor of the Peninsula Youth Orchestra (VA), and a Lecturer in Music at the College of William and Mary(VA). He has held conducting positions with orchestras and theater companies in Illinois, Iowa, Virginia and Wisconsin. He has conducted a number of works by Augusta Read Thomas since they first met at Northwestern University in the early 1980s.

16 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Rachmaninoff’s First Symphony: Emotional Crisis and Genius Interred

By Emanuel E. Garcia, MD

I. INTRODUCTION the summer of 1900 when, as a result of the ministrations of hyponotherapist Nikolai Dahl, he regained his desire On the evening of March 15, 1897 at the Hall of the to create. The grateful musician dedicated his second Nobility in St. Petersburg, Rachmaninoff’s First piano concerto to Dr. Dahl and went on to compose the Symphony was given its premiere. Tchaikovsky’s works with which the world is now familiar, to distinguish untimely death in 1893 had left the field of composition himself as a conductor, and also to astonish audiences as open for Russia’s emerging musical stars but on this a magnificent pianist. He achieved a success, as Virgil night, so fateful for the Moscow-trained Rachmaninoff, Thomson writes, “that musicians seldom experience,” one disaster struck. In a letter to friend Boris Asafiev many that “came to him in his lifetime, moreover, and through years later, he wrote, “I felt like a man who had the practice of three separate musical branches” (quoted suffered a stroke and for a long time had lost the use in Seroff, ix). of his head and hands.” (April 17, 1917, quoted in Bertensson and Leyda, 74). A second performance of his First Symphony in D Minor never occurred during Rachmaninoff’s lifetime. He By all accounts the performance itself was calamitous. refused even to publish the score (for which in fact he Glazunov, the conductor, was rumored to have been had received payment, sight unseen, by Gutheil). Thus, drunk; but drunk or not, he was a study in apathy. The at the turn of the century, a time of tremendous cultural symphony had been inadequately rehearsed, and the ferment throughout Europe and Russia, the first major combination of disinterest and ineptitude had a predictable symphonic work of a man whose musical talents rivaled effect upon the audience, which responded with Mozart’s remained unknown and unavailable. indignation and displeasure. I believe that Rachmaninoff’s First Symphony was a work What was decidedly not anticipated was the effect of of genius– youthful genius, genius hardly formed, incipient this fateful event on the composer. genius, but genius nonetheless– whose novel directions, if pursued, might have established a style of composition Rachmaninoff could not even bring himself to enter the equal in importance to those established by Debussy/ auditorium proper but instead sat huddled on the stairs Ravel, Schoenberg/Berg, Stravinsky, Ives, and Copland. of the fire escape. In the months between the completion I believe furthermore that Rachmaninoff’s emotional of his composition and its performance, he had held high collapse in the wake of the symphony’s premiere hopes for the symphony, which he believed had opened represented a ‘failure of nerve’ that kept him from new musical paths. Now he was struck viscerally by its stepping onto the threshold of compositional greatness. wretched discords and fled into the darkened streets of In the following pages I will attempt to reconstruct, in St. Petersburg. accordance with what I shall call the ‘principle of interpretive parsimony,’ the psychological conflicts He returned to Moscow depressed, demoralized, and underlying Rachmaninoff’s crisis and to consider the full of doubts. He was utterly unable to compose until consequences of his recovery.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 17 II. BACKGROUND TO THE CRISIS Under the influence of his grandmother, Rachmaninoff was exposed to church music, and developed an intense Sergei Rachmaninoff was born on April 1, 1873; his father interest and response to it: after hearing a service he would Vassily was a captain of the Cavalry Guards and his return home and reproduce what he had heard on the mother Lyoubov Boutakova the daughter of a general. piano, to be rewarded by his delighted grandmother. At his mother’s instigation Rachmaninoff began piano lessons at age four. Many of his childhood recollections, During the diphtheria epidemic of 1885, which he and both good and bad, punishments and rewards, were his brothers survived, he lost his second sister. It was connected with music. When the naughty tot was placed about this time his mother turned to a famous cousin, the under the piano for his misdeeds: a most humiliating form pianist Alexander Siloti, for advice about her talented son, of discipline. His paternal grandfather was a highly who, she discovered, was shirking his obligations at accomplished amateur musician who practiced his school. Siloti recommended that he study with Nikolai ‘hobby’ assiduously, devoting at least four or five hours Sverev in Moscow. to daily exercises till his life’s end. Before this momentous change, however, Rachmaninoff’s Vassily, like many a Russian aristocrat, had dissipated grandmother purchased an estate solely for the purpose away the family estate, and in 1882 the family was forced of allowing her grandchild a summer idyll in advance of to move to St. Petersburg. Sergei’s parents separated undertaking the rigors of musical apprenticeship in and the young boy remained with his mother, the Moscow. According to Seroff, she was “the only person disciplinarian of the household. Not surprisingly who, during his childhood, had offered him nothing but Rachmaninoff professes to have had more affection for love and tenderness” (10). his father than for his mother. In St. Petersburg he received a scholarship for studies at the famous Conservatoire. From 1885 until 1889 Rachmaninoff lived with Sverev, a He reported with much disappointment that during this stern but colorful figure who supervised his charges with time his mother longed for her absent husband and took well-intentioned discipline, and who introduced them to little interest in her children; her attitude towards them the privileges of the high Moscow cultural life. Practice was distant and cool. Seroff (5) ominously reports that began at 6:00 A.M.; four-hand arrangements of “except for one or two remarks in Sergei’s letters written symphonies instilled a sound knowledge of musical during his early twenties, there is no reference to her in fundamentals, and attendance at concerts and the theatre his entire correspondence.” Rachmaninoff seemed to was routine. Sundays at Sverev’s allowed Rachmaninoff remember her chiefly by her motto “a time for everything,” to meet every eminent Russian musical figure of the time: which he took to heart and applied in the careful planning Rubinstein, Taneyev, Arensky, Safonov and, most of his daily life as a mature man. importantly, the great Tchaikovsky. Exposure to Anton Rubinstein’s series of historical concerts, during which Fortunately his maternal grandmother lavished her love the evolution of piano composition and performance was upon him. The young boy soon developed into a little brilliantly displayed, impressed Sergei deeply. And the rogue: he shirked his lessons, relied on his talent alone personal introduction to Tchaikovsky was “the first and for spontaneous inspiration, and indulged himself in possibly the deciding success in my life” (Rachmaninoff, recklessly youthful and independent behaviors, e.g., quoted in Bertensson and Leyda, 14). jumping on and off running trams during winter– activities which had their value in the development of character. Sverev’s rule, however, was a strict one. He is reputed His sister Helena, who was five years older than he and to have beaten his pupils (at the time Maksimov and ‘gifted with a glorious voice,’ introduced him to the music Presman shared the same flat with Rachmaninoff) and to of Tchaikovsky and was responsible for her brother’s have ruthlessly suppressed any boastful tendencies in his most profound musical impressions of childhood. ‘cubs.’ Sverev’s homosexual proclivities were also well- Tragically, she died at age 18 from pernicious anemia, a known, and his establishment was jocularly referred to death that represented a great loss for the young boy. as a harem. For Rachmaninoff he inculcated much-

18 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 needed discipline and helped to transform the rough talent cherished award, the Great Gold Medal (only the third into a tremendously accomplished musician. Sverev’s pupil in the conservatory’s history), and his old mentor interest, however, lay in performance, not composition. Sverev effected a rapprochement with his former pupil with a magnanimous gift of a timepiece, one which Rachmaninoff also undertook studies at the Moscow Rachmaninoff carried throughout his lifetime. Conservatoire where he became a favorite of the composer Arensky, who taught harmony. He was much Aleko, the opera Rachmaninoff composed for graduation motivated by the marks he received from this teacher, with astonishing speed and orchestral sophistication, being particularly pleased with the ‘excellents’ he obtained pleased Tchaikovsky immensely “for in it he recognized for solving harmonic problems in ten little songs. his own influence to a much higher degree than in any Tchaikovsky, however, was his idol, and the 13-year- other work written at that time by young composers,” old surprised the great man with an extraordinary (Riesemann, 83). It is probable that Tchaikovsky himself arrangement for two pianos of the newly-composed arranged for its premiere in 1893, at the conclusion of Manfred Symphony. which the celebrated composer bestowed his imprimatur by leading the house in applause. The influential Moscow In the academic year 1886-87 Rachmaninoff finished the critic Kashkin advised his readers to “expect much from lower division of piano study at the conservatory, and then this young composer in [the] future” (Norris 2001, 709). entered the upper track which led to a degree in composition: To Rachmaninoff’s heartfelt delight and honor, this after Tchaikovsky had given him a “5” with four plus Tchaikovsky even proposed that Aleko and his own marks in response to a performance of original songs at opera Yolanthe share a program in the future. examination. At some point during his studies, he formed the goal of attaining the ‘Great Gold Medal’ at the Aleko thus stands as Rachmaninoff’s first work of conservatory, an exceptional and rare accomplishment (about significance, and its subject matter bears note. The opera, which we will have more to say later). based on Pushkin’s poem The Gypsies, tells the story of an outsider to a gypsy camp, Aleko, who has become It is not surprising, then, that Sergei, after a row, eventually the lover of Zemfira. The gypsy tires of him and takes on broke with Sverev, and at age 16 was taken in by his a lover from her own tribe. Aleko exacts revenge by relatives, the Satins. Accounts differ as to the stimulus murdering the couple and is then banished from the camp for the rupture with Sverev: it appears that Rachmaninoff onto the steppe, to resume a solitary existence. The had requested his own practice room with piano in order libretto was drafted by Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, to compose (the pianos were regularly shared by his co-founder with Stanislavsky of the Moscow Art Theatre. colleagues), and that Sverev reacted by summarily Rachmaninoff wrote to his cousin, Natalya Skalon, that dismissing him from his home and refusing to speak to the libretto’s subject was ‘marvellous’ (Martyn, 58). It him. Presman avers that composition was the issue is probable that the young Rachmaninoff’s excited (Norris 1994, 6), while the music critic Sakhnovsky response to the content of the assigned libretto played a maintained that the break centered on Sverev’s role in his furiously enthusiastic and breathtakingly quick homosexuality (Seroff, 31-32). Sverev may actually have composition; i.e., that certain elements of the story served attempted to strike Rachmaninoff, who refused to allow as unconscious catalysts. himself to be subjected to physical abuse any longer (Bertensson and Leyda, 20). III. THE FIRST SYMPHONY

Whatever the reasons, Rachmaninoff’s display of Flush with enthusiasm and creativity, Rachmaninoff independence appeared to have been beneficial. His composed prolifically during the summer of 1893: a studies at the conservatory went exceedingly well, and fantasia for two pianos, an orchestral Fantasia (The he observes that, “I wrote with great ease, and Rock), two pieces for violin and a sacred concerto. composition did not cost me the slightest effort,” Tchaikovsky was thoroughly supportive. There is a telling (Riesemann, 76). He eventually did receive his long- passage, however, which hints at the inevitable incipient

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 19 rivalry. At the home of his former teacher, Taneyev, dedicated. He began composition on his magnum opus Rachmaninoff saw Tchaikovsky who greeted him with in January of 1895 and completed it by September. He words of praise. He said: had poured himself wholeheartedly into the work and for the next two years his eagerness to have it performed ‘Well, Sergei, what do I hear? You have already distracted him from any further serious composition. started to write ‘masterpieces’! Congratulations, congratulations.’ Rachmaninoff’s own words (as reported by Riesemann1) He showed great interest in all that had about this singular event deserve to be quoted at length: happened during the previous summer, and when he heard how much Rachmaninoff had The circumstances attending the performance written in these three months, he wrung his of my first Symphony affected me very deeply hands in mock despair and exclaimed: and had a decisive influence on my later development. I imagined that there was ‘And I, miserable wretch, have only written one nothing I could not do and had great hopes Symphony!’ He was referring to the “Pathetique,” for my future. It was in the confidence bred of his last composition (Riesemann, 91). this feeling that I composed my First Symphony in D minor, and the ease with which The young composer was, as it were, in Heaven; he I worked encouraged my pride and self-esteem. planned to dedicate his piano fantasia to Tchaikovsky, I had a very high opinion of my work, which was built up on themes taken from the whom he idolized, and the latter, who would soon embark Oktoechos– the choir book with the chants of on an extended concert tour as conductor, promised to the Russian Church Service– in all its eight include The Rock at all his performances. Heaven, keys. The joy of creating carried me away. I however, was not to last. In November of 1893 was convinced that here I had discovered and Tchaikovsky died unexpectedly of cholera. opened up entirely new paths in music. S. I. Taneyev, to whom I played the work, was not at all pleased with it. But this failure did not The death of his artistic mentor had grave practical daunt my arrogance. I traveled to St. consequences: at one blow he had been deprived of his Petersburg filled with the highest anticipations, greatest musical supporter, as well as a paternal friend. after having sold the work to Gutheil, who, As commonly transpires in the lives of the talented, grief without a murmur and without having either heard or seen it, paid five hundred rubles for it. was turned to creativity and, in Tchaikovsky’s memory, Rachmaninoff composed his Trio Elegiaque in D minor I do not wish to belittle the terrible failure of for piano, violin, and cello. The title itself was a reference my Symphony in St. Petersburg. According to Tchaikovsky’s own memorial trio for Nikolai to my present conviction this fate was not Rubinstein, the first movement of which was marked undeserved. It is true that the performance was beneath contempt and the work in parts “‘Pezzo Elegiaco,’ in memory of a great artist.” unrecognizable, but, apart from this, its deficiencies were revealed to me with a Rachmaninoff then turned to the practical aspects of dreadful distinctness even during the first supporting himself by giving piano lessons. He was an rehearsal. Something within me snapped. All my self-confidence broke down, and the artistic execrable teacher: “merely to glance at him during a lesson satisfaction that I had looked forward to was was enough to destroy the pupil’s last desire to become never realized. The work made a very bad a pianist” (Bertensson and Leyda, 64). At this time his impression, too, on the St. Petersburg interests lay purely in composition. musicians who were present. ‘Forgive me, but I do not find this music at all agreeable,’ said Rimsky-Korsakov to me in his dry and He finished a Capriccio on Gypsy Themes (op. 12) in unsparing manner at a rehearsal. And I, utterly August 1894, which he dedicated to cellist Pyotr disillusioned, knew that he was right, and that Lodyzhensky whose wife Anna was a gypsy by birth, this harsh judgment was not only due to the general embitterment against Moscow. I and with whom an infatuation– or perhaps much more– ‘listened in’ to my own work. I found the ensued: it was to her that the First Symphony would be orchestration abominable, but I knew that the

20 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 music also was not up to much. There are Moscow, after which he resigned. Then, despite a serious illnesses and deadly blows from fate successful visit with the London Philharmonic, with whom which entirely change a man’s character. This he conducted The Rock and played his piano pieces, he was the effect of my own Symphony on myself. When the indescribable torture of this returned to a state of listlessness, characterized by seclusion performance had at last come to an end, I was and a virtual avoidance of all social contact– ostensibly a different man. two more years in duration. His friends and relatives attempted to help, going so far as to enlist the services of During the evening I could not go into the the admired Leo Tolstoy, who if anything did even more concert-hall. I left the artists’ room and hid myself, sitting on an iron fire-escape staircase damage. On Rachmaninoff’s second visit to the writer, with which led into the gallery of the ‘Nobility Hall.’ friend Chaliapin, Tolstoy could not refrain from criticizing There I spent the time, huddled on a step, the music Rachmaninoff had played, and then ranted against while my Symphony, which had fanned in me Beethoven, Pushkin, and Lermontov, all heroes to the young such great expectations, was being played. I composer. Chekhov attributed Tolstoy’s ill-behavior to a live through that terrible experience again: it was the most agonizing hour of my life! stomach ailment; Rachmaninoff, despite a standing invitation Sometimes I stuck my fingers in my ears to to Yasnaya Polyana, never returned. prevent myself from hearing my own music, the discords of which absolutely tortured me. Finally the Satins persuaded Sergei to consult the Only one thought hammered in my brain – hypnotherapist, Nikolai Dahl. According to Seroff, ‘How is it possible? What is the cause of it?’ No sooner had the last chords died away than Rachmaninoff had taken to drink (58), and Dr. Dahl I fled, horrified, into the street. I ran to the specialized in the treatment of alcoholism (66). From Nevsky-Prospect, boarded one of the trams January through April of 1900 he visited him daily. Here so familiar to me from my childhood, and drove is Rachmaninoff’s description: incessantly up and down the endless street, through wind and mist, martyred by the thought of my failure. . . All my hopes, all belief My relations had told Dr. Dahl that he must at in myself, had been destroyed (Riesemann, all costs cure me of my apathetic condition and achieve such results that I would again 97-99; my emphases). begin to compose. Dahl had asked what manner of composition they desired and had He continues with a description of the suffering that received the answer, ‘A Concerto for followed: pianoforte,’ for this I had promised to the people in London and had given it up in I returned to Moscow a changed man. My despair. Consequently I heard the same confidence in myself had received a sudden hypnotic formula repeated day after day while blow. Agonizing hours spent in doubt and I lay half asleep in an armchair in Dahl’s study. hard thinking had brought me to the ‘You will begin to write your Concerto. . . You conclusion that I ought to give up composing. will work with great facility. . . ’ It was always I was obviously unfitted for it, and therefore it the same, without interruption. Although it would be better if I made an end to it at may sound incredible, this cure really helped once. . . A paralyzing apathy possessed me. I me. Already at the beginning of the summer I did nothing at all and found no pleasure in began again to compose. The material grew anything. Half my days were spent lying on a in bulk, and new musical ideas began to stir couch and sighing over my ruined life. My within me– far more than I needed for my only occupation consisted of a few piano Concerto. By the autumn I had finished two lessons which I was forced to give in order to movements of the Concerto– the Andante and keep myself alive. This condition, which was the Finale– and a sketch for a Suite for two as tiresome for myself as for those about me, pianofortes whose Opus number 17 is lasted more than a year. I did not live; I explained by the fact that I finished the Concerto later by adding the first movement. . . vegetated, idle and hopeless (Riesemann, 102). The two movements of my Concerto had a gratifying success. This buoyed up my self- The state of apathy was broken for a while by a season- confidence so much that I began to compose long stint as conductor of Mamontov’s private opera in again with great keenness. . . I had regained

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 21 belief in myself and could dare to think of At the end of the 1912-13 season, Rachmaninoff decided realizing a favourite wish of mine, namely, to to seek solitude and inspiration in Rome, the city that devote two years to composition only. . . I felt provided his beloved Tchaikovsky with the same; and that Dr. Dahl’s treatment had strengthened my nervous system to a miraculous degree. Out there he finished his second piano sonata and the choral of gratitude I dedicated my second Concerto symphony, The Bells, which Rachmaninoff ranked far to him (Riesemann, 112-3). and away as his favorite work.

IV. THE A FTERMATH In August of 1914, World War I broke out, followed by the Russian revolutions of 1917. Rachmaninoff accepted In April 1902 Rachmaninoff married Natalie Satin and an offer to tour Scandinavia: he and his family crossed thus began the next– and happier chapter– of his life. the Finnish border in 1917, and Rachmaninoff made the His fame as a composer grew as he added new works to decision to dedicate himself to a career as concert pianist. his body of composition. He again took up the baton, He soon embarked for America, where he was engaged and reconciled himself with the St. Petersburg school, in a seemingly never-ending series of performances as a having shaken off his former prejudices, and became pianist. During his first years in the New World he rather close friends with Rimsky-Korsakov. composed nothing. The Fourth Concerto for Piano and Orchestra appeared in 1927, and his Corelli Variations In search of seclusion and tranquility conducive to in 1932. Though his concert repertoire was not composition, Rachmaninoff took himself and his family expansive– Rachmaninoff confined himself principally to to Dresden. During this three-year idyll, three major the great works of a handful of great masters, only rarely works originated: the Second Symphony, his first piano straying into less familiar terrain– he achieved resounding sonata, and the symphonic poem The Isle of Death. artistic success. Material success was also his: after a Another work, the opera Monna Vanna, was begun but scant four years in America he had achieved complete remained unfinished. He was asked to conduct in financial security which, had he wished, might have been Moscow, and although he accepted only a few used to reduce the number of concerts so as to devote engagements and apparently found satisfaction in such himself more fully to composition. work, an inner conflict was aroused: was he a composer, conductor, or pianist? For the next decade he would In concluding his dictation to Riesemann, ‘waver’ between the three (Riesemann, 143). Rachmaninoff muses:

Rachmaninoff left Dresden in the summer of 1908, and I don’t know whether I have succeeded in making clear the continuous conflict that has in 1909 he made his first trip to America, engaged as gone on in my mind between my musical pianist and conductor. He appeared as soloist with activities and my artistic conscience– my Boston and conductor with Chicago and Philadelphia persistent craving to be engaged on something (with whom he performed his Second Symphony). other than the matter at hand. I have never been quite able to make up my After his return to Russia, he accepted the post of Vice- mind as to which was my true calling– that of a President of the Imperial Russian Musical Society; composer, pianist, or conductor. These doubts however, the administrative obligations of his new position assail me to this day. There are times when I consider myself nothing but a composer; proved to be extremely demanding. Towards the end of others when I believe myself capable only of his stay in Russia, he began to devote greater energy playing the piano. Today, when the greater towards conducting– at the expense of composition. His part of my life is over, I am constantly troubled creative output was minimal, and worse, the public by the misgiving that, in venturing into too many fields, I may have failed to make the best reaction was muted. Scriabin, despite his startling use of my life. In the old Russian phrase, I chromatic and dissonant harmonies and grand mystical have ‘hunted three hares.’ Can I be sure that I conceptions, was gaining a greater critical audience. have killed one of them (205-6)?

