Scientific English in Psychology Text Book: a Systemic Functional Linguistic Approach

SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH IN PSYCHOLOGY TEXT BOOK: A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTIC APPROACH

A THESIS

NURUL APRILLA MARPAUNG

REG NO. 140705052

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

MEDAN 2019

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I, NURUL APRILLA MARPAUNG, DECLARE THAT I AM THE SOLE

AUTHOR OF THIS THESIS EXCEPT WHERE REFERENCE IS MADE

IN THE TEXT OF THIS THEIS. THIS THESIS CONTAINS NO

MATERIAL PUBLISHED ELSEWHERE OR EXTRACTED IN WHOLE

OR IN PART FROM A THESIS BY WHICH I HAVE QUALIFIED FOR

OR AWARDED ANOTHER DEGREE. NO OTHER PERSON’S WORK

HAS BEEN USED WITHOUT DUE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IN THE

MAIN TEXT OF THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS HAS NOT BEEN

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD ANOTHER DEGREE IN TERTIARY

EDUCATION.

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Date : February 08th, 2019

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA COPYRIGHT DECLARATION

NAME :NURUL APRILLA MARPAUNG

TITLE OF THESIS :SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH IN PSYCHOLOGY

TEXT BOOK: A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL

LINGUISTIC APPROACH

QUALIFICATION : S-1/SARJANA SASTRA

DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH

I AM WILLING THAT MY THESIS SHOULD BE AVAILABLE FOR

REPRODUCTION AT THE DISCRETION OF THE LIBRARIAN OF

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UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA ON THE UNDERSTANDING

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Date : February 08th, 2019

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I would like to thank to Allah SWT and the prophet

Muhammad SAW for the blessing and never stop giving me incredible life.

Thank you for making me as Your creature and giving me much love and thank you for giving me the greatest parent of the world and many good friends.

I dedicate this thesis to my awesome mother. You make me feel loved and always be the reason for me to home. Thank you for never give up on me and thank you for being my parent. For my beloved late father, who always believed me and love me, may Allah placed him in Firdaus heaven till we meet again. I also would like to thank to my four brothers that always support me in every situation, my big brother Parwis, thank you for helping me in my hard time. And of course to All my family members who love me, I love you guys.

Now, it is time to thank to the Dean of Faculty of Cultural Studies,

University of Sumatera Utara Dr. Budi Agustono, M.S. And also to the Head of

English Department Prof. Tengku Silvana Sinar, MA, Ph.D, and the secretary of English Department Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A., PhD. I also would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr. Masdiana Lubis, M.Hum. and my Co-Supervisor, Dian Marisha Putri, S.S., M.Si. who have contributed and given the valuable evaluations, comments, suggestions, attentions, and supports during the completion and accomplishing of this thesis. Thank you for the guidance, motivation, and knowledge that you have given to me. And of

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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA course, my gratitude goes to all the lecturers in English Department who have taught me during my study with the knowledge in their respective fields.

Special thank to Mr. Sukirno. The one who never said never to help me and my English Department friends in finishing all the campus administration.

He is an easy going and coolest old man of the world. Thank you for all your help, we‘re gonna miss you!

I wanna thank with all of my heart to my greatest friend ―Rahasia

Bahagia‖, Enda as my favorite storyteller, Debby as my mamak in campus,

Gaby as mood booster, Serik who always helping me, Elip as my beloved sister, Syahra as the prittiest and Miaw as the cuttie girl. Thank you for always been there through my hard time, cheer me up, for always make me laugh and give me moral support. I hope we all success by our own way and please keep in touch wherever we are apart. I always love you my RB. Thank you for being my best friends. Thank you to Nurni and Suci for more than seven years become my best friends, always been there when I am bad or good, also to Okta that still keep in touch even you are so far, you taught me so many things. Of course I will never forget Christine, thank you for your big heart and kindness, and also thank you to Ardo, you are such a good person. My sister Fatimah, thank you for supporting me, I love you! And also to all my friend that I can not mention all the name, you are all such a good person.

My biggest thank to my self, thank you for being such a strong girl, thank you for your struggle and give your best attemp to finish this thesis. I just

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA need to grow and learn more about right and wrong, I hope me, my self be a better person.

And finally, I hope this thesis will give a positive contribution to the educational development or those who want to carry out further research.

Medan, February 08th, 2019

NurulAprillaMarpaung Reg. No: 140705052

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ABSTRACT

Thesis which entitled Scientific English in Psychology Text Books: A Systemic Functional Linguistic Approach is study about Critical Discourse Analysis in Psychology books. The objectives of this study are to describe how Scientific Englishin Psychology books are written based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics and then to find out the characteristics of scientific English realized in Psychology book. The theory that supports this study is Systemic Functional Linguistics theory of Halliday and Martin (1993) which says there are 7 characteristics of scientific English: interlocking definitions, technical taxonomies, special expressions, lexical density, syntactic ambiguity, grammatical metaphor and semantic discontinuity. The method of the study is qualitative method. The data of this study are sentences and paragraphs which realize the seven characteristics of scientific English. The source of data of this research are text in Psychology book. From the research conducted, the researcher found only four of the characteristics of scientific English are realized in that Psychology book, they are interlocking definitions, technical taxonomies, lexical density and syntactic ambiguity. From 108 paragraphs, only 42 paragraphs have the characteristics of scientific English, 11 paragraphs realize the interlocking definitions and 31 paragraphs realize the technical taxonomies. Then from 504 sentences there are 283 sentences that realize the characteristics of scientific English, 281 sentences realize lexical density and 2 sentences realize syntactic ambiguity. From this research can be concluded that this psychology book uses scientific English due to the characterisrics of scientific English found in this book. The author of the book has made the best attempt to make this book easy to understand by apply some images to support the text. But this bookis still difficult to understand due to the higher of lexical density.

Keywords: Scientific English, Interlocking definitions, Technical taxonomies.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA ABSTRAK

Skripsi yang berjudul Bahasa Inggris Ilmiah dalam buku teks Psikologi: Pendekatan Sistematika Fungsional Linguistik adalah ilmu yang membahas tentang analisis wacana dalam buku Psikologi. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan bagaimana bahasa Inggris ilmiah dalam buku Psikologi ditulis berdasarkan sistematika fungsional linguistik dan untuk menemukan karakteristik dari bahasa Inggrris ilmiah yang direalisasikan didalam buku Psikologi. Teori yang mendukung penelitian ini yaitu teori sistematika fungsional linguistic dari Halliday dan Martin (1993) yang mengatakan ada tujuh karakteristik pada bahasa Inggris ilmiah: defenisi yang saling terikat, taksonomi teknis, ekspresi khusus, kepadatan leksikal, sintaksis ambiguitas, metapora tata bahasa dan semantic yang tidak berkelanjutan. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode kualitatif. Data penelitian ini adalah kalimat dan paragraf yang merealisasikan tujuh karakteristik dari bahasa Inggris ilmiah tersebut. Sumber data penelitian ini adalah buku Psikologi. Dari penelitian yang dilakukan, penulis menemukan hanya empat karakteristik dari bahasa Inggris ilmiah yang direalisasikan didalam buku Psikologi tersebut, yaitu: definisi yang saling terikat, taksonomi teknis, kepadatan leksikal, sintaksi, ambiguitas. Dari 108 paragraf yang menjadi data analisis hanya 42 paragraf yang merealisasikan karakteristik dari bahasa Inggris ilmiah tersebut, 11 paragraf merealisasikan interlocking definition dan 31 paragraf merealisasikan technical taxonomies. Kemudian dari 504 kalimat terdapat 283 kalimat yang merealisasikan karakteristik bahasa Inggris ilmiah, yaitu 281 kalimat merealisasikan lexical density dan 2 kalimat merealisasikan syntactic ambiguity. Dari penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa buku Psikologi ini menggunakan bahasa Inggris ilmiah karena adanya karakteristik dari bahasa Inggris ilmiah yang ditemukan didalam buku ini. Penulis dari buku Psikologi ini telah berusaha membuat buku Psikologi ini agar mudah dipahami dengan mengaplikasikan gambar untuk mendukung teks. Akan tetapi buku ini masih susah dipahami karena kepadatan leksikal yang tinggi.

Kata kunci: Bahasa Inggris Ilmiah, Definisi yang saling terkait, Taksonomi teknis.

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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ...... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... vi

ABSTRAK ...... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1

1.2 Problems of the Study ...... 6

1.3 Objectives of the Study ...... 6

1.4 Scope of the Study ...... 6

1.5 Significances of the Study ...... 7

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 8

2.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics ...... 8

2.2 Scientific English ...... 11

2.2.1 Characteristics of Scientific English ...... 11

2.2.1.1 Interlocking Definitions ...... 11

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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.2.1.2 Technical Taxonomies ...... 13

2.2.1.3 Special Expressions ...... 16

2.2.1.4 Lexical Density ...... 18

2.2.1.5 Syntactic Ambiguity ...... 21

2.2.1.6 Grammatical Metaphor ...... 24

2.2.1.7 Semantic Discontinuity ...... 31

2.3 About the Textbook, Psychology An Introduction

Eleventh Edition ...... 33

2.4 Theoritical Framework ...... 35

2.5 Relevant Study ...... 35

CHAPTER III METHOD OF RESEARCH ...... 38

3.1 Research Design ...... 38

3.2 Source of Data ...... 38

3.3 Data Collection Method ...... 39

3.4 Data Analysis Technique ...... 40

3.4.1 Data Condensation ...... 40

3.4.2 Data Display ...... 41

3.4.3 Drawing and Verifying Conclusions ...... 41

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ...... 43

4.1 Analysis of Characteristic of Scientific English ...... 43

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4.2 Realization of Scientific English ...... 43

4.2.1 Interlocking Definition ...... 43

4.2.2 Technical Taxonomies ...... 49

4.2.3 Lexical density ...... 55

4.2.4 Syntactic Ambiguity ...... 60

4.3 Findings ...... 61

4.3.1 Interlocking Definitions ...... 61

4.3.2 Technical Taxonomies ...... 62

4.3.3 Lexical Density ...... 65

4.3.4 Syntactic Ambiguity ...... 65

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ...... 67

5.1 Conclusion ...... 67

5.2 Suggestion ...... 67

REFERENCES ...... 68

APPENDIX I

APPPENDIX II

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Interlocking definition words in chapter III of Psychology An Introduction

Eleventh Edition ...... 61

Table 4.2 Technical taxonomies (a is a kinds of x) in chapter III of Psychology An

Introduction Eleventh Edition ...... 63

Table 4.3 Technical taxonomies (b is a part of y) in chapter III of Psychology An

Introduction Eleventh Edition ...... 64

Table 4.4 The number of lexical words, noun, adjective, verb, adverb and total words .. 65

Table 4.5 The number of syntactic ambiguity ...... 66

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Interlocking Definitions of five Technical Terms ...... 12

Figure 2.2: Kinds of Climate (Super-ordination) ...... 14

Figure 2.3 Part of Climate (Composition)...... 14

Figure 2.4 Theoretical Framework ...... 35

Figure 3.1 Components of Data Analysis: Interactive Model...... 40

Figure 4.1 Interlocking defenitions of the nervous system ...... 43

Figure 4.2 Interlocking definitions of the nervous system ...... 44

Figure 4.3 Interlocking defenitions of the peripheral nervous system ...... 45

Figure 4.4 Interlocking defenitions of psychological life ...... 47

Figure 4.5 Interlocking defenitions of cerebral cortex ...... 48

Figure 4.6 Neurons ...... 49

Figure 4.7 Polarized membrane ...... 50

Figure 4.8 Part of brain as the function ...... 52

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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Science is the study of some aspect of human behavior, for example,

Sociology, Anthropology or Psychology. The systematic study of science is based on observation, experiment and the formulation of laws to describe these facts in general of terms. Robinson (1991:24) says that 'science' is not a homogeneous linguistic entity, that the writer's purpose and audience rather than the topic are the determinants of linguistic forms. Science is a study about everything in-universe, it could be human and stuff, animal, technology, galaxy and the others. In

Wikipedia says that "Science is from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge" that is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. All kinds of information about science are circulating ever faster and reaches every corner of the world because of language.

The language of science is quite difficult to understand because the science is written by technical terms. The words used in technical writing are certain words which are different from the words used in non-technical writing.

Technical language is words or phrases that belong to a particular science, art, profession, and the other. There are a lot of technical terms in a science book and they may be quite hard to understand if they are not presented systematically.

Close (1965) states, "The scientific language is accurate, precise and detached from individual impulse. It aims to inform about an important issue and

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA what particular approach is taken up to investigate that issue. It is an objective interpretation of facts and findings. It contains such components and findings that need external and experimental evidence to consolidate their validity. On the contrary, literary language is a subjective interpretation of life. In a scientific text, subject-matter takes priority over the style of the linguistic medium".

"Scientific English is general English plus the extra components of science"

(Robinson,1991:17). He says that there is a great need for less generalization and greater precision that could account for differences of opinion.

