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Google (Crawl000005) IP Gezicht op Algiers met twee Hollandse oorlogsschepen, door Reinier Nooms (ca. 1663-1664) Bron: Rijksmuseum, SK-A-1396 Guest (guest) IP: 170.106.35.234 On: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 03:27:57 17 Tussen Noord-Afrika en de Republiek Nederlandse bekeerlingen tot de islam in de zeventiende eeuw Maartje van Gelder In de vroegmoderne beeldvorming worden bekeerlingen etniciteit als wel naar hun religieuze denomina- tie. Ten minste één van hen, Hamid Benijche, tot de islam voorgesteld als verachtelijk, opportunistisch, sprak vloeiend Nederlands. Het is aannemelijk dat hij een bekeerling tot de islam was, net als de goddeloos en volstrekt onbetrouwbaar. Door zich te bekeren Engelsman Reymet Willoughby uit Plymouth, die een week later bij dezelfde notaris zijn testa- braken deze renegaten voorgoed met hun christelijke ver- ment liet optekenen.3 Wat deden deze moslims in Rotterdam? leden en met hun oorspronkelijke vaderland. Nederlandse Recentelijk stelde Benjamin Kaplan de vraag of moslims aanwezig waren in de zeventiende- bekeerlingen tot de islam hadden in de zeventiende eeuw eeuwse Republiek. Hij concludeerde dat zij slechts sporadisch voorkwamen en dat renega- in de praktijk echter een complexere relatie tot hun chris- ten, zoals bekeerlingen tot de islam door tijd- genoten werden genoemd, op geen enkele vorm telijke achtergrond: ook als moslim keerden bekeerlingen van tolerantie konden rekenen.4 Inderdaad be- sloten de Staten-Generaal in 1623 dat renegaten terug naar de Republiek of traden zij op als behartigers van die weigerden terug te keren tot het christendom hun afvalligheid met de dood moesten beko- de Nederlandse belangen in de diplomatieke relaties met pen.5 Toch verbleven vier jaar later de (bekeerde) moslims Oleyp, Cassum, Hamid en Reymet Noord-Afrika.1 zonder problemen in Rotterdam en namen zij zelfs dienst op de Nederlandse oorlogsvloot. Dit artikel gaat in op de relaties tussen Nederlandse bekeerlingen en hun vaderland. In hoeverre Op 10 november 1627 bezochten de kanonnier vormde bekering tot de islam een breuk met een Oleyp en de matroos Cassum een Rotterdamse christelijk verleden, christelijke familieleden en notaris om hun testament op te laten maken. Als erfgenamen benoemden beiden de Rotterdamse 1 Het onderzoek voor dit artikel werd gefinancierd door het Dr. Ernst Crone waard en waardin bij wie ze verbleven, voor zee- fellowship van Het Scheepvaartmuseum, ingebed aan de Universiteit Leiden, lieden zonder naasten een gebruikelijke praktijk en een Veni-subsidie van de Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk om eventuele schulden met herbergiers te verre- Onderzoek. Mijn dank gaat uit naar Michiel van Groesen, Paul Knevel en de twee anonieme referenten voor hun commentaar en suggesties. kenen. Een paar dagen later liet ook de matroos 2 Gemeentearchief Rotterdam (GR), Oud Notarieel Archief (ONA) Rotterdam, no- Hamid Benijche zijn testament registreren.2 tariële akten 188-46/69-70, 10 november 1627 en 188-52/78, 16 november 1627. Alle drie stonden ze op het punt om met een Met dank aan Marten Jan Bok, die mij op de digitale doorzoekbaarheid van de Rotterdamse akten attendeerde. oorlogsschip van de Rotterdamse Admiraliteit 3 GR, ONA Rotterdam, 188-54/81-82, 18 november 1627. uit te varen tegen de Duinkerkers en alle drie 4 B.J. Kaplan, Muslims in the Dutch Golden Age. Representations and realities of reli- gious toleration (Amsterdam 2007) 10. Vergelijk N.I. Matar, ‘Muslims in seven- werden ze door de notaris omschreven als ‘Turk’, teenth-century England’, Journal of Islamic Studies 8 (1997) 63-82. een term die hier niet zo zeer verwijst naar hun 5 Nationaal Archief (NA), Staten-Generaal (SG) 1.01.03, inv. nr. 3182, 503r-v. Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis - 126e jaargang, nummer 1, p. 16-33 Guest (guest) IP: 170.106.35.234 On: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 03:27:57 18 Maartje van Gelder christelijke landgenoten? Waarom keerden rene- een verdrag te sluiten met de Marokkaanse gaten, zoals Hamid Benijche, naar de Republiek sultan, dat uiteindelijk tot stand kwam in 1610.8 terug? Wat was in de praktijk de houding van Hierna volgden al snel andere diplomatieke de Nederlandse staat ten opzichte van renega- overeenkomsten: in 1612 verkreeg ambassadeur ten? Hoewel christelijke Europeanen zich ook Cornelis Haga zogeheten ‘capitulaties’, oftewel in Azië tot de islam bekeerden, concentreert dit diplomatieke erkenning en handelsprivileges, artikel zich op Noord-Afrika: bekering kwam in van de Ottomaanse sultan Ahmed I.9 Hoewel de deze regio relatief vaak voor en het contact met capitulaties ook golden voor Tunis, Tripoli en landgenoten en met de Republiek was hier veel Algiers, de Ottomaanse vazalstaten in Noord- directer.6 Afrika, bleek het in de praktijk noodzakelijk om Diende in de beginfase van de Opstand de met de lokale overheden ‘in Tunis en Algiers’ leus ‘Liever Turcks dan Paus’ vooral als anti- afzonderlijke verdragen te sluiten.10 De gedeelde Spaanse propaganda, vanaf het begin van de vijandschap tegen Spanje en de behoefte om zeventiende eeuw kregen Nederlandse relaties commerciële belangen veilig te stellen vormden met mediterrane islamitische staten een concre- belangrijke drijfveren voor het aangaan van deze ter karakter.7 Vanwege de in 1604 gesloten vrede relaties, maar ook een andere zaak eiste nadruk- tussen Engeland en Spanje zocht de Republiek kelijk de aandacht van Nederlandse gezanten en nieuwe politieke bondgenoten en tegelijkertijd politici op. maakte de toename van de Nederlandse scheep- De Middellandse Zee en de Atlantische vaart langs de Marokkaanse kust dat de behoefte Marokkaanse kust vormden een gevaarlijk ge- aan een veilige toevluchtshaven in deze regio ur- bied voor de Nederlandse scheepvaart, iets waar gent werd. In 1605 stuurden de Staten-Generaal de Staten-Generaal zich goed bewust van waren. de Schiedamse koopman Pieter Maertensz. Coy In het machtsvacuüm dat was ontstaan na de als gezant naar Marrakesh met de opdracht Slag bij Lepanto (1571) maakten kapersvloten uit het christelijke Malta en islamitische Noord- Afrika onder het mom van religieuze oorlogs- 6 Voor Nederlandse bekeerlingen in India, zie J. Huygen van Linschoten, Itinerario (Amsterdam: C. Claes, 1596) 123. Zie ook M.A. Lima Cruz, ‘Exiles and renegades in voering jacht op schepen van de tegenpartij. early sixteenth century Portuguese India’, The Indian Economic and Social History Deze kaapvaart of corso kreeg al snel trekjes van Review 13.3 (1986) 249-262 en G.V. Scammell, ‘European exiles, renegades and 11 outlaws and the maritime economy of Asia, c.1500-1750’, Modern Asian Studies piraterij. Naarmate zich vanaf het einde van 26.4 (1992) 641-661. Lima Cruz en Scammell gebruiken de term renegaat overi- de zestiende eeuw meer Nederlandse schepen gens ook om militaire deserteurs aan te duiden. naar het mediterrane gebied begaven, vielen ook 7 E.T. Kuiper ed., Het geuzenliedboek (Zutphen 1924) 244-245. 