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Kedar, Y and Barkai, R. 2019. The Significance of Air Circulation and Location at Sites. Open Quaternary, 5: 4, pp. 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/oq.52

METHOD The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites Yafit Kedar and Ran Barkai

Hearths were constructed and used at Paleolithic cave and rockshelter sites in Africa, Europe and Asia as early as the late period. The advantages of the use of fire have been widely researched for the last decades. However, only a few studies have focused on the possible negative impact of the use of fire within closed spaces, such as . One of the major negative fire products is smoke, which has an immediate, as as long-term, effect on and may even prevent cave occupation after a short period. In this we propose a basic air circulation model based on thermodynamics to represent smoke ventilation in caves. We employ this model to shed light on the relationship between smoke disper- sal and cave structure, opening dimensions, hearth characteristics, and seasonal temperature fluctuations. We further show that hearth location was crucial in allowing humans to occupy prehistoric caves while using fire on a regular basis. We present preliminary insights from specific case studies, demonstrating the potential of understanding smoke ventilation in reconstructing the hearth season of use and location within the cave.

Keywords: Paleolithic; fire; cave; hearth; smoke; air circulation

Introduction Archaeological research has focused on fire’s advan- use of fire in the Paleolithic period has been tages: heat, protection, , and light, as major factors widely researched in recent decades due to its major in early human adaptation (Gowlett & Wrangham 2013; implications for the understanding of human adaptation Kaplan et al. 2000). were also regarded as essen- and evolution (Gowlett & Wrangham 2013; Sandgathe & tial elements in symbolic or ritual behavior (Jaubert et al. Berna 2017; Wrangham 2009; Wrangham 2017). There is 2016). However, recent studies have also pointed out the evidence for the use of fire in caves from ca. 1mya at Won- possible drawbacks of using fire on a daily basis. Hearth derwerk Cave (Berna et al. 2012), and somewhat later in maintenance demanded significant investment of energy Lower and Middle Paleolithic caves in the , Europe, for tasks such as wood collection and storage (Goudsblom and most probably (Gao et al. 2017; Goldberg et al. 1992; Henry 2017; Henry, Büdel & Bazin 2018; Mallol & 2001; Ravon, Gaillard & Monnier 2016; Roebroeks & Villa Henry 2017; Pryor et al. 2016; Twomey 2014). In addition, 2011; Shahack-Gross et al. 2014; Shimelmitz et al. 2014; gathering around the hearth might have contributed to Walker et al. 2016; Zack et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2014). Still, the spread of disease (Cisholm et al. 2016). One major before the period is the sub- drawback of fire is the emitted smoke. Smoke dispersal in ject of ongoing debate, with some arguing that the Nean- a cave due to the use of a hearth may prevent cave occu- derthals were able to control fire ignition (Sorensen 2017) pation even after several minutes, as shown in an experi- and others arguing that they relied on natural fire (Dibble ment conducted by Gentles & Smithson (1986). et al. 2018). However, it appears that by the end of the Several ethnographic studies describe and analyze site Lower Paleolithic period in the Old World, humans were spatial organization with regard to hearth locations. For already starting to use fire on a regular basis (Roebroeks & example, a study of a humid tropical environment of Villa 2011; Shimelmitz et al. 2014). For example, at Qesem the Nayaka from the forests of Tamil-Nadu, , found Cave, a superimposed hearth dated to ca. 300kya was that the hearth is their main activity area. The Nayaka identified, and fire was apparently used throughout the hearths are about 1 m diameter and are placed outside 200,000 years of human occupation at the site (Karkanas their on the . On cold nights, the Nayaka et al. 2007; Shahack-Gross et al. 2014), most probably for go outside to the hearth to warm up (Friesem et al. 2017). meat roasting (Barkai et al. 2017). A study of the South African San group showed that the hearth is located in the center of the camp outside the (Leori-Gourhan 1965). Another case from the circum- , IL polar north of the traditional Sàmiturf describes two tents Corresponding author: Yafit Kedar ([email protected]) with different structure with a hearth inside the tent. In Art. 4, page 2 of 12 Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites both cases the hearth is at the center