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Essentials of

Twelfth Edition

Alan P. Trujillo Distinguished Teaching Professor Palomar College Harold V. Thurman Former Professor Emeritus MT. San Antonio College

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Trujillo, Alan P. | Thurman, Harold V. Title: Essentials of oceanography / Alan P. Trujillo, Distinguished Teaching Professor, Palomar College, Harold V. Thurman, Professor Emeritus, Mt. San Antonio College. Description: Twelth edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015035841| ISBN 9780134073545 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0134073541 (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Oceanography—Textbooks. Classification: LCC GC11.2 .T49 2018 | DDC 551.46—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015035841

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—V311—18 17 16 15 14

ISBN 10: 0-13-426742-7; (High School Binding) www.PearsonSchool.com/Advanced ISBN 13: 978-0-134-26742-5 (High School Binding)

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 2 19/12/15 2:17 AM Dedicated to my father Dr. Anthony P. Trujillo, mentor, role model, teacher, and friend —Al Trujillo

In memory of Hal Thurman (1934–2012)

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 3 19/12/15 2:17 AM About The Authors

ALAN P. TRUJILLO Al ­Trujillo HAROLD V. THURMAN Hal is a Distinguished Teaching Pro- Thurman’s interest in fessor in the , Space, and led to a bachelor’s degree from Aviation Sciences Department Oklahoma A&M University, fol- at Palomar College in San Mar- lowed by seven years working as cos, California. He received his a petroleum geologist, mainly in bachelor’s degree in geology from the Gulf of Mexico, where his the University of California at interest in the developed. Davis and his master’s degree He earned a master’s degree from in geology from Northern Arizona California State University at Los University, afterward working for Angeles. Hal began teaching at several years in industry. Al began Mt. San Antonio College in Wal- teaching at Palomar in 1990. In nut, California, in 1968 as a tem- 1997, he was awarded Palomar’s porary teacher and taught Physics Distinguished Faculty Award for 1 (a surveying class) and three Excellence in Teaching, and in 2005 Physical Geology labs. In 1970, he received Palomar’s Faculty Research Award. He has coauthored he taught his first class of General Oceanography. It was from this Introductory Oceanography with Hal Thurman and is a contrib- experience that he decided to write a textbook on oceanography and uting author for the textbooks Earth and Earth Science. In addi- received a contract with Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company in tion to writing and teaching, Al works as a naturalist and lecturer 1973. The first edition of his book Introductory Oceanography was aboard natural history expedition vessels for Lindblad Expeditions/ released in 1975. Harold authored or coauthored over 20 editions National Geographic in Alaska, , and the of Cortez/Baja of textbooks that include Introductory Oceanography, Essentials of California. His research interests include beach processes, sea cliff Oceanography, Physical Geology, Marine Biology, and Oceanogra- erosion, and active teaching techniques. He enjoys photography, phy Laboratory Manual, many of which are still being used today and he collects sand as a hobby. Al and his wife, Sandy, have two throughout the world. In addition, he contributed to the World Book children, Karl and Eva. Encyclopedia on the topics of “Arctic ,” “,” “Indian Ocean,” and “Pacific Ocean.” Hal Thurman retired in May 1994, after 24 years of teaching, and moved to be closer to family in Oklahoma, then to Florida. Hal passed away at the age of 78 on ­December 29, 2012. His writing expertise, knowledge about the ocean, and easy-going demeanor will be dearly missed.

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 4 19/12/15 2:17 AM Brief Contents

Preface xi

1 Introduction to Planet “Earth” 3

2 Plate and the Ocean Floor 39

3 Marine Provinces 81

4 Marine Sediments 105

5 Water and 137

6 Air–Sea Interaction 171

7 ocean Circulation 207

8 Waves and Water Dynamics 245

9 279

B10 eaches, Shoreline Processes, and the Coastal Ocean 305

11 347

12 Marine Life and the Marine Environment 375

3B1 iological Productivity and Energy Transfer 403

41 Animals of the Pelagic Environment 445

51 Animals of the Benthic Environment 479

16 The Oceans and Climate Change 513

Afterword 550

Appendix I Metric and English Units Compared 554 Appendix II Geographic Locations 558 Appendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth 560 Appendix IV A Chemical Background: Why Water Has Two Hs and One O (Online as MasteringOceanography Bonus Web Content) Appendix V Careers in Oceanography 563

Glossary 566

Credits and Acknowledgments 586

Index 589

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Preface xi

To the Student xi

Diving Deeper Preface.1 A User’s Guide for Students: How to Read a Science Textbook xi

To the Instructor xii

Diving Deeper Preface.2 Ocean Literacy: What Should People Know about the Ocean? xii

Reorganization of What’s New in This Edition Section xiii

For the Student xiv

For the Instructor xiv

Acknowledgments xv

1 introduction To Planet “Earth” 3 2  and the Ocean Floor 39 Essential Learning Concepts 3 Essential Learning Concepts 39 1.1 How Are Earth’s Oceans Unique? 3 2.1 What Evidence Supports ? 40 Earth’s Amazing Oceans 4 • How Many Oceans Exist on Earth? 4 Fit of the 40 • Matching Sequences of Rocks and The Four Principal Oceans, Plus One 5 • Oceans versus 6 Mountain Chains 40 • Glacial Ages and Other Climate Evidence 41 1.2 How Was Early Exploration of the Oceans Achieved? 9 • Distribution of Organisms 41 • Objections to the Continental Early History 9 Drift Model 42 Diving Deeper 1.1 Historical Feature How Do Sailors Know Where They 2.2 What Evidence Supports Plate Tectonics? 43 Earth’s Magnetic Field and Paleomagnetism 44 Sea Floor Spreading Are at Sea? From Stick Charts to Satellites 10 • and Features of the Ocean Basins 46 The Middle Ages 13 • The Age of Discovery in Europe 13 • The Beginning of Voyaging for Science 14 • History of Diving Deeper 2.1 Research Methods in Oceanography Using Moving Oceanography . . . To Be Continued 15 ­Continents to ­Resolve an ­Apparent Dilemma: Did Earth Ever Have Two 1.3 What Is Oceanography? 16 ­Wandering North Magnetic Poles? 47 1.4 What Is the of Scientific Inquiry? 17 Other Evidence from the Ocean Basins 49 Observations 17 • Hypothesis 17 • Testing 18 • Theory 18 • Detecting Plate Motion with Satellites 53 • Theories and the Truth 18 • The Acceptance of a Theory 53 1.5 How Were Earth and the Solar System Formed? 19 2.3 What Features Occur at Plate Boundaries? 54 The Nebular Hypothesis 20 • Proto-Earth 20 • Density and Density Divergent Boundary Features 55 • Stratification 22 • Earth’s Internal Structure 22 Features 60 • Transform Boundary Features 65 1.6 How Were Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans Formed? 26 2.4 Testing the Model: How Can Plate Tectonics Be Used as a Working Origin of Earth’s Atmosphere 26 • Origin of Earth’s Oceans 26 Model? 67 Hotspots and Mantle Plumes 67 and Tablemounts 70 1.7 Did Life Begin in the Oceans? 27 • Coral Reef Development 70 The Importance of Oxygen to Life 27 • Stanley Miller’s Experiment 28 • • Evolution and Natural Selection 29 • Plants and Animals Evolve 29 2.5 How Has Earth Changed in the Past, and How Will it Look in the Future? 74 Diving Deeper 1.2 Historical Feature The Voyage of HMS Beagle: How It The Past: Paleogeography 74 • The Future: Some Bold Shaped Charles Darwin’s Thinking about the Theory of Evolution 30 Predictions 74 • A Predictive Model: The Wilson Cycle 76 1.8 How Old Is Earth? 33 Essential Concepts Review 78 Radiometric Age Dating 33 • The Geologic Time Scale 33 Essential Concepts Review 35

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3 Marine Provinces 81 5 Water and Seawater 137 Essential Learning Concepts 81 Essential Learning Concepts 137 3.1 What Techniques Are Used to Determine Ocean ? 81 5.1 Why Does Water Have Such Unusual Chemical Properties? 137 Soundings 82 • Echo Soundings 82 • Using Satellites to Map Ocean Atomic Structure 137 • The Water Molecule 138 Properties from Space 84 • Seismic Reflection Profiles 85 5.2 What Important Physical Properties Does Water Possess? 140 3.2 What Features Exist on Continental Margins? 87 Water’s Thermal Properties 140 • Water Density as a Result of Passive versus Active Continental Margins 87 • Continental Thermal Contraction 145 Shelf 88 • Continental Slope 89 • Submarine Canyons and Turbidity 5.3 How Salty Is Seawater? 147 Currents 89 • 91 Salinity 147 • Determining Salinity 148 3.3 What Features Exist in the Deep-Ocean Basins? 92 Diving Deeper 5.1 Oceans and People How to Avoid Goiters 149 Abyssal Plains 92 • Volcanic Peaks of the Abyssal Plains 93 Comparing Pure Water and Seawater 150 • Ocean Trenches and Volcanic Arcs 93 5.4 Why Does Seawater Salinity Vary? 151 3.4 What Features Exist along the Mid-Ocean Ridge? 95 Salinity Variations 151 • Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity 152 Volcanic Features 96 • Hydrothermal Vents 96 • Dissolved Components Added to and Removed from Seawater 153 Diving Deeper 3.1 Research Methods in Oceanography Earth’s 5.5 Is Seawater Acidic or Basic? 156 Hypsographic Curve: Nearly ­Everything You Need to Know about Earth’s The pH Scale 156 • The Carbonate Buffering System 157 Oceans and Landmasses in One Graph 97 5.6 How Does Seawater Salinity Vary at the Surface and with Depth? 158 Diving Deeper 3.2 Research Methods in Oceanography Now You See It, Surface Salinity Variation 159 • Salinity Variation with Depth 159 Now You Don’t: Recovering Oceanographic Equipment Stuck in Lava 98 • Halocline 160 Zones and Transform Faults 100 • Oceanic 101 5.7 How Does Seawater Density Vary with Depth? 161 Factors Affecting Seawater Density 161 Temperature and Density Essential Concepts Review 102 • Variation with Depth 162 • and Pycnocline 163 5.8 What Methods Are Used to Desalinate Seawater? 164 Distillation 165 • Membrane Processes 165 • Other Methods of Desalination 166 4 Marine Sediments 105 Essential Learning Concepts 105 Essential Concepts Review 167 4.1 How Are Marine Sediments Collected, and What Historical Events Do They Reveal? 106 Collecting Marine Sediments 106 • Environmental Conditions 6 air–Sea Interaction 171 Revealed by Marine Sediments 108 • Paleoceanography 108 Essential Learning Concepts 171 4.2 What Are the Characteristics of Lithogenous Sediment? 109 6.1 What Causes Variations in Solar Radiation on Earth? 172 Origin of Lithogenous Sediment 109 Composition of Lithogenous • What Causes Earth’s Seasons? 172 • How Latitude Affects the Sediment 109 Sediment Texture 110 Distribution of Lithogenous • • Distribution of Solar Radiation 173 • Oceanic Heat Flow 175 Sediment 111 6.2 What Physical Properties Does the Atmosphere Possess? 175 4.3 What Are the Characteristics of Biogenous Sediment? 113 Composition of the Atmosphere 175 • Temperature Variation in Origin of Biogenous Sediment 113 Composition of Biogenous • the Atmosphere 176 • Density Variation in the Atmosphere 176 Sediment 114 • Atmospheric Water Vapor Content 176 • Atmospheric Diving Deeper 4.1 Oceans and People Diatoms: The Most Important Pressure 177 • Movement of the Atmosphere 177 • An Example: Things You Have (Probably) Never Heard Of 115 A Nonspinning Earth 177 Distribution of Biogenous Sediment 117 6.3 How Does the Effect Influence Moving Objects? 178 4.4 What Are the Characteristics of Hydrogenous Sediment? 121 Example 1: Perspectives and Frames of Reference on a Origin of Hydrogenous Sediment 121 • Composition and Distribution Merry-Go-Round 179 • Example 2: A Tale of Two Missiles 180 of Hydrogenous Sediment 122 • Changes in the Coriolis Effect with Latitude 181 4.5 What Are the Characteristics of Cosmogenous Sediment? 124 6.4 What Global Patterns Exist? 181 Origin, Composition, and Distribution of Cosmogenous Circulation Cells 182 • Pressure 183 • Wind Belts 183 Sediment 124 • Boundaries 183 • Circulation Cells: Idealized or Real? 184 4.6 How Are Pelagic and Neritic Deposits Distributed? 125 6.5 How Does the Ocean Influence Global Weather Phenomena and Mixtures of Marine Sediment 125 • Neritic Deposits 126 Climate Patterns? 185 Pelagic Deposits 126 • How Sea Floor Sediments Represent Weather versus Climate 186 • Winds 186 Surface Conditions 128 • Worldwide Thickness of Marine Diving Deeper 6.1 Historical Feature Why Christopher Columbus Never Sediments 128 Set Foot on North America 187 4.7 What Resources Do Marine Sediments Provide? 129 Storms and Fronts 188 • Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes) 188 Energy Resources 129 • Other Resources 130 • The Ocean’s Climate Patterns 196 Essential Concepts Review 133 6.6 How Do Sea Ice and Icebergs Form? 198 Formation of Sea Ice 198 • Formation of Icebergs 200