8 Zie o.a. S. de Vries, Historie van Barbaryen (Amsterdam: J. ten Hoorn, 1684); zij in toenemende mate ten prooi aan Noord- K. Heeringa, ‘Een bondgenootschap tusschen Nederland en Marokko’, Onze eeuw. Afrikaanse kaperschepen. Buitgemaakte sche- Maandschrift voor staatkunde, letteren, wetenschap en kunst 7.3 (1907) 81-119; pen, ladingen en opvarenden werden verkocht in R.E.J. Weber, De beveiliging van de zee tegen Europeesche en Barbarijsche zeeroovers 1609-1621 (Amsterdam 1936) 89; J. Caillé, ‘Ambassades et missions marocaines aux Tunis, Tripoli en Algiers of in de havens van het Pays-Bas à l’époque des sultans saadiens’, Hespéris-Tamuda 4 (1963) 39-84; zelfstandige koninkrijk Marokko. De positie van M. García-Arenal en G.A. Wiegers, A man of three worlds. Samuel Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe (Baltimore en Londen 2003) 71-88; gevangen opvarenden, of ‘christenslaven’ zoals A. Benali en H. Obdeijn, Marokko door Nederlandse ogen, 1605-2005. Verslag van een tijdgenoten hen noemden, hield het midden reis door de tijd (Amsterdam en Antwerpen 2005) 17-28; G.A. Wiegers, ‘Moriscos and tussen die van dwangarbeiders en gegijzelden: zij Arabic studies in Europe’, Al-Qantara 31 (2010) 587-610, aldaar 601- 603; en K. Bejjit, ‘Merchants, diplomats, and corsairs. The Dutch in Barbary at De Ruyter’s moesten aan de slag in steengroeves, als roeiers time’, in: J.R. Bruijn e.a. ed., De Ruyter. Dutch admiral (Rotterdam 2011) 57-76. op de Noord-Afrikaanse galeien of als bedienden 9 Zie over Haga: I. van der Vlis en H. van der Sloot, Cornelis Haga, 1578-1654. Pionier en diplomaat in Constantinopel (Amsterdam 2012). in het huishouden van hun meesters. Een belang- 10 G. van Krieken, Kapers en kooplieden. De betrekkingen tussen Algiers en Nederland rijk verschil met de positie van Afrikaanse slaven (Amsterdam 1999); K. Heeringa ed., Bronnen tot de geschiedenis van den in de Amerika’s was dat vrijkoop of uitruil tegen Levantschen handel I.2 (Den Haag 1910) 629 e.v. (ook digitaal beschikbaar via 12 www.historici.nl). gevangen moslims in principe mogelijk was. 11 S. Bono, Corsari nel Mediterraneo. Cristiani e musulmani fra guerra, schiavitù e com- Nederlandse gezanten in Noord-Afrika had- mercio (Milaan 1999). 12 Het vrijkopen van gevangen Italianen, Spanjaarden en Fransen verliep groten- den niet alleen de opdracht politieke en com- deels via katholieke ordes. Zie onder andere E. Friedman, Spanish captives in North merciële belangen te behartigen, maar dienden Africa (Madison, Wis. 1983); W. Kaiser ed., Le commerce des captifs. Les intermédi- ook het (collectief) vrijkopen van gevangen aires dans l’échange et le rachat des prisonniers en Méditerranée, XVe-XVIIIe siècle (Rome 2008); G. Weiss, Captives and corsairs. France and slavery in the early modern landgenoten te organiseren. Tegelijkertijd waren Mediterranean (Stanford 2011). ze er getuige van hoe vrijwillig bekeerde landge- Guest (guest) IP: 170.106.35.234 On: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 03:27:57 Tussen Noord-Afrika en de Republiek 19 1. Tekening van christenslaven die stenen ter versteviging van de kade- muur van Algiers vervoeren, uit het reisjournaal van de chirurgijn Joannes Veltkamp.
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