of the tent beneath tion of starch and protein. The starch and protein semi- an open (Beach 2013). Although these studies crystalline granule structures collapse following heating, describe the hearth location at several site types and in there by facilitating the digestive process and the absorp- different periods and geographical regions, none provide tion of nutrients into the body (Groopman, Carmody & a rationale for hearth location. Wrangham 2015). In addition, heat softens tough fib- Galanidou (2000) analyzes the spatial organization and ers and neutralizes toxins, thus expanding the variety the location of hearths in 35 cave sites in different coun- of food that early humans could consume (Wrangham tries in the Southern Hemisphere. Galanidou analyzed 2009; Wrangham 2017; Wrangham & Carmody 2010). spatial characteristics such as the site size and location Fire also provided light, warmth (Clark & Harris 1985), of hearths by dividing the space into activity areas. She and protection from predators (Brain 1993; Fessler 2006; claimed that the number of hearths is defined by cultural Malowe 2005), as well as a way to heat adhesive materials constraints rather than by the site size or number of occu- for (Koller, Baumer & Mania 2001; Mazza et pants, and she found that sleeping areas are usually adja- al. 2006). Fire could also be used to clean out dwelling cent to hearths. The research emphasizes that in southern spaces, clear pathways, and exterminate pests (Bentsen­ African sites the sleeping areas are placed near the back 2014; Pyne 1997; Rolland 2004; Sandgathe & Berna of the cave, while in Australian Aboriginal sites the 2017). Ethnographic studies have more over revealed that hearths are located at the center of the cave. the hearth functions as a social magnet that increases the Most research describing spatial organization in a cave hours of group activity and contributes to group solidarity or rockshelter focuses on the location of the hearths as ­(Wiessner 2014). the center of activity. For example, in Abric Romani, a Middle Paleolithic rockshelter in , (Vaquero & Pastó The Effect of Materials Emitted from a Hearth 2001), the authors analyzed the distribution of artifacts One drawback of hearth use within a cave is the emitted on the basis of hearth location. They analyzed 10 hearth- smoke. In a few extraordinary cases reported recently, ash related accumulations spread over four levels. Henry particles were extracted from dental human calculus at (2012) defines several models based on human physical prehistoric sites, providing direct evidence for the expo- characteristics and social behavior to explain the required sure of early humans to smoke. Smoke particle matters distance between hearths. The distance between hearths from Lower Paleolithic were found in - is used to analyze simultaneous hearth activity at the late tal calculus and are assumed to have been inhaled (Hardy Levantine rockshelter site at Tor Faraj, . et al. 2016). In addition, calculus analysis from Middle However, no explanation was proposed for the rationale Paleolithic El Sidron Cave, Spain, suggests supportive evi- behind the hearth location. dence for cooking/smoke inhalation (Hardy et al. 2012). In this paper, we suggest a method for enhancing our Smoke may influence human occupation at a cave, understanding of the location and number of hearths in as shown by the experiment conducted by Gentles & Paleolithic caves in different seasons. We claim that the Smithson (1986). In this experiment, the authors sampled location of hearths and their season of use were determined cave temperature when an active hearth was placed at dif- by smoke dispersal in the cave. In order to analyze the ferent locations and in different seasons. They state that smoke dispersal, we propose an air circulation model that in the summer, after 20 minutes of interior hearth activ- describes smoke ventilation patterns. The model is based ity, smoke filled the cave up to about half a meter from on data developed by the National Institute of Standards the ground level. In winter, the smoke rose higher, ena- and , USA (NIST) for simulating fire in closed bling cave occupation. spaces such as and compartments (McGrattan To facilitate an understanding of the effect of smoke et al. 2017); it takes into account the space volume and dispersal on cave occupation, we describe the by-prod- structure, fire characteristics, and ventilation characteris- ucts of wood burning: the ash that remains in the area tics such as the inside and outside temperature gap. The of the hearth and the smoke pollution emitted into the NIST model was verified in an experiment conducted in a air (Aldeias 2017). Wood is composed of