22 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 These are words that, I believe, we must bear in mind as Satina reported that the score bore the biblical epigraph we now direct our attention to the crucial episode of the “Vengeance is mine, I will repay”– the same used by mysterious First Symphony which Rachmaninoff Tolstoy for Anna Karenina. These words, though not repudiated and interred following its premiere. appearing on the piano version, are in fact also to be found on one of the orchestral parts from the original V. A N INTERPRETATION OF RACHMANINOFF’S COLLAPSE performance (Martyn, 98). Furthermore, the symphony bore the dedication to “A.L.”– no doubt, Anna That Rachmaninoff never actually destroyed the Lodyzhenskya, to whom he had previously dedicated his manuscript of his First Symphony is notable. Two months song “Oh, no, I beg you, don’t forsake me” (op. 4, no.1)! after the premiere he wrote to friend Alexander Zatayevich that he still loved the work (Seroff, 55). He There is rich ground here for interpretive speculation, but made a four-hand arrangement of it in 1898, contemplated we must take care not to let our imaginations outpace fact. revising it in 1908, and finally in 1917 told Boris Asafiev that he would show the symphony to no one, and would In all likelihood, Rachmaninoff had fallen deeply in love make a stipulation in his will that it remain unseen with Anna, the ‘gypsy’ wife of his friend Pyotr, during the (Bertensson and Leyda, 74). summer of 1894. It was his first great love and it followed the path of all such loves in the lives of the great: it fell Eyewitness accounts confirm that the performance was apart, but for reasons that will never be known. Did a fiasco. Conductor Alexander Khessin, who was in Anna Lodyzhenskya spurn him, as Zemfira did Aleko? attendance, concurred with the opinion expressed by Did the 21-year-old Rachmaninoff consummate an musicologist Alexander Ossovsky, who wrote: adulterous liaison with her, as did Vronsky with Anna Karenina, but then castigate himself with overwhelming The performance was raw, unthought-out, guilt? Was their relationship strictly Platonic? Did unfinished, and it produced the impression of Rachmaninoff hope to win back Anna’s love with the a slovenly play-through and not of the symphony’s success? Only one thing is certain, namely, realisation of a definite artistic idea, which the the difficulty of the situation, and its inevitable ending. If conductor clearly lacked. Rhythmic vitality, his love had in fact been requited, an open affair would so essential in the works and performances of have been scandalous and impossible to sustain. Rachmaninoff, withered. Dynamic shadings, gradations of tempo, nuances of expression– When Gustav Mahler found himself rejected by Josephine everything in which this music is so rich– Poisl at the age of 19, his creative fires were lit and he disappeared. A kind of shapeless, turbid sound-mass dragged on interminably. The responded to the trauma by composing his first major torpid character of the conductor completed works, impressive for their originality (Garcia, 1991). I the whole agonising ghastliness of the suspect that something similar occurred in impression. (Martyn, 97) Rachmaninoff’s case: that the impetus for the First Symphony came from the demise of the love affair which Rachmaninoff would have had every reason to become was probably unconsummated. There are clear ‘gypsy’ livid and incensed. elements in the symphony, which are linked to Lodyzhenskya, in particular the melodically tender third The autograph of the full score has been lost, but the movement (see Martyn, 100-101). The brutally powerful symphony was reconstituted from the four-hand piano final movement, a Dies Irae, seems to embody the very transcription and the original orchestral parts discovered essence of exacted vengeance, which I speculate was in the Leningrad conservatory. Rachmaninoff had locked directed against Anna as punishment for forsaking him. the manuscript in his writing desk in Moscow, and before he left Russia entrusted it to Sofya Satina. It was probably But this powerful expression of such vengeance, whether stolen after Satina emigrated. aimed primarily at Anna, her husband, or at himself in the

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 23 form of guilt, was eminently within his conscious Rachmaninoff’s nature was a passionate and powerful awareness. Other less evident matters, however, must one, over which he struggled to maintain control throughout also be taken into account: those having to do with his life. The severe and constant self-deprecation so unconscious emotional processes connected generally evident to so many, and his ‘criminally sincere humility’ with the evolution of genius. (see Bertensson and Leyda, 179; Rachmaninoff to Marietta Shaginian, May 8, 1912) are hallmarks of a Here I will ask the reader to accept psychoanalytic personality structure that has turned aggressive wishes findings that all human relations are characterized by inward. And the probable underpinning of such character ambivalence, that is, the coexistence of love and hate. traits was hostility towards an unaffectionate and distant No matter how great a friendship with or love for another, disciplinarian mother. Scriabin’s biographer Bowers hostile wishes are invariably, if unconsciously, present. asserts that Rachmaninoff actually stated, like The works of that greatest of psychologists, Shakespeare, Dostoyevsky, that he was never known to have laughed abound with examples of this facet of la condition out loud as a child, not once (I, 114). humaine. Furthermore, idealization typically conceals the wish to debase and overcome, and idealized After his brush with the danger of composing something relationships are especially prone to dramatic reversals: that represented an act of daring and originality, a break Nietzsche’s volte-face towards Wagner is a case in point. from the influence of Tchaikovsky and other endeared historical figures in music, the internal situation, Before the composition of the First Symphony, exacerbated too by the more immediate stimulus of his Rachmaninoff’s beloved idol, Tchaikovsky, had died, liaison (whether actualized or merely yearned for), leaving him without a mentor and patron. After the death became too difficult to bear: he fled from the scene of the of a loved one, an internal revolt often occurs. conflict, buried the symphony, abstained from composing, Unconscious hatred towards the loved object is released and nearly abandoned music altogether. Those and the subject experiences an exhilarating freedom that unconscious sadistic impulses which fueled the can be characterized by a manic exuberance; this process symphony’s composition were now turned against himself generally begins only after the period of acute mourning and occasioned the depressive crisis whose depth and is finished. I must emphasize that the ambivalent nature intensity required extraordinary measures to relieve. of the relationship to the deceased is kept unconscious. In order to create, genius must inevitably destroy. The I believe that Rachmaninoff’s First Symphony terrors of transgression, and the punitive guilt they represented, artistically speaking, an unconscious rebellion occasioned, threw the young composer back into the against Tchaikovsky and his influence, along with the arms of the known, the familiar, the acceptable, and the influences of other musical predecessors. The so-called safe, both in art and in love. ‘discordant’ elements that devastated Rachmaninoff were the signs of new and ‘dangerous’ paths he had had the VI. DAHL’S TREATMENT temerity to open, at odds with the direction of Tchaikovsky’s music. Dr. Dahl’s treatment, which consisted essentially of a repetitive reinforcement of Rachmaninoff’s value and The First Symphony contained elements of originality ability, and an unconscious reassurance that he hadn’t, which were too threatening to embrace and elaborate as it were, committed a crime with his act of symphonic further because they represented the psychological equivalent of murder – of his rival Pyotr Lodyzhensky, of hubris, must have assuaged the young man’s feelings of his lover (either in reality or wish) Anna Lodyzhenskya guilt. Unconsciously, Dahl became for him an approving, whom in Opus 14 he had pleaded with not to forsake forgiving, and beloved father/Tchaikovsky-type figure, him, but above all, and unconsciously, of Tchaikovsky. which in turn allowed the composer to accept himself It should be noted that the First Symphony was the first again. It would of course be fascinating to learn from Dahl work after his trio dedicated to Tchaikovsky to be written (who probably treated Rachmaninoff without fee) whether in the key of D-minor. the treatment was more complicated than described. But

24 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 what is especially important to understand is that despite a worthy successor to Tchaikovsky’s whatever other elements of the technique Dahl employed, ‘Pathetique’ Symphony is all the sadder for it was the simple repetitive formula that left its impression perhaps having permanently maimed its composer’s creative spirit in ways at which on the composer, intensified by the continuity of daily we can only guess. (my emphasis) contact. The dedication of the second piano concerto to Dahl is the only example of its kind: for Dr. Dahl this must Geoffrey Norris, who authored the entry for Rachmaninoff have seemed a most wonderful honor attesting to the in the most recent edition of Grove’s Encyclopedia, writes sincerity and warmth of his patient’s gratitude. that the First Symphony’s “brutal gestures and uncompromising power of expression (particularly in the One may be tempted to assert that a more complex finale) were unprecedented in Russian music” (2001, 714; approach, one that for example would have actively my emphasis). explored the emotional circumstances involved with the First Symphony, might have yielded different fruit – might In a review of the symphony in 1897, the ultraconservative in fact have helped Rachmaninoff regain the ‘murderous’ Cesar Cui, one of the ‘mighty handful’ of the St. or idol-toppling path towards genius. This is a legitimate Petersburg school, who was anti-Strauss, anti-Scriabin, question, and it is intriguing to imagine how a different and of course anti-Moscow, claimed that the work would type of treatment would have affected Rachmaninoff. have delighted the inmates of Hell: he spoke of it as ‘evil’ Nonetheless, the psychological state of the prodigiously and ‘perverse;’ but he also noted that Rachmaninoff “does talented is tensely fragile, and wise is the therapist who avoid banality, and he probably feels strongly and deeply, treads lightly. An exploration of current-day and tries to express these feelings in new forms” psychotherapeutic approaches to creative talents is (Bertensson and Leyda, 72). unfortunately beyond the scope of this article. Findeisen’s review, which appeared in April, was an VII. ASSESSING THE FIRST SYMPHONY informed and intelligent one: It is of course impossible for today’s listener to hear with the The climax of the concert, Rachmaninoff’s D ears of Rachmaninoff’s contemporaries and to appreciate minor symphony, was not very successfully in any real way how truly great or daring the First Symphony interpreted and was therefore largely was. For such an assessment we must call upon the well- misunderstood and underestimated by the informed musicologist. Some critics consider the First audience. This work shows new impulses, Rachmaninoff’s best symphony (Martyn 102). It is certainly tendencies toward new colors, new themes, not an easy one to assimilate, not as ‘agreeable’ or ‘pleasant’ new images, and yet it impresses one as as his later works. But as Martyn (103) writes: something not fully said or solved. . . To be . . . in the grandeur of its conception, its sure, Rachaninoff’s first symphony may not controlled emotional intensity and its thematic be wholly beautiful, integrated, and definite, integration it did unquestionably mark a step but some of its pages seem far from mediocre. forward for Russian music. To compare Stravinsky’s uninteresting and already The first movement, and especially the furious outmoded symphony of 1906-07, written at finale with its concluding Largo, contain much the age of 24, with the 22-year-old beauty, novelty, and even inspiration. . . Rachmaninoff’s vastly more powerful and (Bertensson and Leyda, 72) advanced work of eleven years before, is to face a wry paradox: Stravinsky was to be the arch-radical in music, and Rachmaninoff the There can be little doubt that Rachmaninoff’s First apostle of conservatism. After the First Symphony was daring, novel, forceful, and shocking– Symphony Rachmaninoff developed as a qualities that are precisely those of works that break new composer only within the limits that work had defined. It was a great leap forward that was ground– qualities that none of his later pieces, far more never repeated; all that followed was evolution conventionally beautiful, possess. His subsequent along a fixed path. The disastrous premiere of compositions beat a retreat from this field. For example,

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 25 when premiered, the second piano concerto would win psychological plane– more a battle with demons than with the approval of none other than Cui himself, and critic the Gods themselves. Grigori Prokofiev praised the third piano concerto as having “a freshness of inspiration that doesn’t aspire to Rachmaninoff, incidentally, knew well of the requirements the discovery of new paths” (Bertensson and Leyda, 166). of the creator: “praise, praise, praise!” (Swan and Swan 1944b, 179). The First Symphony was decidedly not ‘boiled ham,’ as Scriabin once ungraciously described Rachmaninoff’s His reaction to the performance of the First Symphony music (Bowers, II, 241); nor was it imitative of was highly unusual. It is not uncommon for great creators Tchaikovsky, as were Rachmaninoff’s earlier works at later stages of their lives to repudiate the output of (which Scriabin also derided, given his antipathy towards their youth: Tolstoy in his old age for example, condemned Tchaikovsky). It was the first major statement of an Anna Karenina and War and Peace. But it is extremely emerging genius, genius that never fulfilled its rare for one so very young to reject a work so immediately, breathtaking promise. Had Rachmaninoff not removed definitively, and viscerally, especially when signs abounded the First Symphony from circulation, would it have that its performance was deficient. How much more hastened the musical revolution that ensued, or altered natural it would have been for the young Rachmaninoff its path? These are questions which, sadly, can never be to become enraged at the sloppiness of the performance, answered, but I believe that, properly performed, the or the ignorance of the crowd! symphony would at the very least have had a chance to influence the direction of music in Russia. Rachmaninoff, that “six-and-a-half-foot scowl,” as Stravinsky famously referred to him, was to be troubled VIII. SOME GENERAL REMARKS ON CREATIVITY throughout his life by the sense of having failed. He became irritated when questioned about composing, and The excruciating difficulties associated with the act of defensively cited the claims of his performance career: to creation, whether in music, art, literature, or science, are concertize had become a necessity. He confessed to the unappreciated. Tendencies to idealize or romanticize an Swans, who recorded their reminiscences, “This is my artist’s suffering are merely sly ways of minimizing the only joy– the concerts. If you deprive me of them, I shall actual internal struggle waged. Inhibitions abound, as wither away. . . No. . . It is best to die on the concert manifested by procrastination, ‘block,’ self-denigration, platform” (Swan and Swan, 186-7). ‘laziness,’ ‘irresponsibility,’ and the like, and the strength of such impulses cannot be overestimated. Such He admitted that being in the public eye gave him as much manifestations underscore the fact that in creating pleasure as a schoolgirl, and he even compared himself something new, the artist is embarking on a ‘forbidden’ to a grisette who, though old and worn, cannot help but journey and is thus assailed by imposing anxieties. The walk the streets: “Oh no, I could not play any less. I creative mission demands of its subject the utmost: external want to play all I can” (Swan and Swan, 1944b, 188). obstacles such as public disapprobation can at times Yet years earlier, in a letter to Vladimir Vilshau, a professor irremediably strengthen internal resistances to the creative at the Moscow conservatory, Rachmaninoff confided: impulse and effectively prevent artistic genius from flowering. The costs of venturing into unknown artistic I particularly dislike my occupation. In all this terrain can be overwhelming, straining the emotional time I have not composed a single line. . . during resources of the artist to the breaking point and even my whole life I have never known peace resulting in transient psychotic states. Very often the because of my dissatisfaction with myself. devastations of love propel the creator, desperate to heal Years ago when I was composing, I tormented himself in the content and process of the creative act, myself because I composed badly, and now I into territory that would ordinarily be inaccessible. torment myself because I play badly. Deep in my heart I have the firm belief that I can do Though the performing artist also may be beset by both much better. I live with this belief (quoted in conflicts, the battle tends to be waged on a different Seroff 68-69, letter to Vilshau, September 9, 1922).

26 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 To the poetess and epistolary confidante Marietta boundaries at every step. Scriabin, however, had the Shaginian (who first anonymously introduced herself to ongoing enthusiastic support of Safonov who greeted him as ‘Re’) Rachmaninoff described himself as criminally every new composition of his student with ecstatic praise. timid and cowardly, and he held Medtner, so thoroughly dedicated to composition that he had eliminated all other IX. CONCLUSION distractions from his life, as an admired rival, a foil. And Medtner would say of Rachmaninoff, “A creator must It must sound strange and off-putting to our ears to hear be a ne’er do well to a certain extent. If Rachmaninoff Rachmaninoff, someone who has undoubtedly enriched could only become a ne’er do well, if only for a short our culture so wonderfully with his talents, spoken of in time, then he would again begin to compose. But he is terms that seem like reproach. But what I am conjecturing tied hand and foot by his obligations, everything with him is that Rachmaninoff’s reach did not attempt to exceed is measured by the hour” (Swan and Swan, 1944a, 7). its grasp– or rather when it did, caused its owner to recoil so severely as never to sin again in like manner. I hope In Riesemann’s book, the extreme value that readers will not misinterpret my findings as criticism of a Rachmaninoff ascribed to signs of external reward and great musician, but rather as an investigation into the honor were almost distasteful: for example, the near- conundrums posed by the psychology of creativity. maniacal dedication toward obtaining the Great Gold Medal. (In fact, Rachmaninoff benefited from a Rachmaninoff had the tools to establish new boundaries serendipitous and unfair advantage during his fugue in music: his sight-reading ability, his memory, his facility examination to gain a ‘five and plus’ in pursuit of this with orchestral color, his command of every musical resource– these were monumental and possessed by so goal [Riesemann, 69].) Per Riesemann’s account, the very few. Professor and pianist Alexander Goldenweiser, relative amount of verbiage and importance that among others, remarked on these prodigious musical Rachmaninoff devoted to the cataloging of his ‘plusses’ abilities: “Rachmaninoff’s musical gifts, even apart from is rather astonishing. his creative ability, surpassed any others I have ever met, bordering on the marvellous, like those of Mozart in his After the extraordinary composition of Aleko in a scant youth” (Seroff, 35). month, he created a ‘sensation’ with the examiners by presenting the score beautifully bound in leather with gold Yet Rachmaninoff would write to his admirer Shaginian, lettering: ‘the greatest success Rachmaninoff has ever had “I have no faith in myself. . . If I ever had faith in myself, without playing a single note. A loud ‘Oh! Accompanied that was a long time ago, a very long time ago– in my by a general shaking of heads, passed round the table youth!” (Seroff, 126-7). Composition required with the green cloth’ (80). As usual, he notes that he tremendous courage, and Rachmaninoff recognized that received a five with a plus (as if such marks were his ‘sickness’ of self-doubt and cowardice, of which he meaningful in the greater scope of music history!). spoke so uncharacteristically frankly with Shaginian, might require the abandonment of composition altogether. These signs bespeak a profound yearning for the blessings of fatherly authorities and an equally profound fear of the Maybe, despite the glories he left behind as a composer loss of their love. For Rachmaninoff Tchaikovsky’s and performer, Rachmaninoff sensed that by choosing to approval was most dear: he was, after all, Sergei’s ideal. spend his time more on the concert stage than in the composer’s hut he was a grisette in more than jest, and This yearning later found expression in Rachmaninoff’s aggrieved throughout his life by presentiments of that desire to please his audiences, to the point of his making rarest of opportunities missed– the elaboration of genius. the bizarre proclamation that “the audience never errs” Not all composers aim– or need to aim– at the nether (Bertensson and Leyda, 362)! How different an example regions of exploration; and of those that have so aimed, Scriabin set: heedless of conservatory grades, braving very few have succeeded. Culture has been graced by penury for much of his life, refusing to play the works of much wonderful music that is well within the bounds of others in concert, and writing music that explored new the understood, the product of great talent rather than

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 27 genius, whose novelties are those of intricacy rather than own researches lead me to believe that Riesemann has expansion and startling innovation. been unfairly treated. Closer inspection reveals that Rachmaninoff was primarily disturbed by a chapter in The critic Leonid Sabaneyev wrote in 1916 as astute an which he was depicted as praising himself and his work: analysis of Rachmaninoff as any: he eventually paid for cuts to be made for publication, though he did not succeed in having the offensive title The searches of a great talent are always changed. As Bertensson and Leyda note, “he found interesting. Although personally I cannot himself accurately quoted on many episodes of his youth consider Rachmaninoff a musical phenomenon of the highest order (for me his and musical career” (299). In any case, Rachmaninoff personality as musician, as conductor, and did furnish Riesemann with a favorable testimonial for especially as pianist must be placed above the book, which appears in its prefatory his career as composer, in which I matter and serves as a kind of imprimatur. acknowledge him as an outstanding talent no more), nevertheless one senses in him a tremendous inner power, a potentiality that The material from Riesemann that I have used has been some barrier prevents from emerging fully. . . fully corroborated by other sources, and has in fact an his artistic personality contains the promise immediacy and power of expression scarcely to be found of something greater than he has yet given us elsewhere. To my mind Riesemann has done a great (Bertensson and Leyda, 202). service. The Swans, who have published their own reminiscences of Rachmaninoff, concur: “The book With the creation of the First Symphony that barrier had [Rachmaninoff’s Recollections] is indispensable for the been breached, but when traumatically shaken by the Russian period of Rachmaninoff’s life. The early life unconscious psychological and emotional significance of and years of study in Moscow are related its daring and novelty, Rachmaninoff gradually arrived at a with much feeling and power.” (1944a, 10) compromise solution. He withdrew from the hunting down and killing of a single hare– the exclusive dedication to In an earlier paper that has yet to be published (Garcia, groundbreaking musical composition– to pursue 2002), I relied solely on the Recollections, taking them to conducting, virtuoso playing, and musical creation of a be principally autobiographical, for a psychoanalytic relatively conservative nature. Had he kept to the path investigation into the emotional crisis occasioned by the First begun by his First Symphony, Rachmaninoff’s current status Symphony; I did so for methodological reasons not pertinent in the history of music might be considerably different. here. I am pleased to report that the inclusion of secondary sources, as embodied by the present paper, has in all ENDNOTE essentials confirmed the conclusions I reached previously, based solely as they were on Riesemann’s book. 1 Here I must address the issue of the veracity of Rachmaninoff’s Recollections, Riesemann’s account of Rachmaninoff’s reminiscences dictated to him in 1930 at ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Clairefontaine (1934). In an interview in The Musical Times Rachmaninoff intimated that he would be open to I am deeply grateful to Dr. Jacques Voois, whose a biographical study. Oskar von Riesemann subsequently encouragement and support have been indispensable to approached him and was invited to Clairefontaine for several days to accompany Rachmaninoff on his walks this investigation. and discuss periods of his career. When he was first shown the proofs of the resulting book, Rachmaninoff was horrified: he found the title to be particularly offensive, WORKS CITED/CONSULTED since it gave the mistaken impression that the book was simply an autobiographical dictation. Bertensson, S. And Leyda, J. (2001). Sergei Rachmaninoff: A Lifetime in Music. Introduction by According to Norris (1994, 63) much of the long Cannata, D.B. Indiana University Press: Bloomington passages of quotation was “pure fiction.” However, my and Indianapolis.

28 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Bowers, F. (1996). Scriabin: A Biography. Second, revised edition. Dover Publications, Inc.: Mineola, New York.

Garcia, E.E. (1991). “A new look at Gustav Mahler’s fateful encounter with Sigmund Freud.” Journal of the Conductor’s Guild (Vol. 12, Nos.1 & 2):16-30.

Garcia, E.E. (2002). “Rachmaninoff’s emotional collapse and recovery: the First Symphony and its aftermath.” (unpublished MS).

Norris, G. (1994). “Rachmaninoff.” In: The Master Musicians Series, Ed. S. Sadie. Schirmer Books: New York.

Norris, G. (2001). “Rachmaninoff.” In: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition. S. Sadie, ed., Vol. 20, pp. 707-718. London: Macmillan.

