Nationhood and Agency in the Foundation Series by Isaac Asimov

Universiteit Gent Academiejaar 2016-2017

The Tools of the State: Nationhood and Agency in the Foundation Series by Isaac Asimov

Masterproef voorgelegd Nina Bauwelinck tot het behalen van de graad van Student Master in de Master of Arts in de Taal- en Letterkunde Taal- en Letterkunde: Spaans-Engels Spaans-Engels Promotor: Dr. Jasper Schelstraete Leescommissie: Prof. Dr. Elizabeth Amann en Dr. Kwinten Van De Walle

Acknowledgements

I want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Schelstraete, for helping me make sense of the many possible inroads into the theme of nationhood in the Foundation series and for helping me delineate my argument, while still allowing me a lot of freedom. I also want to thank my parents and brother for helping me out by proofreading and also for supporting me throughout the writing process.

INDEX Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………5-8

1. State of mind: the “imagined community” of the nation (Benedict Anderson)……..9-15

1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..…9-11

1.2 The collective memory of the nation: a construction of narratives…………….11-12

1.3 The rejection of the divine right to rule………………………………………...12-13

1.4 From “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time…………………………..…14-15

2. Nationhood in the Foundation series (1951; 1952; 1953; 1988) by Isaac

Asimov……………………………………………………………………………….…...16-45

2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….16

2.2 The narrative construction of national identity………………………………...16-23

2.2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………...16

2.2.2 The Seldon Plan: a future-oriented foundational narrative………………17

2.2.3 The Seldon Plan: crossing boundaries between generations……...... 17-18

2.2.4 The need for two “imagined communities”……………………..……18-21

2.2.5 Mythological narratives………………………………………..…….21-23

2.3 Scientific thought and new perspectives on authority………………….………23-33

2.3.1 The First Foundation: a nation built on science………………...……23-25

2.3.2 Salvor Hardin’s critique of the Encyclopedists……………………...25-27

2.3.3 The nation in defence of the institution of Empire………...…………27-30

2.3.4 Science after independence: an integral part of nationalist identity.…30-33

2.4 The transition from “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time……….…...... 33-45

2.4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………...... 33-34

2.4.2 The Time-Vault………………………………………………...……34-38

2.4.3 After the loss of the Time-Vault……………………………...... 38-40

2.4.4 Achieving non-embodied, non-performative power…………………41-45

3. In a state: “agency panic” in the Foundation series……………………………….…49-60

3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….……46

3.2 Theoretical framework………………………………………...... 47-48

3.2.1 “Agency panic” (Timothy Melley)………………………………………47

3.2.2 “Psychic decolonization” (David Higgins)…………………...…………48

3.3 The problem of agency in the Foundation series………………………………49-60

3.3.1 The Mule…………………………………………………..…………49-53

3.3.2 The Second Foundation…………………………………...... 53-60

4. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...61-62

5. Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...…63-64

(25,523 words)

Introduction

Science fiction tends to examine the impact of certain innovative ideas on the development of human society, by foregrounding a particular “thought experiment” (Mendlesohn 2003: 4). This is no different in the case of Isaac Asimov (1919-1992), whose Foundation series (1951-1993) imagines a universe in which scientific principles are applied to society (Attebery 2003: 39). In this thesis I will analyse how the concepts of nationhood and nationalism are represented in four novels from this series: Foundation (1951), Foundation and Empire (1952) and Second Foundation (1953), as well as the first prequel in the series Prelude to Foundation (1988). While the series spans a total of seven novels, I want to limit the scope of my analysis to the trilogy (1951; 1952; 1953), because these novels form the backbone of the whole series and are also most widely known. I have chosen to add Prelude to Foundation (1988) to this corpus, because this first prequel delves deeper into the origins of certain key concepts which figure prominently in the trilogy (notably, psychohistory and the Seldon Plan). First of all, I want to offer a brief overview of the main plot line of these four novels. For the purpose of intelligibility, I will follow the chronological order of events, but I want to stress that this is not the order in which the series is organized. In Prelude to Foundation (1988), Hari Seldon is working on the development of the practical application of the statistical science of psychohistory, which allows for the calculation of the probable futures of a specific group of people. In his quest to turn psychohistory from mere theory into practice, Seldon runs into a lot of obstacles. He is guided through his search by Chetter Hummin, who appears to have a particular interest in seeing Seldon succeed. Hummin explains to Seldon that the stakes are high: the current Galactic Empire is rapidly decaying and Seldon’s psychohistory could help them set the course for a new and improved Empire. By observing the different societies which exist on Trantor, the Empire’s capital city (which spans a massive planet divided into “sectors”), Seldon is able to determine the necessary steps for the creation of the Seldon Plan (which is the practical application of psychohistory). The trilogy chronicles the development of the First Foundation on the planet Terminus, fifty years after the death of its founder, Hari Seldon, who had established two Foundations in order for his Plan to succeed. The first one initially consists of about a hundred thousand people, among whom were fifty scientists, and starts off as a scientific colony, but it becomes a nation once Salvor Hardin takes control of its government. While being kept deliberately in the dark about the location and purpose of the Second Foundation, the First Foundationers are guided along the path to Empire by the Seldon Plan, which offers them a clear sense of destiny and

5 largely shapes their national identity. Every few decades, the Foundation is faced with a so- called “Seldon Crisis”, which presents them with a difficult obstacle which has been predicted by the science of psychohistory. In order to overcome these obstacles, each time a different tactic has to be employed by the leaders of the Foundation. For instance, when their planet Terminus is threatened by the military power of the barbarian kingdoms situated in the periphery of the Galaxy, the First Foundation starts a religion based on science which places these kingdoms firmly under Terminus’ control. However, there is one foe which even Seldon has not managed to predict: the Mule. He is a mutant in possession of powers of mental control which allow him to convert anyone to his ranks. Because of this unforeseen threat, the Second Foundation is forced to intervene and to neutralize the Mule. In doing so, they have exposed their existence as well as their own powers of mental control to the First Foundationers. After a game of cat and mouse, the Second Foundation finally manages to resume its covert existence and the Seldon Plan is allowed to continue along its way. I will now explain to what extent I will be drawing from the theory of the nation as an “imagined community”, as developed by Benedict Anderson, in order to discuss the specificities of nationhood in the First Foundation. Anderson’s theory proves to be useful to examine a wide range of “imagined communities”, but his specific definition of the nation as one which is both limited and sovereign (Anderson 1999: 6) is especially helpful in marking the distinctions between the First Foundation’s national identity and that of the other types of nationhood present in the series (particularly, the Galactic Empire and the dynastic kingdoms). According to Anderson, the national identity of the “imagined community” is created through the employment of narratives to combat amnesia. I will argue that, contrary to the nation’s traditional insistence on the past (the nation as old and timeless), the Seldon Plan functions as a foundational narrative which is oriented towards the future. This foundational narrative results in a shared investment in the consolidation of the unrealized future “imagined community” of the Second Galactic Empire. Therefore, I will argue that the First Foundation’s nationhood is not considered to be a necessary alternative to the notion of Empire. In order to better understand this positive evaluation of Empire, as well as the investment of the people of the First Foundation in such a far-off future, I will be taking into account the specific space/time conceptions present in the novels’ universe (discussing the notions of “hyper-space” and “Time- Vault”, respectively). In this regard, I will be referring to the concept of “time-space compression” (David Harvey). Secondly, I will consider the importance of the Seldon Plan as a scientific basis for the nation, as demonstrated by two specific passages in which the opposition between religion and

6 science corresponds to the antithesis between barbarism and civilization: the Atomic Priesthood and Mycogen’s devotion to history. I will also demonstrate that the scientific nature of the Seldon Plan does not preclude it from assuming mythological guises in the perception of non- members of the “imagined community” of the First Foundation (specifically, the myths of “Raven” Seldon, “manifest destiny” and the “magician’s cult”). Finally, I will discuss the major theme of the problem of agency in the Foundation series, in light of the notion of “agency panic”, which according to its theorist Timothy Melley (2000) is one of the central characteristics of American post-war literature. This notion allows me to contextualize the specific problems of agency which the First Foundation is faced with (the Mule’s mental powers and the Second Foundation’s constant interventions in the minds of individuals) and to consider the impact they have on the nation. The Foundation series has attracted a lot of critical attention concerning the predetermined future course of humanity it represents. First of all, Boris Eizykman has charted the development in science fiction from stories which are marked by a deterministic world view (which offers up a “mechanistic vision of man and nature” (Eizykman 1983: 25)) to so-called “stochastic fiction” (Eizykman 1983: 28), in which “indeterminism [is] neutralized by statistical procedures” (Eizykman 1983: 26). The Foundation series fits within the stochastic tradition, because its devices of psychohistory and the Seldon Plan serve to “[dispel] any clouds which might hang over the future and [ward] off any threat on the part of Chance” (Eizykman 1983: 26). Secondly, Joseph Miller has considered the presence of utilitarianism in the series, by honing in on Seldon’s motivations for creating the Seldon Plan, which show a utilitarian preoccupation for the good of mankind (Miller 2004: 189). Miller also addresses the role which the science of statistics plays, by identifying the series’ crises moments as indicative of the various “calculation problems” (Miller 2004: 191) which are involved in achieving the utilitarian aim of maximizing “expected utility” (Miller 2004: 191). Furthermore, Miller touches upon the paternalistic nature of the Second Foundation, because they “coerce people to perform actions for their own good without even revealing what that good is” (Miller 2004: 199). By applying the national perspective to my analysis, I hope to offer a more specific approach to the problems of the application of scientific principles on the organization of society. I am especially interested in formulating an answer to the following questions: what are some of the reasons behind the characters’ investment in the future which the Seldon Plan promises them?; why is it necessary to establish a nation separate from the Empire in order to

7 achieve this envisioned future?; how does the national identity of the First Foundation take shape and how is it distinct from that of the other forms of nationhood in the series?; and finally, how do the disruptions of agency which the First Foundation is faced with influence the concept of the nation as Anderson defines it (as limited and sovereign)? Regarding the structure of this thesis, I will first of all outline the three main concepts of Anderson’s nation theory in chapter one. In chapter two, I will prove that the Seldon Plan is a future-oriented foundational narrative which consolidates the national identity of the First Foundation (2.2). I will explain the need for the existence of two “imagined communities”, by contrasting the advantages connected to the remote planet of Terminus to the disadvantages linked to the Empire’s centre on Trantor (2.2.4). Secondly, I will examine the role of science in making the nation sovereign (2.3). I will prove that the emergence of nationhood on Terminus does not render the institution of Empire itself obsolete (2.3.3). Additionally, the role of science distinguishes the First Foundation from other “imagined communities” (2.3.4). Thirdly, in my discussion on the novels’ time conception (2.4) I will consider the consequences of the loss of the Time-Vault (2.4.3) in relation to four different types of leadership in the series (that of Seldon, the Emperor, the barbarian King Lepold and the Mule) (2.4.4). Finally, my discussion on agency will centre around the Mule (3.3.1) and the Second Foundation (3.3.2). This last section will help explain why Anderson’s principle of the nation’s sovereignty is consistently threatened throughout the development of the First Foundation.

1. State of mind: the “imagined community” of the nation (Benedict Anderson) 1.1 Introduction In his book Imagined Communities (1983), Benedict Anderson sets forth his theory on nationhood and nationalism. He develops the notion of the “imagined community” in order to make sense of a type of community which is largely situated in the consciousness of its members. In order to distinguish the nation from other types of “imagined communities”, Anderson defines the nation as “an imagined political community – and imagined as both limited and sovereign” (Anderson 1999: 6). First of all, the nation constitutes a community which is “imagined”, because its members are not usually acquainted with one another, but still share a sense of “comradeship” (Anderson 1999: 7) with these unspecified other members (Anderson 1999: 6). In my opinion, the term “imagined community” entails a dual investment from its members: a collective and a personal investment. The personal investment is suggested by the “imagined” aspect of the nation, because it situates nationality in the sphere of individual consciousness. The collective investment, then, is the belief that other individuals also identify as a part of this same community, without necessarily coming into contact with any such other members or even having their existence confirmed. Consequently, a large part of an individual’s investment in the nation is rooted in a presupposed “backing” of the national collective. Secondly, the scope of the national community is always limited (Anderson 1999: 7), in the sense that the nation is restricted by boundaries which thus allow for it to be defined in opposition to other nations. Naturally, the types of national boundaries can vary from territorial borders to subjective and ideological borders which members use to distinguish themselves from members of other “imagined communities.” According to Anderson, a nation can never be so extensive as to “[imagine] itself [to be] coterminous with mankind” (Anderson 1999: 7). This inherent restrictedness of the nation suggests that larger nations have more difficulty maintaining the personal investment of their members. In my analysis, I will argue that this restrictedness is the key to understanding why the First Foundation has to maintain two imagined communities for it to be able to achieve its ultimate goal of establishing the Second Galactic Empire (2.2.4). Thirdly, the nation is “sovereign”, because it first emerged during a time of “Enlightenment and Revolution” which challenged and repudiated the idea of the divine right to rule (Anderson 1999: 7). In other words, the nation’s freedom required its independence from hierarchical, absolutist influences. The scientific method was one of the major contributing factors to the intellectual atmosphere of scepticism which lead to the challenging of prevalent

9 views on the organization of society. In light of the many ways in which science permeates the First Foundation (2.3.1), I argue that science and scientific thought are central to the emergence of a sovereign national consciousness in the First Foundation. My discussion on Salvor Hardin (2.3.2) will prove that science and nationhood are inextricably linked to one another in the First Foundation, because scientific thought is considered to be essential in the reassessment of traditional forms of autocratic rule, like that of the divinely-ordained Emperor of the First Galactic Empire. Additionally, the “agency panic” (Melley 2000: vii) produced by the Mule and by the Second Foundation compromise this national principle of sovereignty (3.3). Anderson describes his methodology as “anthropological” (Anderson 1999: 5). He also emphasizes the absence of a value judgement of the nation and of nationalism in his work. Hereby, Anderson contrasts his own approach to that of another prominent theorist on nationhood, Ernest Gellner, who considers the “imagined” aspect of the national community as a basis for distinguishing the nation as an artificial or “invented” community from other, authentic and pre-existing types of community (Anderson 1999: 6). A further distinction is that Gellner’s perspective focuses more on the material aspects of the nation (such as the economical and historical factors underlying its emergence and development), whereas Anderson’s main aim is to understand the extent to which national identity plays a role in the individual’s life and personal conceptions of the world (for instance, he is interested in the question of why people participate in wars and risk their lives for patriotic reasons (Anderson 1999: 7)). It is precisely Anderson’s concern with this individual investment which will prove useful in my discussion on the First Foundation. My analysis will show how individual investment in the national project goes to the heart of major plot devices in the Foundation series, particularly the Seldon Plan and the Time-Vault. I will focus my analysis on three basic principles of Anderson’s theory as represented in Imagined Communities. First of all, I will consider the Seldon Plan in light of Anderson’s claim that narratives play a crucial role in the creation of a sense of national identity (Anderson 1999: 206). I will argue that the Seldon Plan entails an enhanced personal investment in the future of the nation, resulting in the presence of two different “imagined communities”: one of which is situated in the present, and another which is situated in a far-off future. Anderson’s definition of the nation as “limited” and “sovereign” (Anderson 1999: 6) serves as a tool to understanding the need for these two different “imagined communities” in the First Foundation. Secondly, Anderson lists the rejection of the divine right to rule among the conditions which allowed for the emergence of nationhood (Anderson 1999: 36). In this respect, I will discuss the importance of the scientific mode of thought propagated by the Seldon Plan, in

10 bringing about a similar rejection of the divine right to rule and of other forms of autocratic perspectives on authority in the First Foundation. Indeed, science will not only prove to be instrumental in the emergence of the First Foundation’s national consciousness, but it will also continue to shape the national identity of its population. However, in this series, this rejection of the type of rule typically associated with the Empire, does not lead to a rejection of the institution of Empire itself. As I will demonstrate, the specific temporal and spatial conceptions which are at play in this fictional universe will help shed light on the positive evaluation of Empire. Thirdly, Anderson characterizes the perception of time in the nation as “homogenous” and “empty” (Anderson 1999: 24). He states that this replaces the previous mode of “Messianic time” which was prevalent in the Middle Ages (see 1.4 for Anderson’s definition of these two modes of time). In this respect, I argue that the loss of the Time-Vault is the event which marks the transition of the First Foundation from “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time. Additionally, Anderson defines “History” as a tool for extending membership of the “imagined community” towards including previous generations in the history of the nation (Anderson 1999: 198). I will compare this function of “History” to the Time-Vault. The difference between these two serves to illustrate that the transition to “homogenous, empty” time would be impossible with the Time-Vault still up and running. In summary, I have now outlined Anderson’s basic definition of the nation as an “imagined community” which is “limited” and “sovereign”. I have also indicated the following three theoretical aspects which will serve as a framework for my discussion on the First Foundation: the importance of narratives for the construction of national identity, the rejection of the divine right to rule and the transition to “homogenous, empty” time. In the following three sections, I will offer a more in-depth overview of each of these aspects of Anderson’s theory. Chapter two contains my analysis of these aspects based on specific illustrations from the Foundation series.