two organic poly- quarry simulating Chauvet-Pont d’Arc Cave (Lancanette et mers: lignin (18–35%) and cellulose, which is a molecule al. 2017). We suggest that this model can be used to explain comprised of , oxygen, and hydrogen (65–75%). the relationship between smoke dispersal and cave struc- The lignin-cellulose ratio varies according to the wood ture, cave opening dimensions, hearth characteristics, and type (Pettersen 1984). Since burning produces an intense seasonal temperature fluctuations in prehistoric caves. heat that breaks up the polymers into smaller molecules, According to our preliminary cave analysis using the air cir- the smoke emitted from the combustion contains a num- culation model, we suggest that hearth location was crucial ber of oxygen-based compounds (Naeher et al. 2007). in allowing humans to occupy caves while using fire on a When wood burning is inefficient, the particles contain regular basis. We demonstrate the application of this data inorganic compounds such as ash and soot, as well as by presenting several Paleolithic case studies. compressed inorganic components. The particles can be divided into two groups: particles with a diameter of 10 Hearth Advantages μm, which, when inhaled, remain in the nose and upper Fire offered many potential benefits to early human respiratory tract, and particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm, groups, such as the nutritional advantages of roasted which, when inhaled, can enter the lungs and blood- and cooked food due to the improved physical absorp- stream. Smoke from burning wood contains around 200 Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites Art. 4, page 3 of 12 different chemical materials, mostly of a size that can The cave’s internal temperature is almost constant be inhaled and some that are noxious and carcinogenic throughout the year and is equal to the external annual (Mannucci et al. 2015; Zelikoff et al. 2002). average temperature. In accordance with the second Exposure to smoke causes burning eyes and respiratory- law of thermodynamics, the cave’s internal temperature related issues, such as coughing. In addition, use of a hearth changes to be equal to the outside temperature, creating raises the nitrogen level in the air and can cause methe- air circulation. Warmer air fills a larger volume, resulting moglobinemia, a condition in which red blood cells are in lower air pressure. Thus, cold air flows near the unable to release oxygen efficiently to the body’s tissues. while warm air flows near the (Petrucci et al. 2011). This produces dizziness, fainting, weakness, dyspnea, con- Figure 1a presents an example of airflow in the winter, fusion, and at higher levels of nitrate concentration leads where the outside temperature is lower than the internal to loss of consciousness, coma, blood vessel injury, and temperature (Cigna 1968; De Freitas et al. 1982). edema (Hasselblad, Eddy & Kotchmar 1992; Naeher et al. The difference between the internal and external tem- 2007). Although the use of fire also has many direct advan- perature affects the airflow rate, which is defined as the tages, we may assume that the continuous use of a hearth air mass flow through the cave opening, termed cave ven- in caves required careful selection of its location in order to tilation rate. The air mass flow per second (amps) is based contend with the possible negative effects. In the following on Bernoulli’s equation, which depends on the size of the we describe the cave air-circulation model, which we then cave opening (t, w) and the temperature difference (ΔP) employ to highlight the significance of hearth characteris- (Peacock et al. 2017): tics and location in caves with respect to seasonal changes t in air pressure inside and outside the caves. amps=∫ wC2ρ Δ P() z dz (1) 0 Method In this section, we use a basic air circulation model for where, t is the opening height, C is the orifice coefficient caves with an active hearth to estimate the smoke lev- taken to be 0.7 (Steckler, Baum & Quintiere 1985), ρ is the els that early humans might have been exposed to in gas density, w is the cave opening width, and ∆P(z) is the different areas of the cave (Cigna 1968; De Freitas et air pressure difference at height z. al. 1982; Faimon & Lang 2013; McGrattan et al. 2017). When the hearth is in the interior of the cave, the emit- This model can be used for cave structures as it was veri- ted smoke is warmer than the surrounding air and thus fied in a quarry test simulating Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave rises to the cave’s ceiling, exiting through the cave opening (Lancanette et al. 2017). due to the lower air pressure inside the cave compared the