Martyn, B. (1990). Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor. Scholar Press: Aldershot and Vermont.

Riesemann, Oscar von (1934). Rachmaninoff’s Recollections told to Oscar von Riesemann. New York: Macmillan.

Seroff, V.I. (1951). Rachmaninoff. Cassell and Company Ltd.: London.

Swan, A.J. and Swan, K. (1944a). “Rachmaninoff: personal reminiscences – part I.” Musical Quarterly, 30(1):1-19.

Swan, A.J. and Swan, K. (1944b). “Rachmaninoff: personal reminiscences – part II.” Musical Quarterly, 30(2):174-191.

*****

Dr. Garcia is a psychoanalyst who serves as psychiatric consultant to the Curtis Institute of Music. His writings include examinations of Freud’s therapeutic encounters with Bruno Walter and Gustav Mahler.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 29 Benjamin Britten’s WAR REQUIEM: Notes on Conducting

By Paul Vermel

The War Requiem was commissioned for the of the Chamber Orchestra, and settled on a rectangular consecration of the Cathedral of St. Michael in Coventry, space to the left of the podium, with the tenor and bass which took place on May 30, 1962. The cathedral, the soloists in front of the podium. first to be built in England in many years, was on the site of (but not directly upon) the original medieval cathedral, which had been nearly completely destroyed by bombs during World War II. In the preface to the full orchestral score, published by Boosey & Hawkes in their Masterworks Series, Malcolm MacDonald says this Example 1 about the work: This placement permits the use of the left hand for Inspired by the acoustical space in which the warnings for the Chamber Orchestra to be ready, given premiere was to take place, Britten conceived a certain number of measures before their entrances. the War Requiem for three spatially and These warnings are given while conducting the large forces instrumentally differentiated groups, needing two conductors. The Latin text is set for with the right hand/baton. The suggestion for dealing with soprano, chorus and orchestra; [Wilfred] problems connected with conducting the boys’ choir, Owen’s poetry is set for tenor, baritone and a particularly in the final movement, is given in the Appendix. separate chamber orchestra of 12 players; while a choir of boys’ voices sings Latin hymns with organ accompaniment. 1. REQUIEM A ETERNAM (chorus seated)

At the first performance of the War Requiem in the I suggest beating the 5/4 measures in a four pattern, Coventry Cathedral, Benjamin Britten conducted the with an extra beat in the center (Ex. 2). This gesture Chamber Orchestra and two male soloists, and Meredith shows only one downbeat per measure, which is less Davies conducted the full orchestra, soprano soloist and confusing than conducting 3 + 2 or 2 + 3. chorus. Having two conductors certainly makes life easier for each. The physical setting in the Cathedral must have The boys’ chorus stands two bars before 3, and it is made this arrangement feasible and practical; however, helpful to have the harmonium or organ, which on a normal concert stage using two conductors is neither accompanies the boys add a “C” (Ex. 3) to the chord convenient nor visually or dramatically convincing. One single conductor is less distracting, more efficient and can work very well, but the technical and gestural problems for a single conductor are considerable. I hope that these notes that address the various conducting problems in the War Requiem are helpful.

In conducting this work I experimented with the placement Examples 2 and 3

30 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 before 3 to help the boys hear their entering pitch in the sharp beats and absolute metronomic precision. The correct octave. Conduct quarter notes to begin the boys’ tendency for the chorus and orchestra is to rush the three music, and conduct quarter notes in the 3/4 measures. quarter notes (that usually fall at the end of the measure) Conduct the 4/4 measures in 2. In the 6/4 bars combine – there may be a subconscious leftover feeling of a triplet. patterns to communicate the music accurately: dotted It is not necessary to dictate each of the three quarter quarter in one gesture, followed by quarter-half, as at the notes with equal emphasis, as this can become too busy. second part of the 5th bar after rehearsal 3. Conduct the Choose the most appropriate gesture to fit the music and 3/2 measures in 3, and conduct the 5/4 measures in the text (which are perfectly wedded)…some patterns quarter notes, 3 + 2 (as at 4 before rehearsal 7). The will be quarter-half, some half-quarter and some will be boy’s chorus director could sit nearby, whether the boys in one. At two before 18 follow the text and beat 3 + 2 + are placed on stage or off, and warn them of upcoming 2. Be very clear and careful with this change! entrances, particularly later in the work. Conduct three bars before 19 in 4, but one bar before At four measures before rehearsal 9 warn the Chamber 19 in 2, for the same reason as given at for one before Orchestra with the left hand, indicating the passing 17. Conduct two before 20 3 + 2 + 2 (same reason at measures with four fingers, then three, two and one. Cue two before 18). At four measures after 20, cue the the Chamber Orchestra on the last beat before 9. Cue contrabassoon, timpani, and bass drum on two, and then the chimes, and release the Chorus on beat two of show the diminuendo. Cut the brass on the fourth beat rehearsal 9. Give a clear cut-off to the orchestra at the (on the tied 8th note), and then hold the fermata. second bar after 9, while conducting the Chamber However, at 7 after 20, beat four through the diminuendo, Orchestra with the left hand. The tenor soloist stands on and cut off on the downbeat of the 2/4 bar. The situation the downbeat of 9. In this section conduct the 5/4 with the fermatas is similar at five before 21, but here you measures as before, in a four pattern, with an extra beat cut the brass on 4 and stop your gesture on the downbeat in the center (see Ex. 2). of the 2/4 measure. Conduct one before 21 in 2.

At 13 (always animated) conduct the 6/4 measures in At 21 the ensemble and precision are even more difficult 2, the 3/4 in 1 the 5/4 in two (with division of 3 + 2 or 2 because of the tutti and the fortissimo dynamic, therefore + 3, according to the needs of the music) and the 3/2 your gesture must be especially rhythmic and clear. measures in 3. The 7/4 bar before rehearsal 15 should Beginning at three before 22, conduct 3 + 2 + 2, for two be conducted in 3 (2 + 2 + 3). The 3/4 bar before 16 measures, and then resume the 2 + 2 + 3 pattern for one should be conducted in quarter notes, with slightest measure. Conduct the 4/4 in 4, being sure to cue the 2nd stretch of tempo with the diminuendo. trumpet at three after 22, then conduct 1 before 23 in 2, as a transition to the 7/4. The Chorale at rehearsal 16 requires a subtle beat. The gestures should not be a clear two or four, but a smooth At four before 24 warn the Chamber Orchestra with the “tenuto” beat, like a broken beat that simulates a subdivision same count-down of measures (4-3-2-1 fingers of the of the half note which leads each chord change separately left hand), being careful to maintain the 7/4 precisely and but with a connecting gesture. (It’s easier to demonstrate conducting 3 + 2 + 2. At the bar before 24 one may than to describe!) A pause for latecomers to enter the hall conduct as 2 + 2 + 3, which will enable you to stretch could come at the end of the first movement. the final three quarter notes, setting up the slower tempo at 24. The chorus should sit and the baritone soloist stand 2. DIES IRAE (chorus stands) on the second measure of 24.

The fermata over a whole note equals approximately 6 Before 28 the oboe solo (eight bars before) and flute beats. Conduct the bar before 17 in 2 to set up the “as solo (five before) should be slightly less lively than the three” pattern for the 7/4 (2 + 2 +3). This meter is difficult previous solos (at 24 and 25). At four before 28, warn for everyone, including the conductor. It requires small, the Large Orchestra with the count-down (4-3-2-1 with

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 31 fingers of the left hand). The baritone soloist sits at 1 At one before 51 cue the 1st trumpet but don’t conduct. before 28, and the soprano soloist (sitting with the chorus) At five after 51, cue trumpet 2, but don’t conduct. At stands on the fermata– it is important dramatically that four before 52 warn the four trumpets with the count- these two soloists do not move together. down gesture (4-3-2-1) with the left hand.

At 30 the semi-chorus sings while seated. The tempo The transition at rehearsal 52 is a tricky maneuver. For can move forward ever so slightly, and return a tempo the horns, trumpet, timpani, bass drum, and piano, I with the soprano’s return at 31. The same tempo choose to conduct the first two measures 4, 4, 3, as if it fluctuation can be employed when the chorus enters at 5 were three measures. The final beat of the 3 (last beat of after 31. the 7/4 measure) is the cue for the Tutti (full orchestra) and chorus at 3 after 52. The Chamber Orchestra should Four measures before 33 warn the Chamber Orchestra maintain their slower tempo at 52 and therefore they with the same count-down with the left hand. The soprano should release after 8 beats of the conductor. Note that soloist sits at 1 before 33. The baritone and tenor soloists in the score the release of the Chamber Orchestra is not stand two or three measures after 33. aligned with that beat! The tempo, quarter note = 160, given by Britten at the beginning of the Dies irae, and At four before 39 warn the four trumpets in the Large repeated here, should be carefully adhered to. The utmost Orchestra with the count-down gesture with the left hand clarity and precision in the 7/4 is required. The basic (be sure to let them know that you are going to do this!). division of the 7/4 is 2 + 2 + 3, except where the music The soloists sit after 39, and the entire Chorus stands on and text change, requiring 3 + 2 + 2, as at the ninth and the fifth measure. tenth bar after 52 and the three bars before 53. At 53, return to 2 + 2 + 3. At two measures before 54, clearly beat At 43 move ahead a little bit, relaxing the tempo at two the last three quarter notes of the 7/4 to set up the brass. bars before 44. At four before 45 there should be a poco ritard. At 45 beat in a quick, precise five (as before: a The soprano stands on the fermata before 54. In this four pattern with an extra beat in the center). At four slower passage, clearly beat all the quarter notes of the before 49 warn the Chamber Orchestra with the usual 7/4, using a subdivided 3/2 pattern (Ex. 5). count-down with the left hand, but at one bar before 49 beat a four pattern, indicating three quarter notes and a At four measures before 56, warn the Chamber lengthened (half note) fourth beat, which establishes the Orchestra with the count-down with the left hand, and half note beat of the meter at 49 (Ex. 4). calando. The tenor soloist stands on the downbeat of 56 (his fermata) – there is plenty of time for him to stand, At five after 49 and one before 50 cue the trumpets but and it works well visually and dramatically. Standing earlier do not conduct them. This is less confusing for the rest of would spoil the drama inherent in the ritard and the orchestra, so simply sustain and control the diminuendo of the previous few measures. diminuendo. However, at five bars after 50 it may be necessary to conduct the trumpets (unless they can play In the tenor recitative, simply cue the chord changes on together by themselves). If you do conduct the trumpets, each downbeat. At three before 57 warn the Full hold the tutti with the baton, and conduct the trumpets, Orchestra and Chorus with three fingers of the left hand with the left hand, as four measures of 2/4. Do warn the (the count-down), and be sure to cue the harp at one rest of the orchestra of this system. before 57.

Example 4 Example 5

32 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 At three measures after 57, relax the last quarter notes a followed by a regular 4/4 (Ex. 7). bit, and cue the Chamber Orchestra on the last beat. At three before 58, warn the Full Orchestra and Chorus 74 is a slow recitative, but the first orchestra measure (the count-down maneuver with the left hand). At one before should not be too slow, with the first part of it beaten in 60 cue the chimes after the tenor soloist’s text “at all.” 3/4, then holding each whole note with a downbeat, single gesture. The two soloists should not be conducted, and The Chorale at 60, as the first one at 16, requires a subtle you simply conduct the orchestra in the 3/4 part of each beat. For details, see the description at 16. Since the measure, holding the whole notes with a downbeat 1. work is without intermission, one should take a brief pause Give a clear cue to the harp at 77. before the Offertorium (this also could be a late seating spot). Rehearsal 77 begins a difficult section of ensemble with 3. OFFERTORIUM (Boys’ Chorus stands) the Boys’ Chorus. I can only suggest my solution to the problem and what I did in my performances. There may I personally choose not to conduct the boys. If the choir be other ways. [For a complete discussion of the is seated on stage their own director can be seated problems and the techniques I used in dealing with unobtrusively and help them, both here, and most the Boys’ Choir, see the Appendix.] especially at 77, where they must be coordinated with the soloists and orchestra. Better yet is placing the Boys’ I cue the organist to start on the 2nd beat of the second Chorus in a balcony with a portative organ or harmonium, measure after 77 (as aligned in the score). The conductor where their director can lead them. must listen carefully to the organ, especially the C#s in the left hand. There should be perhaps three or four C#s Before 63, alert the Chorus and Full Orchestra visually heard (over the empty, fermata measures in the orchestra) with the right hand/baton. The Chorus should stand two before cuing the Chamber Orchestra at 7 bars after 77 measures before 63, and, if on stage and visible, the Boys’ (I disregard the footnote, and I count the Orchestra Chorus sits on the downbeat of 63. fermatas as one measure, for there is no bar line at the change of page). Listen carefully to the Boys’-Chorus At rehearsal 64, conduct dotted quarter notes (6/8 in line, and follow it for all successive entries of the Chamber two, 9/8 in three). At four before 69, warn the Chamber Orchestra and soloists. Orchestra with the count-down with the left hand, as before. The baritone and tenor soloists stand at two Warn the Full Orchestra (bassoons, celli, basses) visually before 69, and the Choir sits at 69. The new section for their entrance at 79. The Chorus stands at 79, and beginning at 69 is l’istesso tempo (Ex.6), i.e. the measures the soloists and boys sit after the Orchestra begins. are conducted in two and the quarter note in the orchestra gets the beat. Note the change of tempo at 72. This 4. SANCTUS (Soprano solo stands, Chorus remains standing) must be very deliberate at first, but at five bars after 72, move the tempo ahead a bit. The tempo change to half- The measures are free at the beginning of the Sanctus. I note = 88 at 73 is subito. had success with a slightly slower tempo at measure 5 (quarter note = 92 rather than 108), with which our At two before 74, beat the 5/4 measure with four clear Soprano soloist was more comfortable. I suggest that all beats, the half note in one beat followed by three quarters, conductors experiment.

Example 6 Example 7

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 33 Conduct rehearsal 85 in one. In this cleverly confused At four bars before rehearsal 99, move the tempo a bit, (confusing) passage, the conductor’s challenge is not to and return to tempo at 99. Calando near the end. The get lost! I decided to group the measures as follows: tenor’s last phrase, “Dona nobis pacem,” slows down 3 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 3 - 86 - 4 - 4 - fermata. This aids in cuing and is quite flexible, and you should not conduct him. the entrances of the sections of the Chorus; however, Coordinate with the soloist, and cut off together with the they also can be counted in groups of four bars! Chorus. The tenor sits and the Chorus stands at the end of the movement. Score errata: in the parts, at six bars after 87 in Horns 1 & 2, the second beat is an 6. LIBERA ME (Chorus stands) A; it should be a B. The score is correct. This movement, above all the others, requires of the conductor a very firm hand, an unimpeachable sense of At three bars before 91 the phrase is very long for the pulse, and great rhythmic precision. From the beginning Soprano soloist. Should an extra breath be necessary, I of the movement to rehearsal 116 there needs to be a suggest this (with an optional text addition, which may or carefully controlled, very gradual accelerando. The may not be desired) (Ex. 8). composer gives tempo indications (metronome markings) at the beginning of each major section, which aid in your At nine and eleven bars after 91 conduct the 5/4 as before planning and study. – a four gesture with an extra beat in the center (see Ex. 2). Beginning at three before 92 relax the tempo a bit. Begin at quarter note = 63. At four or three bars before The soprano sits after 92. 103, move slightly toward quarter note = 72, reaching that tempo at 103. At 104, begin to move the tempo At four bars before rehearsal 93 warn the Chamber again, reaching quarter note = 84 at rehearsal 105. This Orchestra as before with the count-down with the left tempo is maintained until seven bars after 107, where the hand. At 93 Britten, in his excellent recording, waits about tempo pushes ahead slightly, reaching quarter note = 88 10 beats (quarter note of preceding section = 69) on this at 108. fermata. The new tempo is very slow, eighth note = 69. At three after 93, conduct a subdivided four (8/8, with The Soprano soloist stands at the sixth bar after 107. eighth note = 88-92) for the flute and clarinet, and use Note, beginning at 105, the different meters for the same tempo each time this passage occurs. At one before orchestra and the soloist and chorus. Conduct the section 94, conduct a subdivided 2/4. Follow Britten’s tempo beginning at 108 in four bar phrases (subtly, with one indications exactly, so that the half note at 94 equals the beat per 3/4 bar in the orchestra) unless the chorus needs preceding eighth note. At the end of the Sanctus, the to see these four beats per (their) measure. Should the baritone and Chorus sit. Soprano decide against singing the high C at 110, the following change to the melodic line could be made, which 5. AGNUS DEI (tenor soloist stands, chorus sings seated) would involve a slight re-orchestration in the flute, oboe and clarinet (Ex. 9). This section must be flowing, with each sixteenth note conducted, using the four pattern with an extra beat in 110 is marked “very lively” with a tempo of 92 per beat the center (see Ex. 2). unit. The conductor continues to beat the clear four-bar

Example 8

34 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 phrases (actually four beat measures for the chorus and 3/4 and the second beginning with three 2/2 bars and the soprano), which helps the performers with accurate huge climax of two 3/4 bars. At five before 116, I do not counting and also will help you in giving the right cues. go back to conducting in 2, but continue to beat the Five and six bars after 111 is a two bar phrase— you quarter notes in four, to better control the stretch into could consider the first six measures of 111 as a phrase (and within) the final 3/4 measures. of 3 whole notes, subdivided. 116 is the sonic climax of the piece, and also is very difficult The three measures before 113 could be beaten as a for the chorus. The tempo is a broad 4/4 (in the orchestra) large three pattern, to support the crescendo and to set with quarter note = 63. This means that each measure of up and clarify the tempo in the new and very challenging the chorus equals one beat in the orchestra. The chorus section, with its irregular meters. Do not slacken the gradual needs a very clear gesture to sing their entrances accelerando, so that you arrive at half note = 96 at 113. accurately. Because this section needs as much vocal volume as possible I suggest that you have all the women The section beginning at rehearsal 113 is extremely difficult sing all soprano and alto entrances through four before for the chorus and soprano. Conduct the 2/2 bars in 2, 117, and have all men sing the first bass entrance (10 of course. The 3/4 measures require three small, clear chorus measures after 116), with tenors jumping up to precise beats– do not fall into the temptation of conducting their entrance that follows in the next bar. Beginning at these triple-meter measures in one! This section, between two before 117 the singers return to singing only their 113 and 115, consists of clearly defined phrases, each own parts. phrase beginning with the sopranos of the chorus. The first two phrases (“Dies illa” and “dies irae”) are each For the orchestra, give a very strong cue to the percussion four measures long. The next phrase (“calamitatis”) is and organ at 116. Bring out the horn color with the five measures long. At 114, the phrase (“et miseriae”) is crescendo and decrescendo, with the maximum volume six measures long, and the following phrase (“dies at four orchestral measures after 116, and again at six magna”) is four measures long. The ten measures of after 116. The trumpets peak at three and five bars after 115–116 are really two connected phrases, the first in 116. Make a long diminuendo and calando down to

Example 9

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 35 118. And at four (orchestra) measures before 118, warn the the left hand, due to the faster tempo and the ensemble Chamber Orchestra with the left hand countdown as before. problems in the next bar. This passage is quite metrically complicated, and one needs to pay strict attention to the At this point there is a major decision to be made by the composer’s use of the dotted bar lines. At two before conductor and the chorus master: should the chorus 123, conduct in four with flexible rubato. At one before remain standing through to the end or sit, and if they should 123, beat four plus two. At two after 123 conduct, with sit, when? My personal feeling is that it is very taxing for the left hand, 3 + 4 + 3 (again as clearly indicated in by the chorus to stand for such a long time. But more the dotted bar lines). And at four after 123, conduct in importantly, I feel it is totally contrary to the drama of the two (following the composer’s dotted lines), followed piece to have so many “witnesses” present during the by two measures in three and the fermata. unfolding of the story between the two soldiers. If the chorus sits at 118, even quietly and gracefully, it is visually At three and one before 124, do not conduct the clarinet very disturbing after the long quietening of the dynamics, and flute solos. As you will have done with the brass the lightening of the texture, and the slowing of the tempo. players and their solo material in the Dies irae, you should The tenor and bass soloists should be left totally alone at 118! work out how these kinds of passages are to be played in a private session with your wind players well in advance Because of this concern about the drama, I made the of the first rehearsal. decision that the chorus should sit down by section, when they are finished singing their last part: sopranos sit at six Conduct quarter notes throughout the section that begins chorus bars after 117, altos at fourteen chorus bars after at 124, subdividing the 3/2 and conducting the 5/4 in the 117, basses at seventeen chorus bars after 117 and tenors four pattern with an extra beat in the center (see Ex.2). two chorus bars before 118. This can imply that the Follow the subtle changes of tempo carefully, for they chorus will sing the Epilogue (“In Paradisum,” at 131) are vital to the piece. At one before 126, the tempo while seated, which, to me is perfectly acceptable should be quarter note = 80. Conduct this large bar in musically and dramatically. 2/4 + 2/4 + 4/4 with a fermata on the final half note, with diminuendo. The preparatory beat for the winds and bass At 118, there is a long-breathed, rhythmically flexible tenor comes on the baritone’s word “from” (in this bar), which recitative. Give one downbeat for each orchestral is also the release for the strings and flute. At five after measure. Give the chord changes, being sure to connect 126, the fermata should be very long before “I am the with the tenor soloist precisely. At 119, the composer enemy you killed, my friend,” for the drama requires the begins to show metrical subdivisions of the larger measures long silence. At two before 127, subtly warn the Chorus, by the use of dotted bar lines for various instruments in Boys’ Choir, and their director visually with eyes or a the Chamber Orchestra. This is first apparent in the raised finger. strings, where you should conduct the small crescendi with the left hand, using a 2/4 pattern, while holding the At 127 the Epilogue begins, a most incredible, emotional, rest of the orchestra with the baton. and deeply moving ending to this masterpiece. And it provides the conductor with one last challenge in terms The baritone soloist stands at rehearsal 120, and you of precision, ensemble, coordination, and mood! If the conduct the three measures in a slow four, with quarter Boys’ Choir director is sitting in front of them (or leading note = 60. At one before 121 and at 121, beat four with them if they are in the balcony or off stage), then he/she the baton for the entire Chamber Orchestra. Then return can clearly lead the young singers throughout this passage. to marking each measure in one. Do not conduct the solos It is otherwise impossible to coordinate the sections the of the oboe, bassoon, or harp (unless they absolutely Boys sing that are in a different tempo than the other forces. need it, then do it with small, subtle gestures of the left hand). It is best to spend time coaching these players At one before 127, release the strings on the final eighth separately, so they play these passages unaided. note, but send the point of the baton up as if you were on the second beat (Ex. 10). From this position only a However, at two before 123 one needs to conduct with downbeat is necessary and sufficient. The tenor soloist

36 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 and the boys stand just after the orchestral music begins. fourteenth count for the organ and a downbeat for the Boys’ next entrance (“Chorus Angelorum. . . ”). At 127, the orchestral music, with the Tenor and Bass soloists, is in two four-bar phrases. Cue the organ at 128, At three after 131, cue the Chorus altos, flute 2, and and stop conducting at the orchestral fermata, but continue especially second violins! From eight before 132, there to count five beats of the Boys’ music. You will resume are two four bar phrases. The Boys’ Choir director the beat on the downbeat (eighth note rest in Chamber counts six beats, starting on the measure following their Orchestra), coordinating with the end of the Boys’- Choir release of. . . “suscipiat,” and cues the organ and Boys passage, and beat the seven bars, holding on the fermata on the sixth beat, which is the beat before rehearsal 132. of the eighth bar. When the Boys’ Choir reaches the final syllable of their first passage (“An-ge-li”), their director From 132, I suggest the following phrase structure: starts counting eight beats (“li” = beat one), while watching • five measures the conductor. Their release should be on the tied quarter • six measures (the Soprano soloist stands ad note, the third beat. On the eighth counted beat (five libitum) beats into 129) the director cues the Boys. • four measures (Soprano soloist enters on the third measure of this phrase, at 133) At six measures after 129, stop on the downbeat, count • four measures (with entrance of trombones) three beats, and on the third beat, cue the double basses. • four measures The Chamber Orchestra and soloists have a six-measure • five measures, to 134 phrase that goes to 130, followed by a diminuendo and • five measures release on the eighth rest at the end of two after 130. • five measures, to release of the Tutti at one after 135 Count five beats of the Boys’ music, cueing the clarinet, The organ must be cued at one bar before 135, with a harp, and double bass on the fifth beat. clear cue to the chimes on the second beat.