Scientific English can be classified into different types of words. For example, there are scientific words developed specifically for science e.g. electrolysis or photosynthesis. There are also non-technical words widely used in science but are also used in other contexts e.g. exert, repel or contract.

Learning science is also learning the language of science as Halliday states, "learning science, is the same thing as learning the language of science. If the language is difficult to understand, this is not some additional factor caused by the words that are chosen, but a difficulty that is inherent in the nature of science itself. It is the subject-matter that is the source of the problem (Halliday and

Martin 1993:70).

Science often introduces technical words with specific meanings and also gives a scientific meaning to words which may have a different usage in everyday language. For example, "if people get symptoms of malaria-like a headache, high fever, profuse sweating, vomiting, and muscle pain", in everyday conversation we said, "he is sick", but the doctor will conclude from the symptoms that he got

"malaria".

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA The science students' problem with regard to English is not so much one of technical terminology as of the kind of vocabulary, grammar, syntax and idiomatic devices that are generally used in scientific English. According to Close

(1965:3), "The chief difficulty becomes obvious when they know the specialist terms but cannot understand or formulate statements in English in which those terms occur"

Each field and specialty typically uses a vocabulary that relays a variety of specialized concepts by means of technical language. These special terms convey concentrated meanings that have been built up over significant periods of study of a field. Technical terms often blend readily into the formula and mathematical manipulation.

Some linguists such as Swales, Close and Robinson had done some research about the difficulty of understanding scientific English. According to them, the difficulties are related to the misuse of grammar. For example, the misuse of conjunction for non-native. In a conversation that is not very important but in scientific writing that is important. Swales, for instance, has advocated that the main verbs in scientific texts are generally in the present simple tense, for example, "I go" whereas the other expert, Close emphasizes the difficulties is in using a continuous form of the verb, for example, "I am going". Broad agreements that the discourse markers and connectives (link words) are important do not discuss. Though ironically Robinson remarks of connectives that they are perhaps important, not because they are special to ESP, but because the general

ELT (English Language Teaching) has so far ignored them". Discourse markers that are not necessarily unique to science, but are very important, as Dawe argues

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA (1983), in his research he found that the single most important difference between immigrant children and their monolingual counterparts was that the immigrants, proficient in all other areas, were weak on link words.

Halliday and Martin (1993:69) says that the difficulty in understanding the science book does not only happen to the learner of English as a Second Language

(ESL) but also for the learners of English as the first language (EL1) or mother tongue. This two groups, those for whom English is mother tongue and those for whom it is the second language may respond to scientific English in different ways, it is largely the same feature that causes difficulties to both. Halliday gives the example of this case, a pile-up of nouns as in form recognition laterality patterns, or glass crack growth rate, is hard to understand both for ESL and for

EL1 (English as a First Language) student of science. The two groups may use different strategies for decoding these structures, but decoding strategies vary according to other factors also, for example, the age of the learner. In so far as

‗scientific English' presents a special problem of its own, distinct from those of other varieties of English, the problems seem to be much the same for everybody.

The difficulty of students to understand English textbook also happen because of some characteristics of scientific English as Halliday and Martin

(1993) introduced in their book "Writing Science: Literacy and Discursive

Power", they are interlocking definitions, technical taxonomies, special expressions, lexical density, syntactic ambiguity, grammatical metaphor and semantic discontinuity.

The writer made a mini-research to five psychology's students of

University of Sumatra Utara, one of them said that he actually understands the

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA book, but he is difficult to understand the meaning of some phrases and sentences, while the others said that they do not understand the book completely. For example, "The association areas play less specific roles in cerebral activities but often work closely with one of the nearby specific ability areas." This sentence is one of the samples of lexical density found in Psychology books. They feel difficult to understand this sentence because of the lexical density in this sentence.

If it compares with the daily sentence such as "He used to tell me about a person he met ", the students said the second sentence is more understandable than the first sentence. It is because in an everyday language only use about two to six lexical words, and scientific language used about ten and more lexical words, due to the writing is usually more planned than speech. From the example above, we can see a significant difference, in the first sentence there are only 3 lexical words and the second sentence, there are 14 lexical words that proves that scientific language is more complete and difficult to understand.

Based on the above explanation, it is interesting to do a research about the characteristics of scientific English found in Psychology textbook and find out the realization of the characteristics of scientific English in Psychology textbook entitle Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition written by Lahey, because nowadays science is evolved and several universities want to be the best university by giving the best teaching for the students, so they choose English book to be a guide in teaching and learning process. But, because the language of science is different from everyday language, the student feels difficult to understand the subject.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 1.2 Problems of the Study

Based on the explanation above, the problem of this study are as follows:

1. What characteristics of scientific English are used in Psychology Text

Book?

2. How are the characteristics of scientific English realized in Psychology

Text Book?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objective of the study are:

1. To find out the characteristics of scientific English are used in Psychology

Text Book.

2. To describe the realization of the characteristics of scientific English in

Psychology Text Book.

1.4 Scope of the Study

This thesis focuses on scientific English in a textbook. It try to explain the reason how can Scientific English difficult to understand. This thesis used

Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition by Benjamin B. Lahey. This book is used by Psychology's students of the University of Sumatra Utara. The writer only analyses the characteristics of scientific English and how they are realized in a chapter of Psychology textbooks entitled Biological foundations of behavior.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 1.5 Significances of the Study

Through this research, there are two significances, theoretically and practically. Theoretically, this study can be used to enrich the study in the field of discourse analysis, especially in Systemic Functional Linguistic. Practically this study can be used as a reference for the students to understand the textbook of

Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition by Lahey, especially in chapter three entitle Biological foundations of behavior and for the researcher in SFL the study is expected to help the students in understanding the technical terms or scientific terms.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language that highlights the relationship between language, text, and context. This scope is wide that it sets out to explain how humans make meaning through language and other semiotic resource and to understand the relationship between language and society. According to (Halliday, 2007) it is designed to be a strategic tool and a guide to action, a means of responding to everyday real-life language-related issues in diverse social, professional and academic contexts. Academic learning and teaching are just one of the contexts that it has been applied to.

From an SFL perspective, teaching academic illiteracies involves critically apprenticing English Language Learners (ELLs) to using varieties of school language, or registers, by exploring how these registers (1) construct ideas (e.g., every day versus disciplinary conceptions of phenomena and events); (2) manage and organize the flow of information depending on whether interactions take place orally, in writing, or through computer-mediated modes; and (3) enact relationships (e.g., differences of familiarity and status). Halliday calls these three functions as ideational textual and interpersonal, operate simultaneously and offer teachers and students a contextual basis for critically analyzing how language varies in relation to who is communicating with whom, what they are communicating about, and the modes through which they are interacting. In addition, SFL focuses on the range of linguistic choices available to students

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA when they attempt to read and write genre they are likely to encounter only in school.

Systemic functional linguistics has been evolved as a tool for participating in political processes. Seeing that the theory and practice of science, and science education, have a central place in our political life, it seems natural for us to adopt a systemic functional perspective. According to Halliday and Martin (1993) It has five orientations that are critical in this respect and that may be critical in another respect alluded to above, namely that of evolving a scientific discourse for the language itself.

The five orientationsare:

1. Rule/resource – SFL is orientated to the description of language as a resource

for meaning rather than as a system of rules. It is oriented, in other words, to

speakers‘ meaning potential (what they can mean) rather than neurologically

based constraints on what they can say. This orientation has made it easier for

us to focus on the seism genesis of scientific discourse, including phylogenies

(evolution in the professional community), ontogenesis (apprenticeship in

education) and logo genesis (development in text) – with genesis interpreted

as expanding meaning potential.

2. Sentence/text – SFL is concerned with texts, rather than a sentence, as the

basic unit through which meaning is negotiated. It treats grammar, in other

words, as the realization of discourse – from which emerges the conception of

functional grammar, naturally related to its text semantics (as opposed to an

autonomous syntax). This concern has made it possible for us to reason

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA grammatically about the semantic organization of scientific texts and the

systems of meaning they instantiate.

3. Text/context – SFL focuses on soldiery relations between texts and social

contexts rather than on texts as the contextualized structural entities in their

own right. It looks, in other words, for solitary (i.e., mutually predictive)

relationships between texts and the social practices they realize, deliberately

sidestepping the question of the role of mental organs in human behavior – but

with semiosis as the resolution of the engagement of physical, biological and

social resources (i.e., consciousness) in our species. This focus has encouraged

us to shunt between science as institution and science as text, as two

complementary perspectives on scientific discourse.

4. Expressing/construing meaning – SFL is concerned with language as a system

for construing meaning, rather than as a conduit through which thoughts and

feelings are poured. In other words, it views language as a meaning-making

system rather than a meaning-expressing one. This concern has made it easier

for us to focus on the role of grammar in constructing the uncommon sense

interpretation of reality which distinguishes science as a discipline.

5. Parsimony/extravagance – SFL is oriented to extravagance, rather than

parsimony. It is oriented, in other words, to developing an elaborate model in

which language, life, the universe, and everything can be viewed in

communicative (i.e., semiotic) terms. For us this has meant that there is

usually enough descriptive power around for the deconstructive task at hand;

and if not, there is room, both theoretical and social, to invent it (cf.

Trevarthen, 1992).

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

2.2 Scientific English

In addition, throughout the experiment the style of the scientific report has a great bearing on the interpretation of the information. Throughout the writing, the writer makes decisions about a sequence of ideas, sentence structure, and choice of words. For effective, clear scientific English, the writer should realize how each of these decisions might affect the reader‘s understanding and attitude.

These considerations are as important in scientific English, in spite of its objective stand, as they are in other kinds of technical English.

Much of what we have said about report writing applies as well to scientific English. As with other forms of technical English, the purpose of scientific English is to convey precise, correct information in the most efficient form to either a specialized or a general audience.

2.2.1 Characteristics of Scientific English

According to Halliday and Martin (1993), there are seven headings which can be used for illustrating and discussing the difficulties that are characteristic of scientific English:

2.2.1.1 Interlocking Definitions

In the dictionary, interlocking or interlock is mean to unite or join together and closely as by hooking or dovetailing, so that the individual part affect each other in motion or operation.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Here is an example of how a series of definitions is presented to students in school.

circle [length]

[plane circumf curve] erence [distance]

centre radius [twice] s

diameter

Figure 2.1 Interlocking Definitions of five Technical Terms

A circle is a place curve with the special property that every point on it is at the same distance from a particular point called the centre. This distance is called the radius of the circle. The diameter of the circle is twice the radius. The length of the circle is called its circumference.

Herecircle, centre,radius, diameter and circumference all figure in a series of interlocking definition. Within this set, circle, centre, and radius are mutually defining: they are all used to define each other, through the intermediary of two other terms which are assumed to be already known, namely distance and plane curve. The remaining terms, diameter, and circumference, are then defined each by reference to one of the first three, and here two other terms are assumed to be known and mastered, namely length and twice. The pattern of definitions is as in Figure 2.1. Now, there are certain difficulties here which are specific to this example: the notions of ―plane curve‖, of ‖every point on a curve‖, and of ―the length of a circle‖. Likewise, any example chosen would probably present special problems of its own. But at the same time the overall semantic

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA structure is strikingly complex, and this is something that may be found anywhere in maths and science textbooks. The learner has first to reach an understanding of a cluster of related concepts, all at the same time, and then immediately use this understanding in order to derive more concepts from the first ones. Note that these relationships are set up by means of a grammatical construction which faces both ways: ‗a is defined as x‘,‘x is called a‘ – both of which may occur in the same clause, as happens in the first sentence of the extract.

‗a is defined as an x which has feature y which is called b‘

Furthermore, the ‗hinge‘ element y is it itself fairly complex grammatically:

With the special property that every point on it is at the same distance from a particular point.

Thus while a technical term poses no great problem in itself – there is nothing difficult about the word diameter, and its definition twice the radius is easy enough to understand provided you know what the radius is – a technical construction of this kind, in which the terms interlock and are used to define each other, does present the learner with a considerable intellectual task. Writers sometimes try to make the task simpler by adding further definitions, not realizing that in a construct of this kind the greater the number of things defined the harder it becomes to understand.

2.2.1.2 Technical Taxonomies

Taxonomies is the technique to classify something into a group based on the similarities of structure or origin. These are related to the last heading: but the complexity is of a different kind. In the natural sciences, technical concepts have

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA little value in themselves; they derive their meaning from being organized into taxonomies. Such taxonomies are not simply groups of related terms; they the highly ordered constructions in which every term has a definite functional value.

As Wignell, Martin, and Eggins (1987) point out below in their study of the language of high school geography, a technical taxonomy is typically based on two fundamental semantic relationships: ‗a is a kind of x‘ (super-ordination ) and

‗b is a part of y‘ (composition).

Tropical

Sub Tropical

Climate Temperate Boreal

Cold Polar

Dry Highland

Figure 2.2: Kinds of Climate (Super-ordination)

climate

atmospheric solar radiation temperature presure systems moisture

Figure 2.3 Part of Climate (Composition)

Thus in their example of climate, the climate is divided into certain kinds

(Figure 2.2) and is composed of certain parts (Figure 2.3). It will be seen that the first is an ‗either/or‘ relationship: ‗every climate is either tropical or subtropical

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA or…‘: the second is a ‗both + and‘ relationship: ‗every climate is both temperature and solar radiation and . . .‘.(We have to stretch the meaning of either and both here so that they are no longer limited to just two.)