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6.7 Can Power from Wind Be Harnessed as a Source of Energy? 201 8.6 Can Power from Waves Be Harnessed as a Source Essential Concepts Review 202 of Energy? 272 Plants and Wave Farms 272 • Global Coastal Wave Energy Resources 273 Essential Concepts Review 275 7 Ocean Circulation 207 Essential Learning Concepts 207 7.1 How Are Ocean Currents Measured? 207 Surface Current Measurement 207 9 Tides 279 Essential Learning Concepts 279 Diving Deeper 7.1 Oceans and People Running Shoes as Drift Meters: Just Do It 209 9.1 What Causes Ocean Tides? 279 Deep Current Measurement 210 -Generating Forces 279 • Tidal Bulges: The Moon’s Effect 282 7.2 What Creates Ocean Surface Currents and How Are They • Tidal Bulges: The Sun’s Effect 284 • Earth’s Rotation and the Organized? 211 Tides 284 Origin of Surface Currents 211 • Main Components of Ocean 9.2 How Do Tides Vary during a Monthly Tidal Cycle? 285 Surface Circulation 212 • Other Factors Affecting Ocean Surface The Monthly Tidal Cycle 285 • Complicating Factors 287 Circulation 214 • Ocean Currents and Climate 218 • Idealized Tide Prediction 289 7.3 What Causes and ? 220 9.3 What Do Tides Look Like in the Ocean? 291 Diverging Surface Water 220 • Converging Surface Water 220 Amphidromic Points and Cotidal Lines 291 • Effect of the • Coastal Upwelling and Downwelling 220 • Other Causes of Continents 291 • Other Considerations 292 Upwelling 221 9.4 What Types of Tidal Patterns Exist? 292 7.4 What Are the Main Surface Circulation Patterns in Each Ocean Diurnal Tidal Pattern 292 • Semidiurnal Tidal Pattern 292 Basin? 222 • Mixed Tidal Pattern 292 Antarctic Circulation 222 • Atlantic Ocean Circulation 223 9.5 What Tidal Phenomena Occur in Coastal Regions? 294 Diving Deeper 7.2 Historical Feature Benjamin Franklin: The World’s An Example of Tidal Extremes: The Bay of Fundy 294 Most Famous Physical Oceanographer 226 Diving Deeper 9.1 Oceans and People Tidal Bores: Boring Waves These Indian Ocean Circulation 227 • Pacific Ocean Circulation 229 Are Not! 295 7.5 How Do Deep-Ocean Currents Form? 236 Coastal Tidal Currents 296 • : Fact or Fiction? 297 Origin of 236 • Sources of Deep Water 236 • Grunion: Doing What Comes Naturally on the Beach 297 • Worldwide Deep-Water Circulation 237 9.6 Can Be Harnessed as a Source of Energy? 299 7.6 Can Power from Currents Be Harnessed as a Source of Tidal Power Plants 299 Energy? 240 Essential Concepts Review 301 Essential Concepts Review 241

10 Beaches, Shoreline Processes, and the 8 Waves and Water Dynamics 245 Essential Learning Concepts 245 Coastal Ocean 305 Essential Learning Concepts 305 8.1 How Are Waves Generated, and How Do They Move? 245 Disturbances Generate Ocean Waves 245 10.1 How Are Coastal Regions Defined? 305 • Wave Movement 246 Beach Terminology 306 • Beach Composition 306 8.2 What Characteristics Do Waves Possess? 248 10.2 How Does Sand Move on the Beach? 307 Wave Terminology 248 • Circular Orbital Motion 248 Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline 307 • Movement Parallel to • Deep-Water Waves 250 • Shallow-Water Waves 251 the Shoreline 308 • Transitional Waves 251 10.3 What Features Exist along Erosional and Depositional 8.3 How Do Wind-Generated Waves Develop? 252 Shores? 310 Wave Development 252 • Interference Patterns 256 Features of Erosional Shores 310 • Rogue Waves 256 Diving Deeper 10.1 Oceans and People Warning: Rip ­Currents . . . Do You 8.4 How Do Waves Change in the ? 258 Know What to Do? 312 Physical Changes as Waves Approach Shore 258 Features of Depositional Shores 313 Breakers and Surfing 259 Wave Refraction 260 • • 10.4 How Do Changes in Produce Emerging and Submerging Wave Reflection 262 • Shorelines? 319 8.5 How Are Created? 263 Features of Emerging Shorelines 320 • Features of Submerging Coastal Effects 265 • Some Examples of Historic and Recent Shorelines 320 • Changes in Sea Level 320 Tsunami 266 Tsunami Warning System 269 • 10.5 How Does Hard Stabilization Affect Coastlines? 322 Diving Deeper 8.1 Oceans and People Waves of Destruction: The 2011 Groins and Groin Fields 322 • Jetties 323 • Breakwaters 324 Japanese Tsunami 270 • Seawalls 326 • Alternatives to Hard Stabilization 326

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10.6 What are the Characteristics and Types of Coastal Waters? 328 Diving Deeper 12.1 Historical Feature Diving into the Marine Characteristics of Coastal Waters 328 • Estuaries 331 Environment 395 • Lagoons 335 • Marginal Seas 336 12.5 What Are the Main Divisions of the Marine Environment? 395 10.7 What Issues Face Coastal Wetlands? 338 Pelagic (Open Sea) Environment 396 • Benthic (Sea Bottom) Types of Coastal Wetlands 338 • Characteristics of Coastal Environment 398 Wetlands 340 • Serious Loss of Valuable Wetlands 340 Essential Concepts Review 399 Essential Concepts Review 342 13 Biological Productivity and Energy 11 Marine Pollution 347 Essential Learning Concepts 347 Transfer 403 Essential Learning Concepts 403 11.1 What Is Pollution? 347 Marine Pollution: A Definition 348 • Environmental Bioassay 348 13.1 What Is Primary Productivity? 403 • The Issue of Waste Disposal in the Ocean 349 Measurement of Primary Productivity 404 • Factors Affecting Primary Productivity 404 Light Transmission in Ocean 11.2 What Marine Environmental Problems Are Associated with • Water 406 Why Are the Margins of the Oceans So Rich Petroleum Pollution? 349 • in Life? 408 The 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 350 • Other Oil Spills 350 13.2 What Kinds of Photosynthetic Marine Organisms Exist? 411 The 2010 Gulf of Diving Deeper 11.1 Focus on the Environment Seed-Bearing Plants (Anthophyta) 411 • Macroscopic (Large) Mexico Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 352 Algae 411 • Microscopic (Small) Algae 413 • Ocean Eutrophication 11.3 What Marine Environmental Problems Are Associated with and Dead Zones 416 • Photosynthetic Bacteria 418 Non-Petroleum Chemical Pollution? 356 13.3 How Does Regional Primary Productivity Vary? 419 Sewage Sludge 356 • DDT and PCBs 357 • Mercury and Minamata Productivity in Polar (High Latitude) Oceans: 60 to 90 degrees Disease 359 • Other Types of Chemical Pollutants 360 North and South Latitude 420 • Productivity in Tropical 11.4 What Marine Environmental Problems Are Associated with Non- (Low-Latitude) Oceans: 0 to 30 degrees North and South point Source Pollution, Including Trash? 362 Latitude 421 • Productivity in Temperate (Middle Latitude) Oceans: Non-point Source Pollution and Trash 362 • Plastics as Marine 30 to 60 degrees North and South Latitude 422 • Comparing Debris 363 Regional Productivity 424 11.5 What Marine Environmental Problems Are Associated with 13.4 How Are Energy and Nutrients Passed Along in Marine Biological Pollution? 367 Ecosystems? 424 The Seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia 367 • Zebra Mussels 368 Flow of Energy in Marine Ecosystems 424 • Flow of Nutrients in • Other Notable Examples of Marine Biological Pollution 368 Marine Ecosystems 425 • Oceanic Feeding Relationships 426 11.6 What Laws Govern Ocean Ownership? 368 13.5 What Issues Affect Marine Fisheries? 430 Mare Liberum and the Territorial Sea 368 • Law of the Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries 430 • Overfishing 430 • Incidental Sea 369 Catch 432 Essential Concepts Review 371 Diving Deeper 13.1 Focus on the Environment Fishing down the Food Web: Seeing Is Believing 433 Fisheries Management 435 • Effect of Global Climate Change on 12 Marine Life and the Marine Marine Fisheries 439 • Seafood Choices 440 Essential Concepts Review 441 Environment 375 Essential Learning Concepts 375 12.1 What Are Living Things, and How Are They Classified? 375 Animals of The Pelagic Environment 445 A Working Definition of Life 375 • The Three Domains of Life 376 14 Essential Learning Concepts 445 • The Six Kingdoms of Organisms 377 • Linnaeus and Taxonomic Classification 378 14.1 How Are Marine Organisms Able to Stay Above the Ocean Floor? 445 12.2 How Are Marine Organisms Classified? 379 Use of Gas Containers 445 • Ability to Float 446 • Ability to Plankton (Drifters) 380 • Nekton (Swimmers) 381 • Benthos (Bottom Swim 447 • The Diversity of Planktonic Animals 447 Dwellers) 382 14.2 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess for Seeking 12.3 How Many Marine Species Exist? 383 Prey? 452 Why Are There So Few Marine Species? 384 • Species in Pelagic and Mobility: Lungers versus Cruisers 452 • Swimming Speed 453 Benthic Environments 384 Diving Deeper 14.1 Oceans and People Some Myths (and Facts) about 12.4 How Are Marine Organisms Adapted to the Physical Conditions of Sharks 454 the Ocean? 385 Adaptations of Deep-Water Nekton 455 Need for Physical Support 385 • Water’s Viscosity 386 14.3 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess to Avoid Being • Temperature 387 • Salinity 389 • Dissolved Gases 391 Prey? 456 • Water’s High Transparency 392 • Pressure 394 Schooling 457 • Symbiosis 458 • Other Adaptations 458