While this has been going on, the Boys have sung through The Boys’ Choir director should conduct these final two the text “Martyres.” The director counts eight beats, measures (“Requiem aeternam dona eis Domine”) in starting on the syllable. . . ”res,” releasing the boys on the a subdivided 3/2. I suggest that the Choir enter a little third beat (which is the tied quarter note). The eighth beat late, after the Tutti release, in case the acoustical resonance is the preparatory beat for their next entrance. blurs their first note. Their final pitch should be held over the bar line, to connect with the following chorus entrance. From the Chamber Orchestra entrance after 130 there are seven measures: a four-bar phrase and a three-bar Clearly cue the Chorus and Orchestra after 135. Do not phrase. At three measures before 131, warn Orchestra forget to cue the last entrance of the chimes. The final and Chorus basses with the left hand countdown. Give a release of each ensemble must be exact: the Chamber clear cue one beat before 131. Orchestra on the last eighth note and the Full Orchestra after they hear the final bells entrance. Let the bells vibrate. During this, the Boys’ Choir has reached the text “Jerusalem.” The director starts counting fourteen beats Conduct the final Chorale with the same style of gesture at the syllable “lem,” releasing the choir on the third beat as at 16 and 60. Give the final release of the “n” of (tied quarter note). Give a preparatory beat on the “Amen” gently, with the arms staying up, to prevent premature applause. Let your arms down slowly.

APPENDIX

In this discussion of the conducting problems associated with the Boys’ Choir, I shall refer to their conductor as “director” and to the conductor of the large forces as Example 10 “conductor.” The following are suggestions for both

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 37 conductors to help assure synchronization of the Boys On the last syllable “lem” of “Jerusalem,” start counting with the rest of the forces. The director of the Boys’ Choir fourteen beats, releasing the Boys and organ on the third should have the opportunity to read this entire article. beat (tied quarter note). The fourteenth beat is the preparatory beat for the organ, and the organ entrance is Rehearsal 77: The conductor will cue the organ on the the preparatory beat for the Boys’ “Chorus second beat of the second orchestral measure, and the Angelorum.” On the measure following the Boys’ release Boys should stand on that chord. The organist will adopt of “suscipiat,” the director begins counting six beats, the tempo quarter note = 60 (I suggest checking that and cues the organ and the Boys on the sixth beat (one with a pocket metronome, even at the performance). The beat before 132). director should count seven measures of the organ introduction and then cue the Boys on the eighth measure, One measure before 135, the organ should be cued by maintaining the tempo strictly. The Boys sit at 79 (after the conductor. I suggest that the Boys’ Choir entrance at the organ finishes and the orchestra begins). one after 135 be a little late, in case acoustical resonance might blur the first note. This “Requiem aeternam” can Rehearsal 127, the Boys’ Chorus stands after the be conducted in a subdivided 3/2. The final note of this Chamber Orchestra begins. Whether the Boys are seated passage should be held over the bar line, to connect with on stage or located in a balcony, it is imperative that the the following Full Chorus entrance. director should be able to follow the conductor’s beat, either by a direct line of sight or use of video monitor. The Boys’ entrance, “et lux perpetua,” one measure The conductor will cue the organ at 128. If the organist after 136, should be similarly a little late, again conducted cannot see the conductor, then the director will give this in a subdivided 3/2 with a slight stretch before the last cue and will conduct the Boys in absolutely strict tempo, note, which again should not be released before the Full following the tempos established by the conductor Chorus enters. (quarter note = 60, I hope!). PLACEMENT OF THE BOYS’ CHORUS: The composer On the last syllable “li” of “Angeli” the director starts indicates that the sound of the Boys Choir should be counting eight beats (while watching the conductor), “distant.” An ideal solution is to seat the Choir in a release the Boys and the organ on the third beat (tied balcony, with a portative organ or harmonium with them quarter note). On the eighth beat (which is the fifth beat (or even an electric keyboard that has an acceptable organ after 129), cue the Boys and the organ (If retaining pitch sound, with adjustable volume). The director should be is a problem, the organist could play a C# on the beat able to see both the organist and the conductor clearly. before the entrance, as in Ex. 11). Should the Boys’ Choir have to be seated on the stage, Four orchestral bars before 130, on the last syllable “res” the director can sit in front of them (at the back of the of “Martyres,” start counting eight beats; release the orchestra), in an unobtrusive location, where she/he can Boys on the third beat (tied quarter note). The eighth clearly see the conductor. beat that you are counting is the preparatory beat for the next Boys entrance. ***** Paul Vermel is Music Director and Conductor of the Northwest Symphony and the North Suburban Symphony in Illinois, and a faculty member of the Conductors Institute at the University of South Carolina. He is Professor of Music, Emeritus, of the University of Illinois, Conductor Laureate of the Portland (ME) Symphony and also served as director of the conducting program at the Aspen Music Example 11 Festival.

38 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Mozart’s Musical Aesthetics

By Benjamin Simkin, M.D.

At a recent Bio Music Symposium several provocative assaulting anyone’s ears.” observations and concepts concerning the neurobiology of music were aired.1 The world is filled with innumerable Mozart further developed this theme in a subsequent letter natural sounds (“soundscape”). From prehistoric times to his father from Paris (June 12, 1778): “The human every known human culture has had music. Recent voice vibrates naturally— but in such a way— to such a advances in audio technology revealed several musical degree that it all sounds beautiful— it is the nature of the commonalities in the songs of whales, birds, and humans voice. We imitate such effects not only on wind (rhythms, keys, scales, phrase and song construction, use instruments, but also on violins even on the clavier— but of “instruments”). These observations led to the concept as soon as you go beyond the natural limits, it no longer of A Universal Music.2 Musical sounds form an exciting sounds beautiful— because it is contrary to nature.” natural conduit between members of our own species. This explains why we find so much meaning and emotion in Mozart also applied the concept of “natural music” to music without our ability to verbalize this. The roots of musical performance. For one thing, he repeatedly music may be closer to our ancient lizard brain than to our stressed fitting an aria to suit a particular singer’s voice. more recent reasoning cortex, preceding human language. For example, in a letter to his father (Dec. 3, 1778) he wrote: “Don’t give the aria (‘non so, d’onde viene’) to MOZART ON “NATURAL MUSIC” anyone, for it was written solely for her (Aloysia Weber) and fits her like a garment that was tailored just for her.” In his excellent English translation of Mozart’s letters (from the vernacular German) Spaethling3 perceptively noted In another letter (Feb. 28, 1778) Mozart wrote of Mozart’s emphasis on “natural music” as a mainstay of his composing an aria for a celebrated aging tenor, Anton musical aesthetics. This included creative composition, Raaff: “I will arrange the aria for him in such a way that musical performance, and audience response. Mozart had he would certainly enjoy singing it, for I love it when an no time for musical theorists who composed “bad music,” aria is so accurately measured for a singer’s voice that it and throughout his life anxiously sought and rejoiced in fits like a well-tailored dress.” audience approval of his musical performances and compositions. By the same token Mozart was disdainful of unnatural performance gimmickry. He expressed this in his own Mozart first mentioned “natural music” in a letter to his inimitable style in a letter to his father (Oct. 31, 1783): father from Augsburg (Oct. 14, 1777), describing a “Tell Gretl from me, she should not strike such coy poses performance of a flute concerto composed by F.H. Graf when she sings in performance; kisses and flatteries are (flutist, composer, and Music Director at Augsburg)3,4: not always appropriate.— Only dumb asses fall for such “The concerto was like this: not good for the ear; not tricks.— I myself would prefer a simple peasant lad who natural; he often marches into his tones with too much is not ashamed to shit and piss right in front of me to such heaviness; and everything was without the slightest bit insincere cajoling, which is so thick that you can grasp it of magic.” Mozart then played the clavier “without with your hands.”

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 39 MOZART ON MUSICAL THEORISTS JACQUES BARZUN ON TWENTIETH CENTURY MUSIC

Apropos of the current musical scene, Mozart’s derisive Mozart’s Vogler critique also foretold the dichotomy of comments concerning Abbé Georg Joseph Vogler’s music much of 20th-century music, summarized by music are of interest. Vogler (1749-1814) was Deputy historian Jacques Barzun, as follows.5 Kapellmeister at the Mannheim princely court (the seat of the famed Mannheim Orchestra), and founder of the A small group of musicians, the Bruiteurs (noise makers), Tonschule, a music academy where he taught his musical such as John Cage, “reverted to the eloquence of pure theories. On Nov. 4, 1777, Mozart wrote to his father: noise” and “carefully measured silence” with its own “Kapellmeister Vogler is a dreary musical jester, an background noises. “Thus, a good deal of 20th century exceedingly conceited and rather incompetent fellow. The music was pedagogical.” whole orchestra dislikes him.” On Nov. 6, 1777, Leopold Mozart replied 4: “Herr Vogler is the person who has It was believed that tonality was played out, resulting in published a treatise on musical composition. He is well chromaticism, polytonality (two or more scales versed in counterpoint and algebra.” On Nov. 13, 1777, simultaneously), and then atonality (no scales). Wolfgang countered: “He (Vogler) produced a Miserere “Schoenberg devised the system called serial (12-tone which cannot be listened to, for it sounds all wrong. row), which attracted many musicians while repelling Hearing that his composition was not receiving much praise, most audiences. The reason for this was that serial Vogler went to the Elector and complained that the composition appeals to the mind rather than the ear.” orchestra were playing it badly on purpose.— The whole “After the example of Schoenberg, Boulez, Pousseur and orchestra, from A to Z, detest him. His book is more useful Stockhausen, some serialists employed mathematics to for teaching arithmetic than for teaching composition.” ascertain possibilities.” Some used computers to make the choices at random. Technique, ingenuity, chance and Mozart’s summary assessment of Vogler’s music was scientism displaced tonally ordered expressiveness. written in a follow up letter to his father on Nov. 20, 1777: Barzun concluded that “serial composition does not favor the lyric voice-melody.” I went to the service, brand new music composed by Vogler. I have never in my life At the close of the 20th century, a new technique was heard such stuff. In many places the parts developed, the synthesizer. This was a device by which simply do not harmonize. He modulates in such a violent way as to make you think that he is any note, rhythm or tone color could be produced in any resolved to drag you with him by the scruff of desired volume and immediately recorded on tape— the neck. No, it is all clumsy plunging— if I “electronic music.” This electronic music, like the hear an idea which is not at all bad— it will percussive genre, enabled a composer to echo the certainly not remain not at all bad for long, violence and harshness of life. As stated by Stockhausen, but will soon become beautiful? God forbid!— bad and thoroughly bad. Either another idea “I try to put the performer in tune with the currents going comes along and ruins it; or he does not round through me— transmitting not a music, but vibrations that it off naturally enough; or it is not in the right come from a higher region.”5 place; or it is ruined by the instrumentation. That’s Vogler’s music. MOZART ON AUDIENCE APPROVAL

This commentary was all the more incisive in view of As already stated, Mozart sought and reveled in audience Joseph Haydn’s famous 1785 accolade of Wolfgang approval throughout his career, from both the cognoscenti Mozart: “Before God and as an honest man I tell you and the unlearned. On his ill-fated 1778 trip to Paris and that your son is the greatest composer known to me either despite his contempt of the French, grief-stricken in person or by name. He has taste and, what is more, Wolfgang wrote to his father within hours after his the most profound knowledge of composition.” mother’s death on the night of July 3: 3,4

40 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 My dear mother is very ill.— I have had to Thun’s beautiful Stein pianoforte. Whenever compose a symphony (K.297) for the opening I have played this program in public, I have of the Concert Spirituel. It was performed— always won the greatest applause because with great applause, and there was a notice the items set one another off so well, and in the Courier de L’Europe— so it has given because everyone has something to his taste. great satisfaction. I was very nervous at the rehearsal, for never in my life have I heard a worse performance. (At the concert) Raaff Shortly thereafter, on April 8, 1781, Mozart reported: “I was standing beside me— the symphony told you about the applause in the theater, but— what began, and just in the middle of the first delighted and surprised me most of all was the amazing Allegro there was a passage which I felt sure must please. The audience were quite carried silence— and also the cries of ‘Bravo!’ while I was playing. away— and there was a tremendous burst of This is certainly honor enough in Vienna, where there are applause. But as I knew, when I wrote it, what such numbers and numbers of good pianists.” effect it would surely produce, I have introduced the passage again at the close— Lastly, in a letter dated Dec. 28, 1782, Mozart further when there were shouts of ‘Da capo.’— I began the last movement (softly) for the first 8 bars, reported to his father: followed instantly by a forte; the audience, as I expected, said ‘hush’ at the soft beginning, I have so much to do that often I do not know and when they heard the forte, began at once whether I am on my head or on my heels. — to clap their hands.— I was so delighted, (that There are still two piano concertos wanting to after the Sinfonie) I bought myself an ice cream, make up the series of subscription concertos prayed a rosary, and went home. (K413-15). These concertos are a happy medium between what is too easy and too difficult; they are very brilliant, pleasing to the ear, and natural In November of 1780, Mozart went to Munich to without being vapid. There are passages here complete his opera seria, Idomeneo, commissioned for and there from which the connoisseurs alone the forthcoming carnival season, and the subject of an can derive satisfaction; but these passages are ongoing correspondence with his father back in Salzburg. written in such a way that the less learned cannot On Dec. 11, 1780, Leopold cautioned his son: “I advise fail to be pleased, though without knowing why. you, when composing, to consider not only the musical, — The golden mean of truth in all things is no but also the unmusical public. You must remember that longer either known or appreciated. In order to to every ten real connoisseurs there are a hundred win applause one must write stuff which is so ignoramuses. So do not neglect the so called popular inane that a coachman could sing it, or so unintelligible that it pleases precisely because style, which tickles long ears.” no sensible man can understand it.

To which, Wolfgang replied on Dec. 16: “As for what is MOZART ON MUSICAL PERFORMANCE called the popular taste, do not be uneasy, for there is music in my opera for all kinds of people, but not for the Mozart had definite concepts concerning musical long-eared.” performance. As already stated, he had no time for performance gimmickry. He favored performance directed At the successful peak of his Viennese concert career, in at the collective emotional heart of his audience. For example, letters to his father, Mozart provided several in a letter to his father from Mannheim (Nov. 13, 1777) he commentaries on pleasing his aristocratic public. On wrote: “I played the sonatas of Mysliwecek in Munich. They March 24, 1781, he wrote: are quite easy and good to listen to. My advice to my sister— is to play them with much expression, temperament, and (For the Emperor) I should not have played a fire; and to learn them by heart. They are sonatas bound to concerto, but I should have extemporized and played a fugue and then the Sinfothe be popular with audiences, they are easy to memorize, and variations on ‘Je suis Lindor’ on Countess if played with the proper precision, they draw attention.”

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 41 On July 30, 1778, Mozart wrote a tutorial letter to his beloved 17-year-old protégé, Aloysia Weber, a budding operatic soprano:

You will make me very happy if you apply yourself completely to my Andromeda scena ‘Ah, lo previdi’ (K. 272), for it will suit you admirably and you will do yourself great credit with it. I particularly advise you to pay attention to the expression marks— to think carefully about the meaning and the force of the words— to put yourself in all seriousness into Andromeda’s situation and position!— and to imagine that you really are that very person. With your beautiful voice and your fine method of producing it you will soon become an excellent singer.

In their life-long correspondence, pedagogue Leopold Mozart and his savant son, Wolfgang, stressed the following basic musical performance principles: • The ideal sound of any musical instrument should strive to imitate the human voice. • Strict time is essential to music, even in tempo rubato. • Play music with expression, taste, fire, and precision. • Play accurately and precisely as marked by the composer. • “It’s the Musique that is the main thing in an opera.”

To summarize, anticipating by more than 200 years the current neurobiologic concept of “a universal music” as a pre-language conduit of emotional communication in the human species, Mozart espoused “natural music” as the cornerstone of his musical aesthetics. This encompassed musical composition, performance and audience receptivity. He was disdainful of music that was “not good for the ear” and “assaulted anyone’s ears,” performance gimmickry, musical theorists, and musical mathematics. Imitation of the human voice was the cornerstone of “natural music” regardless of the particular instrument played (strings, winds, pianoforte). Nevertheless, Mozart constantly sought new sounds and better instruments (basset horn, clarinet, hunting horn, pianoforte). He also composed the contemporary theater music of his time, Italian opera buffa and German Singspiel. No matter the music, he always sought audience approval and the golden mean of the satisfaction of both the musically learned and unlearned.

END NOTES

1 Bio Music Symposium. AAAS Annual Meeting, 2000. 2 Gray PM, Krause B, Atema J., Payne R., Krumhansl C., Baptista L., “The music of nature and the nature of music”. Science 2001; 305:52-54. 3 Spaethling R., Mozart’s Letters, Mozart’s Life. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. 4 Anderson E., ed. The Letters of Mozart and His Family. New York: Norton, 1985. 5 Barzun, J. “The Artist as Prophet and Jester”. The American Scholar 2000; 69:15-33.

*****

Dr. Simkin is Emeritus Attending Physician, Division of Endocrinology, Dept. of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA. He has published a number of articles in medical and musical journals, and is the author of a recent book, Medical and Musical Byways of Mozartiana.

42 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Establishment of the Orchestra

By Robert Ricks

HOW THE ORCHESTRA TOOK ROOT AT THE have as many trumpets and other martial instruments as COURT OF LOUIS XIV possible. . .” He also “hoped there would be no fidles.”5 “Fidles,” of course, are the core of an orchestra and, as When the violinist and dancer Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632- Neal Zaslaw has shown, violins, not viols, were to 1687) was appointed composer of instrumental music at became the nucleus of this emerging ensemble.6 Louis the court of Louis XIV in 1653, he had at his disposal a XIV had inherited from his father the famous Vingt- number of musical organizations whose duty was the quatre violons du Roy and we should note that the enhancement of the splendor of the Grand Monarque. prestige of such groups as his Grande Bande caused a There was, of course, a trumpet corps. Since ancient rise in the social status of the violin and its players. times trumpets had been used to signal a ruler’s troops in time of war but as part of the musicians of the Grand BEER FIDDLERS Ecurie, a ceremonial body under the Master of the Horse, trumpets were also used to reinforce the “terrifying In the 16th century the viol was said to be played by majesty1 of Louis XIV in stately parades. The King also “gentlemen, merchants and other men of virtue,” but the had 24 trumpeters of the royal bodyguard who were violin was said to be played by professionals! Certainly officers with the rank of chevalier. They answered only not gentlemen, and perhaps not even virtuous, these to the king and the four best players, on horseback as in musicians were members of the lower classes who played a Hollywood epic, were always on call to precede the for dancing in the streets and in taverns. So strong was royal coach.2 this association with dancing in taverns that it even lingered on into Bach’s day. When his Leipzig rector came upon a Also part of the Grand Ecurie were three oboe bands: student practicing, he would “exclaim: ‘What! You want to 8 The 12 Grands hautbois du roi, (10 oboes of various be a beer-fiddler, too?’” No such condescension was found sizes and 2 bassoons) the 6 Hautbois et musettes de at the court of Louis XIV. There, the King himself danced Poitou, and the 8 oboes of the musqueteers.3 beside Lully to the music of violins in the Ballet de cour. Generations of Philidors and Hotteterres were members The old viols had been fine for polyphony but they could of these bands and, as famous woodwind players and not accent heavily enough to be as effective in dance music. instrument makers, were prominent in the on-going Violins, on the other hand, thought to be powerful enough development of the oboe from the shawm. Louis’ oboe to make one’s “Ear Glow,”9 were excellent for dancing bands became the military bands of the day and were so and Georg Muffat said that Lully’s violins “inspired, in spite widely copied that even in Germany, “hautboist” became of oneself” the desire to dance.10 The prompting of this the name for any military musician. 4 urge to dance, however, did not come without difficulty.