Three problems can arise with such constructions. The first is that these taxonomies can become very complicated, with many layers of organization built into them. The second is that they are usually not made explicit: there are often neither lists nor diagrams (the figures above do not appear in the textbook), so the student is left to work them out for himself from reading the text. The third problem is that the criteria on which these taxonomies are set up can also be extremely complex so that they need to be described and explained in some detail.

It would be possible to make the reading matter more learner– friendly by dealing systematically with these three problems in turn: first introduction the terms in their taxonomic order (e.g., there are five kinds of climate, namely... ), then setting them out in lists or diagrams, and finally describing each category and, where possible, explaining it. In practice, the first and the third steps are usually taken together, with the second one being left out; as a result, the way the taxonomy is presented is often grammatically very confusing, with no clear pattern of theme and information running through it. For example,

ONE-CELLED ORGANISMS. Some organisms, such as the ameba and other in the culture you examined, are composed of only one cell. These organisms are said to be unicellular. Living in water, these animals are in close contact with the food, water, and oxygen they need. A one-celled animal takes in its own food. Along with this food, the animal also takes in some water.

Additional water enters the animal cell by diffusion. The normal movement of the

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA cytoplasm carries the food, water, and oxygen throughout the cell. Waste materials are eliminated directly to the outside of the cell. Most one-celled organisms can survive only in a watery environment.

It is very likely that the writer of this passage has been trying to make it more interesting for the reader by varying the order and the manner of presenting the categories to be learned: the kinds of organism, the parts of the organism and soon. Thus every clause begins with a new theme: some organisms, these organisms, living in water, a one-celled animal, and additional water, the normal movement of the cytoplasm, waste materials, and most one-celled organisms. Unfortunately, while this kind of variation may be an admirable goal for a literary text if scientific texts are written in this way they are much harder to read and to learn from. It is very difficult to construct the relevant taxonomies on the basis of this kind of writing.

2.2.1.3 Special Expressions

Special expression is an expression used to give something or symbol a specific name. Some expressions used in mathematical language have a special grammar of their own, for example solving the open sentence over D. Here it is the expression as a whole that gets to be defined, rather than any particular words in it.

If D is the domain of a variable in an open sentence, the prose‘s of finding the truth set are called solving the open sentence over D.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA This is ‗technical grammar‘, rather than technical terminology: it is not particularly problematic once it has been explained (provided the learner does not ask what happens if D is not the domain of a variable I an open sentence).

This kind of special grammar is more common in mathematics than in science; mathematicians have often had to stretch the grammar a little in order to say what they want. Already in Issac Newton‘s writings, we find some very long nominal constructions, like the following from the Treatise on Optics;

The Excesses of the Sies of Refraction of Several sorts of Rays above their common Sine of Incidence when the refractions are made out of divers denser

Mediums immediately into one and the same rarer Medium, suppose of Air, . .

--all of which is merely the Subject of the clause. This kind of stretching of the grammar is less usual in scientific discourse. However, the language of science has brought its own innovations, stretching the grammar in ways which are at first sight less obvious but which, partly because they are less obvious, tend to cause greater difficulties of comprehension. Here is an example from an upper primary- school textbook:

Your completed table should tell you what happens to the risk of getting

lung cancer as a smoking increase.

The tables are, of course, a table of figures; that is understood. But how does a table tell you something? – tables do not talk, even tables of figures. And what kind of an object is a risk, such that we can ask what happens to it? And what does smoking increases mean: that more smoke is put out by some combustion process? What kind of relationship is being expressed by the as: does it mean

‗while‘ (time), ‗because‘ (cause), or ‗in the same way that‘ (manner)?

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA What is being illustrated here is not, in fact, a single phenomenon. It is a set of interrelated phenomena: features which tend to go together in modern scientific writing, forming a kind of syndrome by which we recognize that something is written in the language of science. But although these features commonly need to separate them out; and this will occupy the next three headings. The present section will serve as a bridge leading into them because when we see them in their historical perspective they do constitute a special mode of expression that evolved in scientific discourse, although we are now so used to them that we no longer think of them as special. It is only when they occur in a fairly extreme form that they stand out, as in the following.

[theses result] are consistent with the selective perceptual orientation hypothesis if it assumed that both word recognition and concurrent verbal memory produce more left than right hemisphere activation and that in the case of mixed lists in the present study this activation and that in the case of mixed lists in the present study this activation had not dissipated on form recognition trials.

2.2.1.4 Lexical Density

Lexical density is a high usage of lexical in a sentence. This is a measure of the density of information in any passage of text, according to how tightly the lexical items (content words) have been packed into the grammatical structure. It can be measured, in English, as the number of lexical words per clause.

In the following examples, each of which is one clause, the lexical words are in bold type; the lexical density count is given at the right:

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA a) But we never did anything very much in science at our school.

b) My father used to tell me about a singer in his village.

c) A parallelogram is a four-sided figure with its opposite sides parallel.

d) The atomic nucleus absorbs and emits energy in quanta or discrete

units. 8

In any piece of discourse, there is obviously a great deal of variation in the lexical density from one clause to the next. But there are also some general tendencies. In informal spoken language the lexical density tends to be low: about two lexical words per clause is quite typical. When the language is more planned and more formal, the lexical density is higher; and since writing is usually more planned than speech, written language tends to be somewhat denser than spoken language, often having around four to six lexical words per clause. But in scientific writing the lexical density may go considerably higher. Here are three clauses with a lexical density of 10-13, all from Scientific American (December

1987):

e) Griffith‘s energy balance approach to strength and fracture also

suggested the importance of surface chemistry in the mechanical

behavior of brittle materials. (13)

f) The conical space rendering of cosmic strings‘ gravitational properties

applies only to straight strings. (10)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA g) The model rests on the localized gravitational attraction exerted by

rapidly oscillating and extremely massive closed loops of cosmic string.

(13)

When the lexical density goes up to this extent, the passage becomes difficult to read. Of course, the difficulty will also depend on the particular lexical items that are used and on how they are distributed in the grammatical structure; but the lexical density is a problematic factor in itself. In much scientific writing, almost all the lexical items in any clause occur inside just one or two nominal groups (noun phrases); compare example (e)-(g) above, where this applies to all except one in each case (suggested, applies, rests). Perhaps the hardest example to the process are those which consist of strings of lexical words without any grammatical words in between, such as Griffith’s energy balance approach, cosmic strings’ gravitational properties; likewise, those cited at the beginning of the paper, from recognition laterality patterns and glass crack growth rate.

Even where the words themselves are perfectly simple and well known, as in the last of these four examples, the expressions are not easy to understand. Another example was the increased lung cancer death rate, which appeared in the same passage as the example quoted in the last section.

To calculate the lexical density, the researcher provides a formula according to the formula in Ure in To (2013: 63),

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.2.1.5 Syntactic Ambiguity

Syntactic Ambiguity is an arrangement of a sentence that makes ambiguous because of some phrase do not explain clearly, so it can make two meaning of something.

Consider example such as the following:

h) Increased responsiveness may be reflected in feeding behavior.

1. Lung cancer death rates are clearly associated with increased smoking.

2. Higher productivity means more support services.

All have a very simple structure: a nominal group, functioning as Subject, followed by a verbal group, followed by another nominal group with (in two instances) a preposition introducing it. If we focus attention on the verbal expressions, may be reflected (in), are... associated (with), means, we find that they are ambiguous; and they are ambiguous in two respects. In the first place, we cannot tell whether they indicate a relationship of cause or cause of evidence. Is one thing being said to be the effect of another, or is it merely the outward sign of it? For example: in (h), does the feeding behaviordemonstrate that responsiveness has increased, or does it change as a result of the increase? In the second place, supposing that we can identify a relationship of a cause, we still cannot tell which causes which. In (k), for example, is higher productivity brought about by more supporting services, or does it cause more supporting services to be provided? It may seem obvious to the writer, and also to a teacher, which meaning is intended; but it is far from obvious to a learner, and teacher and learner may interpret the passage differently without either of them being aware that another interpretation was possible.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA The expression is associated with, in (j), can also face in either direction: either ‗cause‘ or ‗are caused by‘. We may know that smoking cause cancer, and hence that the more you smoke, the more likely you are to die from cancer of the lung. But this sentence could mean that lung cancer death rates lead to increased smoking; perhaps people are so upset by the fear of lung cancer that they need to smoke more in order to calm their nerves. It is even possible that the writer wanted not to commit himself to a choice between these two interpretations of the statistics. But when we start to explore the meaning of this example more carefully, we find that it contains a great deal more ambiguity in addition to that which we have already seen in the verb.

For example, what does a lung cancer death rate mean? Is it ‗how many people die from lung cancer‘, or ‗how quickly people die when they get lung cancer‘? or is it perhaps ‗how quickly people‘s lungs die from cancer‘? And does increased smoking mean ‗people smoke more‘, or ‗more people smoke‘- or is it a combination of the two, ‗more people smoke more‘? Having reached some understanding up to this point, such as ‗more people smoke... more people die of cancer‘, we still do not know whether they are the same people or not – is it just the smokers who die more, or everyone else as well? Nor do we know whether the situation is real or hypothetical: is it ‗because more people are smoking, so more are dying‘, or ‗if more people smoked, more would die? If we combine all these possibilities we have already reached some fifty possible interpretations, most of which were quite plausible; they are genuine alternatives faces by a human reader, not fanciful simulations of some computerized parsing program.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Where does this ambiguity come from? It arises from various sources. We have already referred to polysemous verbs likemean,be associated with; there are probably between 1,000 and 2,000 verbs of this class in use in scientific English.

But the main cause of ambiguity is those clauses are turned into nouns. That is to say, something that would in spoken English is typically expressed as a clause is expressed instead as a group of words centering on a noun. If I say Mary announced that she had accepted, I am making it clear who did what; but if I say the announcement of Mary‘s acceptance, you cannot tell: whether Mary made the announcement herself or someone else did; whether Mary was accepting

(something) or being accepted; whether she had accepted/been accepted already or would accept/be accepted in the future. Thus the single nominal group the announcement of Mary‘s acceptance corresponds to many different wordings in the form of a clause: Mary announced that she would accept, they announced that

Mary had been accepted, and so on. A great deal of semantic information is lost when clausal expressions are replaced by nominal ones

Scientific writing uses very many nominal constructions of this kind.

Typically in combination with verbs of the type illustrated in (h) – (k) above. Both these features are, as we have seen, highly ambiguous, although we usually do not recognize the ambiguity until we try to re-word the passage in some other form.

Here is a further example:

3. The growth of attachment between infant and mother signals the first step

in the development of the child‘s capacity to discriminate amongst people.

Possible rewordings of this might be:

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 1. When an infant and its mother start to grow attached to one another, this

shows that the child is taking the first steps towards becoming capable of

distinguishing one person from another.

2. If an infant and a mother grow more attached to one another, this is because

the child has taken the first steps towards becoming more capable of

preferring one person to another.

Combining these we get 27= 128 possible interpretations. But in this instance I find it difficult to opt for any of them; none of the rewordings seems to be particularly convincing.

2.2.1.6 Grammatical Metaphor

Grammatical metaphor happens because of syntactic ambiguity and lexical density that caused the grammar in a text become more difficult to understand.

The high lexical density and the ambiguity discussed in the last two sections are both by-products of a process I shall refer to as ‗grammatical metaphor‘. This is like metaphor in the usual sense except that, instead of being a substitution of one word for another, as when we say you‘re talking tripe instead of you‘re talking nonsense, it is a substitution of one grammatical class, or one grammatical structure, by another; for example, his departure instead of he departed. Here the words (lexical items) are the same; what has changed is their place in the grammar. Instead of pronoun he + verb departed, functioning as Actor plus Process in a clause, we have determiner his + noun departure, functioning as

Deictic plus Thing in a nominal group. Other examples are her recent speech concerned poverty instead of she spoke recently concerning poverty; glass cracks

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA growth rate instead of how quickly cracks in glass grow. Often words may change as well as the grammar, as in the last example where how quickly is replaced by rate – we do not usually say glass crack growth quickness; but the underlying metaphor is in the grammar, and the lexical changes follow more or less automatically.

I am not suggesting that there will always be some absolute, non- metaphorical form to which these grammatical metaphors can be related; metaphor is a natural historical process in language and modes of expression involving different degrees of metaphor will always exist side by side. We can often take two or three or even more steps in rewording a grammatical metaphor in less metaphorical, more congruent form; for example, we might say that

‗cracking‘ is really a process – something happening – rather than a thing, so that cracks in glass, with cracks as a noun, is a metaphor for glass cracks with cracks as verb. As another example.

4. [The 36 class only appeared on this train] in times of reduced loading, or

engine failure.