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14.4 What Characteristics Do Marine Mammals Possess? 459 16.2 Earth’s Recent Climate Change: Is It Natural or Caused by Human Mammalian Characteristics 459 • Order Carnivora 460 • Order Influence? 516 Sirenia 462 • Order Cetacea 462 Determining Earth’s Past Climate: Proxy Data and 14.5 An Example of Migration: Why Do Gray Whales Migrate? 472 Paleoclimatology 516 • Natural Causes of Climate Change 516 Migration Route 472 • Reasons for Migration 472 • Timing of • The IPCC: Documenting Human-Caused Climate Change 520 Migration 473 • Are Gray Whales an Endangered Species? 473 16.3 What Causes the Atmosphere’s Greenhouse Effect? 523 • Whaling and the International Whaling Commission 474 Earth’s Heat Budget and Changes in Wavelength 523 • Which Gases Essential Concepts Review 475 Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? 524 Diving Deeper 16.1 Research Methods in Oceanography The Iconic Keeling Curve of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and the Father–Son Team Who Created It 526 15 Animals of the Benthic Environment 479 Other considerations: Aerosols 529 • What Documented Changes Are Essential Learning Concepts 479 Occurring Because of Global Warming? 530 15.1 What Communities Exist along Rocky Shores? 479 16.4 What Changes Are Occurring in the Oceans as a Result of Global Intertidal Zonation 480 • The Spray (Supratidal) Zone: Organisms Warming? 531 and Their Adaptations 484 • The High Tide Zone: Organisms and Increasing Ocean Temperatures 531 • Changes in Deep-Water Their Adaptations 484 • The Middle Tide Zone: Organisms and Circulation 534 • Melting of Polar Ice 534 • Recent Increase in Their Adaptations 484 • The Low Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Ocean Acidity 536 • Rising Sea Level 539 • Other Predicted and Adaptations 486 Observed Changes 540 15.2 What Communities Exist along Sediment-Covered Shores? 487 16.5 What Should Be Done to Reduce Greenhouse Gases? 542 Physical Environment of the Sediment 488 • Intertidal Zonation 488 The Ocean’s Role in Reducing Global Warming 543 • Possibilities • Sandy Beaches: Organisms and Their Adaptations 488 • Mud Flats: for Reducing Greenhouse Gases 543 • The Kyoto Protocol: Limiting Organisms and Their Adaptations 489 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 546 15.3 What Communities Exist on the Shallow Offshore Ocean Floor? 490 Essential Concepts Review 547 Rocky Bottoms (Subtidal): Organisms and Their Adaptations 490 • Coral Reefs: Organisms and Their Adaptations 493 Afterword 550 15.4 What Communities Exist on the Deep-Ocean Floor? 500 The Physical Environment 500 • Food Sources and Species Appendix I Metric and English Units Compared 554 Diversity 501 • Deep-Sea Biocommunities: Appendix II Geographic Locations 558 Organisms and Their Adaptations 501 Appendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth 560 Diving Deeper 15.1 Research Methods in Oceanography How Long Appendix IV A Chemical Background: Why Water Has Two Hs and One O Would Your Remains Remain on the Sea Floor? 502 (Online as MasteringOceanography Bonus Web Content) Low-Temperature Seep Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Appendix V Careers in Oceanography 563 Adaptations 507 • The Deep Biosphere: A New Frontier 509 Essential Concepts Review 510 Glossary 566

Credits and Acknowledgments 586

Index 589 16 The Oceans and Climate Change 513 Essential Learning Concepts 513 16.1 What Comprises Earth’s Climate System? 513

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“The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of the oceans. However, no formal background in any of these disciplines wonder forever.” is required to successfully master the subject matter contained within this book. Our desire is to have you take away from your oceanography —Jacques-Yves Cousteau, oceanographer, underwater course much more than just a collection of facts. Instead, we want you videographer, and explorer (circa 1963) to develop a fundamental understanding of how the oceans work and why the oceans behave the way that they do. This book is intended to help you in your quest to know more about the oceans. Taken as a whole, the components of the ocean— its sea floor, chemical constituents, physical components, and life- To the Student forms—comprise one of Earth’s largest interacting, interrelated, and Welcome! You’re about to embark on a journey that is far from ordi- interdependent systems. Because human activities impact Earth sys- nary. Over the course of this term, you will discover the central role tems, it is important to understand not only how the oceans operate the oceans play in the vast global system of which you are a part. but also how the oceans interact with Earth’s other systems (such as its This book’s content was carefully developed to provide a foun- atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere) as part of a larger picture. dation in science by examining the vast body of oceanic knowledge. Thus, this book uses a systems approach to highlight the interdisci- This knowledge includes information from a variety of scientific dis- plinary relationships among oceanographic phenomena and how those ciplines—geology, chemistry, physics, and biology—as they relate to phenomena affect other Earth systems.

Dvingi Deeper Preface.1 A User’s Guide for Students: How To Read a Science Textbook

ave you known someone who could scan a 2. Question: Have questions in mind when you throughout the chapter, review Concept Check Hreading assignment or sleep with it under read. If you can’t think of any good ques- questions embedded at the end of each sec- their pillow and somehow absorb all the infor- tions, use the chapter questions as a guide. tion, and an Essential Concepts Review that mation? Studies have shown that those people includes a chapter summary, study resources, 3. Read: Read flexibly through the chapter, haven’t really committed anything to long-term and critical thinking questions. using short time periods to accomplish the memory. For most of us, it takes a focused, Here are some additional reading tips that task one section at a time (not all in one concentrated effort to gain knowledge through may seem like common sense but are often sitting). reading. Interestingly, if you have the proper ­overlooked: 4. Recite: Answer the chapter questions. motivation and reading techniques, you can de- • Don’t attempt to do your reading when you Take notes after each section and review velop excellent reading comprehension. What is are tired, distracted, or agitated. the best way to read a science textbook such as your notes before you move on. • Break up your reading into manageable sec- this one that contains many new and unfamiliar 5. (w)Rite: Write summaries and/or tions. Don’t save it all until the last minute. terms? ­reflections on what you’ve read.W rite One common mistake is to approach read- ­answers to the questions in Step 2. • Take a short break if your concentration ing a science textbook as one would read a begins to fade. Listen to music, call a 6. Review: Review the text using the newspaper, magazine, or novel. Instead, many friend, have a snack, or drink some water. ­strategy in the survey step. Take the time reading instructors suggest using the SQ4R Then return to your reading. to review your end-of-section notes as reading technique, which is based on research well as your summaries. Remember that every person is different, about how the brain learns. The SQ4R tech- so experiment with new study techniques to nique includes these steps: To help you study most effectively, this discover what works best for you. In addition, 1. Survey: Read the title, introduction, major textbook includes many study aids that are de- being a successful student is hard work; it is headings, first sentences, concept state- signed to be used with the SQ4R technique. not something one does in his/her spare time. ments, review questions, summary, and For example, each chapter includes a word With a little effort in applying the SQ4R read- study aids to become familiar with the cloud of key terms, a list of learning objec- ing technique, you will begin to see a differ- content in advance. tives that are tied to the Essential Concepts ence in what you remember from your reading.

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To that end—and to help you make the most of your study time— This edition has greatly benefited from being thoroughly reviewed we focused the presentation in this book by organizing the material by hundreds of students who made numerous suggestions for im- around three essential components: provement. Comments by former students about the book include, “I 1. CONCEPTS: General ideas derived or inferred from specific in- have really enjoyed the oceanography book we’ve used this semester. It stances or occurrences (for instance, the concept of density can had just the right mix of graphics, text, and user-friendliness that re- be used to explain why the oceans are layered) ally held my interest,” and “What I really liked about the book is that it’s a welcoming textbook—open and airy. You could almost read it at 2. PROCESSES: Actions or occurrences that bring about a result (for bedtime like a story because of all the interesting pictures.” instance, the process of waves breaking at an angle to the shore This edition has been reviewed in detail by a host of instructors results in the movement of sediment along the shoreline) from leading institutions across the country. Reviewers of the eleventh 3. PRINCIPLES: Rules or laws concerning the functioning of natural edition described the text as follows: “Clean, sleek, easy-to-read text phenomena or mechanical processes (for instance, the principle with engaging photos, figures, text features, and animations/videos of sea floor spreading suggests that the geographic positions of that will “hook” students in and get them excited about the material,” the continents have changed through time) and “I think the text is very well put together. It does a nice job Interwoven within these concepts, processes, and principles are presenting the material and supporting it with many pictures, illustra- hundreds of photographs, illustrations, real-world examples, and ap- tions, and graphs. The text is well-organized and laid out in an easy-to- plications that make the material relevant and accessible (and maybe use fashion. I would recommend this text to a colleague for teaching sometimes even entertaining) by bringing science to life. Introductory Oceanography.” Ultimately, it is our hope that by understanding how the oceans In 2012, the tenth edition of Essentials of Oceanography received work, you will develop a new awareness and appreciation of all aspects a Textbook Excellence Award, called a “Texty,” from the Text and Aca- of the marine environment and its role in Earth systems. To this end, demic Authors Association (TAA). The Texty award recognizes written the book has been written for you, a student of the oceans. So enjoy works for their excellence in the areas of content, presentation, ap- and immerse yourself! You’re in for an exciting ride. peal, and teachability. The publisher, Pearson Education, nominated Al Trujillo the book for the award, and the textbook was critically reviewed by a panel of expert judges. The 16-chapter format of this textbook is designed for easy cover- age of the material in a 15- or 16-week semester. For courses taught on To the Instructor a 10-week quarter system, instructors may need to select those chap- This twelfth edition of Essentials of Oceanography is designed to ac- ters that cover the topics and concepts of primary relevance to their company an introductory college-level course in oceanography taught course. Chapters are self-contained and can thus be covered in any to students who have no formal background in mathematics or sci- order. Following the introductory chapter (Chapter 1, which covers ence. As in previous editions, the goal of this edition of the textbook the general geography of the oceans; a historical perspective of ocean- is to clearly present the relationships of scientific principles to ocean ography; the reasoning behind the scientific method; and a discussion phenomena in an engaging and meaningful way. of the origin of Earth, the atmosphere, the oceans, and life itself), the