Trumpets and oboes long remained the military instruments Lully had not been pleased with the playing of the 24 and of Europe and when Handel was to compose music for had called them “maitres aliborons,” jackasses!11 A the Royal Fireworks, Britain’s George II wanted him “to first-rate violinist himself, Lully formed the petits violons

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 43 (originally 16 players, but later 21) which he drilled into To his disciplined group of strings, Lully added the King’s such a disciplined ensemble that in 1664 he was also oboes and trumpets, creating a permanent ensemble with made conductor of the grands violons themselves. stable instrumentation which was of such magnificence that it was widely imitated. In order to seek the grandeur Although they were all members of the violin family and of the most splendid court of Europe, even minor courts the entire ensemble was called “violins” in the score, had to have an orchestra. “By aping the least” of Louis’ only the top part (dessus) of Lully’s five-part strings used ways, German princes spoke bad French, wore French the size of instrument that we would today call a violin. clothes and wigs and now they must have orchestral music The dessus used the French violin clef with G on the lst to help them appear to be “little Sun Kings.” 16 line (Gl), and the bass (in bass clef) was played by the basse de violon, something like a large cello tuned a But few could hope to emulate Louis when it came to the whole step below today’s instrument. (The cello came to entertainments he gave to impress guests such as visiting France only in the early 18th century and Lully never used ambassadors. For these displays, the petits and grands a 16’ double bass.) violons could be combined, making a total of 45 strings which were used with appropriate numbers of oboes (who The three inner parts were the haute-contre, whose C- doubled on recorders), and trumpets from the Ecurie. clef was on the first line (C1), the taille, (C2) and the quinte (C3). Each of these parts was played by violas, THE ORCHESTRA IN GREAT SHINING CLOUDS tuned as is today’s instrument, but each increased in size from haute-contre to taille to quinte. In keeping with These spectacles, traced back to the intermedio of the the polarity of the outer voices of Baroque style, Lully’s Renaissance, were presented not just for their artistic distribution of parts was 6,4,4,4,6 with more players on merits, but also to show off the spending power of a the top and bottom voices than on any inner part. These powerful ruler. In an intermedio, one scene would inner parts were frequently harmonic filler and, except magically ‘morph’ into another and characters would fly for fugal entries, Lully normally left them to be composed through the air aided by elaborate machines. In 1600 a by his assistants. particularly extravagant production in Florence had required 100 musicians and also 1,000 men who were NO MORE HEAD CHARTS needed to work the machinery.17 The expense, of course, was enormous, but Louis XIV had the wherewithal for The composition of inner parts that “not a soul will hear” equally opulent displays. In 1671, in a performance of was said by Wagner to be where “the pleasure of working Lully’s ballet Psyche at the Tuileries, more than 100 really lies,”12 but orchestration in the 17th Century was in costumed musicians took part and, in the finale, the whole its initial stages and the notation of inner parts (even if by orchestra was lifted by machines that formed “great shining Lully’s assistants) was actually a progressive step. Before clouds. . . ” 18 By today’s standards, the size of the crew Lully’s time, performances of the 24 violons had been backstage in such productions would be absurd and the so informal that “those who played the bass and inner necessary rehearsal time equally incredible but as King of parts. . . most often composed them on the Spot.”13 France, Louis felt that all the money of the realm belonged Centuries later, Dizzy Gillespie would call such to him personally and regularly paid for such extravaganzas. improvisation as this the use of “head arrangements”14 but Lully’s written-out scores stopped that. He also MOZART’S LARGE VIOLAS prohibited the every-man-for-himself improvised ornamentation that had prevailed. Ornamentation was It is not surprising that Lully became known outside worked out in rehearsal and strictly followed: “You’re France. The German composer Georg Muffat was in the one, that is not in your part” he would cry.15 And Paris from 1663 to 1669 to study Lully’s style which he further demonstrating the strong leadership that Zaslaw took to Vienna, Prague, and Salzburg before settling in shows is necessary for an orchestra, uniform bowing (as Passau. In the preface to his Florilegium Secundum, a we shall see) was demanded. collection of 62 dances published in 1698, Muffat

44 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 describes in German, French, Latin, and Italian the French says “It is most useful for the precision of the beat to manner of playing airs de ballet “according to the Late indicate each one with a small motion of the foot; the Monsieur Lully’s Method.”19 Emulating Lully’s scoring, Lullists do it that way.” Dressed in our white ties and Muffat’s dances are for 5-part strings and, even in this tails, we may find patting the foot a bit indecorous but German publication, he labels his parts with French terms. England’s Charles II, who had lived in exile at the French Five-part strings can still be found in Germany as late as court, would probably have appreciated this point. On Bach’s Christ lag in Todesbanden but Bach’s scoring is his return to England, Charles formed his own 24 Violins for two violins, two violas, and bass. Muffat, anticipating but he would not allow them to play “any musick to which 25 the downfall of all those violas, cautions against using a he could not keep the time.” violin on the haute-contre and recommends that it be played on a “medium-sized” viola. Large violas must also LULLY BREAKS A UNION have followed Lully’s scoring to Salzburg and remained there for some time. Nikolaus Harnoncourt says that A further step in the establishment of the orchestra as a Mozart’s violas were very large, allowing him to use a permanent institution came in 1672 when the King gave small number of players.20 These large instruments, for Lully control of the Academie royale de musique, better playing the quinte, the lowest of the viola parts, were known as the Paris Opera. The Opera was to be later cut down in size to make them easier to play when supported by a paying public and Lully’s predecessors viola parts became more demanding. were given the privilege of posting guards to make sure that even officers of the King’s household had to pay to What, according to Muffat, was notable in Lully’s style attend. Because the King’s players could not play in such of performance? Accuracy of intonation was insisted upon public performances, Lully now had to deal with the and (who has not wished for this privilege?) Muffat states orchestra of the opera, paid musicians who belonged to that one should not play with those who play out of tune. a union. In response to this new situation, Lully seems to He endorses true half steps and says that vibrato or similar have become a “union buster.” “tricks” do great harm to true intervals.”21 In August of 1673, just months after the premier of his 1000 VIOLONS SIGHT-READING first opera, Lully obtained the release of the WITH THE SAME BOWING? instrumentalists of the Opera from the Corporation des jouers d7 instruments which had governed the musicians Muffat then praises Lully’s insistence on uniform bowing of France since 1321. It seems that the rules of this as “necessary for marking the dance-movement.” organization conflicted with Lully’s method of work which Although he says such bowing was not found even among “required a large number of rehearsals” but such was his excellent German players, it was said that, using uniform power that his players were “liberated” from this bowing, “a thousand French musicians could sight-read venerable institution.26 a piece of music as one man. . .”22 In order to play in Lully’s style, Muffat says that the movements of the dance LULLY BREAKS A VIOLIN OVER THE BACK OF A PLAYER must be marked “so well that one may recognize immediately to which type each piece belongs. . . ”23 This is done by placing down bows on down beats so Lully now had the rehearsal time and the despotic power vigorously that the meter of the dance is emphatically to present performances remembered long after his death. underscored. Zaslaw says that to ignore such bowings In 1706, Le Cerf de la Vieville found that performances “is to commit in instrumental music a crime comparable at the Opera had grown careless and recalled the days to that which a vocalist would commit by ignoring the when Lully, enjoying what we might sometimes think an correct pronunciation and accentuation of the words.”24 enviable privilege, “would smash a violin over the back of a player who did not please him.” 27 Le Cerf also said PAT Y OUR FOOT that under Lully, “the women-singers would not have had colds six months in the year, nor would the men-singers So insistent is Muffat on the accentuation of beats that he have been drunk four times a week.”

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 45 Previously known as a composer of ballets, when Lully THE FIRST A UDITION PIECE? gained control of the Academie, he began to compose operas in which divertissements served as an excuse By later standards we find little of a demonic nature in for “miniature ballets.”28 Not just sequences of menuets, this Air but the 16th-note runs and jagged rhythms must bourees and the like, these divertissements depicted have seemed exciting to an audience hearing such music scenes from mythology, battles, invocations, heroic deeds, played for the first time by a disciplined orchestra. Perhaps and other concepts that provided spectacular diversions Lully’s players were also excited by the rhythmic precision from the plot of the opera. Lully thus had the opportunity required to synchronize such passages as the bars marked to provide orchestral music for these dances and the with brackets even if the rhythms themselves are less music to which the dancers come on stage. And once on complex than those in Ex.1 from Atys which was Lully’s stage, the dancers danced not only ‘dances,’ they also customary audition piece, chosen as a test for rhythmic danced while the chorus sang. In the words of Lois accuracy.32 Because his strings played only in the first Rosow, Lully’s opera chorus “was no more mobile than position (with an occasional extension to c’” in the violins) the scenery” and, in contrast to opera choruses today, Lully had little need to test a player’s intonation. And if the singers stood stock still, providing the words while the audition piece doesn’t even hint at the technical masked dancers acted them out.29 demands of later music, we should remember that only a short time before, players were improvising their own parts. NO HIPPOS IN TUTUS Tempo markings are rare in Lully’s scores and his Some dances were allegorical and were based on subjects deliberate marking of a rapid tempo must mean that he with which we are familiar from later music; Phaeton expected the Air to be taken exceptionally fast. As contains not only “The Dance of the Hours,” but also mentioned before, performance standards at the Opera “The Four Seasons.” But don’t expect Disney’s hippos- had slackened after Lully’s death and his tempos were in-tutus or the virtuosity of Vivaldi because Lully’s so slowed down that Etienne Loulie interviewed Lully’s orchestral efforts are reserved for the magical actions in former players and, using a sort of metronome that he the librettos of Quinault. But because extreme had invented for the purpose, tried to reestablish Lully’s 33 emotionalism was avoided in the texts of French plays fast tempos.” and operas, Lully had to avoid any “outburst of passion or agitation that would have disturbed the solemn majesty” OBOES AS SURROGATE VIOLINS of the King.30 He was, however, able to depict passionate and brutal situations in the orchestra. Lully may be justly The Air is a good example of Lully’s scoring for 5-part famous for his French Overtures but his most imaginative strings but what is not shown in the score is that the outer orchestral music can be seen in the Preludes, Entrees, voices are to be doubled by oboes and bassoons. This Ritournelles, and orchestral Airs that Paul Henry Lang doubling is so typical of Lully that it is rarely specified has called “little dream symphonies” which depicted the and, in a far-reaching case of his orchestral influence, the action but avoided the use of words which “would make violin/oboe doubling became what Harnoncourt calls the them too explicit. . .”31 Accordingly, the Air for Demons “true tutti sound of the Baroque orchestra” lasting through and Monsters from Amadis is not sung but is played by the entire era.34 J.S. Bach, calling the instrument by Lully’s the orchestra. name, frequently used this doubling but wrote out his

Example 1: Atys, Entree of the Deadly Dreams (Lully’s Audition Piece)

46 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 hautbois parts. A change to the Classical use of the oboe Arts Florissants recording of Atys is probably occurred when C.P.E. Bach omitted some of his father’s appropriate: 10 Violons, 9 Alti, 8 Basses de violon, 5 oboe doublings in a performance of the Credo of the Flutes a bec, Basse de flute, 5 Hautbois, 2 Tailles de b-minor Mass which he conducted in 1786.35 hautbois, and 3 bassons.40

CONTINUO OR NOT? Lully’s petit choeur was used for his 3-part ritournelles which were normally played by the divided dessus and Like Lully’s overtures and other pieces for full orchestra, the continuo. The descent of Mercury (Ex. 2) from the Air (called a symphonie when it is repeated), has no Proserpine is typical. Mercury, bearing a message from continuo part. Graham Sadler has shown that in Lully’s Jupiter to Ceres, makes a machine-assisted arrival to the day, “chord-playing continuo instruments remained silent brisk accompaniment of Lully’s brightest strings, the during the symphonies.”36 The over-use of the chordal divided violins. If the performance of the Grand choeur continuo is one of the most incorrect aspects of current was precise, the performances of the Petit choeur must Baroque performance and Sadler shows that the continuo have been meticulous because the men of this small group 41 (as well as the oboes) should also be silent in the airs de were Lully’s best players who received extra pay. ballet “which are reserved for the strings.” We know from Muffat that Lully’s strings were so adept in dance That all the players of the dessus did not normally play music that one could hardly keep his feet still when they the ritournelles is shown in an ‘exception that proves played. To allow them free rein in their specialty, in dances the rule’ from Phaeton where a ritournelle “pour tous Lully apparently wanted to keep the other instruments les violins” is found. But because no autograph scores out of their way. and very few parts remain from any of Lully’s own performances, educated guesses must be made as to how many violins normally played in a ritournelle. Christie’s GRAND AND PETIT CHOEUR CD uses six violins. Ritournelles could also be scored for winds, the most common scoring being for oboes and Lully’s orchestra was divided into large and small groups: continuo. Lully’s two oboe parts would be doubled or tripled the Grand choeur and the Petit choeur. The Air for and bassoons would have played on the continuo bass. demons would have been played by the Grand choeur and grand such pieces could be. De La Gorce lists 77 players who were used in a court performance of the In addition to playing in ritournelles, the continuo group ballet Le triomph de l’amour in 1681.37 This precise list played in recits, other solo vocal pieces, and in choruses. of players is apparently unique and the number of players The group could be quite large and the performance of used by Lully in any other performance is unknown but, Le Triomph de 1’amour mentioned above, used two at least at court, where both the Grands and Petits harpsichords and a basse de violon, six basses de viole, 42 Violons could be combined with large numbers of winds, two theorbos, and two lutes. All the instruments were large orchestras were sometimes used. A letter of January not used all the time; the entire group would accompany 1676 concerning the performances of Atys at Saint- choruses and, for solos and small ensembles, Lully had Germain-en-Laye says: “The musicians of the Chamber, his pick of various colors. the Chapel and those of the Ecurie are all there, even the pageboys. Everyone who can sing or play at the Court Occasionally, the continuo is given a few notes on which has been requisitioned.”38 to “prelude,” presumably until things are ready on stage. An interesting case occurs when a slightly embellished form Fair-sized orchestras could also be used at the Palais of the Lament Ground is the theme on which to improvise royal (the home of the Opera in Lully’s day) where the while things are prepared for Scene II of Proserpine. pit held around 49 players, but La Fontaine is only joking when he criticizes Lully by saying “To be successful, one Preluding on the Lament Ground is particularly fitting here needs to have twenty harpsichords and one hundred because Proserpine, abducted to Hades by Pluto, is violins.”39 For modern performances, the number of apologizing to Les Ombres Heureuses (happy spirits) Grand choeur players used on William Christie’s Les for having disturbed their peace: Shades, that I interrupt,

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 47 suffer my sad lament. . . Lament with me of the God who apparitions. (Surely the oboes did not double this passage.) forced me to disturb the sweetness of your happy peace. EMBLEMATIC WINDS Unearthly qualities are depicted by the depth of the string tessitura. In the 17th century, French players used their In another carryover from the Intermedio, Lully’s choice top two strings almost exclusively,43 “but here the violins of winds was, to use Robert Weaver’s term are unusually low, forcing the violas downward so that “programmatic,” using them in the Florentine tradition there is simply no room for the quinte, the lowest and wherein the “identification of particular instruments with fullest-toned viola. In this register, the violins play on their particular subjects was the product of an accumulation rarely used D and G strings which, not yet wound with of ancient traditions.”44 In Lully, this tradition is so strong wire, were pale and wispy, the perfect color for that some of his players frequently appeared on stage

Example 2: Prosperpine, Ritournelle for the Descent of Mercury

48 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 due to the symbolic associations of their instruments. We quick tempo which, we remember, was taken very fast. may find it amusing to leave the pit from time to time to And if Lully’s representation of thunder and lightning in play in the stage band of Don Giovanni, but Lully’s the prologue to Amadis may not compare with the storms players might get to fulfill their programmatic role on stage of Beethoven, Rossini, or Wagner, Lully is planting a seed in four changes of costume! Therefore, in addition to their that will soon grow into a favorite orchestral standard. use as military instruments in the Ecurie and as surrogate Already in 1706, Marin Marais, a member of Lully’s petit violins in the orchestra, oboes had an emblematic role choeur, wrote such an effective storm in his Alcyone that when used on stage. In Thesee, for example, the God of it was even performed as a separate piece.48 War himself indicates their function as pastoral instruments in the sylvan haven of Venus when Mars says: In these As these examples show, the words of the chorus explain trumpet was confined. The lower parts contain some the orchestral imagery of frightful flames, thunder, and notes outside the series but, as with many of Lully’s lightning but Lully should not be faulted for using these trumpet passages, the strings also play and would cover cues. Verbal explanations are just as necessary in these notes. According to Don Smithers, when a player instrumental representations by later composers. If we of a lower part found an unplayable note, he would simply did not know from the stage directions, how would we play a note from the overtone series that fit the harmony.46 know that Wagner is representing fire and that Ravel is Edward Tarr says that French composers normally wrote depicting water? only the parts for the first trumpet and timpani and (shades of the “head charts” of the old quatre vingt violons!) STRAUSS: TWO THIRDS OF THE WORDS ARE LOST left the inner parts to be improvised. Tarr deplores the erroneous use of just one trumpet when the use of other Lully ran into a perennial problem in opera: Is the trumpets was implied. He cites as a significant error the orchestra too loud for the singers? It was said that at the use of just one trumpet in J. J. Mouret’s famous Rondeau Paris Opera, “the voices are ‘almost drowned by the (the theme of “Masterpiece Theater”) when the accompaniment of the harpsichords, theorbos and other improvisation of parts for other trumpets was expected.47 orchestral instruments, which cause the listener to lose part of the melody and almost all the words being sung.’”49 Such improvisation was not the case, however, when Lully, of course, is in good company here. From among Jupiter appears in the final scene of Proserpine. The Bruit the countless composers and conductors who have de trompettes in the Prologue called for improvised notes experienced this problem we cite Richard Strauss. While but for the entrance of the greatest of the Gods, Lully left working on Ariadne Auf Naxos, Strauss stated quite simply nothing to chance: all the notes in this passage fit the that in opera, “two thirds of the words are lost. . .”50 overtone series and no improvisation is required. LULLY’S INFLUENCE In addition to establishing the orchestra, to a certain extent Lully also established its literature. In his depiction of the The importance of Lully’s orchestral music may be seen in text, he composed many of the images that are common the fact that although his operas were soon performed all in later music. His orchestra played tempetes with over Europe, Lully’s lasting influence outside France seems tonnerre, bruits infernal, and bruits de guerre. How to be less from the operas themselves than from their many of our own performances contain such bruits instrumental music.51 For more than thirty years after Lully’s (literally “noise” pieces) by later composers as these death, the Amsterdam publisher Roger sold throughout storms with thunder, infernal scenes, and battles? Europe orchestral arrangements of Lully’s operas in suites called Overtures “avec tous les airs.” In these Lully’s flames in Proserpine (Ex.3) may not be capable arrangements, Lully’s five- and three-part pieces were of igniting Valhalla but, five years before the birth of Bach, rescored into the newly-current format of two violins, (in he is in the early stages of such orchestral depictions. treble clef!) viola, and bass. More familiar to us is the The arching 16th runs and the syncopated octave leaps in influence of Lully’s French Overture. Its pompous the dessus do suggest leaping flames, especially in his beginning followed by a fugal section serves equally well JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 49 Example 3: Prosperpine, Ah, What Frightful Flames; Ah, What Dreadful Ruin

50 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 to begin one of Lully’s Tragedies Lyriques, or later, to 8 Hans T. David and Arthur Mendel. The Bach Reader. start Handel’s Messiah. And Bach’s Orchestral Suites not New York: W. W. Norton & Co. 1945: p.137. only begin with French Overtures, each overture is followed by a collection of dances complete with their French titles. 9 David D. Boyden. Violin. Grove 6.

And in a final reference to Lully and his music-loving King, 10 Kenneth Cooper and Julius Zsako, trans. “Georg we mention a series of entertainments at Versailles where Muffat’s Observations on the Lully Style of Performance”. Louis XIV enjoyed not only an evening on the canal to The Musical Quarterly LIII: 1967. p. 222. the music of Lully’s musicians, he also witnessed a 11 fireworks display of 5,000 rockets.52 We are all familiar Joyce Newman. Jean-Baptiste de Lully and his with Handel’s counterparts to these events. Tragedies Lyriques. UMI Research Press: 1979. p.43.

12 Cosima Wagner. Diaries 1869-1877 Vol. I. Martin ENDNOTES Gregor-Dellin, Dietrich Mack, ed. Geoffrey Skelton, trans. New York and London: Harcourt Brace 1 W. H. Lewis. The Splendid Century. Garden City:. Jovanovich: 1978. p. 133. Doubleday & Co. 1953. p.1. 13 Neal Zaslaw. “Lully’s Orchestra”. J. B. Lully: Actes 2 James R. Anthony. Paris. Grove 6. du Colloque-Kongressbericht.Saint-Germaine-en- Laye & Heidelberg: Neue Heidelberger Studien zur 3 Ibid. Musikwissenschaft: 1987. note 12. 4 Werner Braun, The Hautboist, evolving careers and 14 Dizzy Gillespie with Al Fraser. Dizzy, To Be or Not to functions,” in The Social Status of the Professional Musician Bop. London: Quartet Books: 1982. p.166. Gillespie says from the Middle Ages to the 19th Century. Walter Salmen, “You don’t have to read” but you run into trouble when you ed. New York: Pendragon Press: 1983. p.125. have to replace someone: “He takes his notes with him.” 5 Alfred Mann. Handel: The Orchestral Music. New 15 Henry Prunieres. “Lully and the Academie de Musique York: Schirmer Books, 1996. p.107. Although he et de Dance”. The Musical Quarterly XI: 1925. p.545. eventually used strings and other instruments, Handel did call for 24 oboes and 9 trumpets. 16 Arthur Loesser. Men, Women & Pianos A Social History. New York: Simon & Schuster: 1954. p.7. 6 Neal Zaslaw, “When is an Orchestra Not an Orchestra?”. Early Music. Nov. 1988. p.487. Zaslaw 17 David Nutter. Intermedio. Grove 6. chooses Lully as founder of the orchestra over the traditional choice of Monteverdi because Monteverdi 18 Jerome de La Gorce. “Some Notes on Lully’s worked in the Renaissance tradition of “pick-up” consorts Orchestra”. Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the of instruments which were assembled for specific French Baroque, Essays in Honor of James R. occasions, after which these groups went their separate Anthony. John Hajdu Heyer, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge ways. Among the points that are most pertinent to this University Press: 1989. p. 100. article, Zaslaw shows that Lully’s orchestra was based on bowed strings of the violin family to which winds were sometimes added. This ensemble was permanent 19 Cooper and Zsako. p.222. and what we expect as normal orchestral discipline was enforced by strong leadership. 20 Nikolaus Harnoncourt. The Musical Dialogue. Mary O’Neill, trans. Portland: Amadeus Press, 1989. p.89. 7 David D. Boyden, The History of Violin Playing. London: Oxford University Press: 1965. p.105. 21 Cooper and Zsako. p.223.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 51 22 Nikolaus Harnoncourt. Baroque Music Today: Music 39 De La Gorce. p.112. As Speech. Mary O’Neill, trans. Portland: Amadeus Press: 1982. p.146. 40 Harmonia Mundi. p.6.

23 Cooper and Zsako. p.222. 43 Boyden. History. p.137.

24 Zaslaw. Lully’s Orchestra. p.547. 44 Robert L. Weaver. “Sixteenth-Century Instrumentation.” The Musical Quarterly XLVII: 1961. p.364. 25 C. L. Cudworth. “Baptist’s Vein” French Orchestral 45 Music and it Influence, from 1650 to 1750”. Proceedings Rebecca Harris-Warrick. “From Score into Sound: of the Royal Musical Association 83. 1956-57. p.41. Questions of Scoring in Lully’s Ballets.” Early Music: August, 1993. p.358. 26 Newman. p.51. 46 Don. L. Smithers. The Music and History of the 27 Prunieres. p.545. Baroque Trumpet before 1721. London: J. M. Dent: 1973. p.240. See also pp 85 and 86 about giving the 28 Lois Rosow. Lully. The New Grove History of Opera. “impression” that these notes were played.

47 29 Lois Rosow. “Performing a Choral Dialogue by Lully”. Edward Tarr. The Trumpet. S. E. Plank and Edward Early Music. August, 1987. p.29. Tarr, trans. Portland: Amadeus Press: 1988. p.129. Tarr also shows the possibility of ‘lipping’ in order to play 30 Gustav Chouquet. Lully. Grove 5. notes that do not fit the overtone series.

48 31 Paul Henry Lang. “Introduction”. Jean-Baptiste Lully Wood. Orchestras. p.42. and the Music of the French Baroque. p.4. 49 De La Gorce. p.108. 32 Anthony. Lully. Grove 6 50 Karen Forsyth. Ariadne Auf Naxos Its Genesis and 33 Zaslaw. Lully’s Orchestra. p.548. Meaning. London: Oxford University Press: 1982. p.8.23

51 34 Harnoncourt. The Musical Dialogue. p.55. Herbert Schneider. “The Amsterdam editions of Lully’s Orchestral Suites.” Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music 35 Ibid. p.186. of the French Baroque. p. 113.

52 36 Graham Sadler. “The Role of the Keyboard Continuo in Marcelle Benoit. “Paris, 1661-87: the Age of Lully.” French Opera 1673-1776.” Early Music. April, 1980. p.155. The Early Baroque Era. Curtis Price, ed. Prentice Hall: 1993. p.244. 37 De La Gorce. p.107. These “Memoires du pain, vin, verres et bouteilles” supplied to the players during the ***** course of the ballet’s run are apparently the 17th century equivalent of today’s pizza and beer chits. Professor Robert Ricks is Conductor Emeritus of the Catholic University Orchestra, which he conducted 38 Harmondia Mundi 901 257 CD recording of Atys. for 25 years in concerts at the Kennedy Center, Booklet. p.21. Philadelphia’s Academy of Music, and Carnegie Hall.

52 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 TOPICAL DISCOURSE: TOWARD A FINER UNDERSTANDING OF 18TH-CENTURY MUSICAL EXPRESSION

By Jeffrey Bell-Hanson

The concern for authenticity in the performance of 18th- conventions of the 18th century, but we can never recreate century music has completely changed the way we think the experience of the everyday life and culture of the about this literature over the course of a few decades. period.3 There will undoubtedly be some references that The growing body of research and the rising standard of will not hold the same emotional potency for modern period-instrument performance have provided a listeners as they did when the music was composed, even compelling case for throwing out our old ideas about if we recognize them. To some extent the same will be Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven in favor true for music of every era, including our own, when it is of leaner, more transparent textures. heard by succeeding generations. Nevertheless, using what we can learn about these topics in combination with Yet have we also sacrificed the spontaneous joy of the other analytical tools available to us can surely lead performance by circumscribing our 20th-century intuition us to a better understanding of the 18th-century literature. and playfulness with standards born in another century? To what degree can we achieve authenticity and still In the following paragraphs I will discuss some of the produce lively performances that continually excite 21st- topical interactions within a small group of mid-18th- century musicians and audiences? Marc Mostovoy, in an century symphonies. My intention is to suggest a way in article in the 1989 Journal of the Conductors Guild which topical interaction may be seen by the performer about achieving authentic period performance with a as a dramatic metacontext for a piece of music. The modern orchestra, alluded to this question when he said inspiration for my analyses comes primarily from the work that he found “. . . a certain drama, insight, feeling, of Leonard Ratner, especially as detailed in his watershed personality, passion, something bigger than performance book of 1980, Classic Music: Form, Expression and practice or authenticity. . . ” missing in period-instrument Style.4 I am also particularly indebted to Kofi Agawu5 performances which he had heard up to that time.1 If we and Mark Evan Bonds6 for subsequent works exploring are to achieve both authenticity and dramatic, passion- and refining the analytic method suggested by Ratner. filled performances, we must attend not only to the sound of the music, but also to the meaning of its language. While there are many others who have made valuable contributions to this discussion, one whose work I found An important clue to this meaning is to be found in mimetic particularly intriguing is Wye Jamison Allanbrook. Her figures or characteristics in the surface of the music called book Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro “topics.”2 By evoking the affective qualities commonly and Don Giovanni is a thorough exploration of dance associated with natural sounds, familiar musical or linguistic rhythms in these two late 18th-century operas.7 In it she formulae, and specific musical forms such as dances, the examines how the interplay of metric and rhythmic types interaction of these topics in a musical work helps define and formulas provides context and subtext for every other the shape of the dramatic line. aspect of these works.

Naturally understanding topical references requires that THE HISTORIC CASE FOR TOPICAL ANALYSIS we understand the cultural context from which they arise. Research can teach us a great deal about the musical There is today considerable skepticism among scholars

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 53 about the value of linguistic parallels in musical discussions music emerged from its utilitarian role in society, and was mainly because they rely so heavily on mimetic reference recognized more as a high artform with its own, purely to non-musical qualities. Nevertheless the analogy musical expressive values and devices.14 Moreover, as between language and music is common in the literature instrumental music moved out of the shadow of vocal of the 17th and 18th centuries in large part because music as an expressive medium, communication with the communication with the listener was a primary goal of listener became subordinate to the self-expression of the the musician. Ratner quotes a letter from W. A. Mozart composer. As a result, a coherent theory of how mimesis to his father characterizing the general appeal to the public worked was never articulated, even though it had been of his piano concerti K. 413-415. In the following at the center of 18th-century musical thought. Therefore paragraph Ratner elaborates on Mozart’s claims, saying, the rhetorical model remains problematic for many “Thanks to the musical language of the times— clear, scholars today. Nevertheless it seems that if we ignore simple, flexible, spoken everywhere in Europe— Mozart such an important strain of thought as we seek to could reach everyone in his audience, connoisseur and understand the music of the period, we risk a greatly amateur.”8 The common European musical language that impoverished view of its expressive language. Ratner mentions was rooted, to a great extent, in mimesis, which, in its simplest form means the musical imitation of I believe the interaction of mimetic or referential elements in an extra-musical sound. the musical surface to be of paramount interest to the performer. It is this aspect of a work that provides an Originally conceived as the imitation of nature, a expressive context for formal, harmonic, and motivic analyses straightforward example of mimesis might be an imitated and in so doing, most clearly reveals dramatic process. birdsong with the use of a flute, violin, or clarino trumpet. In his 1719 treatise, Jean-Baptiste Du Bos says that The observations presented herein focus on three mid- “. . . Music should imitate all the sounds nature herself 18th-century symphonies by a single composer, Jirí uses to express the feelings and passions.”9 Du Bos’ Antonín Benda.15 I have thus limited the scope of my comment shows that the value of such imitation was in efforts for clarity and brevity, and because Benda’s music the affective quality that it would lend to music. Mimesis is an especially appropriate medium for an examination need not, therefore, be restricted to natural sounds. In of the purely musical aspects of rhetorical construction. 1746 Charles Batteux, describes the purpose of mimesis His credentials in this regard are discussed in more detail more clearly as being that of emotional content, saying, “. in the following paragraphs. . . the principle object of music and of dance should be the imitation of feeling or of passion.”10 The centrality of mimesis JIRÍ A NTONÍN BENDA (1722-1795)16 to musical expression took hold especially among German musicians and writers. Carl Ludwig Junker wrote in 1786, A lengthy biographical sketch of Benda is beyond the “Each passion announces itself through its own music; and scope of this article, but it is important to understand that this sound awakens in our heart a sentiment. . . ”11 Benda’s greatest acclaim as a composer resulted from his facility for writing dramatically expressive instrumental By the late 18th century, theorists such as Heinrich music. The present-day rediscovery of his work stems Christoph Koch were describing the musical imitation of from the reputation that he enjoyed during his lifetime as speech in a prescriptive manner. In his treatise on a composer of melodramas, a form in which purely composition Koch demonstrates the construction of instrumental music is interwoven with the dramatic action melodies in syntactical terms.12 This concept of mimetic of a stage play. The young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart speech was not, however, originated by Koch. Vincenzo had seen two of his melodramas, Medea and Ariadne Galilei as early as 1581 argued that music imitates the general auf Naxos. He wrote to his father that Benda was, “. . . sound of language, and thereby can convey the affective his ‘favorite’ among the ‘Lutheran Kapellmeisters,’” and aspect of speech without the specific content of words.13 further states, “. . . and I like those two works so much that I carry them about with me.”17 Even though the The rhetorical model, with its dependence on mimesis, melodramas were a greater public success, much of was largely abandoned in the 19th century. Instrumental Benda’s facility for creating musical drama was most likely

54 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 developed earlier in the composition of his symphonies It is the combination and interaction of these topics that when circumstances of his employment denied him the is of most interest in analyzing the dramatic content of a opportunity to compose works for the stage. work. Topical interaction is the means by which the composer achieves a fine degree of control over the flow THE USE OF MUSICAL “TOPICS” of emotional qualities. This practice is the major innovation of the mid and late 18th century. Ratner describes the Leonard Ratner’s most important contribution to the process as using “. . . frequent contrasts to create a revival of the rhetorical model has been to suggest how kaleidoscopic, sharply etched, subtly nuanced, and mimetic elements can be described, and further how that expressive palette. . . ”20 description can be integrated with a more comprehensive analysis of a musical work using methods which we in BENDA’S USE OF TOPICS the 20th century consider more conventional. For the first part of that challenge he turned to the works of Johann One of the most commonly used “types” in Benda’s Mattheson, Heinrich Christoph Koch, Christian Gottfried symphonies is the march. It is used as a basis for first Krause, Johann Philipp Kirnberger, and other 18th- movements, generally the most formal musical settings century writers. From their descriptions he assembled a within the symphonies. It does not impose a particular list of “topics” and “types,” mimetic musical figures which form as a dance like the minuet would do, and is therefore were commonly used in 18th-century compositions for easily adapted to the sonata form. It generally establishes their consistent affective qualities. Collectively they an upbeat mood with a sense of courtly dignity. Its origins constitute at least the beginning of an expressive are martial, but in Benda’s practice the essential character vocabulary for 18th-century musical language. of the march type is a driving duple rhythm in a moderately fast tempo.21 Other topical qualities, or styles, are layered Ratner distinguishes between “types” and “styles” as two on top of the march type, or interact with it in the course of different kinds of topical elements. His classification hinges a movement. Its own more explicit signs, like martial dotted on how a particular quality is used in a given context. rhythms or fanfare-like arpeggios, are usually revealed at “Topics appear as fully worked-out pieces, i.e., types, some point even when not present at the outset. or as figures and progressions within a piece, i.e., styles.”18 The designation minuet may mean a dance Example 1, from the first movement of Sinfonia No. XI, piece cast in a particular form, in this case used as a type, shows both the steady duple rhythm and the characteristic or it may simply mean that at some point a work shows dotted figures of the march. In the opening bars the metric, rhythmic, and tempo characteristics that capture underlying quarter-note motion moderates the sense of the mood of a minuet, in other words occurring as a style. takt and lends a measure of dignity to the pace. This flexibility applies to any topical label that could stand as the designation for a separate piece. Any dance would Typically the closing phrases of a movement of this type fall into this category, though many of the dances named take on an exalted or triumphant mood. The march type, as topics in 18th-century music were already obsolete as which already has a sense of dignity or high social status, independent forms. There are also topics that are not is easily adapted to this exalted mood with tutti texture, forms by themselves, but simply motivic formulae or expanded register, an energized rhythmic surface, and characteristics that might refer to a type of music. For stronger dynamics. Flurries of rapid surface rhythms that example, an energetic arpeggiated figure might refer to a often occur in this context are termed “brilliant style” by trumpet fanfare, especially in the context of a march type. Ratner. In the excerpt shown here, the use of harmonic This would add a sense of grandeur, courtliness, or a regal suspensions enhances the exalted status by adding a touch dignity depending on the context. Topics also carried of another topic to the mix, the “learned style,” characterized references to social status. For example, horn fifths might by an imitative or contrapuntal texture.22 This topic evokes call forth the image of hunting horns, thereby inflecting the a sense of the archaic or ecclesiastical. (Ex. 2) music with the rustic simplicity of an idealized peasant life.19 The extent to which this image became dominant would Most often the prevailing style of second movements in depend on the context in which it occurred. these symphonies can be classified by the label

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 55 Example 1: Sinfonia No. XI, Movement 1, Bars 1-4

Example 2: Sinfonia No. XI, Movement 1, Bars 70-77

56 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 “Empfindsamkeit” or “sensibility.” Ratner characterizes music of this type as “intimate. . . personal. . . often sentimental in quality.” He cites the music of C.P.E. Bach as paradigmatic for the style, noting his tendency to create music with rapidly shifting moods, ornamentation, frequent pauses, and dissonant harmony.23 Frequent use of “sigh” motives and a more vocal style are often characteristic of Empfindsamkeit.

Example 3: Sinfonia No. VIII, Movement 2, Bars 103-110

Themes or motives introduced into first movements that contrast with the prevailing march or dance style often foreshadow the Empfindsam style of the second movements. Generally these themes offer only hints of Empfindsamkeit, exhibiting the more timorous characteristics. They move in a more restricted compass than the bolder motives that surround them, and usually feature sigh-like elements. Yet they occur within the tempo context of the prevailing march or dance style.

Example 4: Sinfonia No. II, Movement 1, Bars 20-24

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 57 The following list contains all the topics or types that I have identified during my analysis of Benda’s symphonies. Brief descriptions are included with each item. Though many of these occur in the three symphonies discussed below along with the march and Empfindsam topics, I have not included them in the discussion in order to focus more clearly on the process of topical interaction.24

TOPIC DESCRIPTION

1. Alla breve A form of the “Learned style” in its most traditional, species counterpoint setting

2. Amoroso, A melodious vocal quality, usually showing conjunct motion, legato articulations Cantilena or Singing Style

3. Brilliant Flurries of rapid surface rhythms; effect varies with direction or articulation

4. Buffa Comic, often expressed in short notes and articulations, quick or jerky motions

5. Empfindsamkeit “Sensibility,” defined above

6. Fanfare Driving arpeggiated figures intended to evoke the sound of trumpet fanfares

7. Fantasia A style having “one or more of the following features— elaborate figuration, shifting harmonies, chromatic conjunct bass lines, sudden contrasts, full textures or disembodied melodic figures. . .”1

8. Horn call Rustic quality, identified by the use of traditional “horn fifths”

9. Insistance Emphatic quality communicated by repeated notes of growing intensity

10. Interrogatorio Generally communicated by upturned “sigh” motives

11. Learned Style The use of contrapuntal elements to evoke an archaic or ecclesiastical mood

12. Lebewohl A horn call played slowly and distantly, imparting a sentimental quality

13. Longing Evoked most often with contrapuntal motion in and out of harmonic sixths

14. Mannheim Slowly developed orchestral crescendo using dynamics, the gradual addition of instruments, Crescendo the expansion of register, and increasingly active surface rhythms

15. March Defined above

16. Musette Rustic quality evoked by an imitation of the drone and skirl characteristic of the musette

17. Ombra Sense of mystery, minor or diminished harmony; syncopations often obscure the meter

18. Rustic or Created with dance types traditionally connected with the peasant class, imitations of Rustic pastoral instruments such as the musette or Alpen horns, or imitations of nature

19. Skipping Rapid succession of dotted figures; light-hearted or child-like quality

20. Sturm und “Storm and Stress,” outbursts of intense passion shown with tutti textures, minor mode with Drang sharp dissonances and chromaticism, and driving rhythms

58 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 DANCE TYPES:2 DESCRIPTION

21. Bourée Duple, courtly dance of moderate or lively tempo; organized in groups of 4 beats beginning with an upbeat

22. Contredanse Duple or triple subdivisions; at moderate tempos it evokes a higher status, at faster tempos, a lower status

23. Gavotte Duple dance of moderate or quick tempos with a precise or prim sense; has pastoral associations, but as idealized by the upper class; groups of 4 beats, with 2 upbeats

24. Gigue Quick triple subdivisions usually organized in metrical groups of 2; a dance of the upper class, but with country or rustic associations

25. Ländler Quick triple dance with peasant associations; heavily accented downbeat with no secondary accent

26. Minuet Moderate triple meter; expressive of high social status and refinement

27. Sarabande Slow triple meter with accents on the first and second beats; expressive of high social status; possessing a quality of haughtiness and seriousness

28. Swabian Heavy-footed duple dance of moderate or quick tempo, similar to the Ländler in status Allemande 1Ratner, 24. 2Allanbrook, 31-70. The second chapter of this book is devoted to a thorough discussion of meter, tempo, characteristic accent patterns, and social associations of these dances and others.

ANALYSES

According to Benda’s own catalog, he wrote thirty symphonies.25 My study has been limited to the twelve selected for publication in scholarly editions as part of the Musica Antiqua Bohemica series published by Supraphon.26 All twelve of these symphonies are worthy of study and performance, though some are clearly more sophisticated than others. Collectively they form a fascinating portrait of a composer’s exploration of the dramatic resources available to him. Space demands, however, that I focus on three works that most easily illustrate principles of topical interaction typical of Benda’s symphonies, and which are useful models for the analysis of other works of the period.

SINFONIA NO. IV IN F MAJOR

Sinfonia No. IV in F Major (Supraphon’s number, not Benda’s) is in three movements, as are all but two of the twelve symphonies. Those two are in Italian overture form. The first movement is in sonata form, divided into three roughly equal sections cast in contrasting keys: I, V, I. Each section is clearly marked by the repetition of the opening, motivic material. The first section, or exposition, is composed of two groups of phrases, a group of three in F major, and a group of two in C major. The middle section, or development, reprises the first group in the dominant key area but not the second, turning instead to new material. This movement follows the harmonic convention of a sonata form, characterized by Ratner as I-V | X-I.27 The new thematic and topical material in the second section coincides with the point of furthest harmonic remove from the tonic, or the “X” section.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 59 The second movement is a D-minor “Andante” in a binary form, with a modulation to the relative major in the first section. The third is a light-hearted, triple-meter dance movement in a rounded-binary form. The respective forms and moods of the movements are typical of the contrasts found in symphonies of the period, but in this case are organically connected by harmonic, thematic, and topical elements. Inter-movement connections are present in all of Benda’s symphonies. The unifying mechanisms vary from piece to piece, but a process of topical interaction is always involved.

Examples 5 and 6 demonstrate the thematic and harmonic links in this symphony. Clearly each of the two distinct thematic elements in the third movement are built upon harmonic and melodic frameworks present in the first and second movements respectively. The outline shared by the first movement theme and the third movement first theme, bars 1-16, is shown below in Example 5.

Example 5: Sinfonia No. IV, Movement 1 & 3 themes with reduction

60 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 The other melodic component of the third movement, bars 17 through 24, recalls the Andante second movement by echoing the contour of its closing phrase. The function of this phrase in the third movement is essentially transitional. It accomplishes a rather abrupt modulation to the dominant by casting the F major harmony of the just concluded phrase as a subdominant of V. The phrase ends with a half cadence in C major, setting up a return of the opening Ländler theme in that key. Although this phrase and its second movement progenitor have different functions, the gestural and melodic similarities are conspicuous. (Ex. 6)

Example 6: Sinfonia No. IV, Movements 2 and 3, Second area melodic phrases

The nature of the music in the first two movements can be characterized according to type or topic as exalted march in the first movement, and Empfindsamkeit in the second. This combination, common in Benda’s symphonies, forms the basis for the dramatic process being played out throughout the work.

The first bar of movement 1 establishes a moderate, dignified underlying takt of half notes which is continually reinforced throughout the opening phrase by various means. Yet the eruption in bar 2 of the motor rhythm in the lower strings and continuo, and of the brilliant-style sixteenth notes in the violins places a high-energy veneer over the dignified march framework. The increasing frequency of the explicitly martial dotted figures beginning in bar 3 enhances the exalted mood of this music. The only contrasting topical element in the exposition comes in the third phrase beginning in bar 8. The downward half-step resolutions that are the main characteristic of this phrase have a vaguely sigh-like character, hinting at the Empfindsam style of movement 2. The absence in this phrase of brilliant figures reinforces the half-note takt, and provides a brief respite from the frenetic exhuberance of the sixteenth notes that completely dominate the surface in the following phrase.

Example 7: Sinfonia No. IV, Movement 1, Bars 8-12, Contrasting motivic elements

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 61 The second movement is a direct contrast to the first in figures begin to appear only in the second key area after many ways. The mode is minor. The surface rhythms tend a sequential bridge passage achieves a modulation from to emphasize each quarter of the bar equally, creating a the tonic G to the dominant D major. They appear, rather plodding or halting rhythm in contrast to the driving, however, not as a complete contrasting theme, but as first-movement march. Each melodic gesture outlines a interruptions to the march. narrow pitch compass. Immediately after the modulatory bridge, the march theme However, as the first movement hinted at stylistic elements is taken up by the cellos, basses, and continuo. At the of the second, the second movement also borrows point in the phrase where a halting cadential figure began elements of the bolder march style of the first. When the in the original tonic version, the dominant area version second phrase begins a transition to F major, the key of becomes even more frenetic, seemingly unable to achieve the second group, it also begins to emphasize more the a cadence. Here, as the music reaches its most energetic eighth note as the underlying takt. The closing phrase of point, the first Empfindsam interruption occurs with a the section is given over to upward triplet fanfares, all set drastically reduced texture and dynamic level. After this in the faster takt of the eighth note. Significantly, this phrase, two-bar interjection the march returns to cadence with a which shows the greatest degree of melding between the brilliant flourish. style of the first and second movements, becomes part of the third movement (Mvt. III, bars 17-24 shown in The next march cadence is again interrupted by the Ex. 6). Likewise, though bars 1-16 of movement III (Ex. descending Empfindsam figure. The upward sweeping, 5) are clearly built on the harmonic framework of the first brilliant flourish after this cadence ends on the dominant movement theme, most of the motivic material comes from pitch (A in the prevailing dominant key of D), a twelfth the second movement. above the cadential arrival. This gesture seems calculated to heighten the expectation of a triumphal close. Instead, The process at work in this symphony is essentially the music is given entirely over to the Empfindsam style. oratorical. To pursue this metaphor, Benda presents, The dynamic is reduced to piano, the melody becomes a unfolds or explores the rather complex and divergent series of sighing eighth notes, and the tempo is marked musical ideas of the first and second movement, and then “Adagio.” The march, however, is not forgotten. Two melds them into the simple, straightforward Ländler of dotted neighbor-note gestures are heard in the violins as the third movement. It is an expression of an aesthetic an afterthought to the cadence. The end of the process common in Benda’s symphonies, that of recapitulation occurs in the same way. complexity to clarity. An antecedent of this neighbor-note motive, also played SINFONIA NO. V IN G MAJOR in the contrasting soft dynamic and reduced texture of the Empfindsam figures, fills the bar between the first The interplay of topical elements is carried out in a different two phrases of the dominant area, and recurs in the second way in Sinfonia No. V. March style and Empfindsamkeit bar of the second of these two phrases (Ex. 8a). At that are again the topical poles of the work. The march style point it seems little more than a rhythmic filler meant to dominates the first movement while Empfindsamkeit prolong the dominant pitch. However its significance dominates the second. The third movement is an easy- becomes clear as the opening bar of the second movement going minuet that contains elements of both styles. begins with a downward neighbor cast as a stern, dotted march rhythm, which is then answered by a more timorous Unlike Sinfonia No. IV, the contrast of Empfindsam upward neighbor decorated with an appoggiatura (Ex. 8b). elements with the march style is a principal feature of this At this point these neighbor-note motives become the chief first movement. As one might expect, the contrasting vehicle for the contrast of the two topical poles.

62 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Examples 8a and 8b: Sinfonia No. V, Neighbor-note motives in movements 1 & 2

As the second movement progresses, moving from G minor to Bb major, march-like dotted rhythms become more dominant. The rhythmic surface is increasingly energized with them until the music finally erupts into a Sturm und Drang passage before the end of each section. Throughout this movement, the march and Empfindsam elements seem to dance with and around each other, sometimes alternating, sometimes combining, sometimes layered one on the other.

In the third movement the march and Empfindsam elements remain identifiably distinct, but are integrated as separate elements into a playful minuet. (Ex. 9)

Example 9: Sinfonia No. V, Movement 3, Bars 1-8

The rhetorical process in this symphony is therefore one of gradual accommodation between two divergent topical elements. The first-movement march theme, stated without interruption in the tonic area, is subject to increasing interruptions by Empfindsam elements as the harmony moves to the dominant area. Whatever tension existed in the first movement as a result of these interruptions have been resolved in the third.

TOPICAL LAYERING, SINFONIA NO. XII

While the interaction of two main topics generally defines the parameters of the dramatic process within a piece, much detail is provided by the layering of other topics along the way. The mediation or coloring of one topic with the characteristics of another allows for subtle shades of emotion and drama.

Sinfonia No. XII is one of the most overtly theatrical of Benda’s works. In it he contrasts musical postures that are not unlike the traits of the stock characters in the Commedia del’arte. Accordingly the cascading descents of short eighth notes in opening bars of the first movement may be heard as resembling hearty laughter. This image might suggest a rather informal style, but with the arrival of brilliant, sixteenth-note figures in bar 6 there begins a slight emphasis on second beats that provides a hint of sarabande.28 This usually somber dance-type seems incompatible

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 63 with the fast tempo and jolly mood of the movement. In this context it lends a subtle sense of restraint that implies a higher social status. The courtly dotted figures in the cadence at bar 15 later reinforce this implication by alluding to a dignified march style (Ex. 10a). When these dotted figures later accompany Empfindsam and even ombra-like figures in the transition, it seems that this dignified, courtly bearing may be a hollow illusion covering a more timorous character. (Ex. 10b)

Example 10a : Sinfonia No. XII, Movement 1; Bars 1-8 and 15-16

Example 10b: Sinfonia No. XII, Movement 1; Bars 17-22

64 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 PERFORMANCE IMPLICATIONS language). This process serves as a metacontext that guides decisions made while studying, and intuitions or Returning to Mark Mostovoy’s article about authentic the sense of play in performance. period performance, I commend to the reader the following three items, taken out of order, from his list of ENDNOTES general principles. 1 Marc Mostovoy, “The Modern Orchestra and Period 12) stay apprised and make intelligent evaluations of Performance Practice”, Journal of the Conductors Guild, 10 recent 18th-century scholarship; use the research to (Summer/Fall 1989), 110. assist your decisions on interpretation and choice of 2 tempos. Inappropriate tempos can completely alter Wye Jamison Allanbrook, Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni (Chicago: University of a composer’s intent and style. . . Chicago Press, 1983), 2. “Topic” is derived from the term “topos.”

2) approach the music with an involved spirit, trying 3 Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Baroque Music Today: Music As to capture the mood or affect inherent in each phrase; Speech (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1982), 11. Harnoncourt laments the loss of the cultural context which would allow us to fully grasp the meaning in music written before the nineteenth 5) encourage your players to use clean and century. He contends that absent the acculturation gained by precise articulation which clearly delineates between the experience of everyday life during the period, we have no slurred and separate notes.29 hope of ever hearing the music of Mozart in the same way that Mozart’s audiences heard it. Items number 2 and 5 especially are excellent practical advice 4 Leonard G. Ratner. Classic Music: Form, Expression and Style, about the treatment of the surface features in music of the (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980). 18th century. Number 5 is often exactly what is needed to project the contrasting characters involved in the discourse 5 Kofi Agawu. Playing With Signs: a semiotic interpretation of topics. Yet simply attending to marked articulations may of classic music, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991). not achieve the result of a lively, informed performance. 6 Bonds, 1991.

Recently I had the pleasure of guest conducting an orchestra 7 Wye Jamison Allanbrook. Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le in a country where I didn’t know the language. To grease Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983). the wheels of my relationship with the musicians and to make rehearsing a little easier, I memorized a few well- 8 Ratner, 3. chosen words and phrases that I knew I would need. Some 9 of the pleasantries that I learned were little more than Jean-Baptiste Du Bos, Reflexions critiques sur la poesie et sur las peinture (Paris, 1719) quoted in Mary Sue Morrow, German combinations of phonemes to me, though the orchestra music criticism in the late eighteenth century: Aesthetic issues understood them, and they had the desired effect. Perhaps in instrumental music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, by dumb luck I stumbled upon the right accent and tone of 1997), 6. This book includes a concise historic overview of the voice to communicate warmth and sincerity. More likely search for meaning in instrumental music. they were simply happy that I made the effort, and forgave 10 Charles Batteux, Les beaux-arts réduits à un même principe me my poor pronunciation. Had I comprehended these (Paris, 1746); transl. in Edward A. Lippman, ed., From Antiquity sounds as meaningful phrases, I could have delivered them to the Eighteenth Century, Vol. I of Musical Aesthetics: A Historical Reader (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon, 1986-90), 261, as in a much more heartfelt manner. quoted in Morrow, 6.

Herein lies the importance of understanding the discourse 11 Carl Ludwig Junker, Uber den Werth der Tonkunst (1786) 12, of topics within a piece of music. One might achieve a as quoted in Georgia Cowart, “Sense and Sensibility in credible reading by attending to articluation (the sound Eighteenth-Century Musical Thought,” Acta Musicologica, Vol. 45 (1984), 264, as quoted in Morrow, 10. of the musical language), but one can give a more confident, nuanced reading if one understands the dramatic 12 Heinrich Christoph Koch, Versuch einer Anleitung zut process underlying these contrasts (the meaning of the Composition (Leipzig, 1787) as described by Walther Duerr in

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 65 “Music as an analogue of speech,” Eighteenth-Century Music in Theory and Practice: Essays in honor of Alfred Mann, ed. Mary Ann Parker (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1994), 230-234.

13 Vincenzo Galilei, “Dialogo...della musica antica, et della moderna,” (Florence, 1581), quoted in Parker, 228.

14 Morrow, 12-18. Morrow’s first chapter includes a discussion of the paradigm shift in musical thought during the early 19th century, and its roots in the 18th century.

15 Jiri Antonin Benda was known throughout his career in Germany as Georg Benda. Some contemporary researchers still use this name.

16 Franz Lorenz, Georg Benda, Vol. II of Die Musikalische Familie Benda (Berlin: Walter De Gruyer, 1971). This biography is especially useful for the extensive information included about probable influences on Benda throughout his career.

17 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, “Letter to Leopold Mozart” (Mannheim, 1778), quoted in Emily Anderson, The Letters of Mozart and His Family, Vol. II (London: Macmillan and Co., 1938), 936-939.

18 Ratner, 9. Italics are in the original.

19 Allanbrook, 42. Allanbrook’s analysis of Mozart’s operas details many rustic and pastoral elements.

20 Ratner, 30.

21 In some symphonies Benda uses a faster tempo to achieve a more exhuberant, less dignified quality. In Sinfonia No. 12, a more explicitly theatrical work, he abandons the march altogether in favor of a fast minuet type, creating a overly-pompous courtly atmosphere.

22 Ratner, 4. This chapter includes descriptions of topics identified by Ratner as common in the music of the late 18th century.

23 Ratner, 22.

24 Besides Ratner’s topical descriptions cited above, Kofi Agawu an Wye Allanbrook both include valuable lists and descriptions of topics and forms which they have identified in 18th-century music. Agawu, 30. Allanbrook, 13-70.

25 Karl-Heinz Löbner, Georg Benda (1722-1795); sein Leben und sein Werk mit besonderer Berüchsichtigung der Sinfonien und der Cembalokonzerte, PhD Diss. Martin Luther University 1967. This dissertation written in 1967 about Benda’s instrumental music includes rather cursory descriptions of Benda’s symphonies, concerti and Italian intermezzi including the other five extant symphonies which appear to be intended for small ensembles.

26 Jiri Antonin Benda, Sinfonie I-IX, ed. Jaroslav Pohanka and Jan Racek, Sinfonie X-XII, ed. Jiri Senhal and Jan Racek, Musica Antiqua Bohemica, Vols. 58, 62, 66, 68 (Prague: Supraphon, 1962-66).

27 Ratner, 217-230. These pages contain a detailed explanation of this harmonic paradigm within both 2-part and 3-part forms.

28 The sarabande may be a familiar dance to many readers, but for clarity’s sake I cite Leonard Ratner’s description of its form. It is in a triple meter, and performed in a slow tempo. It’s “essential feature was the emphasis on the second beat...this halt gave the sarabande a deliberate, serious character which represented the high style.” Ratner, 11-12.

29 Mostovoy, 97-110.

*****

Dr. Jeffrey Bell-Hanson is the Orchestral Conductor at Pacific Lutheran University Orchestra in Tacoma, Washington.

66 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Are Large Ensembles Getting Too Loud?

By Christopher Weait

I am certainly not the first person to observe that we leader does not pay attention to dynamic balance, there is appear to be living in an age of increasing loudness. In little that individual performers can do about it— especially 1963, I heard the great English clarinetist Reginald Kell when playing softer instruments. say, “The sound of music and the performance of it is getting louder and louder. If this trend continues the gentle Bassoonists, for example, cannot play very loudly in art of the diminuendo will become a lost art.” 1 relation to a large ensemble’s mass because the instrument is not designed to do so. The low register of On a street in Buenos Aires a few years ago, I had to the flute is easily covered by overloud dynamics. The cover my ears as a dirt bike roared by. While riding in an situation is similar to a pipe organ in which the various automobile with closed windows, it is possible to hear ranks of pipes are not expected to sound equally loud. and feel the booming bass from the audio system of Most good composers understand this and avoid scoring another automobile— also with its windows closed. It important material for bassoon or other soft instruments seems that truly quiet surroundings are hard to find. Even against insurmountable loudness. Even if the players of some concert halls have annoying noises produced by softer instruments have a mature tone, playing louder than lights or machinery. With this pervasive increase of noise their instrument’s acoustics allow makes it likely that is it possible that we are also subscribing to a “Louder is intonation and tone will deteriorate. Good” syndrome in large concert ensembles? In this respect the recording age has been an unfortunate influence. Through the magic of multiple microphones and Nowadays, we are aware that the levels of loudness skilled editing, we can hear the softest instruments against produced by large ensembles can be hazardous to otherwise loud backgrounds: a harmonica accompanied performing musicians. For many years I have had earplugs by a lush string section, or an alto flute melody against in my instrument case. I use them when the sounds around the brass with Latin percussion. These effects are heard me become painful and many of my wind and string so often in films and commercial recordings they might colleagues use some kind of ear protection. Using ear also be expected to work on the concert stage. At the protection reduces the effectiveness of our hearing. What same time, instrument manufacturers are designing and effect does that have on the ensemble? Did earlier producing instruments that can play louder than ever before. generations of players have to take such steps? Are conductors’ ears being damaged too? I submit that the If music is poorly scored, it is clearly the conductor’s loudness situation in some large ensembles— orchestras responsibility to revise the dynamics. Players of instruments and concert bands— is at a crisis stage. with the widest dynamic range need to be reminded they have the highest responsibility to execute their complete Mature musicians can produce a wide dynamic range within range of dynamics, not just the loudest ones. Pitch level is the acoustic capabilities of their instruments. In a conducted a related problem. If the loudest instruments are also setting ensemble, however, individual musicians control only their a sharp-pitch agenda, it will restrict other players’ dynamic own dynamics, not those of other players. If the ensemble levels, tone color, and reduce their endurance.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 67 Ensembles can also be forced to play too loudly by poor about our situations: acoustical conditions in their performing environment. There are halls where the conductor cannot properly hear • Are your rehearsal or performance environments forcing the musicians to play the ensemble as it plays— surely a formula for unmusical too loudly? results. If the performers cannot hear each other, how can the results be good for the listeners? As larger and • Which sections establish the dynamic agenda larger concert halls are built the chances for good in your ensemble? Is the dynamic continuum acoustics seem to reduce. I wonder how acoustical distorted by the loudest instruments? designers can claim to be successful if the stage acoustics • Since printed dynamic indications are are mediocre or bad. If a sound system is necessary, the subjective, do you ever suggest adjustment composer, conductor, and musicians no longer have control toward softer levels? When an important part over the dynamic levels— a sound technician does. is not being heard, do you only ask for louder playing from that instrument or section instead of a softer accompaniment? Skilled musicians know that dynamics are enormously variable and that the notation of dynamics by composers • Is your hearing or the hearing of your is inconsistent. Many, many years ago, I attended a New musicians at risk? Have you considered steps York Philharmonic rehearsal in Carnegie Hall in which to ameliorate the situation? Aaron Copland was conducting his own music. At one • Are your performers playing loudly just so point he stated that dynamics were the hardest things for they can stay together? (Surely, none of the him to decide upon because they varied so much amongst readers of this journal can be guilty of unclear different ensembles. time beating!) • Do your program marketers mention only the As a performer in full-time professional ensembles, I have loud moments in music as good selling points? noticed that louder dynamics occur more frequently when rhythmical direction from the podium is not secure. The • Are your audiences being turned-off by players resort to “survival mode dynamics”— playing overloud playing? louder so the ensemble can stay together. Some solutions, such as changing the acoustics in rehearsal and performance spaces, may be difficult and costly to I also wonder if overloud dynamics are affecting our effect, but the least costly, and possibly the most audiences. I suggest that the subtleties of the complete productive solution, is the musical one of paying attention dynamic range will ATTRACT an audience’s attention. to the dynamic balance. In large ensembles this can only As a case in point, I heard the Czech Philharmonic in be put into effect by leadership from the conductor. Canada a number of years ago playing Smetana’s Ma Vlast. Near the end of the work there came a loud section ENDNOTE like no other before it. It had a grand tone and was magnificently loud. The playing up to that point had 1 Clinic at Guilderland Central School (NY), March created a dynamic environment that allowed this climactic 23, 1963. point to be made. It made logical, musical sense and I was deeply impressed. ***** Christopher Weait is a musician with a wide experience in Coincidentally, a conductor who encouraged this kind of performing, teaching, composing and conducting. Since 1984 “concert dynamic architecture” was also Czech— the he has been the professor of bassoon at The Ohio State University in Columbus and is Conductor Laureate of the late maestro Karel Ancerl. I remember him pointing out Central Ohio Symphony Orchestra. For seventeen years he in rehearsals, “this is the loudest place in this movement” was principal bassoonist of Canada’s Toronto Symphony. A member and soloist of the Keith Brion’s prestigious New Sousa or, “this is the loudest place in the symphony.” He urged Band he has performed in the Montréal, Columbus, and us to “save something” for those points in the work. National Arts Centre Orchestras and recently with the Cleveland Orchestra. He has been a high school music teacher and is a published composer and author. His playing can be heard I propose the following questions to prompt us to think on recordings for the d’Note, Innova, Crystal and CBC labels.

68 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 Scores & Parts Joaquín Rodrigo’s Fantasía para un Gentilhombre

Prepared By Clinton Nieweg; Compiled By Elizabeth A. Cusato

Original Publisher: Schott (1962) Score used: Eulenberg (1991) Secondary Source: Reduction for Guitar and Piano; Edited by Andrés Segovia; London Schott 1964 #GA208

Status codes: * - is critical; would stop rehearsal X - is necessary; should be done prior to performing the piece ? - questionable correction; conductor’s decision A blank cell indicates that in the best of all worlds, this correction would be in place.

STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION ? Score 1 16 1 Trpt: Schott sc has rest, Eul sc has A, part has E 1 1 -5 4 Bsn: add “D” to Schott score 1 1 -4 1 All WW: s/have a tenuto line (not in Schott sc) 1 2 7 1, 2 Fl, Ob: slur from m6 to E half note in m7 per Schott sc/pts (not in Eul) 1 3 6, 7 4, 1 Trpt: add tie to Schott sc to match Picc in Eul sc 1 5 5 3, 4 Bsn, Cello: add tenuto lines 1 5 6 3, 4 Cello: add tenuto lines 1 6 1-5 1 Fl, Picc, Ob: slur is for A, G# only 1 6 6 4 WW: slur to next measure, fix Schott score 1 6 6, 7 Trpt: add pp to score, fix both scores to match articulation of WW. 1 6 7 1 Picc, Fl, Ob: add tenuto line to Eul score * 1 6 8 1 Picc, Fl, Ob: G Natural is correct 2 8 -1 Ob: part has dim sign (not in Eul score) ? 2 8 -1 Bass: part has dim sign 2 10 -2 3 Fl: C s/r E ? 2 10 16 3 Fl, Trpt: add staccato on C eighth note

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 69 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 2 11 1 1 Bsn: add f to Schott sc ? 2 11 39 Strings: we believe the senza is in m39, Eul prints senza at the end of the second movement. 2 11 45 Fl, Ob: cresc sign in Eul, not in Schott ? 2 11 47 3-6 Vln I: add dim sign to score and part 2 12 -5 3-6 Vln I: add dim sign 2 12 20 4 Add rit to Eul sc 3 13 -5 1, 3 WW: add accents to all in Schott score, add accents to Fl in Eul score ? 4 15 2 Bass: Schott sc and part have G, Eul sc has D unison w/cello ? 4 16 -1 5 Trpt: con sord in Eul score, the senza is at 17/12 in both sc 4 16 14, 15 Ob: slur quarter note to sixteenth note ? 4 16 23, 24 Ob: possibly s/r octave lower * 4 16 33 Add measure rest: measure 33 is missing 4 17 -1 Viola: arco not needed * 4 18 20 Strings: pizz in all strings per Eul sc, in Cello and Bass in Schott score Violin I 1 2 3 1 Add slur 1 2 9 1 Add whole note “A” per score 1 6 -1 1 Add p 1 6 1 1 Remove p 1 6 6 2 Move pp to beat 2 1 6 7 Remove sempre dim (this is for Guitar part only) 1 6 8 1 Slur F#, E only 1 6 9 1 Add dim sign ? 2 7 5 2 Part has f, score nothing, use mf 2 8 13 1 – 4 Add tie 2 8 19 1 – 4 Add tie 2 10 5 1 Correct note is D 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 11 4 6 Add ord 2 11 27 Add senza

70 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 2 12 5 Clarify 7 measure rest 3 1, 2, 5, Add accent 6, 33, 34 3 35 3, 4 Add staccatos 3 14 1-6 1 Add staccato 3 14 41 1 Add ff 3 14 48 Add accents 415255f should read mf 416381mf 4 16 39 1 Add a tempo and staccato 4 18 20 pizz 4 19 15 grazioso 4 19 28 3 Add staccato to last note Violin II 1 5 1 1 Add f 1 6 -1 1 Add p 1 6 1 1 Remove p 1 6 6 2 Move pp to beat 2 1 6 7 Remove sempre dim (in guitar part only) 1 6 8 1 Slur F#, E only 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 10 7 1 Add sul pont 2 11 4 6 Add ord. 2 11 9 1 Add sul point 2 11 25 1 Add pp 2 11 27 Add senza 3 7 1, 2 Remove slur (and all simile measures) 3 14 1 – 6 1 Add staccatos 4 15 19 Add staccato * 4 15 28 Should be 8 measure rest 4 16 1 – 8 Add staccatos where needed 4 16 43 Add f 4 18 -3 Add cresc sign 4 18 20 Pizz

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 71 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 4 19 -2 Arco Viola 1 22 4 Add mf 1 2 8 Remove staccato 1 5 5 3, 4 Add tenuto lines 1 6 6 2 Add staccato 2 8 13 1 First note D s/r E 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 10 7 1 Add sul pont 2 11 4 6 Add ord 2 11 9 1 Add sul pont 2 11 27 Add senza 2 12 12 1 Add p 3 13 -15 1 Add accent 4 15 2, 3 Add staccatos 4 18 -2 1 Add f 4 18 20 1 Add pizz 4 19 23 Add key signature 4 19 24, 25, Add staccatos 28 4 19 28 Change f to ff Cello 1 10 1 Add mf 1 1 9 1 Remove p 1 2 8 Remove staccatos 13 7 1f should read mf 1 5 7 Add slur 1 6 1 Add sempre dim 1 6 7 1 Add pp 1 6 8 1 Remove p and dim sign 1 6 9 1 Add dim sign 2 9 10 Add tranquillo 2 10 6 Add fermata 2107 poco f s/r p 2 11 5 1 Arco

72 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 2 11 27 Add senza ? 3 1, 2, 3, Add staccato like other times (no staccato in score) 5, 6 3 33, etc. Add staccato 4 15 2, etc. Pizz needs staccatos 4 17 1 Add staccato 4 18 -2 1 Add f 4 19 19 1 Score has f 4 19 28 Last note needs staccato Bass 1 1 8 3 Add p 1 3 7 1 Score has mf 16 1 1sempre dim 1 6 7 1 Add pp 1 6 8 1 Remove p 2 10 6 Add fermata 2107 1poco f s/r p 2 11 18 3 Remove mf 2 11 27 Add senza 2 12 17 Add stacc e espr dim 21224 rit 3 1 1 Arco 3 1, 2, 3, Add staccato 5, 6 3 32 Remove rehearsal 13 3 48 Add rehearsal 13 3 14 Add staccatos as needed 4 15 1 – 7 Add staccatos as needed Bass 4 15 2 1 G s/r D 4 15 6 1 Should read pp 4 18 -2 1 Should read f 4 18 13 1 Add p 4 19 18 2 Add sf 4 19 19 1 Add f

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 73 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 4 19 28 2 Add staccato Flute 1 2 7 3 Add ff 1 3 3 1 Slur to D 1 3 4 2 Start new slur on C natural 1 5 3 1, 2 Add dim sign, add tenuto dash 1 5 8 1 Remove tenuto dash 1 6 6, 7, 8 Remove dim sign (only m9 has a dim sign in the score) 2 8 11 5 Move a tempo back from m15 2 8 18 2 End slur 2 8 18 3 Start slur * 2 9 16 3 C s/r E 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 10 16 3 Add stacc on A 2 10 28 4 Add stacc on G X 2 12 2 2 B natural s/r Bb (sc and part are wrong) 3 13 -22 Slur measure only X 3 13 -18 1, 3 Add stacc 3 13 -4 1, 3 Add accents 3 13 -2 3, 4 Add tie to stacc Cs 3 14 23 1 Add stacc to A 3 14 41, 45, 1 Add accent 46 3 14 42 1 Change stacc to accent 3 14 44 1, 3 Add accents X 4 15 -3 1 F# s/r A 4 16 14, 15 Slur quarter notes to sixteenth notes 4 16 39 Move a tempo from 16/43 4 19 19, 20 1, 4 Add stacc 4 19 26 3 Add stacc Piccolo 1 2 7 3 f s/r ff ? 1 6 5 1 Slur two notes only 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 12 55 1 Start slur on G

74 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 3 13 -19 Slur only this measure and cresc on beat 2 3 13 -18 1 Add stacc to D 3 13 -4, -13 1, 3 Add accents 3 13 14 Slur only this measure 3 13 15 1 Add stacc to D 3 14 18 Slur from B to B 4 41, 42, 1 Add accent 45, 46 4 44 1, 3 Add accents 4 15 23 Add cresc sign 4 16 39 Move a tempo from 16/43 X 4 19 28 (Last measure) add D, ff, stacc, accent. See score. (Schott score has D, Eul score has F#, part has rest) Oboe 1 1 -4, 5, 6 Remove staccatos 15 5 2mf s/r mp 2 9 13 3 Start slur on beat 3 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 10 27 1 Remove stacc on E 2 11 1 1 Remove stacc on F# 2 11 45 Add cresc sign 2 11 47 3-6 Add dim sign 3 53 1, 3 Add accents 3 13 -5 1, 3 Add accents 3 13 15 3, 4 Remove staccatos 4 16 14, 15 Slur quarter note to sixteenth note * 4 16 15 4 C# s/r C natural ? 4 16 23, 24 Possible s/r octave lower 4 16 39 Move a tempo from 16/43 4 17 15 Add cresc sign 4 17 16 1 Add f 4 19 28 3 Add stacc to F# Bassoon 1 18 1, 2 32nd, 32nd, double dotted quarter 1 20 1 Start slur

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 75 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 1 23, 24, Tenuto lines only, remove staccato 25 13 5 1f s/r mf 1 3 9 3 Start slur on F# * 1 4 -1 REMOVE MEASURE REST (should be 11 measures between Reh 3 and 4) 1 5 5, 6 3, 4 Add tenuto lines 1 6 1 1 Add tenuto lines 1 6 4 1 Add slur 1 6 6 2 Add pp 1 6 7 2 Remove pp 1 6 7, 8 Remove dim sign 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 10 22 1 Remove stacc on E 2 11 -2 1 Remove stacc on D 2 11 +1 2+ Add stacc 3 13 -5 1, 3 Add accents 3 13 -2 3, 4 Add slur 4 15 17 5, 6 Add staccato 4 16 39 1 Add a tempo ? 4 18 10 3 Scores have f, part has ff 4 19 5 1 Scores have p, part has pp 4 19 8 1 Add p 4 19 20 1 Add staccato 419271f s/r ff ? Trumpet 1 16 1 E s/r A (A in Eul score) 1 3 6, 7 4, 1 Eul score has tie on A like picc

76 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 STATUS INST. MVT. REH. # MEAS. # BEAT CORRECTION 1 6 6, 7 p s/r pp, add slur and articulation like woodwinds 1 6 8 1 Slur F#, E only, remove dim sign in this measure 2 10 6 Add fermata 2 10 16 3 Add sf on C eighth note 2 10 17, 27 1 Add staccato 2 10 35 3 Add staccato on C eighth note 2 10 36 3 Add staccato on D eighth note 2 11 9, 14 1 Add staccato on D eighth note 2 11 18 5+ Add staccato on G 16th note 2 11 22 1 Remove staccato on B 2 12 -4 Senza sord. 2 12 35 1 Accent 2 12 28, 39 1 Accent like 70, 71 3 13 -2 3, 4 Add staccato to D, C# ? 4 16 -1 5 Con sord in Eul score (the senza is at 17/12 in both scores) * 4 16 33 ADD MEASURE REST: MEASURE 33 IS MISSING 4 16 39 1 Add staccato and a tempo 4 18 20 Add “brioso” 4 18 21 1 Accent 418271ppp 4 19 28 3 Add staccato

*****

Clinton F. Nieweg is Principal Librarian of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Elizabeth A. Cusato is Staff Librarian of the Philadelphia Orchestra.

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 77 Books in Review

John Koshak. The Conductor’s Role: Preparation for beginning with score study, followed by rehearsal and Individual Study, Rehearsal and Performance. performance preparations, with technique bringing up the Fourth Ed. (Copyright held by the author); 142 pp.; rear. This reordering of study would send the student an $33.00 + S&H; Available through the CG office. unmistakable message, and would better equip the young conductor in developing important musical priorities and Editor’s note: In my own conversations with John more meaningful artistic values. Koshak, he has indicated that he intended this text to be an anthology of resources for use in conducting The second paragraph of the very first page of Chapter classes, rather than a sequential method. Mark One contains a rather dangerous statement: “. . . the Camphouse makes an excellent point that the assumption is made that proper preparation, whether for sequence of topics may send a subtle message about rehearsal or performance, has already been completed.” the priorities in a conductor’s training. It is a subject (Do you see blinking red warning lights?) The author’s rich for debate, and one about which I hope you will “assumed completed preparation” includes score study share ideas. — JDG as well as matters pertaining to organization and planning. (Perhaps now you also hear warning alarms and sirens!) Reviewed by Mark Camphouse On the positive side, Part I does include a wonderfully While I am impressed with this fine book and its comprehensive 15-area “Conductor’s Checklist.” It is distinguished author, I must confess to having had some Professor Koshak’s very admirable intention to have this initial trepidation about reviewing yet another spiral checklist help guide the conductor on a journey of vitally bound book on the art of conducting! My concern quickly important continual self-study and growth. The content abated upon the discovery of Chapman University is once again superb, but as before I question the Professor John Koshak’s artistic integrity and the book’s ordering of this numerical checklist and, most excellent educational content and clarity of writing style. importantly, the message it sends to the young conductor.

What makes this book especially valuable and rather After a list of twelve rather weary and predictable distinctive is its second and third parts: a 36-page Part II checklist topics about physical and technique-related (Score Study) and a 36-page Part III (Rehearsal and aspects of conducting, we finally arrive at #13 (Leadership Performance Preparation). Unfortunately these are and Involvement With The Orchestra), #14 (Score preceded by a 56-page Part I carrying the drearily Knowledge), and #15 (Musicianship). These three predictable heading of “Technique.” Frankly, we’ve seen checklist topics are extremely well presented and provide and heard all of this before. It’s the ‘same-old-same- the reader with some fresh insights and information. As old’, complete with the seemingly obligatory and frequently previously stated, I am not suggesting omitting checklist confusing time-beating diagrams. Am I suggesting that topics such as #1 (Baton Grip), #2 (Baton Position), or inclusion of technique be omitted from this fine text or #3 (Basic Conducting Position). But I am strongly from higher education conducting curricula? Of course advocating that elements of #13, 14, and 15 should come not! However, a reordering of this book’s form and first. Clearly, possessing good conducting technique is structure and, in some cases a reevaluation of its emphases extremely important. However, I have found over the years would have been desirable. Similarly, a critical need exists both as a player (trumpet) and composer that many more for a reordering of form and structure and a reevaluation conductors fall short in the areas of providing inspirational of priorities in much of today’s college/university and leadership, having a deep and intimate knowledge of the conservatory conducting curricula. Specifically, I advocate score, and possessing a fine sense of musicality, than those

78 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 who have problems in the area of technique. includes a very useful list of professional/educational organizations and how to contact them. The final paragraph of topic #13 (Leadership) on page 9 promises to stimulate healthy debate. Professor Koshak states: While I applaud the conciseness of writing style throughout the book, at times I found myself hoping for a A true leader is ‘naturally’ involved with the bit more elaboration and development of chapter subject orchestra. Sometimes, this involvement does areas. The inclusion of a brief chapter discussing not come easily to conductors and must be worked on, just as any of the other skills or background and development of the art of conducting conducting techniques we need to have, in from a historical perspective would have been nice. order to have the right to stand in front of a Chapter #19 (Rehearsal Reminders For Conductors) and group of musicians and be ‘their leader.’ #20 (Rehearsal Hall Manner) contain especially valuable information. There are numerous seating charts illustrated The late Sir Georg Solti is aptly quoted by Professor in Chapter #21, but I must say I find the wind symphony Koshak in topic #15 pertaining to musicality on page 10. configuration B on page 127 to be rather mystifying! There But Maestro Solti, in Vol. 21, Nos. 1&2 of JCG had this is a fine bibliography and substantive recommended response to the question “Are conductors made or born?” reading list.

They are born in the sense that leadership is The Conductor’s Role will prove to be an excellent addition something you cannot teach; you either have to the library of all instrumental conductors, particularly this, or you don’t. It’s very easy to judge any young person who wants to be a conductor those who teach instrumental conducting and/or in ten minutes. It’s not a question of how well introductory conducting courses at the undergraduate level. they are doing, but do they have that specific talent of leadership. If not, they will never Composer-conductor Mark Camphouse is Professor make it. No matter how musically talented of Music and Director of Bands at Radford University he may be otherwise, without that, forget it. in Virginia. A native Chicagoan, he received his formal musical training at Northwestern University. Professor Koshak’s system of color-coded highlighting (i.e. yellow = main melody, red = counter melody, etc.) ***** is sure to raise some eyebrows in the profession. He clearly states: “My personal preference now is to not John Ardoin. Valery Gergiev and the Kirov. (Portland, highlight, but to mark the phrasal analysis and other OR: Amadeus Press, 2001); 296 pp.; $34.95; ISBN: 1- cueing indications. However, I still think it is 57467-064-6. important to delineate all of the different aspects of the score that are happening and to ‘pull them out’ of Reviewed By Henry Bloch the score, much as we might do with the different colors of the highlighter.” As they say, ‘whatever The history of music in St. Petersburg is dominated by works.” But I rather like the author’s approach to score the ballet and opera, and Valery Gergiev plays a vital study and score marking as it requires the young conductor role, albeit only during the last two decades since his to become directly immersed in the work’s form, thematic appointment as general director of the Marinsky Theatre. development, harmonic vocabulary, and other important In the preface to John Ardoin’s book, Peter Ustinov pays purely musical elements. tribute to Gergiev’s accomplishments, but it is the glorious period of the theatre during the 19th and early 20th Chapters #14 and #15 pertain to score marking. Using centuries that established the fame of Russian ballet and the Beethoven First Symphony as a model, Professor opera. Beautiful illustrations, mostly by Vili Onikul, Valentin Koshak very thoughtfully and thoroughly introduces the Baranovsky, and the Foundation of Russian Ballet, conducting student to basic elements of a well, but not accompany the story. overly marked score. Chapter #16 (Selecting Music) is refreshing and contains much practical information. It At the court of Peter the Great musical activity was limited

JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 79 to ceremonial fanfares, marches, and lighter entertainment. Gergiev’s limitless energy and his success, which is amply But it remained for Catherine the Great to commission demonstrated in performances both, at home and on tours an Italian architect to build an opera house for the Winter throughout the world. Palace of the Hermitage. The latter served as residence for the Czars. She expanded the modest opera company, Comments on Gergiev’s education are perfunctory. He which was founded by Peter’s niece, the Czarina Anna. was trained in the Russian tradition of conductors. His Some of the most celebrated Italian composers and early teachers included Ilya Musin, Anatole Briskin, and singers were invited to come to Russia to join her Kurt Sanderling, but his move to St. Petersburg to attend company. Development of a ballet company with the best Anton Rubinstein’s famous conservatory was a decisive choreographers and dancers was also encouraged. In step toward realizing his ambitions. He flourished in the 1783, Catherine had a second opera house built. It was musical environment with new teachers and friends. called the Bolshoi Kamenny and was the immediate Furtwängler was his idol among conductors. In fact, predecessor of the famous Marinsky Theatre. Gergiev’s romantic approach to music and his unconventional gestures on the podium appear to bear Ardoin describes enthusiastically the colorful history, this out. Winning the prestigious All-Soviet Conductors which can boast appearances of such celebrities as Competition, which recognized his extraordinary talent, Feodor Chaliapin, Feodor Stravinsky, Anna Pavlova, helped him to launch his career. In 1977, he captured the Marius Petipa, Vaslav Nijinsky, Sergei Diaghilev, and prestigious Herbert von Karajan competition earning him many more. The roster of eminent conductors included an invitation to become the maestro’s assistant, but the Konstantin Liadov, the legendary Edouard Napravnik, Russian government refused permission for him to accept. and Yuri Temirkanov. But, behind the scenes, intrigues involving artists, administrative staff, members of the press, Temirkanov was appointed director of the opera at the and others seem to have erupted frequently. Ardoin cites Kirov Theatre in 1977 and invited Gergiev to join the the notorious case of Diaghilev who appeared at the musical staff. One year later he was asked to take over Marinsky Theatre in 1900, but was dismissed after only conducting the current production of Prokofiev’s War a few months without due explanation. In response, and Peace. When Temirkanov left the Kirov to become Diaghilev sent a letter to Czar Nicholas II stating his side music director of the Leningrad Philharmonic, the opera of the disagreements with the administration. This letter orchestra insisted on electing their next conductor. Gergiev is preserved in the Imperial Archives, but, according to won with a stunning majority and became the new chief the author, it is published for the first time in this volume. conductor. He faced the challenge with eager anticipation and seemingly unlimited energy. Thus, in a few years, he The continuing quarrels among artists and management managed to rebuild the company in all its aspects and to during the Soviet era are described here. Besides, the lead its new productions to enthusiastic acclaim in their theatre was subjected to frequent government own theatre— again called the Marinsky-- and abroad. interference. Nevertheless, the ballet and opera companies survived, but performances, especially of the opera It is perhaps too soon to attempt a more thorough study company, were said to be less distinguished than they of Gergiev’s artistic and technical achievements. Ardoin had been previously. Furthermore, the government touches only briefly on his ideas of orchestral coloring or criticized Western cultural influences in St. Petersburg. the use of a baton, but technical matters remain for future Therefore, it favored the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow with analysis. Perhaps, the Metropolitan Opera Manager, financial and artistic support. Joseph Volpe’s illuminating remarks comparing personality and style of Valery Gergiev and James Levine can be taken When Gergiev was appointed director of the opera as a point of departure for a full study of Gergiev. company at the Kirov Theatre in 1988, Ardoin relates how brilliantly Gergiev succeeded in returning the company ***** to its former glory. He describes the ingenious strategy to rebuild the company and to enlist cooperation from Henry Bloch is a member of the Board of Directors and London’s Covent Garden in various ways. He admires Archivist for the Conductors Guild.

80 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 81 Advertising Rates for Conductors Guild Publications:

The Conductors Guild invites you to post advertisements in the following publications: Journal of the Conductors Guild, Podium Notes, and Directory at the rates listed below. The Conductors Guild reserves the right to approve and either accept or reject any material submitted for advertising. The Conductors Guild further reserves the right to control the placement of all advertising material within our publications. No further advertising will be accepted until payment for previous add space has been received. All materials must be Black & White camera-ready prints, which may be accompanied by electronic versions of art (*.bmp or *.tif only), MS WORD 2000 files with fonts and images, or Adobe PageMaker 6.5+ files with fonts and images. Institutional members enjoy a 20% discount on all advertising rates and all advertisers receive a text link to their website on our “Links” page.

Shipping Address: Conductors Guild, 6219 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL 60660-1729 E-Mail address: [email protected]

Layout Dimensions Non-Member Fee Inst. Member Discounted Fee (-20%)

Journal of the Conductors Guild -published semi-annually, hard copy mailed to all members -downloadable electronic version available on website to members

Business Card 2 in. x 3 ½ in. $125 $100 Quarter Page 3 ½ in. x 4 ¾ in. $200 $160 Half Page 4 ¾ in. x 7 in. $400 $320 Full Page 7 in x 9 ½ in. $800 $640

Podium Notes -published quarterly, electronic copy e-mailed to members, hard copy mailed to members without e-mail -downloadable electronic version available on website to members

Business Card 2 in. x 3 ½ in. $83 $67 Quarter Page 3 ½ in. x 4 ¾ in. $133 $107 Half Page 4 ¾ in. x 7 in. $266 $213 Full Page 7 in x 9 ½ in. $535 $428

Directory -published annually, hard copy mailed to all members -downloadable electronic version available on website to members

Business Card 2 in. x 3 ½ in. $188 $151 Quarter Page 3 ½ in. x 4 ¾ in. $350 $280 Half Page 4 ¾ in. x 7 in. $600 $480 Full Page 7 in x 9 ½ in. $1,200 $960

Credit Card Orders:

VISA / MASTERCARD : ______- ______- ______- ______EXP: __ __ / __ __

Cardholder’s Name ______Cardholder’s Signature ______

82 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2 83 GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS TO PODIUM NOTES AND THE JOURNAL OF THE CONDUCTORS GUILD

The manuscript should be for readers who have expertise in diverse areas of music and conducting, and are interested in broadening their knowledge of current research and writing in the field.

The manuscript must be double-spaced with 1.25" margins on top, bottom and sides, including endnotes/footnotes and references, and should follow the style recommendations as set forth in the Chicago Manual of Style or the Modern Language Association (MLA) style manual.

The type size of the manuscript should be no smaller than 12 point.

The entire manuscript including abstract and any pictures, graphs, or musical examples should not exceed 20 pages.

Graphs, musical examples and pictures should be on separate sheets accompanied by texts and captions as they are to appear in the articles. All material submitted should be camera-ready.

To preserve anonymity in the review process, the authors name must not appear anywhere on either the abstract or the article.

Manuscripts submitted simultaneously to other journals will not be considered.

THE PUBLICATION PROCESS

1. Submit three copies of the manuscript and a 100-word abstract to the Publications Coordinator (PC). Manuscripts should be submitted as hard copies and may be accompanied by an ASCII text document or MS Word file on a 3.5 diskette following the guidelines listed above.

2. The PC sends copies of the manuscript and abstract to the Editor and two other members of the editorial board (based on expertise) for blind review.

3. The editorial review committee determines whether the manuscript: a) is not accepted for publication; b) is accepted for publication with suggested revisions; or c) is accepted for publication as is.

3a. Editorial Reviewers sends article back to PC with comments (from 3.)

4. If revisions are needed, the manuscript(s) will be returned to the author for corrections. The author then resubmits the manuscript to the PC with the appropriate revisions.

5. The PC will format the corrections complete with pictures, graphs, musical examples, etc. . . , and send to the Editor for final approval.

6. The formatted proofs are sent back to the author for final approval.

7. The manuscript is then published in either Podium Notes or The Journal of the Conductors Guild.

84 JCG Vol. 23, Nos. 1 & 2