Could be reworded as when loadings were reduced, or the engine failed; but we might then reword the first part over again as when the load was smaller or ever when fewer goods were being carried.

What is the nature of this rewording? One way of thinking of it is by imagining the age of the reader, or listener. In talking to a 9-year-old, we would never say in times of engine failure; we would say whenever the engine failed.

Notice that we have not had to simplify the vocabulary; there are no difficult words in the first version – it is the grammar that is difficult for a child. Similarly,

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA we would change slow down the glass crack growth rate to make the cracks in glass grow more slowly, or stop the cracks in glass from growing so quickly.

What we are doing, when we reword in this way, is changing the grammar (with some consequential changes in vocabulary) by making it younger. Children learn first to talk in clause; it is only later – and only when they can already read and write with the facility – that they are able to replace these clauses with nominal groups.

As far as we can tell, this also reflects what happened in the history of the language. In English, and other languages of Europe, the older pattern is the clausal one; and it is based on certain principles of wording which we might summarize as follows:

1. Processes (actions, events, mental processes, relations) are expressed by

verbs;

2. Participants (people, animals, concrete and abstract objects that take part

in processes) are expressed by nouns;

3. Circumstances (time, place, manner, cause, condition) are expressed by

adverbs and by prepositional phrases;

4. Relations between one process and another are expressed by conjunctions.

For example:

The cast acted brilliantly so the audience applauded for a long time

[noun] [verb] [adverb] [conj] [noun] [verb] [prepositional phrase] Partici- process circum- relation participant process circumstance Pant stance between processes If this is now reworded metaphorically as:

The cast‘s brilliant acting drew lengthy applause from the audience

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA [noun] [verb] [noun] [preposional phrase] a number of changes have taken place. The processes acted and applauded have been turned into nouns, acting and applause; the participant the cast has become possessive, while the audience has become part of a prepositional phrase. The circumstances brilliantly and for a long time have both become adjectives inside nominal groups; and the relation between the two processes, showing that one of them caused the other, has become a verb, drew. This makes it sound as though acting and clapping were things, and as if the only event that took place was the causal relation between them (... acting drew... applause). All these changes illustrate what is meant by grammatical metaphor.

This kind of metaphor is found particularly in scientific discourse and may have evolved first of all in that context. It is already beginning to appear in the writings of the ancient Greek scientists; from them it is carried over into classical

Latin and then into medieval Latin; and it has continued to develop – but to a far greater extent – in Italian, English, French, German, Russian and the other languages of Europe from the Renaissance onwards. And although it has spread across many different registers, or functional varieties, of language, in English at least the main impetus for it seems to have continued to come from the languages of science.

Why did scientific writers, from Isaac Newton onwards, increasingly favor such a mode of expression? - One in which instead of writing 'this happened, so that happened; they write this event caused that event? These were not arbitrary or random changes. The reason lies in the nature of scientific discourse Newton and his successors were creating a new variety of English for a new kind of

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA knowledge; a kind of knowledge in which experiments were carried out; general principles derived by reasoning from these experiments, with the aid of mathematics; and these principles in turn tested by further experiments. The discourse had to proceed step by step, with a constant movement from ‗this is what we have established so far‘ to ‗this is what follows from it next‘; and each of these two parts, both the ‗taken for granted' part and the new information, had to be presented in a way that would make its status in the argument clear. The most effective way to do this, in English grammar, is to construct the whole step as a single clause, with the two parts turned into nouns, one at the beginning and one at the end, and a verb in between saying how the second follows from the first.

I have written about the history of this development elsewhere, with illustrations from some of the earlier texts (Chapter 3). What I am presenting here is a very simplified account, there are, obviously, countless variations on the pattern described above. Nevertheless, these variants all derive from the basic principle of organizing information into a coherent form that suited the kind of argumentation that came to be accepted as 'scientific'. Here is a contemporary example, taken from the Scientific American:

The atomic nucleus absorbs and emits energy only in quanta, or discrete units. Each absorption marks its transition to a state of higher energy and each emission marks its transition to a state of lower energy.

Notice how, in the second sentence, each clause consists of (i) a ‗taken for granted‘ part, nominalizing what has been said before (the atomic nucleus absorbs energy - each absorption; the atomic nucleus emits energy - each emission); (ii) a

'new information' part, pointing forward to what is to come, and also nominalized

(its transition to a state of higher/lower energy); and (iii) the relation between

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA them, in the form of a verb (marks). Frequently the 'taken for granted' part summarizes the whole of a long previous; discussion, for example, the same article contains the sentence:

The theoretical program of devising models of atomic nuclei has of course been complemented by experimental investigations. This has exactly the same pattern: but here the 'taken for granted' part (the theoretical program...atomic nuclei) is referring back to many paragraphs of preceding text.

If we reword these so as to take the metaphor out, the entire balance of the information is lost. For the last example we might write:

We devised models of atomic nuclei, in a program of theoretical [research], and in addition, of course, we investigated [the matter] by doing experiments.

But this would give us to indication that the first part was a summary of what had gone before, or that the last part was going to be taken up and developed in what followed. What is equally important, it would fail to make it clear that each step – devising theoretical models and investigating experimentally – is to be understood as a unity, a single phenomenon rather than an assembly of component parts.

It would be wrong to give the impression that in developing this favorite type clause structure, and the grammatical metaphor that made it possible, the scientists were guided by any conscious planning. They were not. Newton and his contemporaries did discuss the best ways of constructing a scientific paper and they tried to regulate the use of vocabulary for building elaborate taxonomies, especially in biology (and taken up later on in chemistry); but they were not aware of their own use of grammar, and these forms evolved naturally in response to pressure from the discourse. It is only when we analyze this discourse

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA grammatically, using a functional grammar that we can appreciate how the patterns relate to what the scientists were trying to achieve.

I have not presented the detailed grammatical analysis here; it would need too much space. But it is helpful, I think, to bring out the nature of grammatical metaphor, and the sense in which these forms can be said to be metaphorical because almost every sentence in scientific writing will contain some example of it, and it does present problems to the learner. This is partly a question of maturity: students well into secondary school may still find it difficult to comprehend, even if they have been educated throughout in English medium. For those who are taking up English just as a language for science and technology, the problem may be greater or less depending on the degree and kind of grammatical metaphor found in the language(s) they have used as a medium of education before

It seems likely that part of the difficulty arises, however, because these metaphorical expressions are not just another way of saying the same thing. In a certain sense, they present a different view of the world. As we grew up, using our language to learn with and to think with, we have come to expect (unconsciously, until our teachers started to give us lessons in grammar) that nouns were for people and things, verbs for actions and events. Now we find that almost everything has been turned into a noun. We have to reconstruct our mental image of the world so that it becomes a world made out of things, rather than the world of happening- events with things taking part in them-which we were accustomed to. Some of the problems may even be ideological: the student may want to resist this view of reality that he feels is being imposed on him by the language of

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA science. It is worth noting, in the connections, that the scientists themselves are now becoming dissatisfied with the language they use in their writings. They too feel that it has gone too far in this direction and that if they are to continue to develop new ideas in science they will need to return to less nominalized forms of expression.

2.2.1.7 Semantic Discontinuity

Semantic discontinuity is a sentence that does not continue systematically.

This is the final heading: I am using it to point out that writers sometimes make semantic leaps, across which the reader is expected to follow them in order to reach a required conclusion. Let me discuss just one example:

In the years since 1850, more and more factories were built in northern England. The soot from factory smokestacks gradually blackened the light- colored stones and tree trunks. Scientists continued to study the peppered moth during this time. They noticed the dark-colored moth was becoming more common. By 1950, the dark moths were much more common than the light-colored ones. However, strong anti-pollution laws over the last twenty years have resulted in cleaner factories, cleaner countryside and an increase in the number of light-colored pepper moths.

The first two paragraphs are rather straightforward; but in the third paragraph, problems arise. Taken as a whole, it is a typical example of the structure described in the last section: two processes, with a logical connection between them. The sense is 'a happened, so x happened', expressed metaphorically in the form of 'happening a caused happening x' (strong anti-pollution laws …. have resulted in cleaner factories...). We might reword this part as:

Over the last twenty years, [the government has passed] strong laws to stop [people] polluting: so the factories (have becomel] cleaner….

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA We saw above that the main reason for choosing the metaphorical form was that ‗happening a‘ was something that had been presented before, and so here was being referred to as a whole, as a kind of package or summary of what was to be taken for granted and used as a point of departure for the next step in the argument. However, in this instance happening a has not been presented before; this is the first time we have heard of any ‗anti-pollution laws'. So the reader has to: discover that it is new information; decode it; and use it as a stepping-off point for understanding something else.

But let us suppose that the reader has coped with this difficult assignment.

He now comes to 'happening x' and finds that this is coordination of three processes, all of them presented metaphorically: cleaner factories, cleaner countryside and an increase in the number of light-colored pepper moths.

Rewording this, he begins to understand:

… the factories have become cleaner, the countryside has become cleaner, and there are more light-colored pepper moths than before.

-that is, the moths have also become cleaner: only a few of them are now affected by dirt in the air. But that is not at all the intended message. What the reader s supposed to do is to insert another logical relationship between each pair of these resulting processes, and then draw a highly complex conclusion from them:

… the factories have become cleaner, [so] the countryside has become cleaner, and [so] there are getting to be more of the light coloured pepper moths [because they don't show up against clean trees, and therefore do not get eaten by the birds as much as they did when the trees were dirty].

In other words, the learner is expected to work out for himself the principle of natural selection.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA This is a particularly problematic example. The language is highly metaphorical, in the sense of grammatical metaphor; the first part of the sentence is misleading because it suggests that we know about the 'strong anti-pollution laws' already, and in the second part the reader is required to perform two complicated semantic leaps-inserting the two causal connectives, and working out the implications of the second one. But it is not uncommon to find semantic discontinuities of one kind or another in scientific writing: the specialist has no trouble with them – but for learners,they are an additional hazard. Of all the kinds of difficulty discussed in these few pages, this is the one a teacher can do least towards helping students to solve. The teacher can give a few illustrations, and warn the students to be on their guard, but every instance seems to be unique, and it is hard to find any general principles behind them all.

2.3 About the Textbook, Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition

Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition is a textbook used to provide material to introduce the psychology in general for the Psychology‘s students first semester of the University of Sumatra Utara. Psychology an

Introduction Eleventh Edition is the first subject gave to the psychology‘s students, so they can know and understand the psychology in general and the effect on cognitive.

Psychology An Introduction eleventh edition is more complete than tenth edition. If in tenth edition of Psychology from Benjamin Lahey there is a new chapter on the Interplay of Nature and Nurture and become highlights the tenth edition, in eleventh edition students will master the central concepts of psychology with some additions in several chapters. The eleventh edition has been

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA thoroughly updated to include the latest research with an emphasis on chapter 6

(Consciousness), chapter 10 (Development), chapter 14 (Abnormal) and chapter

16 (Social Psychology). The clear chapter and fresh applications make the material more relevant to students than ever before, and the proven learning system ensures that all students will grasp the concept presented in the book.

Lahey‘s hallmark emphasis on diversity and culture remains integrated throughout the text, making this the text for well-rounded introduction to all areas of psychology.

This book contains seven parts and seventeen chapters. Each part consists of two until four chapters. Part one is about Introduction and Foundations, consist of four chapters. Part two is about Awareness,consist of two chapters. Part three is about Learning and Cognition, consist of three chapters. Part four is about

Developmental Psychology, consist of only one chapter. Part five is about The self and consist of two chapters. Part six is about Health and Adjustment, consist of three chapters. And the last part is about Social Context, consist of two chapters.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2.4 Theoritical Framework

SFL

Scientific English (Halliday and Martin, 1993)

Characteristics of Scientific English

Interlocking Technical Special Lexical Syntactic Grammatical Semantic Defenitions Taxonimies Expressions Density Ambiguity Metaphor Discontinuity

Scientific Language in Psychology Textbook

Figure 2.4 Theoretical Framework

2.5 Relevant Study

In writing and doing the research, there are some references from various sources to support the research. Relevant study was done by the researcher. It means that the previous study will help the writer in doing the research.

Therefore, the writer can be more understand on doing the research to get better than before. In supporting the data of the research, some relevant thesis and research have been collected to supply relevant information to the topic, as follows:

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Ahmad (2012) in the thesis Stylistic Features of Scientific English: A study of Scientific Research Articles intends to explore what stylistic feature characterizes scientific English and make it different from any other language used in any other discipline. This study deals with the linguistic features concerning the application of vocabulary, grammar, discourse and style used in scientific English. It was found that the scientific use of English is marked with accuracy, precision and objective interpretation of facts and findings whereas literary language is a subjective interpretation of life. Scientific research papers are drawn from Medical and Natural sciences were analyzed and it was found that frequent occurrence of Passive Voice in Method Section of scientific research articles makes scientific research findings impersonal and universal. This study contains a contrastive study of two corpora, scientific and poetic language, by reading this study help the researcher in comparing two corpora, scientific language, and everyday language.