Dvingi Deeper Preface.2 Ocean Literacy: What Should People Know About The Ocean?

he ocean is the defining feature of our To achieve this goal, ocean educators and 5. The ocean supports a great diversity of life Tplanet. Accordingly, there is great interest experts have developed the Seven Principles of and ecosystems. in developing ocean literacy, which means un- Ocean Literacy. The following ideas are what ev- 6. The ocean and humans are inextricably derstanding the ocean’s influence on humans eryone—especially those who successfully pass interconnected. as well as humans’ influence on the ocean.F or a college course in oceanography or marine sci- example, scientists and educators agree that ence—should understand about the ocean: 7. The ocean is largely unexplored. an ocean-literate person: 1. Earth has one big ocean with many This book is intended to help all people • Understands the essential principles features. achieve ocean literacy. For more information and fundamental concepts about the about the Seven Principles of Ocean Literacy, 2. The ocean and life in the ocean shape the functioning of the ocean. see http://oceanliteracy.wp2.coexploration.org/ features of Earth. • Can communicate about the ocean in a meaningful way. 3. The ocean is a major influence on weather • Is able to make informed and responsible de- and climate. cisions regarding the ocean and its resources. 4. The ocean makes Earth habitable. https://goo.gl/eMPlXD

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four major academic disciplines of oceanography are represented in most recent findings of the IPCC, five new “Students Sometimes the following chapters: Ask … ” features that address student misconceptions and concerns regarding climate change, a new Diving Deeper Box • Geological oceanography (Chapters 2–4 and Chapter 10) about the father-son team of Charles David and Ralph Keeling • Chemical oceanography (Chapter 5 and Chapter 11) who created and maintain the Keeling curve of atmospheric • (Chapters 6–9) carbon dioxide, an expanded discussion on the role of orbital • Biological oceanography (Chapters 12–15) parameters in creating natural cycles of climate change, and a • Interdisciplinary oceanography: Climate change (Chapter 16) new section on the effect of aerosols on global warming • A redesigned and updated Chapter 13, “Biological Productiv- We strongly believe that oceanography is at its best when it links ity and Energy Transfer,” including contributions by Dr. Angel together several scientific disciplines and shows how they are interre- ­Rodriguez of Broward College in Florida highlighting issues of lated in the oceans. Therefore, this interdisciplinary approach is a key fisheries sustainability element of every chapter, particularly Chapter 16, “The Oceans and Climate Change.” • A new name and focus for Chapter 11 “Marine Pollution,” which reframes the chapter discussion along environmental themes • Reorganization of Chapter 10, adding content about the properties of the coastal ocean from Chapter 11 and renaming the chapter Reorganization of What’s New “Beaches, Shoreline Processes, and the Coastal Ocean” in This Edition Section • Greater emphasis on the ocean’s role in Earth systems Changes in this edition are designed to increase the readability, • Addition of a revised word cloud at the beginning of each chapter ­relevance, and appeal of this book. Major changes include the following:­ that uses different font sizes to show the most important vocabu- lary terms within the chapter and directs students to the glossary 1. NEW! Hybridization of the Textbook at the end of the book to discover the meaning of any terms they don’t already know • Inclusion of more than 70 Web Animations from Pearson’s Geosci- • A detailed list of specific chapter-by-chapter changes is available at ence Animations Library, which include state-of-the-art computer www2.palomar.edu/users/atrujillo. animations that have been created by Al Trujillo and a panel of geoscience educators • Addition of seven new Geoscience Animations that have been spe- 3. NEW! Pedagogical Enhancements cifically designed for this edition to help students visualize some of • A stronger learning path that directly links the learning objec- the most challenging oceanographic concepts: tives listed at the beginning of each chapter to the end-of-section • Formation of Earth’s Oceans (Chapter 1) “Concept­ Checks,” which allow and encourage students to pause • How Salt Dissolves in Water (Chapter 5) and test their knowledge as they proceed through the chapter • Three Types of Breakers (Chapter 8) • Addition of a new “Recap” feature that summarizes key points • Effects of Elliptical Orbits (Chapter 9) throughout the text that making studying easier • Osmosis (Chapter 12) • A new active learning pedagogy that divides chapter material into easily digestible chunks, which makes studying easier and • Feeding in Baleen Whales (Chapter 14) assists student learning (cognitive science research shows that • Latitude and Longitude on Earth (Appendix III) the ability to “chunk” information is essential to enhancing • Inclusion of links to more than 50 hand-picked Web videos that learning and memory) show important oceanographic processes in action • The addition of one or more “Give It Some Thought” assessment • Addition of QR codes embedded in the text that allow students to questions to each “Diving Deeper” boxed feature use their mobile devices to link directly to MasteringOceanogra- • The addition of a new “Climate Connection” icon that alerts phy Animations, SmartFigures, SmartTables, and Web Videos ­students to topics that are related to the overarching theme of the • Select Diving Deeper features have been migrated online to Mas- ocean’s importance to global climate change teringOceanography as Bonus Web Content in an effort to reduce • A new multidisciplinary icon that flags content related to two or the length of the text more of the sub-disciplines in oceanography: geological oceanogra- • The addition in each chapter of a series of new SmartFigures phy, chemical oceanography, physical oceanography, and biological and SmartTables which provide a video explanation of difficult- oceanography to-­understand oceanographic concepts and numerical data by an • In all Essential Concept Review (end-of-chapter) materials, the oceanography teaching expert revision of existing “Critical Thinking Questions” and the addition of new “Active Learning Exercise” questions that can be used for 2. NEW! Content/Art Revisions in-class group activities • Updating of information throughout the text to include some of • A thoroughly updated Chapter 16 “The Oceans and Climate the most recent and critical developments in oceanography Change,” including new information about ocean acidification, the

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• Addition of an array of new “Students Sometimes Ask … ” ques- for further exploration. Content for the site was written by au- tions throughout the book thor Al Trujillo and is tied, chapter-by-chapter, to the text. The • Diving Deeper features appearing in the book are organized Student Study Area is organized around a four-step learning around the following four themes: pathway: • Historical Features, which focus on historical developments 1. Review, which contains Essential Concepts as learning in oceanography that tie into chapter topics objectives • Research Methods in Oceanography, which highlight how 2. Read, which contains the eText and Bonus Web Content oceanographic knowledge is obtained 3. Visualize, which contains Geoscience Animations, Web • Oceans and People, which illustrate the interaction of Videos, and Web Destinations. Geoscience Animations ­humans and the ocean environment were created by a team of geoscience educators and include • Focus on the Environment, which emphasizes environmen- an array of more than 70 visualizations that help students tal issues that are an increasingly important component of understand complex oceanographic concepts and processes ocean studies by allowing the user to control the action. For example, • All text in the chapters has been thoroughly reviewed and edited students can fully examine how an animation develops by by students and oceanography instructors in a continued effort to replaying it, controlling its pace, and stopping and starting refine the style and clarity of the writing the animation anywhere in its sequence. In order to facili- tate effective study, Al Trujillo has written an accompanying • In addition, this edition continues to offer some of the previous narration and assessment quiz questions including hints edition’s most popular features, including the following: and specific wrong-answer feedback for each animation. • Scientifically accurate and thorough coverage of oceanography topics Web Videos include more than 50 hand-selected short • “Students Sometimes Ask … ” questions, which present actual video clips of oceanographic processes in action. Web student questions along with the authors’ answers ­Destinations include links to some of the best oceanogra- • Use of the international metric system (Système International [SI] phy sites on the Web. units), with comparable English system units in parentheses 4. Test Yourself, which contains three Test Yourself modules, • Explanation of word etymons (etumon = sense of a word) as new including multiple-choice and true/false, multiple-answer, terms are introduced, in an effort to demystify scientific terms by and image-labeling exercises. Answers, once submitted, are showing what the terms actually mean automatically graded for instant feedback. • Use of bold print on key terms, which are defined when they are • RSS Feeds, which allow students to subscribe and stay up-to- introduced and are described in the glossary date on oceanographic discoveries • A reorganized “Essential Concepts Review” summary at the end of • Study Tools such as flashcards and a searchable online glossary each chapter to help make the most of students’ study time • MasteringOceanography, which features chapter-specific Essential • THE PEARSON eTEXT gives students complete access to a digital ver- Concepts, eText, Bonus Web Content, Geoscience Animations, sion of the text whenever and wherever you have access to the Web Videos, Web Destinations, and two Test Yourself quiz Internet. eText pages look exactly like the printed text, offering modules powerful new portability and functionality. 4. NEW! Squidtoons Students, ask your teacher for access. • A new, comic-styled Squidtoons cartoon in each chapter; created­ by a team of graduate students at Scripps Institution of Oceanography­ For the Instructor in California, each Squidtoons highlights an important­ marine • MasteringOceanography: CONTINUOUS LEARNING BEFORE, DURING, organism relevant to the chapter’s content; the cartoon links to a AND AFTER CLASS MasteringOceanography is an online homework, poster-like presentation that uses engaging ­graphics and humor to tutorials, and assessments program designed to improve results by discuss interesting aspects of each creature helping students quickly master oceanography concepts. Students will benefit from self-paced tutorials that feature immediate For the Student wrong-answer feedback and hints that emulate the office-hour experience to help keep them on track. With a wide range of • MasteringOceanography delivers engaging, dynamic learning interactive, engaging, and assignable activities, students will be opportunities—focused on course objectives and responsive encouraged to actively learn and retain tough course concepts: to each student’s progress—that are proven to help students • SmartFigures and SmartTables, which are short instructional vid- absorb course material and understand difficult concepts. eos that examine and explain the most important concepts il- MasteringOceanography and MyLab & Mastering are customized lustrated by the figure or data table. With nearly 100 of these learning resources that include: SmartFigures/SmartTables inside the text, students can stop, • Student Study Area, which is designed to be a one-stop resource pause, and replay the videos multiple times to help them for students to acquire study help and serve as a launching pad learn about important concepts and real oceanographic data.

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• Mobile Interactive Geoscience Animations, which include more Preview Access than 70 Geoscience Animations of difficult-to-understand concepts that are embedded throughout the text using mobile- • Teachers can request preview access online by visiting friendly QR codes www.PearsonSchool.com/Access_Request. Select Science, choose Initial Access, and complete the form under Option 2. Preview • GeoTutors, which coach students through difficult concepts ­Access information will be sent to the teacher via e-mail. • Encounter Oceans Activities, which provide interactive explora- tions of oceanography concepts using Google Earth™. Stu- dents work through the activities in Google Earth and then Adoption Access test their knowledge by answering the assessment questions, • With the purchase of this program, a Pearson Adoption Access which include hints and specific wrong-answer feedback. Card with Instructor Manual will be delivered with your textbook • Geoscience Animations, which illuminate the most difficult-to- purchase. (ISBN: 978-0-13-354087-1) understand topics in oceanography and were created by an • Ask your sales representative for a Pearson Adoption Access Card expert team of geoscience educators. The animation activi- with Instructor Manual. (ISBN: 978-0-13-354087-1) ties include audio narration, a text transcript, and assign- OR able ­multiple-choice questions with specific wrong-answer • Visit PearsonSchool.com/Access_Request, select Science, choose ­feedback. initial Access, and complete the form under Option 3—MyLab/ • Dynamic Study Modules, which help students study effectively on Mastering Class Adoption Access. Teacher and Student access their own by continuously assessing their activity and perfor- ­information will be sent to the teacher via e-mail. mance in real time. Here’s how it works: Students complete a set of questions with a unique answer format that also asks Students, ask your teacher for access them to indicate their confidence level. Questions repeat un- til the student can answer them all correctly and confidently. • INSTRUCTOR MANUAL (DOWNLOAD ONLY) This resource contains learning Once completed, Dynamic Study Modules explain the concept objectives, chapter outlines, answers to embedded end-of-section using materials from the text. These are available as graded questions, and suggested teaching tips to spice up your lectures. assignments prior to class, and accessible on smartphones, tab- This is available for download from the Instructor’s Resource Center lets, and computers. at www.pearsonhighered.com. • Learning Catalytics™, which are an interactive student response • TESTGEN® COMPUTERIZED TEST BANK (DOWNLOAD ONLY) This resource tool that uses students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to is a computerized test generator that lets instructors view and engage them in more sophisticated tasks and thinking. Now edit Test Bank questions, transfer questions to tests, and print included with MyLab & Mastering and eText, Learning Cata- the test in a variety of customized formats. The Test Bank in- lytics™ enables you to generate classroom discussion, guide cludes over 1200 multiple-choice, matching, and short-answer/ your lecture, and promote peer-to-peer learning with real-time essay ­questions. All questions are tied to the chapter’s learning analytics. outcomes, include a rating based on Bloom’s taxonomy of learning­ • STUDENT PERFORMANCE ANALYTICS MasteringOceanography allows domains (Bloom’s 1–6) and contain the section number in which an instructor to gain easy access to information about student each question’s answer can be found. This is available performance and their ability to meet student learning outcomes. for ­download from the Instructor’s Resource Center at Instructors can quickly add their own learning outcomes, or use www.pearsonhighered.com. publisher-provided ones, to track student performance. • INSTRUCTOR POWERPOINT® PRESENTATIONS (DOWNLOAD ONLY) Instruc- tor Resource Materials include the following three PowerPoint® Most of the teacher supplements and resources for this text are avail- files for each chapter so that you can cut down on your preparation able electronically to qualified adopters within Mastering and on the time, no matter what your lecture needs: Instructor Resource Center (IRC). Upon adoption or to preview, please go to www.pearsonschool.com/access_request and select 1. EXCLUSIVELY ART: This file provides all the photos, art, and Instructor Resource Center. You will be required to complete a brief tables from the text, in order, loaded into PowerPoint® slides. one-time registration subject to verification of educator status. Upon 2. LECTURE OUTLINE: This file averages 50 PowerPoint® slides per verification, access information and instructions will be sent to you chapter and includes customizable lecture outlines with sup- via e-mail. Once logged into the IRC, enter 978-0-13-426742-5 in the porting art. “Search our Catalog” box to locate resources. 3. CLASSROOM RESPONSE SYSTEM (CRS) QUESTIONS: Authored for use in conjunction with classroom response systems, Mastering Preview and Adoption Access this ­PowerPoint® file allows you to electronically poll your class for responses to questions, pop quizzes, attendance, Upon textbook purchase, students and teachers are granted access to and more. MasteringOceanography with Pearson eText. High school teachers can obtain preview or adoption access to MasteringOceanography in This is available for download from the Instructor’s Resource Center one of the following ways: at www.pearsonhighered.com.

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For more information about these instructor resources, contact your I thank my students, whose questions provided the material for Pearson textbook representative. the “Students Sometimes Ask … ” sections and whose continued input Pearson reserves the right to change and/or update technology platforms, including possible has proved invaluable for improving the text. Because scientists (and edition updates to customers during the term of access. This will allow Pearson to continue all good teachers) are always experimenting, thanks also for allowing to deliver the most up-to-date content and technology to customers. Customer will be noti- yourselves to be a captive audience with which to conduct my experi- fied of any change prior to the beginning of the new school year. ments. I also thank my patient and understanding family for putting up with my absence during the long hours of preparing “The Book.” Acknowledgments ­Finally, appreciation is extended to the chocolate manufacturers I am indebted to many individuals for their helpful comments and Hershey, See’s, and Ghirardelli, for providing inspiration. A heartfelt suggestions during the revision of this book. I am particularly indebted thanks to all of you! to Development Editor Dr. Barbara Price of Pearson Education for Many other individuals (including dozens of anonymous review- her encouragement, ideas, and tireless advocacy that she provided to ers) have provided valuable technical reviews for this and previous improve the book. It was a pleasure working with you, Barbara! Laura works. The following reviewers are gratefully acknowledged: Faye Tenenbaum did an outstanding job of creating and narrating the Patty Anderson, Scripps Institution of Oceanography SmartFigure and SmartTable videos that are found as QR code links Shirley Baker, University of Florida throughout this book. Jenny Duncan did an excellent job of updating William Balsam, University of Texas at Arlington all the study area questions in MasteringOceanography. Thanks also Tsing Bardin, City College of San Francisco go to Dr. Angel Rodriquez of Broward College in Florida for his ideas Tony Barros, Miami-Dade Community College and contributions to Chapter 13. In addition, Garfield Kwan did a su- Steven Benham, Pacific Lutheran University perb job of bringing scientific information to life through his Squid- Lori Bettison-Varga, College of Wooster Thomas Bianchi, Tulane University toons infographic comics, some of which are included as links in each David Black, University of Akron chapter of this book. Mark Boryta, Consumnes River College Many people were instrumental in helping the text evolve from its Laurie Brown, University of Massachusetts manuscript stage. My chief liaison at Pearson Education, Senior Geo- Kathleen Browne, Rider University science Editor Andrew Dunaway, suggested many of the new ideas Aurora Burd, Green River Community College in the book to make it more student-friendly and expertly guided the Nancy Bushell, Kauai Community College project. The copy editors at Lumina Datamatics did a superb job of Chatham Callan, Hawaii Pacific University editing the manuscript, catching many English and other grammar Mark Chiappone, Miami-Dade College–Homestead Campus errors, including obscure errors that had persisted throughout sev- Chris Cirmo, State University of New York, Cortland eral previous editions. Program Manager Sarah Shefveland worked G. Kent Colbath, Cerritos Community College behind the scenes to manage the quality of this text in terms of ac- Thomas Cramer, Brookdale Community College Richard Crooker, Kutztown University curacy, budget, and the achievement of program goals. Project Man- Cynthia Cudaback, North Carolina State University ager Connie Long kept the book on track by making sure deadlines Warren Currie, Ohio University were met along the way and facilitated the distribution of various Hans Dam, University of Connecticut versions of the manuscripts. Media Producer Mia Sullivan helped Dan Deocampo, California State University, Sacramento create the electronic supplements that accompany this book, in- Richard Dixon, Texas State University cluding ­MasteringOceanography and all of its outstanding features. Holly Dodson, Sierra College The ­animations studio Thought Café - http://thoughtcafe.ca/#sthash. Joachim Dorsch, St. Louis Community College TQCfCo9V.dpbs crafted the new animations and added additional ideas, Wallace Drexler, Shippensburg University which led to great improvements. International Mapping Associates Walter Dudley, University of Hawaii and Peter Bull Art Studio did a beautiful job of modernizing and up- Iver Duedall, Florida Institute of Technology dating all maps and most of the figures to add annotations that help Jessica Dutton, Adelphi University Charles Ebert, State University of New York, Buffalo tell the story of the content through the art. Art Development Editor Ted Eckmann, University of Portland Jay McElroy reviewed every single piece of art throughout the text Charles Epifanio, University of Delaware and suggested many improvements to make the figures more clear. Jiasong Fang, Hawaii Pacific University Marine biologist and talented Digital Graphic Artist Justin Hofman Diego Figueroa, Florida State University supplied a host of new figures featuring realistic marine organisms Kenneth Finger, Irvine Valley College that greatly enhanced the art program. The artful design elements of Catrina Frey, Broward College the text, including its color scheme, text wrapping, and end-of-chap- Jessica Garza, MiraCosta College ter features, was developed by Layout Designer Gary Hespenheide Benjamin Giese, Texas A&M University in conjunction with Pearson’s Design Manager Derek Bacchus. New Cari Gomes, MiraCosta College photos were researched and secured by Photo Researcher Kristin Pil- Dave Gosse, University of Virginia jay. Last but not least, Senior Production Manager Lindsay Bethoney Carla Grandy, City College of San Francisco John Griffin, University of Nebraska, Lincoln of Lumina Datamatics deserves special recognition for her persis- Elizabeth Griffith, University of Texas at Arlington tence and encouragement during the many long hours of turning the Gary Griggs, University of California, Santa Cruz ­manuscript into the book you see today.

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Joseph Holliday, El Camino Community College James Rine, University of South Carolina Mary Anne Holmes, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Felix Rizk, Manatee Community College Timothy Horner, California State University, Sacramento Angel Rodriguez, Broward College Alan Jacobs, Youngstown State University Diane Shepherd, Shepherd Veterinary Clinic, Hawaii Ron Johnson, Old Dominion University Beth Simmons, Metropolitan State College of Denver Uwe Richard Kackstaetter, Metropolitan State University of Denver Jill Singer, State University of New York, Buffalo Charlotte Kelchner, Oakton Community College Arthur Snoke, Virginia Polytechnic Institute Matthew Kleban, New York University Pamela Stephens, Midwestern State University Eryn Klosko, State University of New York, Westchester Community College Dean Stockwell, University of Alaska, Fairbanks M. John Kocurko, Midwestern State University Scott Stone, Fairfax High School, Virginia Lawrence Krissek, Ohio State University Lenore Tedesco, Indiana University–Purdue University at Indianapolis Jason Krumholz, NOAA/University of Rhode Shelly Thompson, West High School Paul LaRock, Louisiana State University Craig Tobias, University of North Carolina, Wilmington Gary Lash, State University of New York, Fredonia M. Craig VanBoskirk, Florida Community College at Jacksonville Richard Laws, University of North Carolina Paul Vincent, Oregon State University Richard Little, Greenfield Community College George Voulgaris, University of South Carolina Stephen Macko, University of Virginia, Charlottesville Bess Ward, Princeton University Chris Marone, Pennsylvania State University Jackie Watkins, Midwestern State University Jonathan McKenzie, Edison State College–Lee Campus Jamieson Webb, Gulf Coast State College Matthew McMackin, San Jose State University Arthur Wegweiser, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania James McWhorter, Miami-Dade Community College Diana Wenzel, Seminole State College of Florida Gregory Mead, University of Florida John White, Louisiana State University Keith Meldahl, MiraCosta College Katryn Wiese, City College of San Francisco Nancy Mesner, Utah State University Raymond Wiggers, College of Lake County Chris Metzler, MiraCosta College John Wormuth, Texas A&M University Johnnie Moore, University of Montana Memorie Yasuda, Scripps Institution of Oceanography P. Graham Mortyn, California State University, Fresno Andrew Muller, Millersville University Although this book has benefited from careful review by many in- Andrew Muller, Utah State University dividuals, the accuracy of the information rests with the authors. If you Daniel Murphy, Eastfield College find errors or have comments about the text, please contact me. Jay Muza, Florida Atlantic University Al Trujillo Jennifer Nelson, Indiana University–Purdue University at Indianapolis Department of Earth, Space, and Aviation Sciences Jim Noyes, El Camino Community College Sarah O’Malley, Maine Maritime Academy Palomar College B. L. Oostdam, Millersville University 1140 W. Mission Rd. William Orr, University of Oregon San Marcos, CA 92069 Joseph Osborn, Century College [email protected] Donald Palmer, Kent State University www2.palomar.edu/users/atrujillo Nancy Penncavage, Suffolk County Community College Curt Peterson, Portland State University Adam Petrusek, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic Edward Ponto, Onondaga Community College “If there is magic on this planet, it is contained in water.” Donald Reed, San Jose State University Randal Reed, Shasta College —Loren Eiseley, American educator and M. Hassan Rezaie Boroon, California State University, Los Angeles ­natural science writer (1907–1977) Cathryn Rhodes, University of California, Davis

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1.2 Earth’s oceans 7.12 Coastal upwelling and downwelling 1.15 The scientific method 7.22 Normal, El Niño, and La Niña conditions 1.19 The nebular hypothesis of solar system formation 7.28 Atlantic Ocean subsurface water masses 1.21 Comparison of Earth’s chemical composition and physical 8.4 Characteristics and terminology of a typical progressive wave properties 8.15 Constructive, destructive, and mixed interference produce a 1.27 Photosynthesis and respiration are cyclic and complimentary variety of wave patterns processes that are fundamental to life on Earth 8.22 Wave reflection and constructive interference at The Wedge, 2.10 Magnetic evidence of sea floor spreading Newport Harbor, California 2.12 and tectonic plate boundaries 8.25 Tsunami generation, propagation, and destruction 2.19 Comparing oceanic rises and ridges 8.32 How a wave power plant works 2.20 The three subtypes of convergent plate boundaries and their 9.6 Resultant forces associated features 9.9 The lunar day 2.25 Origin and development of mantle plumes and hotspots 9.11 Earth-Moon-Sun positions and the tides 2.33 The Wilson cycle of ocean basin evolution 9.16 Predicted idealized tides 3A Earth’s hypsographic curve 9.21 Reversing tidal currents in a bay 3.2 Multibeam sonar 10.4 Longshore current and 3.9 Passive and active continental margins 10.14 Physiographic features of barrier island and migration of a 3.12 Submarine canyons and turbidity currents barrier island in response to 3.24 Transform faults and fracture zones 10.16 Beach compartments 4.1 Accumulation of siliceous ooze 10.20 Interference of sand movement 4.15 Sea floor spreading and sediment accumulation 10.30 Salinity variation in the coastal ocean 4.20 Distribution of sediment across a passive 10.34 Classifying estuaries by mixing 4.21 Distribution of neritic (nearshore) and pelagic (open ocean) 11.3 Comparison of selected oil spills sediments 11.9 Processes acting on oil spills 5.8 Latent heats and changes of state of water 11.16 How biomagnification concentrates toxins in higher-level 5.9 Hydrogen bonds in H2O and the three states of matter organisms 5.12 Water density as a function of temperature and the formation 11.17 Methylmercury concentration in fish, fish consumption rates of ice. for various populations, and the danger levels of mercury 5.21 The pH scale including pH values of common substances poisoning 5.26 Salinity variation with depth 11.20 International laws regulate ocean dumping in U.S. waters 5.27 Comparing vertical profile curves for temperature and 12.1 The three domains of life and the six kingdoms of organisms density in the low and high latitudes 12.12 Surface area-to-volume ratio of cubes of different sizes 6.2 Perspective view of Earth’s orbit: Why Earth has seasons 12.18 Salinity adaptations of freshwater and saltwater fish 6.10 A merry-go-round spinning counterclockwise as viewed from 12.26 Abundance of dissolved oxygen and nutrients with depth above illustrates some concepts about the Coriolis effect 13.1 Photosynthesis and respiration are cyclic and complimentary 6.14 High- and low-pressure regions and resulting air flow in the processes that are fundamental to life on Earth Northern Hemisphere 13.3 The electromagnetic spectrum and transmission of visible 6.20 Typical North Atlantic hurricane storm track and detail of light in seawater internal structure 13.6 Coastal upwelling 7.5 Wind-driven surface currents 13.14 How dead zones form 7.7 The produces 13.28 Ecosystem energy flow and efficiency

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13.30 Oceanic biomass pyramid 15.28 Comparing chemosynthesis (top panel) and photosynthesis 13.36 Methods and gear used in commercial fishing (bottom panel) 16.1 14.2 Swim bladder Major components of Earth’s climate system 16.2 14.9 General features and fins of a fish Examples of climate feedback loops 16A 14.17 Major groups of marine mammals The Keeling curve 16.17 14.19 Skeletal and morphological differences between seals and Ice core data of atmospheric composition and global sea lions temperature 16.18 14.24 Cutaway views showing the echolocation system of a sperm Scenarios for future atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and whale and a dolphin corresponding global temperature increase 16.26 15.1 Worldwide distribution of oceanic benthic biomass Examples of marine organisms that are affected by increased ocean acidity 15.2 Rocky shore intertidal zones and common organisms 16.34 The iron hypothesis 15.20 Coral reef structure and zonation

SmartTables

T able 1.1 Comparing oceanic and continental crust Table 6.3 The Saffir-Simpson scale of hurricane intensity T able 2.1 Characteristics, tectonic process, features, and examples T able 7.1 Subtropical gyres and surface currents of plate boundaries T able 7.2 Characteristics of western and eastern boundary T able 3.1 Comparison between transform faults and fracture currents of subtropical gyres zones T able 8.1 Beaufort Wind Scale and the state of the sea Table 4.3 Comparison of environments interpreted from deposits T able 12.1 Taxonomic classification of selected organisms of siliceous and calcareous ooze in surface sediments T able 13.1 Values of net primary productivity for various T able 5.1 Selected dissolved materials in 35‰ seawater ecosystems Table 5.2 Comparison of selected properties of pure water T able 15.1 Adverse conditions of rocky intertidal zones and and seawater organism adaptations Table 5.3 Processes that affect seawater salinity T able 16.1 Human-caused greenhouse gases and their contribution Table 6.2 Characteristics of wind belts and boundaries to increasing the greenhouse effect

New Geoscience Animations Specifically Designed for this Edition

Chapter 1 Formation of Earth’s Oceans Chapter 12 Osmosis Chapter 5 How Salt Dissolves in Water Chapter 14 Feeding in Baleen Whales Chapter 8 Three Types of Breakers A ppendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth Chapter 9 Effects of Elliptical Orbits

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 19 19/12/15 2:17 AM OCEANOGRAPHY JUST GOT REAL!

WITH al Trujillo, Essentials of Oceanography Twelfth Edition

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 20 19/12/15 2:18 AM 148 CHaptEr 5 Water and Seawater

Table 5.1 selecTed dissolved maTerials in 35‰ seawaTer 1. Major constituents (in parts per thousand by weight, ‰) Constituent Concentration (‰) Ratio of constituent/total salts (%) Chloride (Cl−) 19.2 55.04 Sodium (Na+) 10.6 30.61 2− D Sulfatey (SOnam4 ) ic visuals and2.7 integra7.68ted media Magnesium (Mg2+) 1.3 3.69 Calcium (Ca2+) 0.40 1.16 bPotassiumring (K+) oceanography0.38 to life 1.10 Total 34.58‰ 99.28%

Highly2. Minor constituentsvisual and(in parts interactive per million by weight, tools ppm amake) oceanography approachable, enabling students Gases to see oceanographic processes Nutrients in action. Others Constituent Concentration (ppm) Constituent Concentration (ppm) Constituent Concentration (ppm) Carbon dioxide 90 Silicon (Si) 3.0 Bromide (Br−) 2.3 What Features Occur at Plate 65.0Boundaries? 59 The slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a tall, steep, rugged portion of the mid-ocean (CO2) ridge with a prominent central valley. Sea Level 0 150 300 Miles 1.5 0 150 300 Kilometers Nitrogen (N2) 14 Nitrogen (N) 0.5 Carbon5000 (C) 28.0 3.0 10,000 Depth (ft) Oxygen (O ) 6 Phosphorus (P) 0.07Depth (km) 4.5 Strontium15,000 (Sr) 8.0 2 6.0 20,000 100 75 50 250 25 50 75 100 Time (million years) Iron (Fe) 0.002(a) Pro le view of an oceanic ridge. Boron (B) 4.6 NEW! SmartFigures and SmartTables are 3- to Mid–Atlantic Ridge 4.4 What Are the Characteristics of Hydrogenous Sediment? 121 3. Trace constituents (in parts per billion by weight, ppbb) 4-minute mini video lessons containing explanations smarttable 4.3 comparison of environments interpreted from deposits of siliceous and calcareous ooze in surface sediments Constituent Concentration (ppb) Constituent Concentration (ppb) Constituent ConcentrationSiliceous ooze (ppb) Calcareous ooze of difficult-to-understand oceanographic concepts and Surface water temperature Cool Warm above sea floor deposits Lithium (Li) 185 Zinc (Zn) 10 Lead (Pb) Main location found Sea0.03 floor beneath cool surface water in high latitudes Sea floor beneath warm surface water in low latitudes numerical data directed by an oceanography teaching Other factors Upwelling brings deep, cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface Calcareous ooze dissolves below the CCD Other locations found Sea floor beneath warm surface water in low Rubidium (Rb) 120 Aluminum (Al) 2 Mercury (Hg) Sea0.03 floor beneath areas of upwelling, including along the equator latitudes along the mid-ocean ridge