1.2 The collective memory of the nation: a construction of narratives In his chapter on “Memory and Forgetting” in Imagined Communities, Anderson discusses the need for narratives in constructing national identity. Narratives are essential to the construction of any identity, whether it be on the personal level or on the national level (Anderson 1999: 205), because they help surmount the inevitable amnesias produced in the evolution of a consciousness (Anderson 1999: 204). This is why I refer to national identity as

11 resulting from a “construction” rather than naturally emerging, because narratives offer up an inherently indirect way of engaging with this unrecalled past. As Anderson points out, in the history of nationalisms, two different “generations” of nationalisms succeed one another. The first is one which is conceived in a revolutionary spirit (being the first to posit the nation as an alternative to existing types of government) and is therefore fairly straightforward in its relationship to the past (in the sense that a “rupture” has occurred) (Anderson 1999: 193). The second generation of nationalisms has a more complicated tie to the past, because it lacks the revolutionary spirit of its predecessors and thus has to resort to “reading nationalism genealogically—as the expression of an historical tradition of serial continuity” (Anderson 1999: 195) to be able to establish a link between themselves and the preceding generation of nationalists. According to Anderson, it is “History” which plays a central role in establishing this connection (Anderson 1999: 197), resulting in a tradition of nationalist historiography which professes to “speak ’for’ dead people” (Anderson 1999: 198). Thus, national “History” comes to function as a channel of communications between past and present generations, allowing for the continued self-identification of members of the “imagined community” of the nation with their historical compatriots. It is important to realize that many conscious selections are made in the historiographical construction of these narratives, choices that are meant to emphasize the sense of kinship between members of the national “imagined community” from the past and present (Anderson 1999: 201). Hence, “History” answers the need for a narrative of identity, because it resolves the vacuum created when the experience of the continuity of serial time is forgotten (Anderson 1999: 205). In other words, historiographical narrative constitutes the collective memory of the nation. The fact that national identity is made up of a construction of such narratives further explains why the members of the “imagined community” appear to be able to transverse boundaries of space, and especially time, in considering themselves a part of the same nation. In 2.2.3, I will compare this function of “History” to the role that the Seldon Plan plays in fomenting a sense of national identity which manages to cross the boundaries between the nation’s past and present.

1.3 The rejection of the divine right to rule One of the necessary conditions for the emergence of nationhood was the rejection of the divine right to rule (Anderson 1999: 36). This type of rule is characteristic of dynasties and empires, in which power is concentrated in one high centre. The legitimacy of this authority emanates from “divinity” (Anderson 1999: 19), rather than from the assent of the people, who

12 are “subjects, not citizens” (Anderson 1999: 19). Nationhood arose because this idea of one central, divinely ordained authority lost legitimacy. The nation thus served as an alternative to this autocratic perspective on authority. In 2.3, I will prove that science is instrumental in the establishment of the nation’s sovereignty (2.3.2), because it leads to a rejection of the Emperor’s divine authority. Anderson remarks that the spread and success of nationalism provoked a fair amount of anxiety in the traditional rulers of these dynastic centres, because it directly threatened their legitimacy. Therefore, monarchs attempted to use nationalism in their favour, as a new way of justifying their power to their subjects (Anderson 1999: 85). These strategies of national identification had both positive and negative consequences, according to Anderson. On the one hand, they allowed for the creation of new “legitimacies which, in an age of capitalism, scepticism and science, could less and less safely rest on putative sacrality and sheer antiquity” (Anderson 1999: 85). On the other hand, these new legitimacies simultaneously made the authoritative status of the ruler more precarious, given the fact that his loss of divine status signified the loss of the sense of safety created by the notion that the monarch is always separate from his subjects. Henceforth, the monarch could be conceived as questionable and deposable, because his power was no longer self-evident. The monarch has to find ways to secure the acceptance of the people, because according to the national perspective, he is just another member of the “imagined community”. In other words, he has to start representing the immediate needs of the nation and to demonstrate his willingness and ability to defend the nation from threats to its legitimacy, precisely because national legitimacy now coincides with the monarch’s legitimacy. Seton-Watson labels this “official nationalism” (Seton-Watson 1977: 148). It is effectively a “willed merger of nation and dynastic empire” (Anderson 1999: 86), because it emerges as a conscious effort (amounting to concrete “policies” (Anderson 1999: 110)), as opposed to spontaneously emerging (Anderson 1999: 110). In most cases, these “official nationalisms” tend to preserve clear traces from their dynastic, imperial past, for instance by maintaining an affinity with the notion of divinity (Anderson 1999: 107). According to Anderson, this nostalgic harking back to the time of empire possesses a certain “stagey quality” (Anderson 1999: 111). In 2.4.4, I will contrast the performative nature of both the Emperor and King Lepold’s rule to the type of leadership which Hari Seldon manages to achieve.

1.4 From “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time No matter how much the nation attempts to reconstruct its past with historiographical narratives, it can only go so far back, as Anderson asserts that nations have no identifiable moment of birth (Anderson 1999: 205). This reinforces the idea that the nation engenders the experience of “homogenous, empty time” (Anderson 1999: 24), to be seen in opposition with “Messianic time” (Anderson 1999: 24). Anderson appropriates these two notions from Walter Benjamin. It was this last approach to time which was prevalent in “the mediaeval Christian mind [which] had no conception of history as an endless chain of cause and effect or of radical separations between past and present” (Anderson 1999: 23). In other words, the mediaeval sense of “simultaneity” points to an experience of time in which everything which has happened and everything which will happen is to be attributed to one divine origin, namely “Providence” (Anderson 1999: 24). This time conception is called “Messianic”, because of the belief in the coming of the end of time (Anderson 1999: 23), as being manifest in various signs and portents in the present. Anderson points out that simultaneity is not absent in our modern conceptions of time, but rather that its meaning has changed to exclude the mediaeval ideas of manifestation and prefiguration (Anderson 1999: 24). In its modern sense, simultaneity describes the experience of time as “homogenous” and “empty”, in which past, present and future do not cross over into one another. Simultaneity is merely marked “by temporal coincidence” (Anderson 1999: 24). In 2.4, I will discuss the nation’s transition from “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time. Hereby, I will focus on the functions of the Time-Vault (2.4.2) and the consequences of the loss of this device (2.4.3). Having now considered this change in temporal awareness to be one of the basic conditions for the emergence of nationhood, it is useful to consider how the nation typically positions itself in relation to the past and the future. The nation imagines itself as both ancient and eternal (Anderson 1999: 11-12). Consequently, the nation’s past and its future are inextricably linked with one another, allowing “nationalism to turn chance into destiny” (Anderson 1999: 12). Nevertheless, the nationalist sense of destiny does not coincide with the religious idea of prefiguration, because the nation, unlike the religious world perception, only applies its notion of destiny to its own members. In other words, religious Providence is dispensed to the whole of mankind, whereas nationalist “destiny” serves to reinforce the sense of kinship between its members by pitting itself against the other “imagined communities”. In summary, narratives form an essential component in the construction of national identity. First of all, historical narratives allow for the construction of national identity by establishing a bond of kinship between the present nation and its past. In doing so, “History”

14 contributes to the nationalist experience of time as “homogenous” (Anderson 1999: 24). Secondly, national identity is constructed through narratives which emphasize the eternal character of the nation and which oppose it to other “imagined communities”. Furthermore, the nation renounces the divine right to rule and instead insists on its own sovereignty. This leads to a knee-jerk reaction from the dynastic-imperial rulers who formulate “official nationalisms” in an attempt to avoid becoming irrelevant in a world organized on the principle of nationalism.

2. Nationhood in the Foundation series (1951; 1952; 1953; 1988) by Isaac Asimov 2.1 Introduction The Foundation series includes a great variety of types of nationhood: there are nations, provinces, agricultural worlds, city sectors and of course, the Galactic Empire. By using Anderson’s definition of the nation as the “imagined community” which is both limited and sovereign (Anderson 1999: 6), I want to distinguish the national identity of the Empire from that of the First Foundation. As I will argue, the First Foundation is distinct from the Empire, because its “imagined community” is more limited and because its emergence is tied to a necessary breaking away from the external political authority it was once subject to (the Empire). Thus, for the nation to become sovereign, it has to become aware of the limits of its “imagined community” in such a way that these start to form the basis for defining its own nation in opposition to other nations. Each of the following sections will contain my analysis of the three main points of Anderson’s theory which I have discussed in the theory chapter above (1.2-1.4).

2.2 The narrative construction of national identity 2.2.1 Introduction The nation requires narratives to be able to construct its identity (Anderson 1999: 204). These narratives help to position the nation in relation to both the past and the future, allowing its members to assign it an ancient and eternal or everlasting character (Anderson 1999: 11-12). In this section, I will first of all argue that the Seldon Plan is one such narrative construction, because it establishes an enhanced investment from the members of its “imagined community” (the First Foundation) in the future of the nation and contributes to it being imagined as eternal. Additionally, the Seldon Plan offers up a way of linking together the succeeding generations of nationalists in the First Foundation, in much the same way that “History” allows for this connection to be made (Anderson 1999: 193-195). In 2.4, I will demonstrate that the Time-Vault is instrumental in reinforcing this connection between the past and present of the nation. Finally, I will consider the reasons behind the need for the establishment of two “imagined communities” which are simultaneously present in the First Foundation. This will help me to explain the enhanced investment in the nation’s future.

2.2.2 The Seldon Plan: a future-oriented foundational narrative The national investment in the future and the eternal aspect of the nation are made explicit in the case of the Seldon Plan, which counts as the foundational narrative of the First Foundation. The Seldon Plan is the practical application of the science of psychohistory, developed by Hari Seldon. Psychohistory is a mathematical-statistical science which allows for the calculation of the future course of a large conglomerate of people. It “include[s] all eventualities with significant probabilities” (Asimov 1951: 21), allowing for the most accurate “predictions” of the future. It is a science combining both psychological and historical aspects, because with it “human emotions and human reactions” are scrutinized “to be able to predict broadly the historical sweep of the future” (Asimov 1951: 58). The national identity of the First Foundation is constructed by a shared belief in this Seldon Plan. As I mentioned before, narratives are an essential tool in overcoming the inevitable amnesias which are produced in any evolving consciousness (Anderson 1999: 204). In this case, the amnesias are situated in the future rather than in the present, because the Seldon Plan grants the members of the “imagined community” with a guarantee that the as yet unknown steps in the evolution of the First Foundation are “predicted” by Hari Seldon. Thus, the people of First Foundation put their trust in a national narrative, the contents of which are never fully revealed to them. Given the scientific character of the predictions presented in the Seldon Plan, the people are much more likely to accept the inevitable deprivation of knowledge it entails for them. Indeed, Seldon manages to be “understood by no one and yet believed by everyone” (Asimov 1988: 3) and the mathematical-statistical nature of psychohisory confers the reassurance of the reliability of exact science on the nation’s project: “[He] would have calculated the future, not […] intuited it” (Asimov 1988: 12). In 2.3.4 and 2.4.4, I will provide a more extensive discussion of the role of Hari Seldon’s scientific authority on the formation of the First Foundation’s national identity.

2.2.3 The Seldon Plan: crossing boundaries between generations Despite the fact that the Seldon Plan clearly focuses on the future, its function is also to unite the present members of the “imagined community” with the preceding generations of nationalists. According to Anderson, “History” manages to bridge this gap by providing national narratives which serve to establish a bond of kinship between the current nationalist project and its historical forebears (Anderson 1999: 193-195).

One of the first real leaders of the First Foundation, Salvor Hardin, is aware of the possibilities which the Seldon Plan offers to confer legitimacy on his own decisions. For instance, when rejecting a barbarian king’s demand of gaining a monopoly on the science and technology which the First Foundation could supply them with, Hardin articulates the idea that the government of the First Foundation is only acting on behalf of Seldon’s wishes: “[…] the Foundation is bound to help any nation that requests scientific aid to it. Due to the high idealism of our government and the great moral purpose of our founder, Hari Seldon, we are unable to play favourites.” (Asimov 1951: 117-118). Whenever there is a Seldon Crisis (a major national crisis predicted by Seldon’s psychohistory) to be solved, the leaders reflect on their own ability to overcome it by referring to the preceding generations of leaders. For example, in view of the third upcoming Crisis, Hober Mallow decides to bide his time before seizing the government on the First Foundation, because he knows that that is the way Salvor Hardin managed his coup in his day: “Listen, I’d seize the government by force if I had to – the way Salvor Hardin did a hundred years ago. There’s still that Seldon crisis coming up, and when it comes I have to be mayor and high priest. Both!” (Asimov 1951: 220). In fact, from this extract, there is even a sense of competition, because Hallow strives to outperform Hardin by becoming both mayor and high priest to the First Foundation. In other words, the Seldon Plan appears to be the ideal device to confer historical legitimacy on the nationalist project, given the fact that it establishes a clear sense of linearity which presents the decisions of the historical leaders of the nation as contributing to the current state of the nation (this is implicit in the term “plan”). As I will argue in 2.4.2, the Time-Vault helps to reinforce this sense of linearity.