Chepyegon (2011) in the thesis Use of Scientific Language in Instruction and Performance In Chemistry: A study of Selected Secondary School of Kabinet

Division, Baringo District, Kenya found that Scientific Language is difficult to understand. This study set out to investigate the use of language insofar as it affects comprehension of selected scientific terminology by learners.

Understanding of key concepts is likely to raise performance in school Chemistry.

This thesis will be supporting the writer to do this research as from the result of his thesis shown that many students did not perform well in chemistry with respect to the chemistry terms. To assist them in the development of this area, chemistry teachers in the field be in-serviced on the role the scientific language

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA plays in the performance of students in chemistry. To be effective in focusing on chemical terms, the teacher should make a point to include specific terms in their lesson plans. This will ensure that they emphasize and help students understand these terms.

Wood (1997) wrote an article in Science Tribun entitle International

Scientific English: Some thoughts on science, language, and ownership. He concluded, therefore, he would argue that non-native speakers of English who communicate their science in English should not feel any sense of inferiority vis- a-vis the native speaker in this respect. The overriding framework in determining how to communicate should be the science itself, rather than the rhetorical style of the language. Where that style is a function of the needs of the genre and acts positively to communicate the science more effectively, then it should be respected. Where it is simply a matter of preferred native-speaker style, it can safely be ignored. The owners of international scientific English should be international scientists, not Englishmen or Americans. This article supports the researcher to know in which field the scientific language used.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER III

METHOD OF RESEARCH

3.1 Research Design

There are three kinds of research based on the location of the research i.e. library, laboratory, and field research (Bungin, 2005:40-41). In writing this thesis, the writer will do field research to collect the data and writer also applied library research to obtain information to support the analysis.

The method of the study used is qualitative approach as Ludico (2006:15) said that qualitative research is an approach, which collects data through observation, interview, and document analysis and summarizes the finding primarily through narrative or verbal means. Qualitative approach is deemed suitable for this study because of the strength the method possess to describe and analyze the data in this research.

3.2 Source of Data

Ludico (2006:66) says ―Data are any type of information collected for use in educational research or assessment‖. In this research, the sources of data are taken from Psychology textbook entitle Psychology An Introduction Eleventh

Edition written by Lahey as the source of data. This book is used by psychology‘s students of University of Sumatra Utara. This book contains seventeen chapters, but in this study, the writer chooses chapter three: Biological foundations of behavior the data source purposively. It is done because of time limitation. In chapter three contain topic and subtopic, there are six topics; Nervous System:

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Biological Control Center, Divisions of the Nervous System, Structures and

Functions of the Brain, Human diversity, Endocrine System: Chemical Messagers of the Body, Application of Psychology: ―Madness‖ and the Brain.

The data are paragraphs used in chapter three of the book, they will be analyzed by using seven characteristic concepts of Scientific English, and they are interlocking definition, technical taxonomies, special expressions, lexical density, syntactic ambiguity, grammatical metaphor, and semantic discontinuity.

3.3 Data Collection Method

The data in the book is collected through library research. The library research will be conducted on the book that is used as the source of data. In this library research, the data collected are the sentences that appear in the book.

The method use in collecting the data is documentation method.

According to Syamsuddin and Damayanti (2011:108), Documentation method used to collect data from non-human sources. These sources consist of documents and records. In this research, the method used to collect the data based on

Psychology An Introduction eleventh edition textbook in chapter III entitle

Biological foundations of behavior.

The step that the writer will apply to collect the data as follows:

1. Reading the text in chapter III entitle Biological foundations of behavior.

2. Identifying the paragraphs containing characteristic of Scientific English

3. Collecting them in the table.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 3.4 Data Analysis Technique

The data analysis technique will follow the procedures from Miles,

Huberman and Saldana‘s Interactive Model (2014). This Method has three concurrent flows of activity to do data analysis. These are data condensation, data display, and data conclusion. Below is a figure illustrating the flow of the activities.

Figure 3.1 Components of Data Analysis: Interactive Model (Miles, M. B., &Huberman, A. M., 1994)

3.4.1 Data Condensation

Data condensation refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming the data that appear in the full body of the data collection. The data is made stronger during condensation. Data condensation is a form of analysis that sharpens, sorts, focuses, discards and organizes data in such a way that ―final‖ conclusions can be drawn and verified.

In this research, after reading and observing the textbook, the data that do not contain the characteristic of Scientific English is condensed to focus the point of research. Out of the large data ―sentences and text‖, the main data are selected, they are all the topic and sub-topic in chapter III except prologue, human

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA diversity, summary, review, check your learning and thinking critically about psychology.

3.4.2 Data Display

Data display refers to an organized, compressed assembly of information that allows the conclusion of drawing and action. Display helps us understand what is happening and to do something based on understanding. Good displays are major in qualitative analysis. Display can come in the form of table, matrices, graphs, charts, and networks. This display is meant to present the data of research so it can be easy to understand. In this study, the data display will be presented with the grammatical problem in Scientific English. The description of the analysis will also be displayed in tables.

3.4.3 Drawing and Verifying Conclusions

This study hoped that the data would answer the research question.

Drawing conclusions happen all the way during the process of data analysis. The conclusion will be completed once the data is fully collected, condensed and analyzed.

In this study, the data that have collected will be analyzed using Halliday‘s theory about the characteristics in Scientific English. This analysis will provide the final conclusion for the study that hopes to answer the research question.

The step of data analysis as follows:

1. The writer read the text.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 2. The writer classify the text, which will be analyzed as paragraph and

sentence.

3. The writer analyzes the paragraphs to find out the characteristic of

Scientific English.

4. The writer explains the characteristics of Scientific English that realize in

the data.

5. The writer makes the conclusion of the data.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

4.1 Analysis of Characteristic of Scientific English

The characteristic and the realization of scientific English found in

Psychology An Introduction textbook. The result found after analyzing is there are four characteristics that realized in the data analysis, they are interlocking definition, technical taxonomies, lexical density, and syntactic ambiguity. On the other hand, special expression, grammatical metaphor, and semantic discontinuity do not find in the data analysis.

4.2 Realization of Scientific English

4.2.1 Interlocking Definition

The interlocking definition is realized in this textbook, the researcher explain some of them below: Sample of Interlocking definitions:

1) From paragraph 1

The nervous system

Nerves

Enter/Exit Spinal Brain Message Body cord Figure 4.1: interlocking defenition of the nervous system The nervous system is both a powerful computer and a complex communication network. Unlike a computer, however, the brain not only thinks and calculates but also feels and controls motivation. The brain is connected to the spinal cord, a thick bundle of long nerves running through the spine.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Individual nerves exit or enter the spinal cord and brain, linking the brain to every part of the body. Some of these nerves carry messages from the body to the brain to inform the brain about what is going on in the body. Other nerves carry messages from the brain to regulate the body's functions and the person's behavior. Without the nervous system, the body would be a mass of uncoordinated parts that could not act, reason, or experience emotions. In other words, without a nervous system, there would be no psychological life. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 48)

The nervous system, brain, spinal cord, and nerves are interlocked each other. Brain and spinal cord is the place that nerves do the activities. The nerves exit and enter the spinal cord and brain, linking the brain to every part of the body.

Some of these nerves carry messages from the body to the brain to inform the brain about what is going on in the body. Other nerves carry messages from the brain to regulate the body's functions and the person's behavior. All the nerves activities happen in the spinal cord and brain is named the nervous system. If the nerves do not exist or do not carry the message to the brain, in other word does not do its role, there will not happen the nervous system. So, the student has to know the role of nerves to understand the nervous system and also understand each part of the brain and spinal cord to know how the nerves carry the messages to every place in the body.

2) From paragraph 19

The nervous system

(Synaptic gap) (Cells Neurons Neurons ) Glial Blood vessels cells

Figure 4.2: interlocking defenition of the nervous system

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Neurons are not the only living cells in the nervous system. In fact, neurons are greatly outnumbered by a second class of cells called glial cells. Glial cells help the neurons carry out their functions in three ways: 1. New neurons grow from glial cells throughout life (Malatesta& others, 2008). 2. Glial cells support neurons and transport nutrients from blood vessels to neurons. 3. Some glial cells produce the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates axons. 4. Glial cells also influence the transmission of messages from one neuron to another across synaptic gaps (Fields, 2004). Some glial cells surround synapses and can increase or decrease chances of synaptic transmission. They do this by absorbing the neurotransmitter from the synaptic gap, releasing more of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap, or by chemically preparing the synapse for transmission (Eulenburg&Gomeza, 2010; Fields, 2004). (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 52) To understand the nervous system the students have to know all figures that contributes to the nervous system process. The entirefigures are nervous, glial cells and synaptic gap. All this figure are working together to support each function. But, sometimes the writer does not explain the text clearly, such as

―axons‖ in the text above. ―Some glial cells produce the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates axons.‖ In this text, the writer does not explain about the axos and what is the function of the axons, so If the student only read this part of the text, the student cannot understand the text easily.

3) From paragraph 30

The peripheral nervous system

The somatic nervous The autonomic nervous system system Messages Messages

The central The The glandsand The visceral nervous system skeletal organs (heart, stomach, intestines muscles Figure 4.3: interlocking defenition of the peripheral nervous system

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

The peripheral nervous system is further divided into two systems. The somatic nervous system carries messages from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles that control movements of the body. These include voluntary movements, such as typing words on a computer keyboard, and involuntary movements, such as when the eyes maintain fixation on the computer screen in spite of small but frequent changes in the position of the head. The somatic nervous system also receives incoming messages from sensory receptors and transmits them to the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is composed of nerves that carry messages to the glands and the visceral organs (heart, stomach, and intestines). The autonomic nervous system affects the skeletal muscles only by influencing general muscle tension. The autonomic nervous system plays a key role in two primary functions: (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 57) In this text, the interlocking definition found in the words: the peripheral nervous system, the somatic nervous system, the central nervous system, the skeletal muscles, sensory receptors, the autonomic nervous system, glands, the visceral organs (heart, stomach, and intestines). The peripheral nervous system divided into two systems, the somatic nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. These two systems are running a different function, but they still interlock because they are controlled by the same system, which is the peripheral nervous system. The somatic system carries the message from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles while the autonomic nervous system carries messages to the glades and the visceral organs. Although these two systems have gone to different organs, they have the same functions to carry the messages. They have their own role to do their functions, but they still placed one system called the peripheral system.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4) From paragraph 38

Psychological life

The brain

The hindbrain Functions The forebrain

The midbrain Figure 4.4: interlocking defenition of psychological life

The brain is the fundamental basis for psychological life. To begin our discussion of the brain, we look at the different functions performed by different parts of the brain. As we look at the parts of the brain, keep in mind that all mental functions require the integrated functioning of multiple parts of the brain. No function of the brain is carried out solely by one part. The brain can be viewed as having three major parts: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. These major parts of the brain are, in turn, divided into smallset parts. As we look at these parts of the brain, we start at the bottom of the brain and work our way up. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 61) In this text explained that the brain has three major parts: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. All figuresdo not explain clearly, but the interlocking definition still can find, all part of the brain: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and forebrain interlock to make a complete brain. The students have to know all the part of the brain, so when they continue into the next text, they can easily differentiate the small part of each figure. In this text, the writer just wants to introduce the part of the brain before explain clearly in the next text. The writer might want to make the student understand the text clearly by introducing the main point in the beginning.

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 5) From paragraph 60

Cerebral cortex

Unlabeled parts

Association area

Broca‘s area (speaking) Frontal lobe (speech movements)

Neural activity

Wernicke‘s area (hearing) The occipital (visual)

Figure 4.5: interlocking defenition of cerebral cortex

Note in figure 3.12 that the specific functions of some areas of each of the four lobes of the cerebral hemispheres have been left unlabeled. These unlabeled parts of the cerebral cortex are known as the association areas. The association areas play less specific roles in cerebral activities but often work closely with one of the nearby specific ability areas. This can be seen in the series of PET scan images presented in figure 3.16. The areas of the cerebral cortex that are yellow and red have the greatest amount of neural activity. Note that when the person is hearing words, there is activity in Wernicke‘s area and in the association areas just behind it. When the person is seeing words, the visual area in the occipital lobe is activated, along with nearby association areas. In contrast, when the person is speaking words, activation is found only in Broca‘s area and the motor area of the frontal lobes that controls speech movements; when the person is thinking, the frontal lobes are active. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 68) In the cerebral hemisphere there are unlabeled parts of the cerebral cortex known as the association areas. The association areas play less specific roles in cerebral activities but often work closely with one of the nearby specific ability areas. The text has been explained about the function of each part. The interlocking definition found in this text, the cerebral hemispheres, cerebral cortex, and the association areas. The association areas related to some previous text that explains about the lobes of the cerebral cortex. All these figures become

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA interlock because of the associated areas also important for cerebral cortex to do its function. So we have to know all the lobes of the cerebral cortex and in which part the association areas take its role.

4.2.2 Technical Taxonomies

In this part, the researcher will explain some of the finding of technical taxonomies in the textbook based on two fundamental semantic relationship: ―a is a kind of x‖ (superordination) and ―b is a part of y‖ (composition), there are some technical taxonomies that found, and bellow is the explanation of five paragraphs.