Figure 1: Example of cave air circulation in caves in different conditions: a) example of cave air circulation in winter. b) example of a hearth in the cave’s depth during the winter season. Smoke is emitted towards the ceiling in the direction of the cave opening. c) example of the effect of hearth location at the cave’s entrance on the internal air circulation. d) example of the effect of a chimney with a hearth located at the cave’s back wall. The represent air circulation, and the broken line represents the balance point between the cold and hot air flows. Art. 4, page 4 of 12 Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites external air pressure. The smoke line in a cave is defined smoke concentration) and dwelling there is not likely to as the point where the outflowing smoke meets the cold be a problem. air entering the cave. The smoke line is influenced by A chimney or cracks in the cave ceiling adds another the cave’s ventilation rate (amps) (Figure 1b). The cave way for the smoke to ventilate, as shown in Figure 1d. entrance constitutes a tunnel for the two-way airflow; The amps is increased due to the chimney. Increasing thus, the larger the opening, the larger the amps and the the chimney size increases the ventilation rate. Thus, a higher the smoke line. A larger temperature difference, chimney or cracks cause an increase in smoke height. due to the interior hearth activity, increases the amps through the cave entrance as defined above. In both cases, Examples of Paleolithic Caves with Hearths the smoke line is farther from the floor due to the larger In this section we provide a preliminary illustration of how amps. Thus, if two caves have identical diameter hearths, the air circulation model can be used to reconstruct air- the cave with the larger opening will exhibit larger amps flow and smoke dispersal within selected Paleolithic caves. and thus a higher smoke line than the cave with the The Late Acheulian-Early Mousterian Lazaret Cave in smaller opening and smaller amps. Moreover, if two caves shows evidence of human occupation dating to have the same structure but different diameter hearths, 190–44kya. The cave is 35 m long and 13 m wide, with a the cave with the larger diameter hearth will exhibit more 10 m high ceiling and an entrance width of about 3 m. In smoke with similar amps, producing a smoke line lower layer 25, dated to 190–120kya, a hearth was found in the than that of the smaller diameter hearth. cave’s interior in Area F, which is located about 13 m from The caves might also have a chimney or a number of the entrance; for an illustration of this hearth, see Figure 4 openings. In this case, the warm air exits the highest in Valensi et al. (2013). The researchers suggested that the opening in winter and cold air enters from the lowest hearth produced low-temperature smoke intended mostly opening, whereas in the summer the airflow directions for meat preservation (Falguères, De Lumley & Bischoff are reversed: warm air enters the cave from the highest 1992; Valensi et al. 2013). In addition, in layer 26, four opening and cold air exits from the lowest opening (Cigna small hearths, 20–30 cm in diameter, were found in areas 1968; Russell & MacLean 2008). In this type of cave, when T15, R14, Q13, and P12 located at about 13 m from the a hearth is used, the smoke exits through the chimney entrance; for an illustration of this hearth, see Figure 1 or upper opening. Thus, the smoke path flows from the in Azemard et al. (2013). The hearths in both layers are hearth location to the chimney and might elevate the located in the center of the cave. According to the pro- smoke line height in the cave. In the case of a cave with posed air circulation model, the smoke from the hearth two or more openings at the same height, the hearth is dispersed partially to the back of the cave and partially smoke exits the cave through all the openings, increasing to the cave entrance. In the winter, since the temperature the amps and elevating the smoke line height. outside is lower than the interior temperature, the smoke In winter, the cave temperature is higher than the exter- is dispersed near the cave ceiling, allowing for human nal temperature. Using a hearth increases this difference. occupation. Since the cave ventilation rate is higher Thus, the air circulation rate (amps) is higher due to the in winter than in summer due to the larger difference greater difference in air pressure. a hearth in sum- between the cave’s interior temperature and the external mer also raises the cave’s internal temperature, decreasing temperature, the amount of smoke in the cave is greater the internal and external temperature difference and thus in the summer, making human occupation unpleasant. A reducing air circulation. This forces the smoke to disperse detailed analysis of the faunal remains suggests that cave inside the cave. In summer, when the cave’s temperature was indeed used during winter (Valensi et al. 2013). Animal exceeds the outside temperature (because of the hearth), dental remains were analyzed and sorted into age groups. the air circulation exhibits the same process as in winter: By integrating dental structure, erosion, and the expected some of the smoke exits near the ceiling, but since the season of birth, it was possible to determine the animal’s circulation rate is lower than in winter, the smoke line age at time of hunting. The researchers concluded that height is lower. hunting and meat preservation procedures were usually Hearth location also has an impact on air circulation performed in autumn and winter, between October and within the cave. When the hearth is located at the cave December, in order to stock up on food before the cold entrance, some of the generated smoke is dispersed set in (Valensi et al. 2013). Their study conforms to the within the cave and some of it flows out (Figure 1c). The air circulation model: the small-diameter hearths in the dispersion rate in the two areas depends on the entrance cave’s depth were used in winter when the airflow rate structure and the exact location of the hearth. In the case was higher than in the summer because the cave venti- of caves with a rather small entrance, the smoke flows lated faster and more efficiently. towards the ceiling because the smoke density is lower Bolomor cave in the Valencia region bears evidence of than the air density in the cave, and thus the smoke flows human occupation dated to 350–100kya. The cave with near the ceiling up to the back wall, or the smoke tem- the terrace area is about 600 m2 and features several perature reaches the internal air temperature and the archeological levels, about 15 m depth from the dripline smoke exits near the floor. This type of air circulation and with maximum width of about 30 m (Figure 2). The renders cave dwelling problematic because of the high cave contains 14 hearths (diameter 20–120 cm and thick- concentration of smoke remaining in the cave. On the ness 5–10 cm) in Levels 2, 4, 11, and 13. On the side of other hand, in a cave with a high and wide entrance, only the site, the two interior hearths in Level 13 (Sublevel 13 a small portion of the smoke remains in the cave (lower c, Blocks F2 and D1), near the side wall, are 0.45 m and Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites Art. 4, page 5 of 12