expert and NASA Science Communicator. By scanning calcareous ooze (sometimes exceeding 80%) are found along segments of the mid- SmartTable 4.3 Comparison of environments Iodine (I) 60 Manganese (Mn) 2 Gold (Au) ocean ridge, but little is found in0.005 deep-ocean basins below the CCD. For example, interpreted from deposits of siliceous and in the northern Pacific Ocean—one of the deepest parts of the world ocean—there calcareous ooze in surface sediments https://goo.gl/H5uBwg East Paci c Rise is very little calcium carbonate in the sediment. Calcium carbonate is also rare in a sediments accumulating beneath cold, high-latitude waters where calcareous-se- the accompanying QR code, or typing in the short The fast-spreading East Pacific Rise is a broad, creting organisms are relatively uncommon. note that 1000 ppm 1‰. low, gentle swelling of the mid-ocean ridge = table 4.3 that lacks a prominent . compares the environmental conditions that can be inferred from sili- RECap ceous and calcareous oozes. It shows that siliceous ooze typically forms below cool Sea Level Biogenous sediment is produced from the hard remains of b 0 150 300 Miles surface water regions, including areas of upwelling where deep-ocean water comes once-living organisms. Microscopic biogenous sediment is note that 1000 ppb 1 ppm. 0 150 300 Kilometers to the surface and supplies nutrients that stimulate high rates of biological produc- URL, students= now have a multitude of ways to learn 1.5 5000 especially widespread and forms deposits of ooze on the tivity. Calcareous ooze, on the other hand, is found on the shallower areas of the 3.0 ocean floor 10,000beneath warmer surface water. ocean floor. Depth (ft) Depth (km) 4.5 15,000 from art and data tables, all designed to teach. ConCEpt ChECk 4.3 Describe the characteristics of biogenous sediment. 6.0 20,000 30 15 0 15 130 Describe the origin, composition, ooze? What other component do all Salinity is often expressed in parts per thousandTime (million years) (‰)and distribution. For of biogenous example, sediment. oozes contain? as 1% (b) Pro le view of an oceanic rise. 2 List the two major chemical com- 4 If siliceous ooze is slowly but con- pounds of which most biogenous sedi- stantly dissolving in seawater, how can is 1 part in 100, 1‰ is 1 part in 1000. When converting fromment is composed percent and two examples of todeposits parts of siliceous ooze per accumulate the microscopic organisms that produce on the ocean floor? SmartFigure 2.19 Comparing oceanic rises and them. Sketch and label these organisms. Explain the stages of progression ridges. Perspective and profile views of the ocean 5 7 3 Technically, what must a biog- that result in calcareous ooze existing thousand, the decimal (6.5is inches) simply per year. Conversely, moved steeper-sloping one and slower-spreading place areas to of thethe floor basedright. on satellite bathymetry For showing instance, differ- typical enous ooze contain to be classified as below the CCD. mid-ocean ridge are called oceanic ridges. For instance, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ences between oceanic ridges (part a above) and (Figure 2.19a) between the South American and African Plates is a tall, steep, rug- oceanic rises (part b below). Note that both seawater salinity of 3.5% is the same as 35‰. Advantagesprofile views haveof the same scale.expressing salinity in ged oceanic ridge that has an average spreading rate of 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per https://goo.gl/Zh9QSS year and stands as much as 3000 meters (10,000 feet) above the surrounding sea 4.4 What are the Characteristics parts per thousand are floor.that Its prominent decimals central rift valley isare as much asoften 32 kilometers avoided (20 miles) wide andof hvaluesydrogenous convertsediment? directly

7 Hydrogenous sediment (hydro = water, generare = to produce) is derived from The spreading rate is the total widening rate of an ocean basin resulting from motion of both plates the dissolved material in water. to grams of salt per kilogramaway from a spreading of center. seawater. For example, 35‰ seawater has 35 grams 10 of salt in every 1000 grams of seawater. origin of hydrogenous sediment Seawater contains many dissolved materials. Chemical reactions within Interdisciplinary seawater cause certain minerals to come out of solution, or precipitate (change from the dissolved to the solid state). Precipitation usually oc - curs when there is a change in conditions, such as a change in tempera- ture or pressure or the addition of chemically active fluids. To make Relationship M02_TRUJ3545_12_SE_C02.indd 59 rock candy, for instance, a pan of water is heated10/12/15 and sugar 7:30 PM is added. When the wa- ter is hot and the sugar dissolved, the pan is removed from the heat, and the sugar water is allowed to cool. The change in temperature causes the sugar to become 5.1 squidtoons Determining salinity Early methods of determining seawater salinity involved evaporating a carefully Squidtoons, a comic-styled call-outM04_TRUJ3545_12_SE_C04.indd created 121 by a team 12/09/15 6:00 PM weighedNEW! amount of seawater and weighing the salts that precipitated from it. How- ever,of the graduate accuracy students of this time-consuming at Scripps Imethodnstitution is limited of O becauseceanography some water in canC remainalifornia, bonded are tofeatured salts that in precipitate each chapter. and some These substances infographics can evaporate highlight along with the water. anAnother important way to marinemeasure organismsalinity is to related use the toprinciple each chapter’s of constant contentpropor- tionsusing, which graphical was firmly representation established by chemistto display William recent Dittmar discoveries (1859–1951) by when he analyzed the water samples collected during the Challenger Expedition (seeresearchers MasteringOceanography in an interesting Web Diving and Deeper captivating 5.2). The principlemanner. ofBy constant scanning the associated QR code or typing in the short URL in the text, 10Notestudents that the units will “parts be per taken thousand” to are the effectively digital parts space per thousand to view by weight. the Salinity full values,cartoon. however, lack units because the salinity of a water sample is determined as the ratio of the electrical con- ductivity of the sample to the electrical conductivity of a standard. Thus, salinity values are sometimes https://goo.gl/kbHv7k reported in p.s.u., or practical salinity units, which are equivalent to parts per thousand.

Satellite tracking: used to precisely Spotter airplane: used locate a fishing to find dolphins, which stock. are often associated with tuna.

Aquaculture pen: farmed fish are raised in floating pens. NEW! Enhanced illustration program, with new art incorporating M05_TRUJ3545_12_SE_C05.indd 148 16/12/15 3:57 AM the research-proven technique of strategically placing annotations and labels within the key figures, allows students to focus on the most

Sonar: used to locate fish relevant visual information and helps them interpret complex art. underwater. Overall, nearly 90% of the entire book’s artwork has been updated or is

Purse seine net: Trawl net: a net that is a net with drawn around new, including new figures that provide visual summaries of essential steel doors that an entire is dragged along school of fish. processes and concepts. the bottom.

Gill net or driftnet: Long lines: a long monofilament a main line curtain that drifts within Sea floor traps: with hooks. the . metal or wooden cages with bait inside that catch crustaceans and bottom fish. Scale varies; vertical scale greatly compressed

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 21 19/12/15 2:18 AM E i ssent al elements form a path to successful learning

Each chapter is organized into easily digestible chunks, making studying easier and assisting student learning. Chapter material begins with learning goals and ends with assessment questions tied to those learning goals. The end-of-chapter material is also organized by the chapter's sections, helping students remain focused on the essential concepts throughout the chapter.

Each chapter opens with a list of learning objectives called Essential Learning Concepts, which provide a roadmap to the chapter. Each chapter section focuses on one main Essential Concept.

Concept Check questions at the end of each section are designed to let students check their understanding of the Essential Learning Concept. By stopping and answering questions, students ensure that they have a thorough understanding of key NEW! A Recap feature now appears throughout points before moving on to the next section. each chapter, summarizing essential concepts. This is a great tool for directing students' study and review.

50˚ 50˚ Arrows indicate the direction 78 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics and the Ocean Floor 40˚ 40˚ of ice flow, preserved as 2.3 what features occur at plate boundaries? 2.5 h ow has earth changed in the past, and how will it 30˚ EURASIA grooves in rocks. NORTH 30˚ 20˚ AMERICA 20˚ P PANTHALASSA look in the future? 10˚ 10˚ A The three main types of plate boundaries are... 140˚ 120˚ 100˚ 80˚ 60˚ 140˚ 180˚ 160˚ 80˚ 100˚ 120˚ N 60˚ ▸▸ As new crust is added to the lith- G TETHYS AFRICA 10˚ A SEA 10˚ E osphere at the mid-ocean ridge essential ConCepts review 20˚ SOUTH A 20˚ ▸▸ The positions of various sea floor and continental features have AMERICA 30˚ 30˚ (divergent boundaries where INDIA changed in the past, continue to change today, and will look very 40˚ 40˚ Plate Plate AUSTRALIA About 300 million years ago, 50˚ 50˚ DIVERGENT, 60˚ portions of the supercontinent plates move apart), the opposite 60˚ where plates are moving apart, different in the future. 70˚ ANTARCTICA of Pangaea lay close to the South such as at the mid-ocean ridge... 2.1 what evidence supports continental drift? (a) Pole and were covered by glacial ice. ends of the plates are subducted (a) into the mantle at ocean trenches ▸▸ A predictive working model of plate tectonics is the Wilson cycle, ▸▸ According to the theory of plate tectonics, the outermost portion of or beneath continental mountain which describes the evolution of ocean basins during their forma- 50˚ 40˚ tion, growth, and destruction over millions of years. Earth is composed of a patchwork of thin, rigid lithospheric plates NORTH EUROPE ASIA 40˚ ranges such as the Himalayas 30˚ AMERICA 30˚ Plate Plate CONVERGENT, that move horizontally with respect to one another. The idea began 20˚ AFRICA (convergent boundaries where Asthenosphere where plates are moving together, study resources 10˚ such as at a deep-ocean trench, and... as a hypothesis called continental drift proposed by Alfred Wegener 10˚ (b) 140˚ 120˚ 100˚ 40˚ 20˚ 0˚ 140˚ 160˚ 180˚ 60˚ 80˚ plates come together). In addition, MasteringOceanography Study Guide Quizzes, MasteringOceanography SOUTH at the start of the 20th century. He suggested that about 200 million 10˚ AMERICA Glacial 10˚ oceanic ridges and rises are offset, deposits AUSTRALIA Web Animations, MasteringOceanography Web Diving Deeper 2.3 20˚ Glacial 20˚ years ago, all the continents were combined into one large deposits 30˚ 30˚ and plates slide past one another 40˚ Plate Critical thinking Question (Pangaea) surrounded by a single large ocean (Panthalassa). 50˚ TRANSFORM, 50˚ along transform faults (transform Plate 60˚ Today, glacial deposits in Asthenosphere where plates slide past each other, 60˚ such as at a transform . 70˚ ANTARCTICA tropical regions of the world, along with the orientation of grooves in the underlying boundaries where plates slowly ▸▸ (b) Assume that you travel at the same rate as a fast-moving continent— Many lines of evidence were used to support the idea of continental rock, give evidence that the continentshave moved from their (c) drift, including the similar shape of nearby continents, matching se- former positions. grind past one another). at a rate of 10 centimeters (2.5 inches) per year. Calculate how long quences of rocks and mountain chains, glacial ages and other climate study resources it would take you to travel from your present location to a nearby Critical thinking Question large city. Also, calculate how long it would take you to travel across evidence, and the distribution of fossil and present-day organisms. MasteringOceanography Study Guide Quizzes, MasteringOceanog- Although this evidence suggested that continents have drifted, other If you could travel back in time with three illustrations from this the United States from the East Coast to the West Coast. Each chapter ends with the Essential raphy Web Animations incorrect assumptions about the mechanism involved caused many chapter to help Alfred Wegener convince the scientists of his day that active learning exercise Equator continental drift does indeed exist, what would they be, and why? Critical thinking Question geologists and geophysicists to discount this hypothesis throughout 540 million years ago the first half of the 20th century. You and two of your fellow class- 470 million years ago Using Figure 2.12, analyze and describe the tectonic setting that con- 430 million years ago active learning exercise mates are colonists on an Earth-

tributed to these natural disasters: (1) the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, 370 million years ago study resources Create two teams to debate the evidence for and against continental sized planet orbiting within the Indonesia; (2) the 2010 Haitian ; and (3) the 2011 earth- P 300 million years ago A Concepts Review, which simplifies the study MasteringOceanography Study Guide Quizzes, MasteringOceanogra- N G drift. Use only knowledge of Earth processes that was available prior to habitable zone of a distant star. As A E A quake and tsunami in northeastern Japan. phy Web Animation the 1930s. a group, choose one of the follow- 240 million years ago active learning exercise ing scenarios for your planet: (1) 170 million years ago it has extremely active tectonics, With another student in class, list and describe the three types of (2) it exhibits Earth-like tectonic 120 million years ago plate boundaries. Include in your discussion any sea floor features Equator process. Also organized by section, this review activity, or (3) it is tectonically that are related to these plate boundaries and include a real-world 65 million years ago dead. Then, based on your planet’s Today example of each. Construct a map view and cross section showing 2.2 what evidence supports plate tectonics? chosen level of tectonic activity, each of the three types of plate boundaries, including the direction describe what your planet looks like, including details about various 120° 140° 160° 180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 80° of plate movement and associated features. ▸▸ More convincing evidence for drifting continents was introduced in ARCTIC OCEAN Arctic Circle that would be visible.

the 1960s, when paleomagnetism—the study of Earth’s ancient mag- NORTH AMERICAN JUAN DE FUCA PLATE highlights a key figure from the chapter and PLATE netic field—was developed and the significance of features of the 40°

Tropic of Cancer ARABIAN INDIAN ocean floor became better known. The paleomagnetism of the ocean 20° PLATE PHILIPPINE ATLANTIC PLATE OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN COCOS floor is permanently recorded in and reveals stripes of PLATE 2.4 t esting the model: how can plate tectonics be used as a working model? Equator PLATE 0° SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN normal and reverse magnetic polarity in a symmetric pattern relative PLATE NAZCA OCEAN 20° 20° PLATE to the mid-ocean ridge. AUSTRALIAN Tropic of Capricorn ▸▸ Tests of the plate tectonic model indicate that many features and phe- active learning exercise Kauai, 3.8–5.6 m.y. PLATE Paci c Plate Oahu, 2.2–3.3 m.y. 40° 40° Molokai, 1.3–1.8 m.y. provides a summary of the chapter’s key nomena provide support for shifting plates. These include mantle Direction of Maui, less than 1 m.y. plate motion ▸▸ Harry Hess advanced the idea of sea floor spreading. New sea floor In pairs, investigate the Hawaii, 0.7 m.y. to present 60° 60° plumes and their associated hotspots that record the motion of plates Midway Islands is created at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge and moves apart in op- Antarctic Circle idea that a mantle plume Oceanic Plate velocities (in mm/year) ANTARCTIC PLATE past them, the origin of flat-topped tablemounts, and the stages of 3–11 25–40 55–70 underlies Yellowstone Na- Oceanic crust posite directions and is eventually destroyed by into an 0 1500 3000 Miles 11–25 40–55 70–77 0 1500 3000 Kilometers coral reef development. ocean trench. This helps explain the pattern of magnetic stripes on tional Park. Report to the This sharp bend in the Mantle Hawaiian-Emperor plume the sea floor and why sea floor rocks increase linearly in age in either study resources class what evidence you chain was created Detroit Aleutian Trench by a combination 81 m.y. Emperor Seamont of the changing chain motion of the Suiko The chain of volcanoes that Pacific Plate 65 m.y. Hawaiian chain concepts. It also includes study resources, have discovered. Using extends from Hawaii to the Aleutian Trench direction from the axis of the mid-ocean ridge. MasteringOceanography Study Guide Quizzes, Mastering- and the slow was created by the movement of the Pacific Plate over movement of the Hawaiian hotspot. the Hawaiian hotspot itself. Midway Critical thinking Question Oceanography Web Animations your understanding about Islands Hawaii ▸▸ Other supporting evidence for plate tectonics includes oceanic heat flow 27 m.y. Ages given plate tectonics, assess the in millions of years (m.y.) measurements, the pattern of worldwide earthquakes, and, more re- If the sea floor didn’t exhibit any magnetic polarity reversals, what before present. Critical thinking Question implications for the future cently, the detection of plate motion by accurate positioning of locations would that indicate about the history of Earth’s ocean basins? of this region. on Earth using satellites. The combination of evidence has convinced Describe the differences in origin between the Aleutian Islands (Alaska) and the Hawaiian Islands. Provide evidence to support your explanation. Critical Thinking Questions, and NEW! Active geologists of Earth’s dynamic nature and helped advance the idea of active learning exercise continental drift into the more encompassing plate tectonic theory. A recent discovery suggests that Jupiter’s moon Europa is composed of study resources thin, brittle slabs of water ice that undergo plate tectonics, much like MasteringOceanography Study Guide Quizzes, MasteringOceanogra- Earth’s lithospheric plates. Research this discovery on the Internet and phy Web Table 2.1, MasteringOceanography Web Diving Deeper 2.1, describe the evidence for the existence of plate tectonic processes on Learning Exercises. MasteringOceanography Web Animations Europa. www.masteringoceanography.com

Looking for additional review and test prep materials? With study tools, and multimedia that will improve your understanding of individualized coaching on the toughest topics of the course, this chapter’s content. Sign in today to enjoy the following features: MasteringOceanography offers a wide variety of ways for you to move Self Study Quizzes, SmartFigures, SmartTables, Oceanography Videos, beyond memorization to begin thinking like an oceanographer. Visit the Squidtoons, Geoscience Animation Library, RSS Feeds, Digital Study Study Area in www.masteringoceanography.com to find practice quizzes, Modules, and an optional Pearson eText.

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A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 22 19/12/15 2:18 AM Trningu interest into engagement

Everyday topics in a real world context help students relate oceanography to their lives while engaging them in how oceanography is studied.

NEW! Climate Connection: This NEW! Interdisciplinary Relationship: This icon shows how various sections of the icon shows how various sections of the text relate text relate to the overarching theme of to two or more sub-disciplines in oceanography: the importance of Earth’s oceans to geological oceanography, biological oceanography, global climate change. physical oceanography, and chemical oceanography.

The new edition includes a variety of Diving Deeper features, including Historical Features, Research Methods in Oceanography, Oceans and People, and Focus on the Environment. These features foster multi- dimensional understanding with captivating examples and stories. Each Diving Deeper feature now includes one or more “Give It Some Thought” assessment questions.

The popular Students Sometimes Ask features answer often entertaining questions posed by real students.

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 23 19/12/15 2:18 AM Cntinuouso Learning Before, During, and After Class with

MasteringOceanography delivers engaging, dynamic learning opportunities—focusing on course objectives and responsive to each student’s progress—that are proven to help students absorb oceanography course materials and understand challenging physical processes and oceanography concepts.

D ynamic Study Modules and eText 2.0 provide Before class students with a preview of what’s to come.

NEW! Dynamic Study Modules enable students to study effectively on their own in an adaptive format. Students receive an ini- tial set of questions with a unique answer for- mat asking them to indicate their confidence. Once completed, Dynamic Study Modules include explanations using material taken directly from the text.

NEW! Interactive eText 2.0 comes complete with embedded media and is both mobile friendly and ADA accessible. • now available on smartphones and tablets. • seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media. • fully accessible (screen-reader ready). • configurable reading settings, including resizable type and night reading mode. • facilitates instructor and student note-taking, highlighting, bookmarking, and search.

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 24 19/12/15 2:18 AM dur ing class Engage students with LearningCatalytics

NEW! LearningCatalytics, a “bring your own device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system (PRS), allows students to use their smartphone, tablet, or laptop to respond to questions in class without the need for a “clicker.”

H elping students visualize oceanography after class concepts that can be easily assignable.

NEW! The following 7 geoscience animations have been specifically designed for this edition: • formation of Earth's Oceans • how Salt Dissolves in Water • Three Types of Breakers • effects of Elliptical Orbits • Osmosis • feeding in Baleen Whales • latitude and Longitude on Earth

More than 70 geoscience animations are associated with the text, and all include audio narration, a text transcript, and assignable multiple-choice questions with specific wrong- answer feedback in Mastering.

Select key animations have been refreshed and made compatible for Mastering and mobile devices.

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 25 19/12/15 2:18 AM helps students learn…

(a) Waves approaching the beach at a slight angle near Oceanside, California, producing a longshore current moving toward the right of the photo.

Downcoast ... and an associated Movement of sand particles with each wave longshore transport of sand.

Upcoast ... causing a zig-zag longshore current of water in the surf zone... Longshore SmartFigures bring key chapter current NEW! Waves illustrations to life! These videos are accessible approach Wave cre the beach st at an angle... on mobile devices via scannable Quick Response (QR) codes printed in the text and through the Study Area in MasteringOceanography. Paired with other assessments in Mastering, these videos become assignable and assessable learning (b) A longshore current, caused by refracting waves, moves water in a zigzag fashion along the shoreline. This causes a net movement of sand grains (longshore drift) from upcoast to objects that can either prepare students for downcoast ends of a beach. lecture or assess what they have learned.

(a) Waves approaching the beach at a slight angle near Oceanside, California, producing a longshore current moving toward the right of the photo.

Downcoast ... and an associated Movement of sand particles with each wave longshore transport of sand.

Upcoast ... causing a zig-zag longshore current of water in the surf zone... Longshore current Waves approach Wave cre the beach st NEW! SmartTablesat an angle... are engaging tutorial videos that explain the relevance of the real data found in tables within the textbook.

(b) A longshore current, caused by refracting waves, moves water in a zigzag fashion along the Paired with other assessmentsshoreline. This in causes M a netastering, movement of sand grains (longshore drift) from upcoast to downcoast ends of a beach. these become assignable and assessable learning objects that allow students to interpret real data sets.

GeoTutor Coaching Activities are based on data collected from educators across the country and address the topics most frequently ranked as tough for students to understand. These activities guide students towards mastery of these topics, using highly visual, kinesthetic, and interactive activities.

A01_TRUJ7425_12_SE_NASTAFM.indd 26 19/12/15 2:19 AM …AND MASTER THE SCIENCE OF OCEANOGRAPHY

Encounter Activities provide rich, interactive explorations of Oceanography concepts using the dynamic features of Google Earth™ to visualize and explore Earth’s Oceans. Dynamic assessment includes multiple- choice and short-answer questions related to core geology concepts. All explorations include corresponding media files, and questions include hints and specific wrong-answer feedback to help coach students towards mastery of the concepts.

Student Study Area Resources in MasteringOceanography include: • Practice quizzes • interactive Animations • oceanography Videos–A series of studio demo and field segment videos created by author Al Trujillo; most of the studio demos were created as 2-part interactive videos and the field segments show real oceanographic processes in action. • web Video links • rss Feeds from ScienceDaily and Scientific American

Learning Outcomes: All of the MasteringOceanography assignable content is tagged to book content. Instructors also have the ability to add their own learning outcomes to assessments and keep track of student performance relative to those learning outcomes. Mastering offers a data-supported measure to quantify students’ learning gains and to share those results quickly and easily with colleagues and administrators.

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