Sample of technical taxonomies:

(1) From paragraph 4

Figure 4.6: Neurons

Neurons range in length from less than a millimeter to more than a meter in length, but all neurons are made up of essentially the same three parts (see figure 3.1): 1. The cell body contains the cell's nucleus and other components necessary for the cell's preservation and nourishment. 2. Dendrites are branches that extend out from the cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Other parts of the neuron receive messages from other neurons, but the dendrite is specialized for this purpose. 3. Axons are branches at the other end of the neuron that mostly carry neural messages away from the cell body and transmit

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA them to the next neuron. It's easy to remember the difference between the functions of the dendrites and axons by remembering that the axon mostly acts on the next cell, but there is a catch. Although we long believed that neural transmission always flowed from dendrite to axons to the next neuron‘s dendrite, recent research has demonstrated that some neurons can carry messages in the opposite direction, from axon todendrite (Bullock & others, 2005). The more we study the nervous system, the more complicated we realize it is. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49) This text explains about neurons, as explained in the text that all neurons are made up of essentially the same three parts, the cell body, dendrite, and axons, so the neurons is composed of certain parts. Acoording to the theory this text is included to the second type ―b is a part of y‖. The author wants to make the student understand the text easily by support the text with a taxonomi image of neuron. The author have described and explained some detail about the neurons.

But the problem is in the image, the writer shows the dendrite, nucleus and some process of how the message carried by the cells. The cell body can not found in that image, so it can make some student feel confuse and difficult to understand or imagine about neurons.

(2) From paragraph 13

Figure 4.7: Polarized membran

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA . Depolarization creates the dramatic chain of events known as an action potential l (Bean, 2007). During an action potential, a small section of the axon adjacent to the cell body becomes more permeable to the positive sodium ions. Sodium ions rush in, producing a depolarization in that part of the axon. However, the membrane quickly regains its semipermeability and "pumps" the positive sodium ions back out, reestablishing its polarization. But this tiny electrical storm of sodium ions flowing in and out of the neuron—which lasts approximately one-thousandth of a second-does not stop there. It disturbs the adjacent section of the membrane of the axon, so that it depolarizes, which in turn disturbs the next section of the membrane, and so on. Thus, the action potential- the flowing storm of ions rushing in and out-travels the length of the axon. By the way, local anesthetics, such as the ones that dentists inject, stop pain by chemically interrupting this flowing process of depolarization in the axons of nerves that carry pain messages to the brain. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) This text is included to the second type ― b is a part of y‖, because this text is talk about how the depolarization creates an action potential. The process of depolarization create an action potential is when the axon adjacent to the cell body becomes more permeable to the positive sodium ions, then sodium ions rush in and producting a depolarization in that part of axons, but the membrane regains its semi permeability and pumps the positive ions back out, reestablishing its polarization. The author also supports this text by giving some image of how sodium ions flow in and pumped out of neuron. The problem is in the last clause, when the writer trying to give an example of the flowing process of polarization in the axons, the sentence begins with new information ―local anesthetics‖ which have not to mention before. The sentence is ―By the way, local anesthetics, such as the ones that dentists inject, stop pain by chemically interrupting this flowing process of depolarization in the axons of nerves that carry pain messages to the brain‖. The author never talk about polarization can creates a pain message, so this clause will bring out a question of is the dramatic chain that the writer means is only pain message? This text is a kind of beauty explanation text, but it is

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA become difficult to construct the relevant taxonomies on the basis of this kind of writing.

(3) From paragraph 38

From the explaination this text is included to the second type ―b is a part of y‖.

As we look at the theory, technical taxonomies become difficult to understand because there are often neither lists nor diagrams. As in these texts, there are no diagrams to make the students more easily to understand the text. The example of diagrams can be seen in the figure below:

the medulla

the hind-brain the pons

the midbrain the cerebellum brain the area contain of: thalamus, the forebrain hypothalamus and limbic system

cerebral cortex

Figure 4.8: Part of brain as the function

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Actually, the author tries to make this book easy to understand by giving some pictures to support the text, especially in the next text that explains about the small part of each major part of the brain. But, to make the students easier to understand the text, the writer better mentions each of the terms which is going to be discussed.

(4) From paragraph 80

As we have just seen, the nervous system is the vital computer and communication system that forms the biological basis for behavior and conscious experience. Another biological system – the endocrine system – also plays an important role in communication and the regulation of bodily processes. This system consists of a number of glands that secrete two kinds of chemical messengers: - Neuropeptides. Many endocrine glads secrete neuropeptides into the bloodstream. When these neuropeptides reach other endocrine glands, they influence their functions. Thus, neuropeptides allow the endocrine glands to communicate with one another. In addition, some neuropeptides secreted by the endocrine glands reach the brain and influence neural systems. In this way, these neuropeptides play important roles in stress regulation, social bonding, emotion, and memory (Feldman & others, 2007; Kandel & Abel, 1995; Rosenkrantz, 2007; Skuse & Gallagher). - Hormones. The endocrine glands also secrete hormones into the bloodstream, through which they are carried thoughout the body and influence many organ systems, including the brain (Forbes & Dahl, 2010). (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 77) This text is included to ―a is a kind of x‖ type. Chemical messengers is kind of neuropeptides and hormones. The layer in this text is not difficult to understand due to only two layer explain in it, they are neuropeptides and hormones. But, if we look at the first paragraph, it will show us some difficulties.

The first paragraph explains about the endocrine system.

―Another biological system – the endocrine system – also plays an important role in communication and the regulation of bodily processes. This system consists of a number of glands that secrete two kinds of chemical messengers:‖

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Underline the clause ―two kinds of chemical messengers‖. There is no explanation about chemical messengers in that text, the main topic is the endocrine system, but the important thing to build the technical taxonomies is chemical messengers. So, the students have to understand the purpose of the text first then they can make the technical taxonomies.

(5) From paragraph 90

The pineal gland is located between the cerebral hemispheres, attached to the top of the thalamus. Its primary section is melatonin. Melatonin is important in the regulation of biological rhythms, including the menstrual cycles in females and the daily regulation of sleep and wakefulness. Melatonin levels seem to be affected by the amount of exposure to sunlight and, hence, ―clock‖ the time of the day partly in that fashion. Melatonin also appears to play a role in regulating moods. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression that occurs most frequently in the winter months, is thought to occur because of the influence of the light on melatonin. Unfortunately, therapy involving exposure to bright light may not have lasting benefits, but current psychological treatments are effective in the long run in reducing seasonal affective symptoms (Rohan& others, 2009). (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III:80)

The author explains about the pineal, the main point of this text is about melatonin that the primary secretion of the pineal gland. Melatonin is important in the regulation of biological rhythms, including the menstrual cycles in females; melatonin also appears to play a role in regulating moods. from the explaination that melatonin play a role in regulation of biological rhythms and regulating moods, this text is incleded to second type ― b is a part of y‖. But the explanation does not clear because, in this text does not explain about the moods, although in sometimes the author talks about depression, that is still not enough to know how many moods that the writer means when the writer talks about the seasonal

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA affective disorder. It is difficult to make taxonomy to this text because of unclear explanation.

4.2.3 Lexical density

Lexical density is simply the percentage of words in a written (or spoken) language which give us information about what is being communicated. More precisely, lexical words are simply nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. Nouns tell us the subject, adjectives tell us more about the subject, verbs tell us what they do, and adverbs tell us how they do it. There are many sentences found with lexical density in the text, below are some of the sentences with lexical density. In the following data below, each of which is one clause, the lexical words are in bold type and the lexical density count is given at the right.

Sample of lexical density:

a. sentences with 10-14 lexical words

1. The autonomic nervous system affects the skeletal muscles only by (adj) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) influencing general muscle tension. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 57) (verb) (adj) (noun)

Lexical item Noun Adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 3 2 2 - 10 14

2. Some axons transmit inhibitory substances across synapses, which makes (adv) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) (adv) (noun) (verb) it more difficult for the next neuron to fire. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 52) (adj) (adj) (noun) (noun)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Lexical item Noun Adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 5 3 2 2 12 18

3. Persons with Parkinson’s disease experience uncontrollable muscle (noun) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) tremors and other movement problems because of the depletion of (noun) (noun) (noun) dopamine in these. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 54) (noun)

Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 6 1 1 - 11 20

4. Such studies with split-brain patient clearly reveal the localization of (adv) (noun) (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) language expression abilities in the left cerebral hemisphere. (noun) (adj) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 71)

Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 5 1 1 2 14 19

5. The thalamus routes incoming stimuli from the sense organs to the (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) appropriate parts of the brain and links the upper and lower centers of the (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) (adj) (adj) (noun) brain. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 62) (noun)

Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 8 3 1 - 14 26

In the first sentence, there are precisely 10 lexical words out of 14 total words, the lexical density of the first passage is therefore 71,42 %. In the second

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA sentence, there are 12 lexical words out of 18 total words, the lexical density of the second passage is therefore 66,66%. In the third sentence, there are 11 lexical words out of 20 total words, the lexical density of the third passage is therefore

50%. In the fourth sentence, there are 14 lexical words out of 19 total words, the lexical density of the fourth passage is therefore 73,68 %. And the last sentence, there are 14 lexical words out of 26 total words, the lexical density of the last passage is therefore 53,84%.

b. sentences with 16-31 lexical words

1. The parasympathetic nervous system acts in tandem with the (adj) (noun) (verb) (noun) sympathetic nervous system to maintain balanced regulation of the (adj) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) internal organs and the large body muscles. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III:58) (adj) (noun) (adj) (noun)

Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 6 5 2 - 16 25

2. As discussed more fully in chapter4, hormones affect organ functioning (verb) (adj) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (adj)

by passing into their cell bodies and influencing how the genetic codes in (verb) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) their nuclei are expressed. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III:77) (noun) (noun)

Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 7 3 4 - 16 28

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 3. There is evidence that a predisposition to schizophrenia is inherited, but it (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) is also clear that some other factor or factors must play a role in causing (adj) (adv) (adj) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (verb)

schizophrenia, because not all identical twins both exhibit schizophrenia. (noun) (adv) (adj) (noun)(adv) (verb) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III:83) Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 9 3 4 3 19 36

4. For example, the images of the brains shown in figure 3.21 on p. 73 (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (obtained using computerized X ray) of persons who developed (adv) (verb) (noun) (noun) (adj) depression following strokes show clearly that the damage to (noun) (verb) (noun) (verb) (adv) (noun) their brains was primarily on the left side of the cortex. (noun) (adv) (adj)(noun) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III:71) Lexical item Noun Adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 13 2 4 3 23 43

5. Mednick’s research team later obtained brain images of these children at (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) (noun) age 29 years using computerized X rays and looked to see whatever (n) (noun) (verb) (noun) (verb) (verb) the persons with the highest genetic predisposition were most likely to (noun) (adj) (noun) (adv) (adj)

have one of the kindsof brain abnormalities associated with (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) schizophrenia (enlarged ventricles). (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III:84) (noun) (adj) (noun)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Lexical item Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical item Total word 13 3 5 2 28 47

In the first sentence, there are precisely 16 lexical words out of 25 total words, the lexical density of the first passage is therefore 64%. In the second sentence, there are 18 lexical words out of 28 total words, the lexical density of the second passage is therefore 64, 28%. In the third sentences, there are 19 lexical words out of 36 total words, the lexical density of the third passage is therefore 52,27%. In the fourth sentence, there are 25 lexical words out of 43 total words, the lexical density of the fourth passage is therefore 58,13%. And the last sentence, there are 31 lexical words out of 47 total words, the lexical density of the last passage is therefore 65,95%.

As the theory mention in chapter II, that when the lexical density goes up to this extent, the sentence becomes difficult to understand. It happens due to the sentences consist of strings of lexical words without any grammatical words in between, such as influencing general muscle tension, axons transmit inhibitory substances across synapses, Parkinson's disease experience uncontrollable muscle tremors, split-brain patient clearly reveal, thalamus routes incoming stimuli, maintain balanced regulation, hormones affect organ functioning, all identical twins both exhibit schizophrenia and developed depression following strokes show clearly. Of course, the author wants to give information using simple and common words, but for some student, these kinds of sentences are not easy to understand.

The sentence has high lexical density is a measure of how informative text is. It can be seen in the first sentence in table a which is using 10 lexical words,

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA from the sentence we got three information "The autonomic nervous system"

"affects the skeletal muscles" "by influencing general muscle tension." Now look, how much information the reader got in the first sentence in table b which is using

16 lexical words, "The parasympathetic nervous system" "acts in tandem" "with the sympathetic nervous system" "to maintain balanced regulation" "of the internal organs" "and the large body muscles". The sentences in part‗b‘give more information than in part‗a‘, it proves that the more lexical words in one sentence, the more informative it is and the more difficult to understand.

4.2.4 Syntactic Ambiguity

Lexical ambiguity is a situation when the sentence may be interpreted in more than one meaning due to ambiguous sentence structure. From the text analysis, the researcher only found two syntactic ambiguities, they are below:

1. The midbrain is a small area at the top of the hindbrain that helps to

control important postural systems, particularly those associated with the

senses.