Figure 2: Map of Bolomor cave. The red circles represent the hearth locations (Fernández 2007). (Images courtesy of Prof. Peris and Dr. Sañudo).

Figure 3: map. The hearth was found in Area E (Barzilai, Heshkovitz & Marder 2016). (Image courtesy of Prof. Marder).

0.51 m in diameter and located 1.12 m from one another. Manot Cave, located in the western Galilee, , is The four hearths in Level 4 (section CBIV-3) were found at mostly associated with the Upper Paleolithic period dated the entrance of the cave, which at this stage had become a to 41–33kya. The cave has an 80 m × 10–25 m main kind of rockshelter (Figure 2, red circles). Figure 2 shows and two smaller, lower on the main hall’s northern that the hearths are located near the wall beneath the dri- and southern flanks. Area E, which is located next to one pline towards the outside of the rockshelter (Die 2008; of the estimated cave entrance locations, contains two Peris et al. 2012; Sañudo, Blassco & Peris 2016). According areas with burnt remains, one of which has been identi- to the air circulation model, the emitted smoke from fied as a hearth with a 0.6 m diameter (Figure 3) (Barzilai, hearths near the wall flows to the ceiling and then outside Heshkovitz & Marder 2016; Marder et al. 2013). According the rockshelter, with some smoke dispersing to the cave’s to the excavators, the hearth is located next to the cave’s interior. Since this site is about 30 m wide, the hearths in assumed entrance. A few meters after the entrance there this site can be used throughout the year. The air circula- is slope downwards to the main hall. In the case of a small tion model suggests that the site may contain additional entrance, an interior hearth near the cave’s opening would hearths near the cave back wall; however, those sections have produced a great amount of smoke in the habita- have not yet been excavated. tion level. According to the air circulation model, smoke Art. 4, page 6 of 12 Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites dispersed from a hearth near the entrance is partially ven- revealed that the hearth area functioned as a sleeping tilated outside the cave, while the rest of the smoke is dis- space (Gabucio, Fernández-Laso & Rosell 2017; Vallverdú persed to the main hall. The smoke temperature decreases et al. 2010). According to the air circulation model, the and the smoke fills the main hall. This would have caused size and location of the hearths would enable the sleep- respiratory irritation for the early human inhabitants. ing space to be heated while the smoke concentration Consequently, if the cave entrance was indeed located remained low, as small hearths emit small amounts of where the researchers suggest, we may assume that the smoke and the proximity to the back wall of the shelter hearth was either located away from it or that the cave forces the smoke to ascend to the ceiling and flow out. had another opening. This example shows that the air cir- Smoke emitted from the hearth located close to the rock- culation model can help predict or verify the location of shelter entrance most probably flowed out of the shelter different cave openings. thanks to the wide opening. In level N (Figure 5), most artifacts are located in the Examples of Paleolithic Rockshelters with Hearths central zone around hearths 9, 10, 11, 14, 15 and 16. There are many Paleolithic rockshelter sites with evidence Around hearth 13 there are scattered artifacts. In the fron- of the use of hearths. A rockshelter has a different struc- tal zone, scattered artifacts were found around hearths ture than a cave: a very large opening that facilitates faster 6 and 7 and dense artifacts around hearth 8, which has and more efficient smoke ventilation. In this section we a 30 cm diameter. Faunal remains were found around briefly describe two rockshelter sites and explain how hearths 9–12 and 14–16. A low density of artifacts was their hearths differ from those in caves. found around hearths 4 and 5. The researchers suggest The Abric Romani rockshelter in Barcelona, Spain, fea- that hearths 1–5 were used for sleeping. According to the tures 25 levels dated to 70–40kya. Level O, dated to 55kya, air circulation model, the location of hearths 1–5 near the has 24 hearths (Vallverdú et al. 2012) and Level N has 19 back wall and their small size helps the smoke ventilate hearths (Vallverdú et al. 2010) (Figures 4 and 5). In Level near the ceiling. The middle cave hearths (9, 11, 14, 17, O, the hearths are divided to two groups: one located 19) are all very small in diameter (less than 20 cm2), and near the rockshelter wall and one located outside of the thus would emit little smoke. Hearth 13, which is larger dripline (Figure 4). The hearths in the first group are of (72 cm2), is located near the back wall. The smoke in this small diameter. According to spatial distribution analy- location flows up near the back wall and outside near sis, most of the artifacts are located near the back wall of the rockshelter ceiling. Hearths 8 and 16 have an area of the rockshelter. There are no hearths in the middle of the 1 m2 and are located near the dripline. According to the shelter. The analysis of the and lithic concentrations air circulation model, hearth 8 was probably not activated

Figure 4: Hearth locations at Abric Romani rockshelter Level O: A total of 24 hearths of different sizes were found, dispersed throughout the rockshelter (Vallverdú et al. 2012). 1) Combustion areas. 2) Carbonaceous areas (Roman numerals). 3) Burnt blocks and megablocks. 4) Blocks of the occupied . 5) Structural blocks and megablocks. 6) Large wood pseudomorph of travertine. (Image courtesy of Prof. Vallverdú). Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites Art. 4, page 7 of 12

Figure 5: Hearth locations at Abric Romani rockshelter Level N: Hearths are spread over the entire rockshelter with a concentration of several hearths near the back wall (Vallverdú et al. 2010).c, Cartography of archaeological level N. 1) Distribution and number of combustion activity areas. 2) Inner zone. 3) Frontal zone. 4) Central zone. 5) External zone. 6) Dripline. 7) Travertine cliff wall. 8) Travertine dripping . (Image courtesy of Prof. Vallverdú).

Figure 6: Hearth locations at Tor Faraj rockshelter Floors I and II. Hearths located mostly near the center and back of the rockshelter (Henry et al. 2004). (Reproduced by permission of the American Anthropological Association from American Anthropologist, Volume 106, Issue 2, pp. 17–31, 2004. Not for sale or further reproduction). in parallel to the hearths in the sleeping area since the Floor I includes six hearths, three near the back wall (B), smoke emitted from it would flow to the sleeping area. one near the side wall close to the dripline (C), and two in Hearth 16 is far from the sleeping area and its smoke the center between the dripline and the back wall. A bed- would be dispersed mostly outside the rockshelter. ding area is located near the back wall in area B. Floor II Tor Faraj rockshelter at Ma’an Plateau, Jordan is dated to includes 13 hearths, five in area B near the back wall, three 50–70kya and assigned to the Middle Paleolithic Levantine near the side wall (C), three at the center of the rockshelter, Mousterian. The ceiling of the rockshelter is about 10–13 m and two in area A, one close to the back wall and one at high, its depth is 5–6 m, and its width is about 24 m, with the center (Henry 2002). The bedding areas are found in a total area of about 136 m2 (Henry 2003). The hearths are areas B and C close to the . On both floors, the hearths mostly concentrated near the back and side walls (Figure 6) are located mostly near the rockshelter walls and at the (Hietala 2003; Henry et al. 2004). The average hearth diam- center of the rockshelter. According to the air circulation eter is 57 cm. Henry analyzed the hearth distribution and model, smoke emitted from the hearths near the back wall found that the average distance between hearths is 1.5 m flows up near the wall and outside near the ceiling while and many of the hearths in the site are near the back wall. the hearth heats the surroundings. The smoke is ventilated Art. 4, page 8 of 12 Kedar and Barkai: The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites through the wide opening of the rockshelter. A phytolith of smoke in the cave and a lower smoke height, making study by Rosen (2003) shows that the Tor Faraj site was habitation difficult. used in the cold season from February to May, supporting Since hearths emit a great deal of smoke, it would seem the conclusions of the air circulation model. that early humans must have reasoned about air circula- tion when positioning a hearth within a cave, in order Discussion and Conclusions to benefit from its many advantages. We hope that the Hearths are used as a pivot element in spatial analysis preliminary observations presented in this paper will pro- of caves and rockshelter sites. In this paper, we showed mote a better understanding of human uses of fire within that hearth location and season of use are not randomly Paleolithic cave and rockshelter sites, and we intend to determined and can be explained using the air circula- pursue this line of investigation further by enhancing the tion model. The smoke dispersal in the cave depends on model, simulating different smoke circulation scenarios the hearth location and cave structure. Smoke height can in caves, and analyzing the correlations between the vari- be estimated according to air circulation parameters in ous parameters. the cave, taking into account hearth location, size and season of use. Thus, we used an air circulation model to Acknowledgements determine the most probable season of occupation in The authors are grateful to Prof. Vallverdú, Prof. Marder, Paleolithic cave sites where hearths were in use. The input Prof. Peris, Prof. Henry and Dr. Sañudo for their kind per- parameters for the model are cave structure, cave opening mission to use some of the photos and diagrams displayed dimensions, the difference between the interior and exte- in this paper. This work was supported by the joint UGC- rior temperature, and hearth characteristics. We showed ISF Research Grant (Israel-India program) entitled “The that the expected smoke levels in the colder season are First Global Culture: Lower Paleolithic Adapta- higher than the smoke level in the warm season. In addi- tions at the Two Ends of Asia” 2712/16. tion, we showed that the preferred hearth location is near the back wall and not at the cave entrance. Competing Interests Case studies of Paleolithic caves with active hearths The authors have no competing interests to declare. support our hypothesis about the relationship between hearth location and probable effect on season of use. References For example, Lazaret Cave and Tor Faraj rockshelter Aldeias, V. 2017. ‘Experimental approaches to archaeo- had a few small hearths in the cave’s depth, implying logical fire features and their behavioral rele- human occupation during the winter season. Faunal vance’. Current Anthropology, 58. DOI: https://doi. and botanical remains from both sites support claims org/10.1086/691210 regarding winter habitation. In winter the difference Azemard, C, de Lumley, C, Khatib, S, Saos, T, between the cave’s internal and external temperature Lebeau, D, Ayvhet, N, Lucas-Lamouroux, is greater, and thus smoke ventilation is increased. A C, Fauquembergue, E, el Guenouni, K, study of faunal remains from several Middle and Upper Fontaneil, C, Fregier, C, Garrigue, N, Jooris, Paleolithic cave sites with hearths in the Ach Valley in C and Kaminski, C. 2013. ‘Étude des matières suggests that the sites were used during the organiques du sol d’occupation acheuléen de winter and spring season (Münzel & Conard 2004), as l’unité archéostratigraphique UA 27 de la grotte our model indeed suggests. du Lazaret’. L’Anthropologie, 117(4): 367–412. DOI: Our short survey of sites has also revealed that more https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anthro.2013.08.002 hearths were used in Paleolithic rockshelters than in Barkai, R, Rosell, J, Blasco, R and Gopher, A. 2017. ‘Fire caves. In the Abric Romani and Tor Faraj rockshelters, for a reason: Barbecue at Middle Qesem many hearths were scattered around, some near the shel- Cave, Israel’. Current Anthropology, 58. DOI: https:// ter’s entrance and others near the back wall. The large doi.org/10.1086/691211 entrances characteristic of rockshelters afforded the inhab- Barzilai, O, Heshkovitz, I and Marder, O. 2016. ‘The itants greater leeway with regard to hearth location, and Early Upper Paleolithic Period at Manot Cave, the group activity area seems to have been the dominant Western Galilee, Israel’. , 31(1–2): parameter in this regard. This is in contrast to caves, where 85–100. smoke emitted from the hearth might have had an imme- Beach, H. 2013. ‘The Devitalization and Revitalization diate effect on the occupants. Paleolithic caves are there- of Sami Dwellings in Sweden’. In: Anderson, DG, fore expected to contain fewer hearths, located towards the Wishart, RP and Vate, V (eds.), About the Hearth. back, as suggested by our study. A broader survey should be New York: Berghahn Books. conducted to confirm these preliminary results. 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How to cite this article: Kedar, Y and Barkai, R. 2019. The Significance of Air Circulation and Hearth Location at Paleolithic Cave Sites. Open Quaternary, 5: 4, pp. 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/oq.52

Submitted: 15 December 2018 Accepted: 03 May 2019 Published: 12 June 2019

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