2.2.4 The need for two “imagined communities” The ultimate goal of the Seldon Plan entails that the members of the First Foundation are essentially required to trust both in their nation’s current “imagined community” as well as in the future “imagined community” of the Second Galactic Empire. This means that the members of the First Foundation base a large part of their investment in the nation upon the consolidation of an as-of-yet unrealized future “imagined community”. As a result, there are two “imagined communities” to be distinguished. The first one refers to the current nation (the First Foundation on Terminus). The second one coincides with the future “imagined community” which will make up the Second Empire. It is useful to consider the reasons behind Hari Seldon’s decision to establish the First Foundation as a nation separate from the First

Galactic Empire, instead of just persuading the people of the Empire to rally behind his project to establish a new one. First of all, Seldon realizes that the sheer expanse of the First Galactic Empire makes it difficult to convince the people of its inevitable decay. Given the enormity of the Empire (Asimov 1951: 4) and the fact that it is organized around one high centre (the planet Trantor), the signs of decay are more easily noticeable around its periphery. Thus, the centre manages to uphold a sense of security to keep the majority of its subjects convinced of the stability of the Empire (Asimov 1951: 28-29; 1988: 50). Even Seldon himself is initially reluctant to believe in the decay: “[…] there was something in his own engrained belief that the Galactic Empire was a given, an axiom, the foundation stone on which all argument rested, that prevented him, too. After all, if that were wrong, he did not want to know. No, he could not believe that he was wrong. The Galactic Empire could no more come to an end than the Universe itself could. Or, if the Universe did end, then, and only then, would the Empire end.” (Asimov 1988: 46). Thus, Seldon would not have been able to convey the sense of urgency needed to lay the groundwork for the Second Galactic Empire, when his main audience did not live far enough from its high centre for it to be able to feel the consequences of the decay on an individual level. On Terminus, a small planet situated dangerously close to the barbarians at the Empire’s periphery, on the other hand, the threat is real: “I tell you I feel darned uncertain of the Empire and its ability to protect us.” (Asimov 1951: 43-44). Secondly, even if Seldon had been able to convince the Trantorians of the imminent decay of the Empire, he would have had a hard time convincing people to sit back and allow the situation to deteriorate. In other words, Seldon understood that he could not expect people to sacrifice their current semblance of stability for the sake of a hypothetical future: “They would not care about a glowing eventuality a century or two in the future. […] I would have to predict matters of sharper consequence, more immediate eventualities. Only to these the public would respond.” (Asimov 1988: 13). Thus, the only possible way to make people invested in the Second Galactic Empire is to establish a new form of “imagined community” which is both “limited” and “sovereign” (Cfr. Anderson’s definition of the nation (Anderson 1999: 6)). However, Seldon’s failure to convince the Empire of the inevitability of the decline does not mean that no one else in the Empire is able to comprehend that a long-term investment is sometimes needed to ensure the future of the succeeding generations. For instance, Bel Riose, a general of the Imperial Navy, understands that his duty to the Empire is superior to any regard

19 for his own person: “We would be safe ourselves no doubt, were our lifetimes quadrupled. But it is for the Empire I fight” (Asimov 1952: 20). Ironically, he uses this line of reasoning to justify the imperial war against the First Foundation, thus disregarding the fact that both are fighting for the future of a peaceful Empire. In this sense, Riose is unable to sacrifice his own membership of the “imagined community” of the First Galactic Empire, for the sake of the new one offered by Seldon. I have already suggested that the more “limited” the nation is, the more likely it is for its members to feel like their personal investment is backed up with the investment of the community. Despite the fact that the nation’s “imagined” aspect is largely due to the notion that its members cannot know each other personally (Asimov 1999: 6), it stands to reason that a community which is more concretely restricted in its boundaries is better able to promote the idea of a shared personal investment in its members. In this respect, the vastness of the First Galactic Empire forms a disadvantage when compared to the clearly demarcated boundaries of the First Foundation, situated on a single planet: Terminus. Additionally, in defining the main aim of the First Foundation as the establishment of the future Empire, Seldon manages to make the nation “sovereign” with regards to the current Empire, by positing the nation as a necessary step away from a type of realm which has become obsolete. The Seldon Plan thus places the future stability of the Galaxy within the hands of the nation, imbuing its population with a clear sense of national destiny: “upon us depends the future empire of the Galaxy” (Asimov 1951: 208). Despite the First Foundationers’ faith in the Seldon Plan and their national destiny, the “nation in the present” does sometimes clash with the “nation in the future”, because not all members of the First Foundation are as partial to the idea that they need to suspend the needs of the current nation in order to comply with their obligations to the future nation. One particular instance of this clash occurs when the so-called “Actionist” party emerges on Terminus’ political scene. Its leader, Sef Sermak, claims that his party “will stand for the immediate needs of Terminus and not for a mystic ‘manifest destiny’ of future Empire” (Asimov 1951: 84). Sermak does not agree with Hardin’s strategy for dealing with the barbarian threat: whereas Hardin is focusing on the bigger picture (namely, the Seldon Plan), Sermak instead wants to start defending Terminus by force (Asimov 1951: 85-87). Similarly to what Seldon was faced with when trying to convince the people of Trantor of the Empire’s decline, the Actionist Party represents once more the reluctance of the people who consider themselves a part of the current “imagined community” (the First Foundation) to neglect their immediate needs, in favour of their future community.

I have now outlined the reasons for the need for two “imagined communities” and I have also indicated that the two are prone to clash at certain crisis moments. Additionally, I have demonstrated the Plan’s ability to establish connections to the nation’s past and future (which is one of the functions which Anderson ascribes to national (historiographical) narratives (Anderson 1999: 201)). However, it is not only the historical narrative (Anderson 1999: 197) which is able to fill in the gaps left by the passage of time, the mythological narrative also has to be taken into consideration. Despite the truth value of the former narrative (although even this can be questioned, as “Historians pick and choose and every one of them picks and chooses the same thing.” (Asimov 1988: 82)), the mythological narrative offers a clearer insight in the popular imaginings surrounding these “official” versions of the nation’s past.

2.2.5 Mythological narratives Interestingly, the scientific basis of the First Foundation does not preclude it from assuming mythological guises in the eyes of non-members of the “imagined community”. Despite the fact that there is nothing “mystical” about the calculation of statistical probabilities, Hari Seldon is known in the popular imagination as “Raven”, because “[he] keeps predicting disaster” (Asimov 1951: 13). Two further myths attached to the First Foundation and the Seldon Plan are: “manifest destiny” and the “magicians”. It is important to note here that all three of these myths refer to the idea of prefiguration, which Anderson has situated in the world perception typical of the mediaeval Christian mind (Anderson 1999: 24). Notably, the cult which forms around the myth of the “magicians” refers to the concept of a Messiah (Cfr. Infra). The myth of “manifest destiny” denotes the First Foundation’s national self-confidence. It is not only referred to by Sermak of the Actionist Party (Asimov 1951: 84), but also by the enemies of the First Foundation. While being a source of morale for the Foundation, this “manifest destiny” has a crippling effect on their enemy, whose “ships go into battle fearing defeat in some unknown way […] they are cautious and look before they attack and wonder a little too much” (Asimov 1953: 198). The myth of the “magicians” is perhaps the example which most clearly demonstrates its origins outside of the First Foundation, because in its similarities to the barbarian view of science as magic (Asimov 1951: 88; 149) it cannot possibly be believed on Terminus, where science is the backbone of society (see 2.3.1). Indeed, the initial rumours speak of beings situated “at the end of the Galaxy, magicians who glowed in the darkness, who flew unaided through the air, and whom weapons would not touch” (Asimov 1951: 197-198).

The myth of the “magicians” actually ends up gaining a cult following on the planet of Siwenna. The population of Siwenna was almost completely wiped out when a tyrannical imperial general decided to unjustly punish them for the treason attempted by their viceroy, despite the fact that the people of Siwenna themselves had all that time not relented in their loyalty to the Emperor (Asimov 1952: 8). Onum Barr, one of the few survivors of the massacre, explains that his sons are leaders of this cult, which “waits for the coming of the ‘magicians’” (Asimov 1952: 61). Barr believes that these “magicians” will save Siwenna from the “unbearable vise” (Asimov 1952: 61) of the chaos produced by the fall of the Empire. Essentially, the “magician’s cult” represents a reprisal of the “Messianic” perspective on time (Anderson 1953: 24), because it reveres the Foundationers as the messianic saviours of Siwenna. This is similar to the function which the Time-Vault has in casting Seldon as a messianic figure (see 2.4.2). These mythological narratives circulate among non-members of the First Foundation, because they make sense of the inexplicability of the Seldon Plan for the lay public. They are therefore used in Anderson’s sense: to fill certain gaps. In this case, however, the gaps are situated in the realm of knowledge rather than in the realm of time: the myth of “Raven” Seldon points towards the lack of psychohistoric knowledge; the myth of “manifest destiny” illustrates the insubstantial character of the First Foundation’s self-confidence which provokes anxiety in their enemies; and finally, the “magician’s cult” demonstrates a primitive view on science (which is associated with magic) as well as a medieval sense of time perception (“messianic” rather than “homogenous” (Anderson 1999: 24)). Hence, rather than serve as a way of constructing one’s own national identity, these mythological narratives serve to demonstrate the exclusiveness of the First Foundation’s “imagined community” by emphasizing the fact that non-members are never in full possession of the facts. The First Foundation’s “imagined community” is thus not merely “limited” (Anderson 1999: 6) in space, but also by the boundaries of knowledge which non-members cannot pass. Nevertheless, it is important to realize that even these outsider myths contain at their core a substantial indication about the experience of most members of the First Foundation itself. Given the fact that the science of psychohistory also prescribes the deliberate deprivation of knowledge from the population affected by its calculations (Asimov 1988: 11), it is reasonable to assume that the ideas of prefiguration which figure so heavily in the outsider myths must also circulate among the majority of the population of the First Foundation. Thus, even the members of the “imagined community” themselves are relegated to an outsider

22 position regarding the true aims and workings of the First Foundation. I will discuss this tension concerning knowledge deprivation in 2.4.3.

2.3 Scientific thought and new perspectives on authority 2.3.1 The First Foundation: a nation built on science One of the conditions for the emergence of nationhood was the rejection of the divine right to rule (Anderson 1999: 36). I argue that science plays a central role in the Foundation series, because it allows for the establishment of new conceptions of power and authority, which specifically challenge the divine right to rule characteristic of the First Galactic Empire. In other words, science is important in effectuating the transition from Empire to nation, by conferring the “imagined community” of the First Foundation with a sense of its own sovereignty. This results in a nation the members of which exhibit an abhorrence for absolutist tendencies in its leaders. In 2.3.4, I argue that science is not only important to the nation’s independence, but becomes vital for the development of the nationalist identity of its population later on. It is first of all useful to illustrate the pervasiveness of science in these novels. Initially, the First Foundation starts off as a “scientific refuge […] the means by which the science and culture of the dying Empire was to be preserved through the centuries of barbarism that have begun, to be rekindled in the end into a second Empire.” (Asimov 1951: 96). At this point, the First Foundation is not yet a nation, but a “State-supported, scientific institution” (Asimov 1951: 43), the leaders of which (called the “Encyclopedists”) refuse to “interfere in local politics” (Asimov 1951: 43). The first signs of nationalism start to arise once the population does no longer consist exclusively of “scholars” (Asimov 1951: 46) working on the Encyclopedia. As I will demonstrate (in 2.3.2), Mayor Salvor Hardin shrewdly realizes the potential of this emerging nationalism for establishing his own rule. Of course, the nation’s foundational text, the Seldon Plan, itself is created by a scientist of psychohistory, Hari Seldon. He is the only one to have the foresight of building this safe- haven, in a time in which the decline of Empire goes hand in hand with the decline of science and in which “dams had been built against the further development of ideas” (Asimov 1953: 65). This is also a time in which the barbarian nations of the periphery maintain their focus on expanding their military force. As I will demonstrate in my discussion on the Atomic Priesthood (see 2.3.4), science becomes essential for the nation’s survival when faced with the barbarians’ overwhelming military ascendancy (Asimov 1952: 120). Seldon’s science of psychohistory helps to determine certain laws of the behaviour of society in order to mathematically predict the actions of large groups of people (Asimov 1952:

22). It is vital that the group of people is large enough, as psychohistory is not able to take into account any individual variables (these would be so innumerable as to make the establishment of a mathematical model infeasible): “The individual human being is unpredictable, but the reactions of human mobs, Seldon found, could be treated statistically.” (Asimov 1953: 1). Another important principle of psychohistory is that it can only work on “blind mobs” (Asimov 1951: 96), meaning that the subjects on which the calculations are applied have to be unaware of this in order for their “reactions [to] be truly random” (Asimov 1951: 14): “The laws of Psychohistory are statistical in nature and are rendered invalid if the actions of the individual men are not random in nature. If a sizable group of human beings learned of key details of the Plan, their actions would be governed by that knowledge […] they would no longer be perfectly predictable.” (Asimov 1953: 104). This is the reason why the Seldon Plan is only revealed gradually (and never fully) to the First Foundationers, through the Time-Vault recordings. This tension inherent in the Seldon Plan between what is known (their ultimate destiny of founding the Second Empire) and what is withheld from them (the knowledge of the specifics of the Plan) is what makes it possible for the First Foundation to function as it should: “As long as they knew of the existence of the Seldon Plan, without knowing any of the details thereof, they were confident but uncertain. They knew they would succeed, but they didn’t know when or how. There was, therefore, a continuous atmosphere of tension and strain – which was what Seldon desired. The First Foundation, in other words, could be counted upon to work at maximum potential.” (Asimov 1953: 119). The Second Foundation, on the other hand, appears almost omniscient in comparison to the First. This Foundation was also founded by Hari Seldon to ensure that the First Foundation would not stray from their path to the Second Galactic Empire. To achieve this, they possess an organizational structure which is similar to a university or a scientific research facility, in order to be able to continually train a number of students in the science of psychohistory. These students can, after years of rigorous psychohistoric training, rise up in the ranks and become apprenticed to the Council of Speakers. This Council consists of the lead scientists who are responsible for guarding the Seldon Plan (Asimov 1953: 65). The students who are apprenticed to them are expected to contribute to the “Prime Radiant, which [holds] in its vitals the Seldon Plan” (Asimov 1953: 95). What is significant here, is the fact that the Seldon Plan is represented as a work in progress, which is continually being added to by a team of scientists: “The Seldon Plan is neither complete nor correct. Instead, it is merely the best that could be done at the time. Over a dozen generations of men have pored over these equations,

worked at them, taken them apart to the last decimal place, and put them together again.” (Asimov 1953: 100). In this sense, the Seldon Plan is another example of the genuinely scientific basis of the First Foundation, because it requires constant revisions by succeeding generations of scientists, rather than a blind faith in its axiomatic truth. Given the profoundly scientific basis of the First Foundation, it is not surprising that the nationalism of its population is informed by the fact that science backs its legitimacy: “We have the science of the great Hari Seldon to prove that upon us depends the future empire of the Galaxy, and from the course that leads to the Imperium we cannot turn.” (Asimov 1951: 208). This extract testifies to the sense of reassurance which Seldon’s science confers on the nation’s future, but also to the inevitability of the future course of their nation. In section 2.4, I will discuss in more detail the measure in which Seldon and his science influence the First Foundationers’ nationalist identity.

2.3.2 Salvor Hardin’s critique of the Encyclopedists Given the importance of science in effectuating the nation’s sovereignty, I claim that the First Foundation merges science and nationhood. This connection is made apparent when considering the character of Salvor Hardin. Hardin counts as the first real ruler of the nation, because he is the first on Terminus to question imperial authority and to posit independent rule. In this, he is opposed by the “Encyclopedists”, who made up the scientific portion of the original inhabitants of the First Foundation. They are submitted to some harsh criticism from Hardin, who accuses them of clinging on to authority at the cost of exercising their own capacity for independent thought: “You haven’t tried once [to solve the Seldon Crisis]. First, you refused to admit that there was a menace at all! Then you reposed an absolutely blind faith in the Emperor! Now you’ve shifted it to Hari Seldon. Throughout you have invariably relied on authority or the past – never on yourselves. […] It amounts to a diseased attitude – a conditional reflex that shunts aside the independence of your minds whenever it is a question of opposing authority. There seems no doubt in your minds that the Emperor is more powerful than you are, or Hari Seldon wiser.” (Asimov 1951: 70). Interesting to note is that this critique runs parallel to a second aspect Hardin takes offence with, namely, the Encyclopedists’ lack of scientific mode of thinking. According to Hardin, their inability to step away from the Emperor’s authority is mirrored in their rigid compliance to the Seldon Plan (which, at this point, they still hold to believe is aimed at

25 compiling the Encyclopedia Galactica, an enormous repository of knowledge). What troubles Hardin most in this respect, is the fact that they have abandoned all genuinely scientific principles, and are instead content to relegate all scientific authority to Hari Seldon, in much the same way they have left all political matters in the hands of the Emperor. Hardin voices his frustration by associating their inertia with the general tendencies of deterioration in the Empire: scientists are no longer seeking to advance all knowledge, but instead are content to be relegated to the meaningless task of grouping together all knowledge from authoritative sources into one single repository: “What kind of science is it to be stuck out here for centuries classifying the work of scientists of the last millennium? Have you ever thought of working onward, extending their knowledge and improving upon it? No! You’re quite happy to stagnate. The whole Galaxy is, and has been for Space knows how long.” (Asimov 1951: 56). Hardin’s ciritque thus demonstrates that the conditions of the declining Empire result in an almost chronic incapacity to recognize the possibility of alternative forms of leadership and authority. In this sense, the Encyclopedists clearly represent the inability to formulate new types of government, out of a fear of experimentation, which is in turn mirrored in the backsliding of their sense of scientific reasoning. Nevertheless, Hardin’s motivations for discrediting the Encyclopedists’ leadership also relate to his wish to usurp them. By presenting himself as the alternative to the decline of science, Salvor Hardin links his own authority as the first Mayor of Terminus to Seldon’s legitimacy as a genuine scientist. His success with the people of the Foundation is largely due to his ability to identify people’s needs as members of the nation as opposed to the Encyclopedists’ reluctance to dedicate themselves to ruling Terminus: “There’s a good million of us here on Terminus, and not more than a hundred and fifty thousand are working directly on the Encyclopedia. To the rest of us, this is home. We were born here. We’re living here. Compared with out farms and our homes and our factories, the Encyclopedia means little to us. We want them protected-” (Asimov 1951: 55). In 2.4, I will enter more into Hardin’s strategy of associating himself with the scientific legitimacy of Seldon in order to gain the trust and support of the people of the First Foundation. In short, the Encyclopedists’ tendency to cling to their dependence on the Emperor is linked to their lack of scientific reasoning, which stifles their ability to question the divine right to rule. Salvor Hardin’s critique of their inertia and his subsequent success as the first Mayor on Terminus indicates that the recognition of the nation’s sovereignty requires the rejection of

26 autocratic perspectives on authority, like the divine right to rule typical of Empire. In the Foundation series, science thus plays an essential role in effectuating the transition from Empire to nation.

2.3.3 The nation in defence of the institution of Empire Despite the fact that this distancing from the divine right to rule associated with the Emperor is necessary for the First Foundation to assert its sovereignty as a nation, the Foundation series maintains a predominantly positive perspective on the notion of Empire. Indeed, the ultimate goal of the nation is to found a “new and greater Empire” (Asimov 1951: 76). In what follows, I will discuss the reasons behind the need for the creation of a nation on Terminus and explain why it is important that this nation should situate itself far from the current Empire’s centre on Trantor. Secondly, I will argue that the spatial and temporal dimensions of the Galaxy in the novels have to be taken into account, because they help construct a “postmodern […] empire” (Higgins 2013: 243). Thirdly, I will discuss the role which the Second Foundation plays in ensuring the establishment of the Empire by the First Foundation. It is first of all important to note that the institution of Empire in the Foundation series is considered a stabilizing force and the only guarantee for any lasting peace between the worlds of the Galaxy. According to Bel Riose, the Empire is responsible for two millennia of peace, the so-called “Pax Imperium” (Asimov 1952: 20) and the loss of Empire would revert the Galaxy into a state of chaos: “a barbarian Galaxy, all immersed in its fragmentary independence and its common degradation and misery” (Asimov 1952: 20). This view corroborates Seldon’s motivations for embarking on his project, who claims he “regrets the prospect” of the ruin of the Empire, because “the state of anarchy which would follow its fall would be worse. It is that state of anarchy which [his] project is pledged to fight” (Asimov 1951: 28). Seldon does make a clear distinction between the institution of Empire, which he is willing to preserve, and the figure of authority linked to it: “He was for the Empire; that is, for the worlds of humanity in peace and union; but he was not for the Emperor.” (Asimov 1988: 5). In that respect, the question arises of why Seldon thought it necessary to completely start anew, instead of trying to salvage the remainder of the current Empire. In 2.1.4, I have explained that there are two reasons why Seldon chose to link the establishment of future Empire to the current “imagined community” of the First Foundation on Terminus: first of all, Seldon was acutely aware of the fact that it would be difficult to convince the people living in

27 the imperial centre to rally behind his cause; secondly, it would be even more impossible to make them invest in what was then merely a hypothetical future. This is why the First Foundation had to be situated on Terminus, where the need for immediate action against the anarchy threatening to engulf the Galaxy was more directly felt. Indeed, their first Seldon Crisis consists of withstanding this threat, by first of all recognizing it, which is what the Encyclopedists refused to do. They initially claimed they had nothing to fear from the barbarians, because Terminus was “part of the Emperor’s personal domain, and no one touches [them]. The Empire can protect its own.” (Asimov 1951: 43). I will now discuss the scientific reasoning behind this decision: namely, the factor of “scientific control”. This principle is important in carrying out scientific experiments, because it allows the scientist to reduce the number of external variables which cause variation, to ensure that the outcome of the experiment is as accurate as possible. In other words, the First Foundation is set up on Terminus, because the location of this planet allows for the least amount of external variables (i.e. influences from the imperial centre of Trantor) to interfere. The “conditions” on Terminus have been “arranged so as to bring about a series of crises that will force [them] most rapidly along the route to future Empire” (Asimov 1951: 171). Additionally, because of the axiom inherent to the science of psychohistory which states that no individual agent can have any real impact on the unfolding of future events, the number of uncontrolled variables is drastically reduced. Nevertheless, the question still remains whether or not the variable of individual action really is uncontrollable (see 3.3 for my discussion on agency). In contrast to the imperial centre on Trantor, Terminus is located in that part of the Galaxy which already shows the decline in military power of the First Galactic Empire, whereas on Trantor, this reality is still hidden. This is evidenced by the fact that Seldon has such difficulties convincing the councilmen on Trantor of the decline of Empire: “The appearance of strength is all about you. It would seem to last for ever. However, […] the rotten tree-trunk, until the very moment when the storm-blast breaks it in two, has all the appearance of might that it ever had. The storm-blast whistles through the branches of the Empire even now. Listen with the ears of psychohistory, and you will hear the creaking.” (Asimov 1951: 28-29). Additionally, the First Foundation counts as a “blind experiment”, because it requires its subjects to be deprived of the specifics of the experiment while also keeping the researchers (in this case, the Second Foundation) separate from the First Foundationers. This is why the nation is placed on Terminus, isolated not only from the imperial centre on Trantor, but also from the Second Foundation, which after a series of false starts (Asimov 1953: 207; 212) is

28 revealed to be covertly situated on Trantor as well (Asimov 1953: 227). As I have explained previously, this deprivation of knowledge is caused by the nature of psychohistory itself: “[…] it would seem that, except from a few decision-makers, the results of psychohistorical analysis would have to remain unknown to the public. […] If a psychohistorical analysis is made and the results are then given to the public, the various emotions and reactions of humanity would at once be distorted.” (Asimov 1988: 11). As I will discuss in 2.4.2, the Time-Vault recordings offer up a way for Seldon to gradually disclose some of this knowledge to the population of the First Foundation at strategic times. Despite being in the ideal position to see first-hand the decline of the First Galactic Empire, the Foundation still holds true to its destiny. Without wanting to claim that the nation is somehow always necessarily antithetical to the idea of Empire, I do argue that the positive evaluation of Empire is to be attributed at least partly to the specific temporal and spatial dimensions of these novels’ universe. In terms of the spatial dimensions of the Galaxy, the concept of “hyper-space” illustrates the immensity of the universe. “Hyper-space” denotes the dimension in which people can travel via “hops” (Asimov 1953: 27) to get from one end of the Galaxy to the other in mere moments: “What’s distance to hyperspatial ships?” (Asimov 1988: 32). In terms of the temporal dimensions at play in this universe, the existence of the Time- Vault is important to understand how the idea of Empire remains potent, long after the First Empire has disintegrated (see 2.4.2 for a detailed discussion of the Time-Vault). Without it, I believe that the clashes between the two “imagined communities” of the First Foundation (Cfr. 2.2.4) would have led to a rejection of Empire, instead of a continued defence of it. Both “hyper- space” and the Time-Vault suggest a universe characterized by what David Harvey calls “time- space compression”, which is typical of the globalized age and signifies the reduction in the perception of temporal and spatial distances caused by certain technical innovations (Harvey 1989: 240). Higgins proves that this concept of “time-space compression” is present in many representations of Empire in science fiction (Higgins 2013: 243). I argue that Asimov’s Foundation series fits within Higgins’ series of “postmodern […] Empire[s]” (Higgins 2013: 243). In other words, it is in light of this “postmodern” type of Empire, that the positive evaluation of the imperial institution in the Foundation series is to be understood. Finally, I will now consider the Second Foundation’s view on Empire. According to the Speakers, the ultimate aim of the Plan is to found a new kind of Empire, in which random factors like megalomaniac individuals (like the Mule) will no longer be allowed to get out of

29 control. Instead, the Second Foundation sees the future Empire as being steered in the right direction by a group of psychologists, who are able to create stability: “I believe that it is the intention of the Plan to establish […] a civilization based on mental science. In all the known history of Mankind, advances have been made primarily in physical technology; in the capacity of handling the inanimate world about Man. Control of self and society has been left to chance or to the vague gropings of intuitive ethical systems based on inspiration and emotion. As a result, no culture of greater stability than about fifty-five percent has ever existed, and these only as the result of great human misery.” (Asimov 1953: 102-103). While the Speakers agree on the advantages that such a society would entail, they are also apprehensive about the possibility of the emergence of a tyranny of a select few in possession of mental powers: “Only an insignificant minority, however, are inherently able to lead Man through the greater involvements of Mental Science […] since such an orientation would lead to the development of a benevolent dictatorship of the mentally best – virtually a higher sub- division of Man – it would be resented and could not be stable without the application of a force which would depress the rest of Mankind to brute level. Such a development is repugnant to us and must be avoided.” (Asimov 1953: 103; my italics). From this passage and from their role in neutralizing the threat of the Mule, it is apparent that the Second Foundation has no intention of reinstating an absolutist rule in their future Empire, which would signify a reversal to the divine right to rule.

2.3.4 Science after independence: an integral part of nationalist identity I have previously discussed the prevalence of science in the First Foundation (2.3.1) as well as the role it played in achieving national independence from the Empire (2.3.2). Under Hardin’s rule, this scientific basis of the First Foundation becomes gradually more pronounced, as the nation faces its first challenges. Hereby, science becomes an essential part of the First Foundation’s national identity. Essentially, science and technology become a way for the First Foundation to delineate the boundaries (Cfr. the nation’s “limitedness” (Anderson 1953: 6)) of their “imagined community”. This allows its members to identify themselves in opposition to the Empire, on the one hand (because the Empire exhibits a rapid decline of science) and to the barbarian nations of the Periphery, on the other (because they are completely undeveloped in matters of science and technology). Furthermore, religion and science are regarded as opposites

30 and linked to another pair of opposites: barbarism and civilization. There are two specific instances in which this antithesis is played out. First of all, it becomes apparent in the establishment of the Atomic Priesthood on the barbaric outskirts of the Galaxy. The Atomic Priesthood was established as part of a strategy to control the barbarian kingdoms surrounding Terminus. These kingdoms possessed considerable military power, which threatened to engulf the First Foundation, jeopardizing their recent independence from the Galactic Empire. To counter this threat, mayor Hardin established a prestigious religion to be spread amongst the barbarians and ensured that the education of the priests would remain the exclusive prerogative of Terminus itself. The priesthood is responsible for manning the atomic power plants supplying energy all over the barbarian nations. However, the priests only receive a “purely empirical” education (Asimov 1951: 88) on how to operate these power plants, while they themselves “believe in this religion entirely, and in the […] spiritual value of the power they handle” (Asimov 1951: 108). In this way, the First Foundation first of all ensures that the barbarian kings can never take over the science behind it: “it placed the life blood of atomic power in the hands of the priesthood – who took their orders from us” (Asimov 1951: 130). According to Hardin, this “religion of science” (Asimov 1951: 130) was the only way to ensure the acceptance of science in the Periphery: “the barbarians looked upon our science as a sort of magical sorcery, and it was easier to get them to accept it on that basis (Asimov 1951: 88). Secondly, by concentrating the education of the priests solely on Terminus, it becomes an untouchable “holy planet” which it would be sacrilege to attack by military force. For instance, Hardin manages to thwart the barbarian kingdom of Anacreon when it attempts to attack Terminus, by exercising his control over the priests who have been riling the Anacreontic people up all this time: “[…] every priest in Anacreon is going on strike, unless I countermand the order. […] Do you realize […] that an attack on the Foundation is nothing short of sacrilege of the highest order? […] I imagine that for the last half-hour every temple on Anacreon has been the centre of a mob listening to a priest exhorting them upon that very subject. There’s not a man or woman on Anacreon that doesn’t know that their government has launched a vicious, unprovoked attack upon the centre of their religion.” (Asimov 1951: 121). Additionally, the Atomic religion serves as a way of convincing the periphery of the national destiny of the First Foundation. In this sense, the priesthood propagates a religious perspective

31 on the Seldon Plan and the role of the First Foundation in establishing a future utopia which will benefit them all: “Everyone believes it just the same. I mean all this talk about the Prophet Hari Seldon and how he appointed the Foundation to carry on his commandments that there might some day be a return to the Earthly Paradise: and how anyone who disobeys his commandments will be destroyed for eternity.” (Asimov 1951: 105). The First Foundation thus uses religion as a way of safeguarding itself against the military power of the barbarian nations. Moreover, the First Foundationers use this strategy to define their own scientific nation in opposition to the barbarian’s religiosity. In Foundation (1951), the barbarian king Lepold is thwarted in his attempt to link his own authority to the religion which his people adhere to, by appearing to the public gathered at a “temple festival” while being surrounded by a “radioactive aura” (Asimov 1951: 109). The First Foundation intervenes in this display of power, by ordering the priests to go on strike, thus cutting off the power fuelling his performance (Asimov 1951: 121-122). This scene symbolically represents the triumph of science over an attempt to reinstate the divine right to rule. In other words, one of the first great triumphs of the First Foundation is achieved by using science to undermine the divine right to rule, following the same spirit which prompted Salvor Hardin’s critique of the “Encyclopedists” (see 2.3.2). A second example of this antithesis between religion and science, and barbarism and civilization respectively, is the way in which religion is despised on Mycogen. Mycogen is one of the many sectors on Trantor, the capital of the First Galactic Empire. Its population is described as “stubbornly primitivistic” (Asimov 1988: 198). They seem to uphold a veritable cult of the past (Asimov 1988: 239), which prompts Hari Seldon himself to suggest that they are a religious society. However, from the reaction this suggestion provokes, it becomes clear that even Mycogen identifies itself in opposition to religion, which is considered to be a thing of barbarians (or, in Mycogenian terminology: “tribespeople”): “You’re accusing us of having religion. […] we don’t have it. Religion is for the tribesmen, for the swarming sc- […] We have no need of [religion] […] We have something far better. We have history.” (Asimov 1988: 185-186). Instead, the Mycogenians pride themselves on worshipping History : “they cling tightly to a set of traditions about early history and are supposed to have very ancient records not available to anyone else” (Asimov 1988: 142). This worship of the past leads to a stagnation of their society’s technological and scientific advancement, making Mycogen “a piece of an undeveloped planet, embedded like a splinter in the body of Trantor, which is otherwise a

32 patchwork of developed societies” (Asimov 1988: 210). Significantly, their primitivism is clearly part of their national identity and a way of marking the limits of their “imagined community”: “Mycogen seems to keep itself deliberately archaic. I suppose they consider that another way of separating themselves from the so-called tribesmen that surround them in overwhelming numbers. Their archaicism and odd customs make them indigestible, so to speak.” (Asimov 1988: 160). The Mycogenian society is still different from that of the First Foundation, because the consequence of their primitivism is similar to the state of affairs on Terminus criticized by Hardin (“It’s a worship of the past. It’s a deterioration – a stagnation!” (Asimov 1951: 71)). Their cult of the past centres around the idea of a lost nationalist utopia (“another, former, and better world” (Asimov 1988: 209)), from which they were driven out. This would seem to form the ideal basis for the nationalist imagining of the Mycogenians (Anderson 1999: 11). However, they are content to simply mourn the past, happy to remain under the power of the Emperor, instead of becoming a sovereign nation of their own. In other words, Mycogen’s nationalism is different from the Foundation’s nationalism, because of the former’s exclusive focus on the past. The First Foundation, in contrast, articulates its nationalism in terms of the future, which allows them to continually progress their society. Hari Seldon himself picks up on this cultural divide by remarking on the fact that he has a different perspective on time from that which seems to prevail on Mycogen: “We are members of societies that do not tie ourselves to a past that is thousands of years old, making no contact at all with what has existed between that past and ourselves. We live in the present which we recognize as the product of all the past and not of one long-gone moment of time that we hug to our chests.” (Asimov 1988: 245).

2.4 The transition from “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time 2.4.1 Introduction The nation is characterized by a specific temporal experience which Anderson calls “homogenous” and “empty” (Anderson 1999: 24). This temporal conception entails a clear separation between past, present and future. According to Anderson, this time mode replaced the medieval “Messianic” time mode (Anderson 1999: 24), in which past, present and future were not experienced as “homogenous”. Rather, in the “Messianic” mode, the present and the past contained signs and portents for future events which were sure to happen.

With regards to its position vis-à-vis the past and the future, the nation is both “ancient” and “eternal”(Anderson 1999: 11-12). I have thus far explained the role of the Seldon Plan in perpetuating the image of the First Foundation as “eternal” (Cfr. 2.2). In this section, I will argue that the Foundation series also contains an enhanced investment in the nation as “ancient”. Hereby, I will discuss the significance of the Time-Vault by distinguishing between the period before and after the invasion of Terminus by the Mule. I will argue that the last Time- Vault event was necessary for the First Foundation to be able to transition from “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time. Furthermore, the loss of the Time-Vault serves as a test for the tenacity of the Seldon Plan. The fact that the Plan passes this test demonstrates that the divine right to rule has become obsolete and that science now offers the best instrument of legitimacy for the ruler of the nation.

2.4.2 The Time-Vault The Time-Vault is a room on the planet Terminus, which a “radium” clock is set to open at unknown times in the future (Asimov 1951: 44). Every time the Vault opens, a holographic projection of Hari Seldon appears for the First Foundationers who are present in the room. Seldon’s “personal simulacrum” (Asimov 1952: 125) discloses his knowledge of the events which have just passed in the First Foundation. His appearances are timed to immediately succeed the so-called “Seldon Crises”, which are events in the future of the First Foundation which have been predicted to occur by Seldon’s science of psychohistory and which are meant to test the First Foundation as well as “[…] force [them] most rapidly along the route to future Empire” (Asimov 1951: 171). The Seldon Crises always require the leaders of the First Foundation to employ a different tactic in order to ensure the survival of their nation in the face of extreme adversity. For instance, the first Seldon Crisis was solved by using the “Balance of Power” (Asimov 1951: 134), while the second Crisis was solved by using “Spiritual Power” (Asimov 1951: 134). The main difficulty which the Seldon Crises pose, is that they oblige the leaders of the First Foundation to wait for the moment of utmost crisis before proceeding to action: “You watch the ol’ Foundation. They wait for the last minute, then – pow!” (Asimov 1952: 130). In other words, the inertia which Salvor Hardin criticized the Encyclopedists for (see 2.3.2), becomes a given for the rulers of the First Foundation. Hardin’s critique of the Encyclopedists demonstrates an uneasiness with this strategy: “We are to do nothing, is that right, except to wait in quiet serenity and utter faith for the deus ex machina to pop out of the Vault?” (Asimov 1951: 69).

This necessary inertia is caused by the psychohistoric precept which states that no individual action is able to influence the future course of the First Foundation: “[…] Seldon crises are not solved by individuals but by historic forces. Hari Seldon, when he planned our course of future history, did not count on brilliant heroics but on the broad sweep of economics and sociology.” (Asimov 1951: 226). This means that “the solutions to the various crises must be achieved by the forces that become available to [them] at the time” (Asimov 1951: 226). Indeed, the Seldon Plan can only remain functional when there are a limited amount of possible solutions to the Crisis available at the time: “as long as more than one course of action is possible, the crisis has not been reached. We must let things drift so long as we possibly can” (Asimov 1951: 96). Seldon’s holograph emphasizes this point: “From now on, and into the centuries, the path you must take is inevitable. You will be faced with a series of crises, as you are now faced with the first, and in each case your freedom of action will become similarly circumscribed so that you will be forced along one, and only one, path. It is that path which our psychology has worked out” (Asimov 1951: 75). It is in these moments of crisis that the tensions between the two types of “imagined communities” (2.2) become much more pronounced, given the fact that the Seldon Crises force the First Foundationers to forfeit the immediate needs of the current “imagined community” (the First Foundation on Terminus), in favour of the more long-term requirements of the future “imagined community” (the Second Galactic Empire). Indeed, all of Hardin’s decisions are questioned out of a fear of making the wrong decision which will not only blow their chances at founding the Second Galactic Empire, but also destroy their present nation: “Can we risk the present for the sake of a nebulous future?” (Asimov 1951: 96). Hardin manages to successfully counter these initial doubts, by insisting on his trust in the exactitude of Seldon’s mathematics: “[…] the future isn’t nebulous. It’s been calculated out by Seldon and charted.” (Asimov 1951: 96). The Time-Vault thus serves the function of validating the decisions of the First Foundation’s rulers, by showing that Hari Seldon himself had calculated their specific course of action as the best solution to the crisis they were facing. Salvor Hardin discerns this potential of the Time-Vault early on, when he urges the Encyclopedists to make the first Time-Vault event into a big public occasion (Asimov 1951: 44). This allows Hardin the opportunity to publicly discredit the Encyclopedists’ rule, by using Seldon’s speech in the Time-Vault to demonstrate their misguided leadership (Asimov 1951: 77). In effect, Hardin uses the Time-

Vault to orchestrate a coup and in doing so, links his own leadership abilities directly to Seldon’s authority. Moreover, the Time-Vault not only helps to maintain the legitimacy of the nation’s current rulers, but it also helps to confirm that the First Foundation is still on the right track of the Seldon Plan and is one step closer to its ultimate goal of founding the Second Empire: “Each crisis, each Seldon crisis, marks an epoch in our history.” (Asimov 1951: 171). The Time-Vault recordings are therefore essential in maintaining the nationalist sense of destiny on Terminus. Their “consciousness of destiny” (Asimov 1951: 230) and subsequent “universal optimism” (Asimov 1952: 19) causes a fair amount of anxiety in their enemies, who would have nothing much to fear from the First Foundation, as they are an otherwise weak nation: “It is a world the size of a handkerchief, of a fingernail; with resources so petty, power so minute, a population so microscopic as would never suffice the most backward worlds of the dusty prefects of the Dark Stars. Yet with that, a people so proud and ambitious as to dream quietly and methodically of Galactic rule. Why, they are so sure of themselves that they do not even hurry. They move slowly, phlegmatically; they speak of necessary centuries. They swallow worlds at leisure; creep through systems with dawdling complacence.” (Asimov 1952: 18-19). Additionally, its significance is carried on through time, allowing for the next generations of nationalists to feel a sense of kinship with the preceding generations: “whatever devious course your future history may take, impress it always upon your descendants that the path has been marked out, and that at its end is new and greater Empire!” (Asimov 1951: 76). In this respect, every generation can prove itself a worthy one, by successfully navigating the Seldon Crisis they were faced with: “Each successive crisis in our history is mapped and each depends in a measure on the successful conclusion of the ones previous.” (Asimov 1951: 96). Another illustration of the First Foundation’s rulers’ awareness in being a part of one of many succeeding generations of nationalists, is Hober Mallow’s comment on the situation on Terminus after having successfully managed the third Seldon Crisis: “What business of mine is the future? No doubt Seldon has foreseen it and prepared against it. There will be other crises in the time to come […] Let my successors solve those new problems, as I have solved the one of today.” (Asimov 1951: 231). In other words, the Time-Vault allows for an extension of the “imagined community”, to include the historical leaders of the First Foundation and thus establishes a sense of linearity. While, according to Anderson, it is impossible to determine the nation’s moment of birth (Anderson 1999: 205), the Time-Vault comes pretty close in allowing the members of the First

Foundation to be confronted with the founder of their nation. In a way, the Time-Vault is a kind of communications channel with the nation’s past. In this sense, it is useful to compare the Time-Vault to the function Anderson has ascribed to “History” (Anderson 1999: 197-198). Historiographic narratives do not only compensate for the inevitable amnesias in the nation’s past, but they are also employed to foster a sense of kinship with the historical members of the “imagined community” (Anderson 1999: 197). As I have already explained, the Time-Vault similarly helps to extend the “imagined community” in time, by establishing this connection between the members of the nation in the present and the past. Anderson remarks that the way in which the second generation of nationalists engage with their nation’s past by using “History” can be described as a “reversed ventriloquism” (Anderson 1999: 198). I argue that while the Time-Vault may be similar in function to “History”, it is by no means exactly the same. First of all, the direction of the transaction between the nation’s past and its present, is reversed in the case of the Time-Vault. By this I mean that the Time-Vault represents the past initiating communications with the nation’s present instead of the other way around, given the fact that Hari Seldon’s holographic projection manages to “travel in time”, to reach the nation’s future. In other words, Seldon’s recordings “ventriloquize” the past in order to give instructions to the future members of the “imagined community”. Secondly and most importantly, whereas “History” manages to contribute to the sense of “homogenous, empty” time (Anderson 1999: 23), the Time-Vault rather reinforces the “Messianic” time conception (Anderson 1999: 24). The holographic appearances of Seldon are set to appear at exactly the right time of national insecurity (like a “deus ex machina” (Asimov 1951: 69)), much in the same way that the medieval man was constantly on the lookout for signs of Providence reaching out to remind Christians of their calling and their universal destiny, especially in times of adversity and uncertainty. As Dors Venabili from the history department of Streeling University on Trantor explains to Seldon: “The ancient hero does not die but remains in suspended animation ready to return to save his people at some time of great need.” (Asimov 1988: 212). Hence, the Time-Vault allows Seldon to become a messiah “in suspended animation”, in order to save the future of the First Foundation, as well as the future of the Galaxy. Furthermore, like Providence, Seldon appears omniscient, whereas the people of the First Foundation (including its leaders) are kept in the dark and tested according to a grand “Plan”. According to Salvor Hardin, the absence of psychologists (which is another term for “psychohistorians”) on Terminus was meant by Seldon to keep them from finding out too much,

37 too soon: “[…] we’ve been stumbling about, getting misty glimpses of the truth and no more. And that is what Hari Seldon wanted.” (Asimov 1951: 71); “the Foundation has always worked blindly along the course of historical necessity” (Asimov 1952: 123). This deprivation of knowledge is linked to the science of Psychohistory, which can only make accurate predictions of the future when working with “blind mobs” (Asimov 1951: 97): “Seldon’s science is known – only to Seldon. We ourselves have but faith.” (Asimov 1952: 100). In other words, the Time-Vault with its appearances of Hari Seldon cultivates the conception of time as “Messianic”, because it provides the First Foundation with the well-timed proof of the existence of a greater “Plan” and it frames the evolution of their nation as a succession of tests they are subjected to and upon which they are judged by Seldon at specific “end-times” (namely, the Seldon Crises). Consequently, for the First Foundation to fully transition into the nation as Anderson defines it (characterized by a “homogenous, empty” time conception (Anderson 1999: 24)), the Time-Vault forms a considerable obstacle.

2.4.3 After the loss of the Time-Vault In Foundation and Empire (1952), the Foundationers’ reliance on Seldon’s appearances in the Time-Vault is immediately undermined when the Mule manages to invade Terminus (it is described as the moment “when Seldon deserted [them]” (Asimov 1952: 159)). Believing the Mule to be the Seldon Crisis of their generation, the political leaders of the First Foundation decide to unite forces with the independent Traders in order to form a more considerable line of defence against the Mule’s conquering fervour. All the dignitaries are gathered in the Time- Vault, eagerly awaiting the appearance of Hari Seldon, confident that he will once more confirm their successful navigation of another Seldon Crisis. However, instead of receiving the expected affirmation of their imminent victory against the Mule, Seldon’s recording congratulates them for triumphing over a civil war on Terminus. This produces immediate panic in the audience (Asimov 1952: 151-152), because Seldon does not mention the Mule at all and the civil war that he refers to has not occurred: “Seldon is off his rocker. He’s got the wrong crisis.” (Asimov 1952: 152). It is at this point that news reaches them of the Mule’s attack on Terminus, who manages to conquer the First Foundation in just one day (Asimov 1952: 153-154). Essentially, the Mule’s invasion of Terminus renders the Time-Vault completely useless, given the fact that it demonstrates that the Mule’s existence was not calculated by Hari Seldon (Asimov 1952: 170). Thus, the Mule represents an anomaly in the Seldon Plan which causes all subsequent Time-Vault recordings to be incorrect. In Second Foundation (1953), the Mule is described as the element which causes “Seldon’s original scheme” to face “an

38 irreversible breakdown” (Asimov 1953: 19). Considering all of the functions it carried out (see 2.4.2), the loss of the Time-Vault directly challenges the First Foundationers’ faith in their national destiny and radically upsets their self-confidence as a nation: “When Seldon fails us, […] our prop disappears, and we’ve been leaning upon it so long, our muscles are atrophied to where we can not stand without it.” (Asimov 1952: 160). Indeed, the Second Foundation even orchestrates a war (the Kalgan war), the sole purpose of which is to restore this confidence: “To show the Foundation that they could beat a physical enemy – to wipe out the damage done to their self-esteem and self-assuredness by the Mule.’” (Asimov 1953: 223). Additionally, the Mule’s appearance somewhat shakes the First Foundationers’ belief in the Seldon Plan. While it does not cause them to abandon ship completely, it does lead them to significantly redefine the Plan. Whereas the Time-Vault supported a view of the Seldon Plan as something “fixed”, the invasion of the Mule shatters this illusion and replaces it with a notion of the Seldon Plan as being “in construction”. The scientist Ebling Mis explains the effect that stepping away from the “fixed” perspective on the Seldon Plan has on the people of the First Foundation: “It’s a mass psychosis, an unprintable mob panic. […] what do you expect? Here you have a whole culture brought up to a blind, blubbering belief that a folk hero of the past has everything all planned out and is taking care of every little piece of their unprintable lives. […] Beliefs can’t be shaken short of a major shock, in which case, a fairly complete mental disruption results. Mild cases – hysteria, morbid sense of insecurity. Advanced cases – madness and suicide.” (Asimov 1952: 160). Given this redefinition of the Seldon Plan from “fixed” to being “in construction”, the loss of the Time-Vault causes the First Foundation to step away from notions of predetermination typical of the “Messianic” perspective on time (Anderson 1999: 24), and to move instead towards a “homogenous, empty” time conception. In fact, after the loss of the Time-Vault, the First Foundationers’ trust and investment in the national project is purely reliant on their faith in the Seldon Plan, which is now much more internalized given the absence of constant performative reminders of the Plan by Seldon’s holograph. They understand that they will now have to rely on their own powers of decision to ensure their nation’s survival. Furthermore, the loss of the Time-Vault contributes towards the “imagined community” becoming more “imagined” and based on a more intangible sense of the nation’s eternal aspect. In fact, in its intangible guise, the Seldon Plan inspires more fear in the enemy, causing troops to show reluctance in going into battle against the First Foundation:

“[…] your ships go into battle fearing defeat in some unknown way. The insubstantial fabric of the Plan hangs over them so that they are cautious and look before they attack and wonder a little too much. While on the other side, that same insubstantial fabric fills the enemy with confidence, removes fear, maintains morale in the face of early defeats. Why not? The Foundation has always been defeated at first and has always won in the end.” (Asimov 1953: 198; my italics). When scientist Ebling Mis eventually finds out that the Mule used emotional control to conquer the First Foundation, it becomes apparent that the Seldon Plan is still valid. In other words, the main reason why the Mule manages to cause such a great upset, is because he is a mutant with mental powers, which is something Seldon could not have predicted: “What can upset Hari Seldon’s careful scheme of history, eh? [...] What were Seldon’s original assumptions? […] Seldon assumed that human reaction to stimuli would remain constant. […] Some factor must be twisting and distorting the emotional responses of human beings or Seldon couldn’t have failed and the Foundation couldn’t have fallen. And what factor but the Mule?” (Asimov 1952: 210-211). Hence, the reason why the First Foundation fell when the Mule invaded Terminus was not because of an immediate loss of the people’s belief in the Seldon Plan, but rather because of the mental intervention by the Mule (he gave concerts on Terminus with a device for “depressing mental energy” (Asimov 1952: 162), which “contributed to the general defeatism” (Asimov 1952: 227)). However, I must also add that the First Foundation had already gradually been stepping away from a complete reliance on the Time-Vault by the time the Mule invaded Terminus: “At the third and fourth crises, [Seldon] was ignored – probably because he was not needed, but recent investigations […] indicate that he appeared anyway, and at the proper times.” (Asimov 1952: 125). Furthermore, their faith in the Seldon Plan does not preclude the Foundationers from demanding adequate leadership on Terminus: “[…] Seldon’s science is known – only to Seldon. We ourselves have but faith. In the first three crises, as I have been carefully taught, the Foundation was led by wise leaders who foresaw the nature of the crises and took the proper precautions. Otherwise – who can say?” (Asimov 1952: 100). In short, the loss of the Time-Vault does not lead to a permanent disruption of the Seldon Plan, because at the time of the Mule’s invasion, the First Foundation’s national identity was already firmly constructed upon its foundational narrative, the Seldon Plan.

2.4.4 Achieving non-embodied, non-performative power In what follows, I will discuss the ramifications of the fact that the Seldon Plan manages to survive the loss of the Time-Vault on some of the perspectives on power and authority in the Foundation series. To do this, I will compare the authority carried out by Hari Seldon to that of other powerful leaders: the Emperors, King Lepold and the Mule. As I have argued above, the loss of the Time-Vault has not lead to the complete loss of faith in the Seldon Plan, but only to a revision of its determinacy. Despite his miscalculation regarding the Mule, Seldon and his Plan still manage to maintain their authority in the minds of the people of the First Foundation. This proves that Seldon manages to shake off the restrictions of what I want to call “embodied performative power”. By this I mean the type of power which is inseparably linked to the leader’s frequent public appearances, whose continued legitimacy largely depends on the performance of that power. Seldon’s holographic appearances in the Time-Vault are a clear illustration of this type of power: the Time-Vault is furnished with “rows of fixed chairs comfortable and apparently designed for eternal use” (Asimov 1952: 147), to seat Seldon’s audience when after a dimming of the lights, Seldon appears in a glass cubicle as a holograph to address the First Foundation’s leaders. Thus, while the Time-Vault allowed Seldon to be an ancient hero with “extended life- [span]” (Asimov 1988: 204) to match, his authority is proven to be not exclusively linked to his person. Rather, Seldon and his Plan are both legitimized by science. Anticipating Salvor Hardin, in Prelude to Foundation (1988), the potential to support one’s political rule by using Seldon’s scientific authority is already recognized by Emperor Cleon, who believes his rule will be solidified forever if he manages to convince Seldon to place his mathematical authority behind a false prophecy about his lengthy reign: “Not all persons would be equally believed […]. A mathematician, however, who could back his prophecy with mathematical formulae and terminology, might be understood by no one and yet believed by everyone.” (Asimov 1988: 3). Similarly, the Mayor of Wye (one of the sectors on Trantor) also tries to convince Seldon to support her coup on Trantor: “It is not important what can or cannot be done. What is important is what people will or will not believe can be done. They will believe you, Hari, when you tell them the psychohistoric prediction is that Trantor can rule itself and that the Provinces can become Kingdoms that will live together in peace.” (Asimov 1988: 364). In contrast to Hari Seldon, the Foundation series contains multiple examples of rulers who cling to the type of power which is “embodied” and “performative”. First of all, the Emperors of the First Empire clearly rely on a certain degree of performance in order to

41 persuade their subjects of their legitimacy (for example, there are “dress parades that wind through the imperial palace grounds on feast days” (Asimov 1952: 6)). Similarly to Seldon, Emperor Cleon employs a holographic image of himself to spread his authority (Asimov 1988: 2; 6-7). Furthermore, the Emperor’s power is limited by their reliance on the furtherance of a dynasty (Asimov 1952: 24). Consequently, his power is always “embodied”, because he is born into the role. This also means that there are always contenders for the throne around to plot the Emperor’s assassination in case he fails to comply with the many demands made upon him by his council of nobles: “those insipid masks behind which spun the tortuous speculations on the chances of death and the fortunes of succession” (Asimov 1952: 24); “nine out of the last ten Emperors got their throats cut, or their gizzards blasted out by one or another of their generals with big-time notions in their heads” (Asimov 1952: 65). For instance, Emperor Cleon has to hold audience, not only to listen to the plights of his subjects, but also to assure them of the fact that his “painful and undiagnosed ailment” (Asimov 1952: 23) does not yet signify a weakness they can exploit (Asimov 1952: 25). The biggest limit to the Emperor’s power in the Foundation series, is that he has to deal with the sheer expanse of his Empire: “There were nearly twenty-five inhabited planets in the Galaxy then, and not one but owed allegiance to the Empire whose seat was on Trantor.” (Asimov 1951: 4). Its capital, Trantor, itself already consists of forty billion inhabitants (Asimov 1951:12): “Twenty agricultural worlds were the granary of Trantor. A universe was its servant” (Asimov 1952: 67). Indeed, the Galactic Emperor runs the risk of becoming a symbol, instead of being recognized in the first place as an active authority: “How many people saw the real, tangible Emperor […] And did anyone care? The Emperor was no more than a symbol of Empire, like the Spaceship-and-Sun but far less pervasive, far less real. It was his soldiers and his officials, crawling everywhere, that now represented an Empire that had become a dead weight upon its people – not the Emperor.” (Asimov 1988: 6). This is why a “direct representative of the crown” is present in all military campaigns, because it serves as “a method of preserving the symbol of personal Imperial leadership” (Asimov 1952: 33). I have previously indicated that Anderson defines the nation as an “imagined community” which is necessarily “limited” (Anderson 1999: 7). In this, the First Foundation is the complete opposite to the First Galactic Empire. Interestingly, Seldon himself remarks upon the disadvantages of imperial rule:

“It is theoretically possible for me to visit each world of the Galaxy and greet each person on each world. However, it would take far longer to do this than I have years to live, and, even if I were immortal, the rate at which new human beings are being born is greater than the rate at which I could interview the old, and old human beings would die in great numbers before I could get to them.” (Asimov 1988: 9). In effect, Seldon indicates the need for an “imagined” community, in which the members are not personally acquainted with one another, while also indicating that the Empire is not “limited” enough for its leader to be able to assert his authority in an active, embodied way. Secondly, the same limitations of dynastic rule apply to King Lepold of the Periphery (the risk of assassination (Asimov 1951:93) and the need for furthering the dynasty). Lepold is clearly trying to emulate the Emperor’s symbolic power, when he attempts to use the Atomic Priesthood to establish a cult of monarch worship around his person. In effect, he tries to link his power to an embodied performance. He uses staged performances during “temple festivals” in which he is elevated above his audience with the use of atomic power while seated on an enormous throne (Asimov 1951: 116), to instil the belief in his subjects that he is a divinely ordained monarch whose power derives from the “Galactic Spirit” (Asimov 1951: 104) himself: “The priesthood forms a hierarchy at the apex of which is the king, who is regarded as a sort of minor god. He’s an absolute monarch by divine right, and the people believe it, thoroughly, and the priests, too. You can’t overthrow a king like that.” (Asimov 1951: 108). Of course, what is really happening, is that the First Foundation controls the Atomic Priesthood, who do not themselves possess any practical knowledge of the science behind the atomic powers they have been trained in: “There isn’t a festival at which the king does not preside surrounded by a radioactive aura shining forth all over his body and raising itself like a coronet above his head. Anyone touching him is severely burned. He can move from place to place through the air at crucial moments, supposedly by inspiration of divine spirit. He fills the temple with a pearly, internal light at a gesture. There is no end to these quite simple tricks that we perform for his benefit; but even the priests believe them, while working them personally.” (Asimov 1951: 109). Finally, this display of divine power fails miserably when the First Foundation orders the Atomic priests to go on a strike (Asimov 1951: 121), causing a sudden lapse in atomic power and resulting in King Lepold falling to the ground in mid-performance:

“For a frozen second, the king did not move, face twisted in surprise, without an aura, merely human; and then the throne wobbled and fell six inches to the floor with a crashing thump, just as every light in the palace went out.” (Asimov 1951: 122). Again, it is science which impedes the reinstatement of the divine right to rule, quite literally this time. Thirdly, it is interesting to consider how the Mule attempts to achieve a form of “non- embodied, non-performative” power, but eventually also fails because of the methods he employs. The Mule remains an elusive leader throughout his rule, because he refuses all public appearances and only allows his most trusted advisors to enter in his presence: “[…] if you’re waiting for the Mule himself to come behind a fanfarade [sic] of horns, drums, and electric organs – relax! The Mule doesn’t work that way.” (Asimov 1952: 116); “The man makes no personal appearance, does not allow himself to be photographed or simulated, and is seen only by his most intimate associates.” (Asimov 1952: 117). To an extent, this is due to the fact that his countenance is quite unusual, because he is a mutant (Asimov 1952: 7). Furthermore, his appearance is not impressive enough to suggest the stereotypically masculine leader to whom military prowess and a zeal for conquest might easily be attributed (he is described as being frail and weak in appearance (Asimov 1953: 8), “not a man to look at without derision” (Asimov 1953:7)): “The Mule is a shrewd operator – far too shrewd not to realize the advantage of the magnetism and glamour of personal leadership. If he gives that up, it’s for a reason. That reason must be the fact that personal contact would reveal something that is of overwhelming importance not to reveal.” (Asimov 1952: 117). In other words, his decision to carry out his authority in a “non-embodied”, “non-performative” manner is a necessary precaution to avoid meeting with the inevitable scorn of his subjects (the same scorn which caused him to become an outsider bent on revenge): “I was known then as a queer child. All avoided me; most out of dislike; some out of fear. […] Laughter and cruelty! To be different! To be an outsider!” (Asimov 1952: 224-225). The Mule may appear to have achieved a kind of “non-embodied, non-performative” power on some superficial level, but he fails to reach any further than that because of the specific methods he employs. Namely, in order for him to maintain his legitimacy, the Mule has to “Convert” people: “[…] he is capable of adjusting the emotional balance of human beings. It sounds like a little trick, but it’s quite unbeatable. […] His generals are emotionally controlled. They

can not betray him; they can not weaken – and the control is permanent. His most capable enemies become his most faithful subordinates.” (Asimov 1952: 205); “To me, men’s minds are dials, with pointers that indicate the prevailing emotions. […] Slowly, I learned that I could reach into those minds and turn the pointer to the spot I wished, that I could nail it there forever.” (Asimov 1952: 225). This means that his power is artificial. He has to strip some of his subjects of their agency (“I was nothing in myself. If I could gain power, it could only be by means of others. Success came to me through middlemen.” (Asimov 1952: 225)), while hiding himself from view from the majority of them. In both cases (even in the case of his unconverted subjects), the loyalty and reverence they hold towards him is therefore completely artificial: “They feared him and obeyed him and, perhaps, even respected him – from a goodly distance. But who could look at him without contempt? Only those he had Converted. And of what value was their artificial loyalty? It lacked flavour.” (Asimov 1953: 8). Moreover, given his impotence (Asimov 1952: 230), the Mule’s power can only last him as long as his lifetime (Asimov 1952: 218), because he cannot establish a dynasty: “If he had never lived, the Foundation would not have fallen. If he ceased living, it would not remain fallen.” (Asimov 1952: 170). In this, the Mule’s power is limited when compared to that of Hari Seldon, who does manage to maintain his authority after his death, without the need for a line of dynastic successors. Indeed, the First Foundationers are called his “great-ultra-great-grandchildren” (Asimov 1952: 147), which once more reinforces the notion that the First Foundation is a nation to be understood in terms of the scientific creation which cements Seldon’s legacy for the future. In conclusion, only Seldon manages to achieve “non-embodied, non-performative” power, as evident from the fact that his authority does not dwindle after the Time-Vault loses its purpose. Hence, Seldon’s scientific legitimacy is superior and more long-lasting compared to the traditional types of authority represented by the Emperor (imperialism and the divine right to rule), the barbarian kings (dynastic rule) and the Mule (tyrannical rule).

3. In a state: “agency panic” in the Foundation series 3.1 Introduction One of the major themes of the Foundation series is problematic agency, given the fact that the main conflict arises when the First Foundation faces the Mule, a mutant being in possession of extraordinary powers of mental control. Furthermore, in Second Foundation (1953) it is revealed that the mysterious Second Foundation has had a large stake in determining the actions of individuals, through mental control. As I will discuss below, this interventionist tendency of the Second Foundation will result in an even bigger challenge to the concept of agency. The main aim of the Second Foundation is the preservation of the Seldon Plan, which is in itself already insistent on the idea that individuals cannot influence the course of it in any substantial way. Additionally, the Second Foundation’s role in steering key individuals on the First Foundation is distinct from the Mule’s use of “Conversion” and emotional manipulation. My discussion on the Second Foundation’s role will lead me to consider the implications on the First Foundation’s nationhood. David Higgins’ article on “Psychic Decolonization in 1960s Science Fiction” (2013) serves as the theoretical background for this discussion. I will identify some of the parallels between the Foundation series and the insights offered by Higgins in his discussion of some well-known works of science fiction. Of particular interest to me are the connections which Higgins establishes between the powers of self-mastery of the heroes in these narratives on the one hand, and the possibility to “allegorize” (Higgins 2013: 243) these powers in terms of David Harvey’s concept of “space-time compression” (Higgins 2013: 243) on the other. Moreover, Higgins concludes that the narratives which employ the trope of “psychic decolonization” intend to chart a transitional movement towards a “postmodern notion of Empire” (Higgins 2013: 243). I am also indebted to Higgins in being introduced to Timothy Melley’s work on “agency panic”. This notion allows me to contextualize the specific problems of agency which the First Foundation is faced with (both concerning the Mule’s mental powers and the Second Foundation’s interventions). To illustrate the workings of this “agency panic” in the Foundation series, I will discuss a number of instances in which the characters themselves reveal their anxiety concerning agency.

3.2 Theoretical background 3.2.1 “Agency panic” (Timothy Melley) In his book Empire of Conspiracy (2000) Timothy Melley defines “agency panic” as an “intense anxiety about an apparent loss of autonomy, the conviction that one’s actions are being controlled by someone else or that one has been ‘constructed’ by powerful, external agents” (Melley 2000: vii). Melley considers this to be a cultural phenomenon prevalent in American post-war society and claims its specific manifestations can be found in a wide variety of sociocultural and political domains. It is a concept which explains the pervasiveness of conspiracy theories and paranoia in a number of notable American literary works of the post-war era. Furthermore, he argues that “agency panic” demonstrates a desperate need to defend “an old but increasingly beleaguered concept of personhood – the idea that the individual is a rational, motivated agent with a protected interior core of beliefs, desires, and memories” (Melley 2000: viii), thereby often recurring to a nostalgic past in which the (American) individual was still an agent in his own right (Melley 2000: 56). One characteristic of “agency panic” in literature, is the tendency of its characters to exhibit feelings of paranoia towards themselves as well as other characters (Melley 2000: 8). Hence, it problematizes the “causes of individual action” (Melley 2000: 12) and often represents the organizations which are exercising the control as “agents” (Melley 2000: 13) in their own right, thereby attributing to these organizations a sense of intention and volition which is seen as absent in the individuals it controls (Melley 2000: 13). In general, there are two basic features to every post-war narrative which is considered to be a “story of agency-in-decline” (Melley 2000: 53). First of all, the organization which is in control usually has an “extraordinary uniformity and coherence” and constitutes a “monolithic totality” (Melley 2000: 53). Secondly, Melley identifies the recurrence of a “rhetoric of interiority and exteriority” (Melley 2000: 53) in the representation of the consequences of this type of control, resulting in the descriptive use of such terms as “penetration, invasion and occupation” by exterior forces of one’s previously “private and protected interior” (Melley 2000: 53). Melley also enters briefly into the semantic question of the two possible meanings of “agency”. He hereby distinguishes the more recent sense of the word (agency “as a ‘property’ of the subject – a sort of pure autonomy and volition […] autonomous action (so-called free agency)” (Melley 2000: 83)) from the older sense of the word (“the agent as ‘middleman’, or ‘factor’ […] instrumentality (action on behalf of another)” (Melley 2000: 83)).

3.2.2 “Psychic decolonization” (David Higgins) In his 2013 article “Psychic Decolonization in 1960s Science Fiction”, David Higgins argues that some of the most influential sci-fi novels of the 1960s explore the idea of the liberation of human subjectivity in order to reach the “hidden power of one’s own unconscious” (Higgins 2013: 228). This journey towards the hidden potential of human consciousness is always represented in “imperial terms” (Higgins 2013: 229). He employs Frantz Fanon’s concept of “psychic decolonization”, but applies it instead to the privileged, Western subject (Higgins 2013: 229). Higgins identifies “psychic decolonization” as a trope used by science fiction writers (like Robert Heinlein and Frank Herbert) to “assert that privileged Western subjects must decolonize their minds in order to achieve autonomous self-ownership” (Higgins 2013: 230). The implication of this, according to Higgins, is that there is a sense of lost autonomy, which can in turn be described in Timothy Melley’s terms as “agency panic” (Higgins 2013: 230). In other words, “psychic decolonization” is the liberation of human consciousness represented as a necessary feat to counter the sense of lost autonomy expressed by “agency panic”. This liberation can be termed “consciousness expansion” or the development of “superhuman awareness” (Higgins 2013: 230). This process results in a kind of “super-evolved individual” (Higgins 2013: 230) capable of manipulating time and space and of controlling “flows of information, production and consumption” (Higgins 2013: 230). Another key point which Higgins points out, is the fact that this process is seen as a part of the sequential evolution of humankind (Higgins 2013: 242). The super-evolved individual suggests the possibility of a permanent change in humanity’s genetic makeup. In addition, while all of the works discussed in his article show some kind of critique of Empire, they are simultaneously shown as marking the transition towards a new kind of “postmodern notion” of Empire (Higgins 2013: 243), in which the ruling class is equated to the beings who have successfully navigated the “psychic decolonization” and have managed to become master-manipulators of time and space (Higgins 2013: 243).

3.3 The problem of agency in the Foundation series 3.3.1 The Mule The Mule is introduced in Foundation and Empire (1952) as a mutant who is conquering the barbarian kingdoms on the Empire’s periphery at an alarming rate. The rulers of the First Foundation do not realize the extent of the threat until it is too late and the Mule has conquered the First Foundation after a short battle. The Mule is described in terms of his fragile physique and the overall pitiable impression he produces (Asimov 1953: 7). Because of this, he maintains a safe distance from his subjects in order to ensure their obedience and respect. Before he becomes a conqueror, the Mule takes on the alter ego of Magnifico Giganticus, the Mule’s court jester (Asimov 1952: 114), which allows him to find Ebling Mis, the scientist he uses to get information on the Second Foundation’s whereabouts. This alter ego also helps him to spread lies about the Mule, creating an aura of mystery around him and exaggerating his powers (Asimov 1952: 153), feeding into the idea of the Mule as an invincible superhuman. The Mule is the first challenge to the notion of agency in the First Foundation, because he uses his mutant mental powers to force people into alliances with him, ending up with an entourage of “Converted” (Asimov 1953: 4). The Mule is different from the previous Seldon Crises, because the First Foundation faces an individual variable for the first time. However, I will argue that the Mule, despite being the first challenge to “agency”, is the lesser threat when compared to the Second Foundation. There can be no doubt that the Mule is far more challenging to the First Foundation because of the rupture he produces in the faith attached to the Seldon Plan, rather than the threat he forms with respect to agency. The Mule’s mutation entails the ability to manipulate individuals’ emotions and to inspire an undying loyalty in them. This is what allows him to convert even his most ardent opponents to his cause and to quickly conquer the whole Galaxy, including the First Foundation: “the Mule is not of those who fear the ability of his enemies as long as he can convert it into the ability of a new friend” (Asimov 1952: 173). In other words, his “success [comes] to [him] through middlemen” (Asimov 1952: 225). Despite this powerful mutation, the Mule forms a fairly straightforward threat to agency, given the fact that his Converted are self-aware and even capable of identifying their own moment of Conversion (thus, the loss of agency does not go unrealized by the affected individual). In the case of Captain Han Pritcher, this self-consciousness is illustrated by his ability to discuss his Conversion with other characters. After the Mule’s invasion, Pritcher joined the Democratic Underground on Terminus and volunteered to set out on a suicide mission to kill

49 the Mule. However, he was taken captive and turned into one of the Mule’s most loyal Converted. Pritcher himself explains the Conversion to his former friends and refutes their claim that it has made him “[lose] all power of objective thought” (Asimov 1952: 206): “Only my emotions are fixed. My reason is as it always was. It may be influenced in a certain direction by my conditioned emotions, but it is not forced. And there are some things I can see more clearly now that I am fixed of my earlier emotional trend. I can see that the Mule’s programme is an intelligent and worthy one.” (Asimov 1952: 206- 207). As is evident from this extract, the Conversion process does not alter the mental capacities of the individual who is subjected to it. Instead, the Mule utilizes what is already present in the subject’s mind. Thus, the Mule merely “implant[s] [a] strong unalterable surface layer of loyalty and love” (Asimov 1953: 8-9) in his subjects, to ensure that every rational decision they make on their own will ultimately benefit him. For instance, Pritcher independently choses to warn his former friends of the impossibility of resistance against the Mule: “The Mule, in his time, will take his measures. Nothing will help you – But I knew you in other times; perhaps there is something in my conscience that urged me to this; at any rate, I tried to help you and remove you from the final danger before it was too late.” (Asimov 1952: 208). This is why I argue that the type of “agency panic” which the Mule provokes pertains to the second meaning of “agency”: namely, “instrumentality” (Melley 2000: 83), in which the Mule’s Converted are acting “on behalf of” (Melley 2000: 83) him, as his “middlemen” (Asimov 1952: 225). On the contrary, the Second Foundation complicates the first meaning of “agency”, i.e. “autonomy and volition” (Melley 2000: 83), which makes them the bigger threat to agency (see 3.3.2). Additionally, whereas the Second Foundation’s “Controlled” are unaware of any change in their mentality, the Mule’s “Converted” can identify the moment of intervention. Indeed, Pritcher’s fear that he may have been tampered with by the Second Foundation testifies to this distinction: “[…] had he been handled otherwise – more subtly? Had tiny changes been made? Changes that he couldn’t detect because their very existence warped his judgement. There was no way to tell.” (Asimov 1953: 50). A second illustration of the way in which the Mule “work[s] through others” (Asimov 1952: 227), is his use of Ebling Mis as a “middleman” to help him find out the location of the Second Foundation. In Foundation and Empire, Ebling Mis is the last remaining psychologist in the First Foundation (Asimov 1952: 122-123) and is therefore highly respected: “[…] a certain immunity adhered to The Scientist. He was needed, and he knew it.” (Asimov 1952:

120). First of all, the Mule uses Mis in order to gain access to a “Visi-Sonor” (Asimov 1952: 227), a musical device to manipulate people’s emotions on a large scale. The Mule uses it to create a general feeling of despair on Terminus and other planets he wants to conquer: “[…] the Visi-Sonor acts as a focusing device. In a way, it is a primitive device for emotional-control in itself. With it, I can handle people in quantity and single people more intensively. The concerts I gave on Terminus before it fell and Haven before it fell contributed to the general defeatism.” (Asimov 1952: 227). Secondly, and most significantly, the Mule taps into Mis’ intellectual powers and enhances them to speed up his own search for the Second Foundation. Mis, unaware of the Mule’s control, describes the feeling as a kind of enlightenment, a sudden rush of scientific inspiration and intellectual genius: “I seem to recall the time when so much was a mystery to me and now things are so clear. Problems are absent. I come across what might be one, and somehow, inside me, I see and understand. And my guesses, my theories seem always to be borne out. There’s a drive in me… always onward… so that I can’t stop… and I don’t want to eat or sleep… but always go on… and on… and on-” (Asimov 1952: 211). Mis becomes utterly fixated on working out the whereabouts of the mysterious Second Foundation “as though his sluggish brain had slid onto a well-greased single track” (Asimov 1952: 210). However, this intellectual frenzy quickly burns him out and eventually brings him to his death bed. As was the case with his use of Pritcher, the Mule had chosen to manipulate Ebling Mis, because of the inherent “potentialities” (Asimov 1952: 227) which were already present in his mind. The Mule’s mental powers temporarily boosted Mis’ intellectual capabilities, in order to gain the information he needed: “With his mind at high efficiency, he might possibly have duplicated the work of Hari Seldon. Partly, he did. I drove him to the utter limit. The process was ruthless, but had to be completed.” (Asimov 1952: 228). In this respect, the Mule is able to effect a “consciousness expansion” (Higgins 2013: 230) in his subjects by using his powers to tap into the hidden potential of human consciousness: “The human mind works at low efficiency. Twenty per cent is the figure usually given. When, momentarily, there is a flash of greater power it is termed a hunch, or insight, or intuition. I found early that I could induce a continual use of high brain-efficiency. It is a killing process for the person affected, but it is useful –“ (Asimov 1952: 227).

Of course, the “consciousness expansion” here requires the Mule to remove the subject’s agency, whereas Higgins’ “super-evolved individual” (Higgins 2013: 230) liberates his own consciousness, as a way of compensating for the loss of autonomy (Higgins 2013: 230). In this sense, the Mule is a “psychic colonizer”, rather than a “psychic [decolonizer]” (Higgins 2013: 230). According to Higgins, the decolonized super-individual engages with the issue of the genetic evolution of humankind (Higgins 2013: 242), because his ability to expand his consciousness beyond ordinary human capabilities marks him out as superior to those who have not (yet) managed the transformation. Similarly, the Mule’s mental powers are considered to be a threat, not just because they remove people’s agency, but also because they put him at a considerable evolutionary advantage. Thus, in the survival of the fittest, the ordinary human being would never be able to come out victorious, when faced with the super evolved descendants of the Mule: “[…] if the Second Foundation should not beat the Mule, it is bad – ultimately bad. It is the end, may be, of the human race as we know it. […] If the Mule’s descendants inherit his mental powers […] Homo sapiens could not compete. There would be a new dominant race – a new aristocracy – with homo sapiens demoted to slave labour as an inferior race.” (Asimov 1952: 217-218). Despite the fact that the threat blows over once it becomes clear that the Mule is impotent, the anxiety about the emergence of a new kind of ruling class which will subject all of humanity to its yoke returns in full force once the extent of the Second Foundation’s meddling on Terminus comes to light (see 3.3.2). Of course, even the Mule’s powers have their limitations. One of these, his impotence, I have already identified as one of his major shortcomings when compared to Hari Seldon’s scientific legacy (in 2.4.4). Secondly, the loyalty he generates in his subjects is completely artificial, because of his use of Conversion. In this sense, Anderson’s dual investment in the “imagined community” of the nation (the personal and collective investment it requires from its members) falls short in the “imagined community” under the Mule’s leadership. Essentially, the Mule’s reign demonstrates what happens when the personal investment in the “imagined community” is forced. The Mule’s nation is therefore similar to the “official nationalisms” which Anderson has identified (Anderson 1999: 110), because the Mule’s “imagined community” is imposed on its members, instead of spontaneously and voluntarily arising out of the consent of the people.

The third restraint to his mental control is its limited scope. While he is able to Convert people for a seemingly indefinite period of time and still control them while he is “out of sight and out of earshot” (Asimov 1953: 70), the Mule indicates that this is “not an easy task” and that he “prefer[s] not to use [his powers], where not fully necessary” (Asimov 1952: 226). Hence, he is only able to fully Convert a few key figures at once. To be able to emotionally influence larger groups, he has to resort to the “Visi-Sonor” to amplify his powers. Additionally, his powers seems to remove some “firm sharp edge of self-reliance” (Asimov 1953: 46) in his Converted which renders them gradually less useful. The Mule explains that this is the case with Han Pritcher: “You’re a resourceful and experienced man. You have given me good service. But you are Converted. Your motivation is simply an enforced and helpless loyalty to myself. When you lost your native motivations, you lost something, some subtle drive, that I cannot possibly replace.” (Asimov 1953: 10-11; my italics). Even toward Pritcher, his most trusted Convert, he harbours some fears about what might happen if he were to release him from his grasp and restore his agency to him: “If I were to release you this minute, I would be dead the next. […] it is impossible for you to realize what your feelings would be if free to form themselves along the lines of your natural motivation. The human mind resents control. […] believe me, Pritcher, the resentment that you cannot show and do not even know you possess is something I wouldn’t want to face.” (Asimov 1953: 11).

3.3.2 The Second Foundation By far the biggest challenge to the notion of agency, the Second Foundation retains an elusive, enigmatic status for the major part of the series. The Second Foundation was, like the First, also founded by Hari Seldon, and was meant to ensure the effectiveness of the Seldon Plan, allowing it to come to fruition and to lead ultimately to the establishment of a Second Galactic Empire. The Second Foundation is ruled by a council of elite psychologists, known as Speakers. At the head of this council is the First Speaker, who is responsible for initiating new members to the council. Before being allowed their “Speakerhood” (Asimov 1953: 101), every student has to contribute to the Prime Radiant, which contains the Seldon Plan (Asimov 1953: 95-101). The First Speaker stresses the fact that their development of the Seldon Plan is a depersonalized, collective effort, which indicates their corporate structure: “The Prime Radiant can be adjusted to your mind, and all corrections and additions can be made through mental rapport. There will be nothing to indicate that the correction or

addition is yours. In all the history of the Plan there has been no personalization. It is rather a creation of us all together.” (Asimov 1953: 102). In spite of their efforts in keeping their location hidden from the First Foundation, their inconspicuousness is severely jeopardized when the Mule turns out to be a bigger threat than at first they imagined. Because of this, they see themselves forced to intervene in a more radical sense, by placing agents on Terminus and by mentally controlling certain key individuals in order to help the First Foundation navigate their biggest crisis yet. It is in this sense that the Second Foundation starts to complicate the notion of agency in an even more profound way than the Mule. I will now discuss two examples of the most invasive use of mental powers by the Second Foundation. First of all, after the Mule has weakened the mental resistance of Second Foundationer Bail Channis to make him reveal the truth about their location, the First Speaker reveals that Channis had already been tampered with previously by the Second Foundation, in order to implant false information on their whereabouts in his mind: “Before he left our Foundation for Kalgan and you, he submitted to emotional surgery of a drastic nature. Do you think it was sufficient to deceive you? Do you think Bail Channis, mentally untouched, could possibly deceive you? No, Bail Channis was himself deceived, of necessity and voluntarily. Down to the inner-most core of his mind, Bail Channis honestly believes that Rossem is the Second Foundation.” (Asimov 1953: 74; my italics). What is significant in this passage is the use of the word “surgery”. It suggests the possibility of (re)constructing identity in a similar way to the Mule’s strategy of Conversion. However, the Second Foundation causes a more profound loss of agency, because it is able to construct (Melley 2000: vii) and reprogram individuals, instead of just adding the emotion of loyalty in the subjects’ mind (which is what the Mule does). Furthermore, it conjures up the rhetoric of “interiority and exteriority” (Melley 2000: 53) characteristic of narratives thematising “agency panic”. This results in a much more disturbing view of the Second Foundation’s power in effectuating the loss of agency (as a result of invasive surgery) than was the case with the Mule. Nevertheless, the First Speaker does mention the fact that Channis had volunteered for the task and it is also suggested that they will be able to get the surgery reversed by “[returning] the recording of his original brain-wave makeup.” (Asimov 1953: 76). The second example of the Second Foundation’s interference occurs when Arcadia Darell is treated as a “blank canvas” or clean slate by the Second Foundation:

“When can an individual be placed under Control without showing it? Where there is no previous emotional bias to remove. In other words, when the individual is a new- born infant with a blank slate of mind. Arcadia Darell was such an infant here on Trantor fifteen years ago, when the first line was drawn into the structure of the plan. She will never know that she has been Controlled, and will be all the better for it, since her control involved the development of a precocious and intelligent personality.” (Asimov 1953: 225). In this passage, the idea of the constructed identity is even more prevalent. In a similar way to the first example, the idea that an organization like the Second Foundation has the means to exert their influence on an individual and to steer them from the moment of birth is quite a disturbing one. As remains clear from these examples, the Second Foundation’s powers of mental control are very extensive and produce as much “agency panic” as was the case with the examples given in the discussion of the Mule. Despite these similarities, there are a number of important differences to be taken into consideration. First of all, the Mule is inherently limited in the reach of his powers, because he is only one person, whereas the Second Foundation consists of a whole Council of expert psychologists. Consequently, the Mule is limited by his own mortality. Moreover, his impotence puts any idea of a dynastic line of Mules out of the question. The Second Foundation’s institutional structure, on the other hand, produces a continued supply of “guardians of the [Seldon] Plan” (Asimov 1953: 95). This also means that the powers of the Second Foundationers are acquired through training, rather than inflicted on them by a mutation at birth: “we are not born with its full use […] we must educate the sense, exercise it as we exercise our muscles” (Asimov 1953: 70). The biggest limit to the Second Foundationers’ powers, is the fact that they “can induce emotional contact only when in eyeshot” (Asimov 1953: 70). As I have already mentioned, the scope of the Mule’s control is much bigger, but at the same time he can only sustain a limited amount of Converted at once, without it draining him. This limit in scope obligates the Second Foundation to send out agents like Bail Channis. Another important difference distinguishing the Second Foundation from the Mule pertains to the issue of the detectability of the control. The Mule’s Converted are self-aware to the point where they are able to discuss their Conversion with other characters (see 3.3.1). The individuals controlled by the Second Foundation, in contrast, appear completely unaware of having been tampered with in any way. For instance, Bail Channis is “deceived” (Asimov 1953: 74) by the Second Foundation and Arcadia Darell “will never know that she has been

Controlled” (Asimov 1953: 225). Naturally, this decreased detectability does not mean that the Second Foundation never provokes any “agency panic”. On the contrary, the “agency panic” it produces in the characters is much more profound than that produced by the Mule (Cfr. Infra). Even the Mule himself is susceptible to “agency panic”, because he fears the Second Foundation may have been mentally tampering with his Converted to thwart him. It turns out that those Converts have lost even more of their agency: “Their loyalty is left intact, but initiative and ingenuity are rubbed out. I’m left with a perfectly normal person, apparently, but one completely useless.” (Asimov 1953: 15). The Second Foundation, in contrast, seem imperturbable in their confidence that they will not end up corrupted in any way. There is, in a sense, no room for suspicion among the ranks of the Second Foundation, because all are seen as serving the same purpose. This “monolithic totality” is one of the basic features of the “story of agency-in-decline” (Melley 2000: 53). The council’s uniformity is first of all evident from the fact that the Speakers are not named (emphasizing their corporate identity). Secondly, only sparse information is given concerning its successive members, suggesting the perennial nature of the central aim of the Second Foundation. Thirdly, the Speakers are mentally so evolved that they do not require actual speech in order to communicate: “Speech as known to us was unnecessary. A fragment of a sentence amounted almost to long winded redundancy. A gesture, a grunt, the curve of a facial line – even a significantly timed pause yielded informational juice.” (Asimov 1953: 17). Besides demonstrating the irony in their title as “Speaker”, this aspect can also be linked to David Higgins’ discussion on “psychic decolonization”, in which he indicates that normal human language is represented as detrimental or disruptive to the process of the decolonization of human subconscious (Higgins 2013: 233). In other words, the decolonized subject has to get rid of human speech, if he is to succeed in tapping into the hidden potential of his consciousness. Hence, like the Mule’s mutation, the Second Foundation’s absence of speech is linked to the genetic evolution of humankind: “Actually, humans are capable of much more, but the faculty of direct emotional contact tended to atrophy with the development of speech a million years back. It has been the great advance of our Second Foundation that this forgotten sense has been restored to at least some of its potentialities.” (Asimov 1953: 70). To summarize, the Second Foundation poses a bigger challenge to “agency” than the Mule does. As I have demonstrated, this is mainly due to the fact that the Mule’s inherent limitations of infertility and mortality reduce him to a mere short-lived threat to “agency” in the First Foundation. In contrast, the Second Foundation’s corporate organizational structure and

56 the concurrent uniformity of its council members (or “Speakers”) provide a sense of temporal breadth to the complication of “agency” which they pose. While there are some similarities to powers of the Mule and the Second Foundation, it is precisely this discrepancy in the temporal extent of their control over the First Foundation, which allows me to conclude that the Second Foundation is the bigger threat. However, the Mule’s impact on the First Foundation cannot be underestimated, given the fact that his mere existence challenges the originally unshakeable belief in the Seldon Plan. The Second Foundation produces the type of “agency panic” which most closely resembles the notion expounded by Timothy Melley. First of all, because of the monolithic quality assigned to it (Melley 2000: 53). Secondly, because of the recurrence to the rhetoric of “interiority and exteriority” (Melley 2000: 53), which Melley identifies as central to narratives thematising “agency panic”. This is evidenced by the characters’ references to “infiltration” (Asimov 1953: 115) and “invasion” (Asimov 1953: 56) when voicing the “agency panic” they feel in relation to the Second Foundation. When faced with the Second Foundation’s interventions, the First Foundationers react in two different ways. One segment of the population seems to embrace the Second Foundation as the guardian angel of their nation and rests assured that they will lead them to their ultimate goal of Empire. It is interesting to note that the Speakers look upon this development with some concern: “They know that an agency exists which watches their every step and will not let them fall. So they abandon their purposeful stride and allow themselves to be carried upon a litter. […] And that very abandonment of effort; that growing inertia; that lapse into softness and into a decadent and hedonistic culture, means the ruin of the Plan. They must be self-propelled.” (Asimov 1953: 119). Essentially, the Speakers fear the return of the First Foundation to the tendency of inertia which was present at the very beginning (Cfr. Salvor Hardin’s critique of the Encyclopedists (2.3.2)) and which resulted in a stagnation characteristic of the time of imperial decline. In effect, with the Second Foundation, they have found a new “prop” to lean on, like they used to lean on the appearances of Seldon in the Time-Vault recordings. This leads the First Foundation to practically sit on their hands while their nation is in real peril during their war against Kalgan: “The men of the Foundation cannot prepare; they are ideologically incapable of it. It is in their very philosophy to believe that the Second Foundation will save them.” (Asimov 1953: 182). However, once the Foundation’s losses become more intense, there are some cracks in their initial confidence, which even links back to some of their doubts about Seldon and his Plan:

“Maybe it’s all in the Plan, but sometimes I’m sure it must be a wicked plan to have so much fighting and killing in it, though to be sure I haven’t a word to say about Hari Seldon, who I’m sure knows much more about that than I do and perhaps I’m a fool to question him. And the other Foundation is as much to blame. They could stop Kalgan now and make everything fine. They’ll do it anyway in the end, and you’d think they’d do it before there’s any damage done.” (Asimov 1953: 145-146). From this extract, it appears that the First Foundationers resent the Second Foundation’s ill- timed intervention more than they do the Seldon Plan itself. In reality, the war against Kalgan was instigated by agents of the Second Foundation, in an attempt to restore the self-confidence of the First Foundation, after their struggle with the Mule (Asimov 1953: 223). Apart from the majority reaction of “inertia”, the revelation of the role of the Second Foundation provokes a second reaction in the people of the First Foundation: “Knowledge of our guardianship and our control will rouse among a few, not complacency, but hostility. […] the effect is that not only is the Foundation’s effort diluted, but part of it is turned against us, actively against us.” (Asimov 1953: 119-120). This resistance is directly linked to “agency panic”, because the Second Foundation is perceived as a magnified version of the threat posed by the Mule. The “agency panic” exhibited by Arcadia in the following extract is double: on the one hand, she is paranoid about other characters being used as “tools” by the Second Foundation (suggesting the meaning of agency as “instrumentality” (Melley 2000: 83), as was the case with the Mule); on the other hand, she also questions her own motivations: “Were the obtuse and soft-hearted couple she was with now only a pair or tools in the hands of the Second Foundation, as helpless as she herself? They must be! Or were they? It was all so useless. How could she fight them. Whatever she did, it might only be what those terrible omnipotents wanted her to do.” (Asimov 1953: 167-168). As Timothy Melley points out, one characteristic of narratives thematising “agency panic” is the attribution of the lost autonomy of the individual to the controlling organization (Melley 2000: 13). I argue that Asimov takes this even further, because the “agency panic” experienced by the characters takes on a distinctly existential character. Hereby, the lack of control leads the characters to re-evaluate their position in the universe: “[…] he knew that he could live only by fighting that vague and fearful enemy that deprived him of the dignity of manhood by controlling his destiny; that made life a miserable struggle against a foreordained evil; that made all the universe a hateful and deadly chess game.” (Asimov 1953: 146).

Additionally, the control exercised by the Second Foundation is felt to be more threatening, because it is able to go undetected: “Galaxy! When can a man know he is not a puppet? How can a man know he is not a puppet?” (Asimov 1953: 220). One example of this is the observation made by Toran Darell while debating whether or not to go in search of his daughter. When his friend Pelleas Anthor indicates that he would go if he were him, Toran Darell answers: “It’s what I want to do too! That’s why I won’t do it.” (Asimov 1953: 175). This reaction is a clear expression of the character’s “agency panic”, because Darell demonstrates a sense of paranoia (Melley 2000:8) towards his own individual motivations (Melley 2000: 12): “I distrust my impulses, my desires, my probable reactions. I would rather present them with an improbable reaction.” (Asimov 1953: 175). Significantly, this leads Darell to an evaluation of the conditions of life as a First Foundationer in comparison to those of a Second Foundationer: “[…] nothing in the Galaxy happens which does not play a part in their reckoning. To us, all life is a series of accidents to be met with improvisations. To them, all life is purposive and should be met by precalculation.” (Asimov 1953: 175). To put it differently, Darell’s expression of agency panic prompts him to conclude that there is a severe lack of self-mastery on the First Foundation which makes all life haphazard and even aimless, when compared to the “purposive” (Asimov 1953: 175) lives the Second Foundationers lead. This is why I argue that the Second Foundation’s “agency panic” takes on a distinctly existential character. Even more significantly, this existential panic is also linked to the collective investment of the First Foundationers in their “imagined community”: “I liked to think that our Foundation was captain of its collective soul; that our forefathers had not quite fought and died for nothing.” (Asimov 1953: 114). Indeed, the idea that their “ship of state” is being steered by the Second Foundation is detrimental to their nationalist sense of sovereignty. Indeed, the fact that the Seldon Plan disregards the actions of individuals is much more acceptable to them, because it does not remove the agency of the members of the “imagined community”. Furthermore, the Seldon Plan requires them to exercise their intuitions when faced with a Crisis, whereas “[intuition] is suspicious when concerned with the Second Foundation. […] It might have been intuition – and it might have been control!” (Asimov 1953: 221). This severe breach of agency is what makes the characters feel so helpless: “there is no escape. […] There is an endless cycle of double-double-double-doublecrosses.” (Asimov 1953: 176). As I have now demonstrated, the “agency panic” produced by the Second Foundation is three-fold: they threaten agency on the individual, collective (national) and existential level.

Because of the existential threat that they pose, the characters’ anxiety also centres around the notion of the future of human genetics (Cfr. the super-evolved individual threatening to permanently change humanity’s genetic makeup (Higgins 2013: 242)). This is made apparent by the fact that the First Foundation considers the Second Foundation to be “a world of space- knows-how-many Mules” (Asimov 1953: 30). To avoid drawing the steadily increasing hostility of the First Foundationers towards them and risking their own downfall, the Second Foundation eventually resolves to sacrifice a portion of their own nation to satisfy the First Foundation’s need for retaliation (Asimov 1953: 222-223). The First Foundation’s anxiety about the genetic threat is then clearly illustrated by Dr Darell’s proposal for dealing with these captured agents: “We could exile them, I suppose. There’s Zoranel, for instance. They can be placed there and the planet saturated with Mind Static. The sexes can be separated, or, better still, they can be sterilized – and in fifty years, the Second Foundation will be a thing of the past. Or perhaps a quiet death for all of them would be kinder.” (Asimov 1953: 219). Essentially, he is proposing torture (through the use of the Mind Static device, which painfully disrupts their mental powers), genetic neutralization (through sterilization) and even genocide. Thus, the threat posed by the Second Foundation also has an evolutionary aspect (Higgins 2013: 242), as was the case with the Mule. In summary, both the Mule and the Second Foundation cause instances of “agency panic” in the First Foundation. While the Mule’s “Conversion” strategy removes agency on an individual level, the Second Foundation threatens agency on the individual, existential and national level. In other words, the Second Foundation threatens the sovereignty of the nation itself. Regarding the dual investment in the nation (1.1), the Mule is seen to force the personal investment in the nation, whereas the Second Foundation is seen to control the collective investment of the “imagined community”.

4. Conclusion In the Foundation series, Isaac Asimov charts the development of the First Foundation: from its beginnings as a scientific colony subject to the Emperor to an independent nation. Taking Anderson’s definition of the nation as my starting point (the nation as an “imagined community” which is both “limited” and “sovereign” (Anderson 1999: 6)), I have applied the following characteristics of the nation to my analysis of the First Foundation: the importance of the narrative in the construction of national identity, the rejection of the divine right to rule and the transition from “Messianic” to “homogenous, empty” time (Anderson 1999: 24). First of all, I have considered the Seldon Plan as the narrative which constructs the First Foundation’s national identity, which is characterized by an insistence on the future. Indeed, the First Foundation represents an exaggerated version of the nation’s tendency to imagine itself as “eternal” (Anderson 1999: 11-12). Secondly, I have demonstrated the importance of science in the recognition of the national sovereignty of the First Foundation. Thirdly, I have identified the loss of the Time-Vault as the event which marks the nation’s transition to a “homogenous, empty” (Anderson 1999: 24) conception of time. Finally, I have considered the “agency panic” (Melley 2000: vii) brought about by the mental interventions of both the Mule and the Second Foundation. In choosing to focus my approach to this series on the analysis of the development of the national “imagined community” of the First Foundation and the various challenges it faces, I hope to have contributed a more nuanced view on the implications of the nation as a scientific creation or experiment. In discussing the “agency panic” demonstrated by the characters, I have aspired to expand upon Miller’s suggestion of the more sinister side to Seldon’s utilitarianism implicit in the Second Foundation’s paternalistic side (Miller 2004: 199). While the scope of this thesis is limited to the trilogy and the first prequel in the series, it would be interesting to continue the investigation into the development of the First Foundation’s national project, once the Second Foundation’s threat to agency is subjected to the inevitable amnesia of the nation’s past. I conclude that the First Foundationers’ investment in the national project is primarily instigated by the general confidence they place in the reliability of Seldon’s science of psychohistory. This trust in science is evident from the many ways in which it informs their national identity: it endows them with a sense of national destiny; it determines the “limitedness” of their “imagined community” (hereby excluding such scientifically backward societies as the barbarians of the periphery and the Empire in decline) and it consolidates their sovereignty from the Empire. Moreover, their belief in science manages to withstand the biggest

61 challenges to their nation, because neither the Mule nor the Second Foundation are able to indefinitely destroy this confidence. Given the importance of the spontaneous and voluntary aspect in the emergence of nationalism (Anderson 1999: 110), it was useful to consider the impact that “agency panic” could have on the First Foundationers’ nationalism. The Mule, on the one hand, challenges the sovereignty of the nation, because his use of “conversion” introduces an artificial loyalty in his subjects. This places the Mule in the position of an absolutist ruler. As Salvor Hardin’s protest against the Encyclopedists has pointed out, the absolutist leader is rejected in the First Foundation, because he represents the axiomatic way of thinking typical of science in decline. The Second Foundation, on the other hand, not only challenges the principle of national sovereignty, but also its limitedness, because its main aim is to establish the envisioned ideal of “universal Empire” (Asimov 1952: 22). Moreover, how spontaneous and voluntary can the First Foundation’s national destiny really be, when it requires such extreme invasions of agency in the population? Indeed, it seems rather ironic that Foundation (1951) and Foundation and Empire (1952) chronicle the gradual and pain-staking development of the nation away from Empire, only to have this hard-won national sovereignty reviled in Second Foundation (1953) by the Second Foundation’s overbearing interventions in forcing the First Foundation back on the sanctioned road to Empire. While Prelude to Foundation (1988) presents the reader with the philanthropic project of the humble scientist Hari Seldon, the “agency panic” exhibited by the First Foundationers in Second Foundation (1953) testifies to the inconsiderate attitude of Seldon’s descendants, the scientists of the Second Foundation, towards the unfortunate subjects of their experiment of nationhood on Terminus.

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