2. The volumes of both gray and white matter begin to decrease after the fifth

decade of life, however, which is associated with reductions in working

memory and cognitive speed (Abe & others, 2010; Bartzokis & others,

2001).

The ambiguities found in these two sentences if the reader focuses on the verbal expression "associated with". In the first sentence, "those" in the text are not mentioned clearly, is the hindbrain or postural systems that associated with the sense. If it make to sentence, it become (1) The midbrain is a small area at the top of the hindbrain that helps to control important postural system, particularly the

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA hindbrain associated with the senses. (2) The midbrain is a small area at the top of the hindbrain that helps to control important postural system, particularly postural system associated with the senses. Same case with the second sentence,

"which is associated with reductions in working memory and cognitive". It is become ambiguous due to the word "which is" does not know is it refers to a decrease or the fifth decade. This sentence can be made in two possibilities: (1).

Due to the volumes of both gray and white matter begin to decrease, the working of memory and cognitive speed will reduce, and (2). After the fifth decade of life, the working of memory and cognitive speed will reduce.

4.3 Findings

4.3.1 Interlocking Definitions

Based on the analysis of interlocking definition in chapter III of

Psychology textbook entitled Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition. The researcher found that there are 11 paragraphs which realized the interlocking definition. After analyzing in five paragraphs done, in this part shown the finding of interlocking words. It is collected in the table below:

Table 4.1 Interlocking definition words in chapter IIIof Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition No. Paragraph The interlocking words 1. 1 The nervous system The brain Spinal cord Nerves 2. 5 Nervous system Neurons Neural cell 3. 12 Depolarization Membran Neuron Ions 4. 16 Brain Neurons

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Synapse Neurotransmitter Axons 5. 19 The nervous system Neurons Glial cells Synaptic gap 6. 28 The central nervous system Brain Spinal cord Interneuron 7. 29 The peripheral nervous syatem The central nervous system The body Brain Spinal cord Nerves 8. 30 The peripheral nervous system The somatic nervous system The central nervous system The skeletal muscles Sensory receptors The autonomic nervous system Glands The viscelar organs (heart, stomach, and intestines) 9. 38 Psychological life The brain The hindbrain The midbrain The forebrain 10. 60 The cerebral hemishperes Cerebral cortex The association areas Neural 11. 78 The brain Cerebral cortex Limbic system Motor area

4.3.2 Technical Taxonomies

Based on the analysis of technical taxonomies in chapter III of Psychology textbook entitled Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition. The researcher found that there are 30paragraphs which realized the technical taxonomies. From

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA the five samples of technical taxonomies had analyzed concluded that the difficulties in each paragraph are difference. In the first paragraph, the difficulty is the correlation between text and image, one of the terms is not showing in the image. In the second paragraph, the difficulty is when there is new information that has not to mention before showing in a text. In the third paragraph, the difficulty is when there is so many layers but there is neither list or diagrams. In the fourth paragraph, the difficulty is when the main topic of the paragraph doesn't explain, but the readers need it to make the technical taxonomies to make the text more understandable. In the last paragraph the difficulty is almost similar to paragraph four; in paragraph five also there is a term that does not explain clearly.

The conclusion of the whole paragraph of technical taxonomies are shown in the table below:

a. a is a kinds of x

Table 4.2 Technical taxonomies (a is a kinds of x) in chapter III of Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition No. Paragraphs Technical taxonomies (a is a kinds of x)

1. 9 a is a kinds of x

2. 29 a is a kinds of x

3. 30 a is a kinds of x

4. 37 a is a kinds of x

5. 40 a is a kinds of x

6. 42 a is a kinds of x

7. 45 a is a kinds of x

8. 48 a is a kinds of x

9. 80 a is a kinds of x

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 10. 83 a is a kinds of x

11. 86 a is a kinds of x

12. 87 a is a kinds of x

b. b is a part of y

Table 4.3 Technical taxonomies (b is a part of y) in chapter III of Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition No. Paragraphs Technical taxonomies (b is a part of y)

1. 1 b is a part of y 2. 2 b is a part of y 3. 4 b is a part of y 4. 5 b is a part of y 5. 13 b is a part of y 6. 15 b is a part of y 7. 16 b is a part of y 8. 17 b is a part of y 9. 19 b is a part of y 10. 28 b is a part of y 11. 29 b is a part of y 12. 38 b is a part of y 13. 39 b is a part of y 14. 41 b is a part of y 15. 46 b is a part of y 16. 47 b is a part of y 17. 50 b is a part of y 18. 90 b is a part of y

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4.3.3 Lexical Density

Based on the analysis of lexical density in chapter III of Psychology textbook entitled Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition. The researcher found that there 281 sentences which realized the lexical density. The total numbers of lexical words, noun, adjective, verb and adverb from the data analysis are shown in the table below:

Table: 4.4 The number of lexical words, noun, adjective, verb, adverb and total words

Lexical items Total lexical items Total words Noun Adjective Verb Adverb

1,937 751 700 216 4031 7338

Based on the ratio of the total numbers of lexical word to the total numbers of words, the percentages of lexical density of chapter III is 54,93%. The persentages is calculated by:

In relation to Ure‘s statement, if the number of lexical density suspasses

40%, it means the text is written text and also have higher lexical density.

According to Ure‘s theory, if the lexical density is higher, it means the text is relative difficult to read.

4.3.4 Syntactic Ambiguity

Based on the analysis of technical taxonomies in chapter III of Psychology textbook entitled Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition. The researcher

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA found that there are 2 sentences which realized the syntactic ambiguity.The ambiguities are shown in table below:

Table: 4.5 The number of syntactic ambiguity No. Syntactic ambiguities Words

1. Verbal expression Associated with 2. Verbal expression Associated with

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the data analysis which only found four characteristics of scientific English, they are interlocking defenition, technical taxonomies, lexical density and syntactic ambiguity. There are 11 paragraphs which realized the interlocking definition, 30 paragraphs which realized the technical taxonomies,

281 sentences which realized the lexical density and only 2 sentences which realized the syntactic ambiguity. From the findings can be concluded that this book is difficult to understand from the of lexical density and technical taxonomies. And from the total of the paragraph which interlocking definitions are realized is not too much, only 11 paragraphs shows us that the text is not difficult due to interlocking defenitions. Syntactic ambiguity found in only two sentences, that is proves that the author really wants to make a book easy to understand.

5.2 Suggestion

For the teacher, they should aware that scientific language is different with everyday language, so the teacher should give more attention to the students and try to give a clear explanation to the student so that they can understand the text easily. And for the next researcher, the researcher would like to suggest the readers analyze about technical language in senior high school science's book.

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UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

APPENDIX I Data analysis found in chapter III of Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition ―Biological foundations of behavior text‖

Interlocking Defenition 1. Neurons are grouped in complex networks that make the largest computer seem like a child's toy. The human nervous system is composed of 100 billion neurons (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessel 1995), about as many as the number of stars in our galary. Each neuron can receive messages from or transmit messages to 1.000 to 10.000 other neural cells. All told, your body contains trllions of neural connections, most of them in the brain. These numbers are not important in their own right, but they help us understand the incredibly rich network of neural interconnections that makes us humans. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) 2. When the membrane is stimulated by an adjacent neuron, however, the semipermeability of the neural membrane is lost for an instant. Positively charged ions, including the important sodium ions, rush into the neuron. This process is called depolarization, because the neuron is no longer mostly negative on the inside. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) 3. Neurons work together in complex chains, but they are not connected to one another. Rather, one neuron influences the next neuron through the synapse. The small space between two neurons is known as the synaptic gap. Neural action potentials cannot jump across this gap. Instead, the neural message is carried across the gap by chemical substances called neurotransmitters. The capacity of the brain to process information is multiplied many times by the fact that not all neurotransmitters are excitatory. Some axons transmit inhibitory substances across synapses, which makes it more difficult for the next neuron to fire. Thus, the brain is composed of a staggering network of digital "yes" and "no" circuits that process and create our experiences. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 52) 4. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. As we discuss in detail in this chapter, the brain controls the functions of the nervous system. The spinal cord's primary function is to relay messages between the brain and the body, but it also does some rudimentary processing of information on its own. A simple reflex, such as the reflexive withdrawal from a hot object, is a good example. The hot object stimulates a neural message that reaches a neuron in the spinal cord, called an interneuron. The interneuron transmits the message to another neuron that stimulates the muscles of the limb to contract (see figure 3.6). Any behavior more complicated than a simple reflex, however, usually involves processing in the brain. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 56) 5. The peripheral nervous system is composed of the nerves that branch from the brain and the spinal cord to the body. The peripheral nervous system transmits messages from the

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA body to the central nervous system. It also transmits messages from the central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and organs that put the messages into action. Messages can travel across the synapse in only one direction, however. So messages coming from the body into the central nervous system are carried by one set of neurons, the afferent neurons. Messages going out from the central nervous system to the body are carried by a separate set of efferent neurons. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 57) 6. Even though it is convenient to think of the brain as being divided into many separate parts, the many parts of the brain work together in intellectual and emotional functioning. Consider, for example, the following situation. You are waiting at a bus stop late at night. A poorly dressed man approaches, smelling of alchohol. He asks if you can spare five dollars. In his pocket, you see the outline of what might be a gun. Your reaction to this scene would involve many parts of your brain working together. Parts of your cerebral cortex evaluate the possible threat to you and the alternative courses of action open to you. Your limbic system is involved in a process of emotional arousal. If you fight, run, or reach into your pocket to hand over the money, the motor areas of your cortex will work with your hindbrain and midbrain to coordinate the muscular movements involved (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 75)

Technical Taxonomies 1. Computers, telephone systems, and other electronic systems are made of wires, transistors, microchips, and other components that transmit and regulate electricity. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49) 2. Neurons can take on the functions of wires and batteries, because, like all living cells, they are wet. Neurons are sacs filled with one type of fluid on the inside and bathed in a different type of fluid on the outside. These fluids are "soups" of dissolved chemicals, including ions, the particles that carry either a positive or a negative electrical charge. More of the ions inside neurons are negatively rather than positively charged, making the overall charge of the cell a negative one. This negative charge attracts positively charged ions to the outside of the neuron, just as the negative pole of a magnet attracts the positive pole of another magnet. Thus, the outside of the cell membrane becomes cloaked in positive ions, particularly sodium (Na+). When neurons are in a resting state, there are I0 times as many positively charged sodium ions outside the membrane of the neuron than inside. This is the source of the neuron's electrical power-it is electrically positive on one side of the membrane and negative on the other. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) 3. Many axons are encased in a white, fatty coating called the myelin sheath. Wrapped around the axon like the layers of a jelly roll, this sheath insulates the axon and greatly increases the speed at which the axon conducts neural impulses (see figure 3.3 on p. 52). The myelin sheath continues to grow in thickness into late adulthood. Interestingly, from early childhood to late adulthood, the average thickness of myelin is greater in females

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA than in males in some areas of the brain (Benes, 1998). This may indicate more efficient neural processing of some kinds of information by females. Sadly, the importance of the myelin sheath in neural transmission can be seen in victims of multiple sclerosis. This disease destroys the myelin sheath of many neurons, leaving them unable to operate at normal efficiency. As a result, individuals with multiple sclerosis have severe difficulies controlling their muscles; experience fatigue, dizziness, and pain; and suffer serious cognitive and vision problems. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51) 4. Neurotransmitters are mostly stored in tiny packets called synaptic vesicles localed in the synaptic terminals, which are the knoblike ends of the axons. When an action potential reches the axon terminal, it stimulates the vesicles to release the neurotransmiter into the gap. The neurotransmitter fioats across the gap and ―fits‖ into receptor sites on the adjacent neuron's membrane like keys fitting into locks (Gubernator & others, 2010). This changes the polarity of the receiving neuron, which either causes an action potential that continues the neural message on its way (see figure 3.4) or inhibits the receiving neuron from firing. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 52) 5. Essentially, all organs that are served by the sympathetic division are also served by the parasympathetic division. Note also that the clusters of cell bodies of neurons-called ganglia-are organized in different ways in the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The ganglia of the sympathetic division are all connected in a chain near the spinal column. This arrangement result in the sympathetic division‘s operating in a diffuse manner. That is, when the sympathetic division is aroused, it stimulates all of the organs it serves to some extent-because all of its parts are chained together through the ganglia. The ganglia of the parasympathetic division, in contrast, are separate and located near the individual organs. This allows the parasympathetic division to operate more selectively, which is particularly fortunate in some cases. For example, the parasympathetic division stimulates the flow of saliva and the flow of urine. If the parasympathetic ganglia that control the salivary glands and the urinary system were not separate, we would wet our pants every time we salivated! (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 59) 6. The hindbrain is the lowest part of the brain, located at the rear base of the skull. Its primary responsibility is to perform routine ―housekeeping‖ functions that keep the body working properly. The hindbrain has three principal parts: the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum (see figure 3.8 on p.62). the medulla is a swelling just above the top of the spinal cord, where the cord enters the brain. It controls breathing and a variety of reflexes, including those that enable you to maintain an upright posture. The pons is concerned with balance, hearing, and some parasympathetic function. It is located just above the medulla. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 61) 7. The cerebellum consists of two rounded structures located to the rear of the pons. The cerebellum plays a key role in the coordination of complex muscle movements and plays

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA an important role in types of learning and memory that involve coordinated sequences of information. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 61) 8. The reticular formation is a set of neurons that spans the medulla and pons. Neurons project from the reticular formation down the spinal cord and play a role in maintaining muscle tone and cardiac responsiveness to changing circumstances. More interesting to psychologists, rich networks of neurons arise in the reticular formation and end throughout the cerebral cortex. These networks influence our wakefulness, arousal, and attention. Although the reticular formation was originally thought of as a single neural system, it is now clear that it is composed of many neural systems that use different neurotransmitters, including serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetycholine. These different parts of the reticular formation influences somewhat different areas of the brain. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 61) 9. The midbrain is a small area at the top of the hindbrain that helps to control important postural systems, particularly those associated with the senses. For example, the midbrain controls the automatic movement of the eyes that keeps them fixed on an object as the head moves and controls automatic movements of the head that orient the ears to sources of sound. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 61) 10. By far the most interesting part of the brain to psychologists is the forebrain. Structurally, the forebrain consists of two distinct areas. One area, which contains the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and most of the limbic system, rests at the top of the hindbrain and midbrain (see figure 3.9). the other area, made up of the cerebral cortex, sits over the lower parts of the brain like the fat cap of an acorn covering its kernel. These two areas are not only distinctly different in terms of structure, but they also control very different functions. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 62) 11. The hypothalamus is a small, but vitally important, part of the brain. It lies underneath the thalamus, just in front of the midbrain. The hypothalamus is intimately involved in our motives and emotions. It also plays a key role in regulating body temperature, sleep, endocrine gland activity, and resistance to disease; controlling glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines; and maintaining the normal pace and rhythm of such body functions as blood pressure and heartbeat. Thus, the hypothalamus is the brain center most directly linked to the functions of the autonomic nervous system. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 62) 12. The hypothalamus works in close harmony with the limbic system. The limbic system is composed of three important parts (figure 3.10, p.64): - The amygdala plays a key role in emotion and aggression (Phelps, 2006). The amygdala also plays a key role in the formation of memories about emotionally charged avents (Buchanan, 2007; Kandel, 1999; Phelps, 2006). - The hippocampus brings important cognitive elements to the processing of emotion-related information (Zubieta & others, 2003). The hippocampus also

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA plays a major role in the formation of new memories (Whitlock & others, 2006). It ―ties together‖ the sights, sounds, and meanings of memories stored in various parts of the cerebral cortex (Jacobs & Schenk, 2003) and is particularly involved in spatial memory (how things are related in spaces). Interestingly, taxi drivers in London, who are known for their exceptional ability to navigate the city, have more neuron cell bodies in the hippocampus than people in general (Maguire & others, 2003). This may be the result of the drivers‘ practice recalling addresses. (On the other hand, a larger hippocampus might be necessary to learn the job). The memory loss experienced by patients suffering from Alzheimer‘s disease (see p.85) results in part from damage to the hippocampus. - The cingulate cortex works with the hippocampus to process cognitive information related to emotion (Zubieta &others, 2003). Both structures play a role in comparing current emotion-related information to information stored in memory. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 63) 13. The largest structure in the forebrain is the cerebral cortex. It is involved in conscious experience, voluntary actions, language, and intelligence – many of the things that make us human (Gazzaniga, 2009). As such, it is the primary brain structure related to the somatic nervous system. The word cortex means ―bark,‖ referring to the fact that the thin outer surface of the cerebrum is a densely packed mass of billions of cell bodies of neurons. The cortex has a gray appearance owing to these cell bodies and often is called the gray matter of the brain. The area of the cerebrum beneath the quarter inch of cortex is referred to as the white matter, because it is composed primarily of the axons of the cortical neurons. The fatty myelin coating of these neurons gives them their white appearance. They gray and white matter of the cerebral cortex can be seen clearly in the MRI image in figure 3.11. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 64) 14. Because of the importance of the cerebral cortex to our psychological fungtioning, let‘s look at it in more detail. The cerebral cortex has four sections, or lobes (see figure 3.12). Learning the names and locations of these lobes will halp us discuss the major functions of the cerebral cortex. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 64) 15. The frontal lobes of the left cerebral hemisphere also contains Broca‘s area, which is involved in our ability to speak language (Hickok & Poeppel, 2007; McDermott & others, 2005). This area is named for French neurologist Paul Broca, who discovered its function in the late 1800s. He performed autopsies on persons who had had non-fatal strokes that damaged parts of their cerebral cortex and left them with a specific type of language disorder. Persons with expressive aphasia understand what is said to them but have difficulty speaking. The strokes of persons with expressive aphasia occurred in what is now known as Broca‘s area. He concluded that this area was involved in generating spoken language and that another area of the brain must be involved in understanding language. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 65)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 16. The pair of adrenal glands sits atop the two kindneys. They play an important role in emotional arousal and secrete hormones important to metabolism. When stimulated either by a hormone from the pituitary gland or by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, the adrenal glands secrete three hormones that are important in our reactions to stress. Epinephrine and norepinephrine (which also function as neurotransmitters in the brain) stimulate changes to prepare the body to deal with physical demands that require intense body activity, including psychological threats or danger. The effects of these two adrenal hormones are quite similar, but they operate differently. For example, at times of stress, epinephrine increases blood pressure by increasing heart rate and blood flow. Norepinephrine also increases blood pressure but does so by constricting the diameter of blood vessels in the body‘s muscles and by reducing the activity of the digestive system. The adrenal glands also secrete the hormone cortisol, which also activates the body‘s response to stress (Bandelow & others, 2000; Taylor & others, 2008) and plays an important role in the regulation of immunity to disease. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 78)

Lexical Density 1. The brain is connected to the spinal cord, a thick bundle of long nerves running (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) through the spine. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 48) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 1 2 - 10 18

2. Computers, telephone systems, and other electronic systems are made of wires, (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) transistors, microchips, and other components that transmit and regulate (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (verb) electricity. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 8 - 3 - 13 21

3. Our discussion of the nervous system begins with the neuron and then progresses (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (verb) to the larger parts of the nervous system. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49) (adj) (noun) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 1 2 - 10 21

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA 4. In the early 1900s, Santiago Ramon y Cajal, the scientist who discovered (adj) (noun) (noun) (adj) neurons, described them as ―the mysterious butterflies of the soul, the beating of (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) whose wings may someday – who knows? – clarify the secret of mental life.‖ (noun) (adv) (verb) (verb) (noun) (adj) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 9 4 3 1 29 35

5. Neurons range in length from less than a millimeter to more than a meter in (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (adj) (noun) length, but all neurons are made up of essentially the same three parts. (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) (adv) (adj) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 4 1 1 16 28

6. The cell body contains the cell's nucleus and other components necessary for the (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (adj) cell's preservation and nourishment. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49) (noun) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 1 1 - 10 17

7. Axons are branches at the other end of the neuron that mostly carry neural (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) messages away from the cell body and transmit them to the next neuron. (adv) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 6 2 2 2 14 27

8. It's easy to remember the difference between the functions of the dendrites and (adj) (verb) (noun) (noun) (noun) axons by remembering that the axon mostly acts on the next cell, but there is a (noun) (verb) (noun) (adv) (verb) (adj) (noun) catch. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 2 3 1 13 30

9. Although we long believed that neural transmission always flowed from dendrite

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA (adj) (verb) (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) to axon to the next neuron’s dendrite, recent research has demonstrated that (noun) (adj) (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) some neurons can carry messages in the opposite direction, from axon to dendrite. (noun) (verb) (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 49)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 10 4 4 - 21 36

10. Neurons are grouped in complex networks that make the largest computer seem (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) (verb) like a child's toy. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 2 2 - 10 16

11. These numbers are not important in their own right, but they help us understand the (noun) (adj) (adj) (noun) (verb) (verb) incredibly rich network of neural interconnections that makes us humans. (adv) (adj) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 3 3 1 13 25

12. As described in the next two sections of this chapter, neurons transmit messages in (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) the nervous system in two steps: (1) the transmission of the message from one end (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) (adj)(noun)

of the neuron to the other end (neural transmission), and (2) transmission from one (noun) (noun) (noun) (noun) (adj) neuron to the next neuron (synaptic transmission). (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 17 4 1 - 26 48

13. Neurons are the "wires" of the nervous system—messages are transmitted over the (noun) (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (adv) neuron much as your voice is transmitted over a telephone line. (noun) (noun) (verb) (adv) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 - 2 2 13 24

14. Neurons are sacs filled with one type of fluid on the inside and bathed in a different (noun) (noun) (adj) (adj)(noun) (noun) (adv) (verb) (adj) type of fluid on the outside. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (noun) (noun) (adv)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 6 3 2 2 12 23

15. These fluids are "soups" of dissolved chemicals, including ions, the particles that (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) carry either a positive or a negative electrical charge. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (verb) (adj) (adj) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 6 3 1 - 11 21

16. More of the ions inside neurons are negatively rather than positively charged, (adj) (noun)(adv) (noun) (adv) (adv) (verb) making the overall charge of the cell a negative one. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (verb) (adv) (verb) (noun) (adj) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 4 2 3 4 13 24

17. This negative charge attracts positively charged ions to the outside of the neuron, (adj) (noun) (verb) (adv) (verb) (noun) (adv) (noun) just as the negative pole of a magnet attracts the positive pole of another magnet. (adj) (noun) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 3 3 2 15 28

18. When neurons are in a resting state, there are 10 times as many positively charged (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (adj) (adv) (verb) sodium ions outside the membrane of the neuron than inside. (noun) (adv) (noun) (noun) (adv) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 6 2 1 3 13 24

19. If you have trouble remembering which side of the membrane has most of the

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (adv) positive sodium ions, remember that there is a lot of sodium in salty seawater. (adj) (noun) (verb) (noun) (adj) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 6 2 2 1 12 28

20. According to the theory of evolution, as animals evolved and moved from the oceans (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (verb) (noun) onto the land, they brought the seawater with them in their bodies. (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 - 3 - 10 26

21. For this reason, the membrane is said to be semipermeable in its normal resting (noun) (noun) (verb) (adj) (noun) (adj) state – only some chemicals can permeate, or pass through, ―holes‖ in the (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) (verb) (noun) membrane. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 3 3 - 13 25

22. During an action potential, a small section of the axon adjacent to the cell body (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) becomes more permeable to the positive sodium ions. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 50) (verb) (adv) (adj) (adj) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 4 1 1 14 23

23. However, the membrane quickly regains its semipermeability and "pumps" the (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) (verb) positive sodium ions back out, reestablishing its polarization. (adj) (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 4 1 3 2 12 18

24. But this tiny electrical storm of sodium ions flowing in and out of the neuron—which (adj) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) lasts approximately one-thousandth of a second-does not stop there. (adj) (adv) (noun) (noun) (verb)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 2 2 1 13 27

25. By the way, local anesthetics, such as the ones that dentists inject, stop pain by (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (verb)(adj) chemically interrupting this flowing process of depolarization in the axons of (adv) (verb) (adv) (verb) (noun) (noun) nerves that carry pain messages to the brain. (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51) (noun) (verb)(adj) (noun) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 8 2 5 2 18 34

26. This means he thought that neurons transmitted signals to other neurons only when (verb) (verb) (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) depolarization was strong enough to trigger an action potential. (noun) (adj) (adv) (verb) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 5 1 4 1 12 22

27. This idea dominated neuroscience for 100 years, but it is now known that neurons (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (adv) (verb) (noun) of transmit messages through granded electrical potentials that vary in magnitude. (verb) (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 7 1 4 1 14 24

28. Wrapped around the axon like the layers of a jelly roll, this sheath insulates the axon (adj) (noun) (noun) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) and greatly increases the speed at which the axon conducts neural impulses. (adv) (verb) (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 8 1 3 1 15 28

29. Interestingly, from early childhood to late adulthood, the average thickness of (adv) (adv) (noun) (adv) (noun) (adj) (noun) myelin is greater in females than in males in some areas of the brain (Benes, 1998). (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (noun)

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 8 3 - 3 14 25

30. As a result, individuals with multiple sclerosis have severe difficulies controlling (noun) (noun) (adj) (noun) (adj) (noun) (verb) their muscles; experience fatigue, dizziness, and pain; and suffer serious cognitive (noun) (noun) (verb) (noun) (noun) (verb) (adj) and vision problems (Morell & Norton, 1980). (Benjamin, 2012 chapter III: 51) (noun)

Lexical word Noun adjective Verb Adverb Total lexical word Total word 9 3 3 - 17 23

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA APENDIX II All the text in chapter III of Psychology An Introduction Eleventh Edition ―Biological foundations of behavior‖

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA