Minor Research Project (Mrp) (Social Sciences)

MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT (MRP) (SOCIAL SCIENCES)

IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY INDUCED RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS: A CASE STUDY IN KARNATAKA

Minor Research Project Under the Financial Assistance of UGC XII Plan Vide Letter No. MRP (H)- 0771/ 13-14/ KAKA112/UGC- SWRO, Bangalore Dated: 28 Mar-2014

Submitted By

Dr.Dilip M. Javalkar Associate Professor Principal Investigator of the Project Government First Grade College, Nesargi Dept. Of Collegiate Education Govt. Of Karnataka – Bangalore

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have great pleasure in acknowledging my gratitude to University Grants Commission for providing financial assistance to undertake this Minor Research Project.

I am also thankful to the Principal and staff members of GFG College, Nesargi for their encouragement and co-operation in my research work.

I extend my deep sense of gratitude to all the farmer respondents, agricultural scientists, doctors, Command Area Development Authorities for their constant co-operation during my field work.

Dr. Dilip M. Javalkar Principal Investigator GFG College, Nesargi

Government of Karnataka Department of Collegiate Education GOVERNMENT FIRST GRADE COLLEGE, NESARGI-591121 NAAC ACCREDETED BY ‘B’ GRADE

Phone No: 08288-275342 Email: [email protected] ------

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, the executive summary of report of minor research project entitled “IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY INDUCED RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS: A CASE STUDY IN KARNATAKA” Ref. No. MRP 0771/ 13-14/ KAKA112/UGC- SWRO,Bangalore XII plan sanctioned to Dr. D.M.Javalkar, Associate Professor in Sociology of our college has been posted on website of our college and copy of the report is kept in the library for reference.

Dated: 25/09/2020 Place: Nesargi Principal

CONTENTS

Chapter Particulars Page No’s Acknowledgement Certificate List of Tables I Introduction: Irrigation Its Theoretical Background 1-41 and History II Methodology; Review Of Literature And 42-64 Theoretical Support III Irrigation Technology Induced Socio- economic 65-81 Development IV Irrigation Technology: Ecological Issues And 82-99 Problems V Measures to Tackle the Problems of Agriculture and 100-106 Farmers VI Summary, Findings And Conclusion 107-114 References and Bibliography 115-122 Annexure 123-137

LIST OF TABLES

Sl.No. Table No. Title of Table Page No. 1 Table 1.1 Ponds Constructed And Renovated By The Ancient Kings 12 2 Table 1.2 River Systems Of Karnataka 13 3 Table 1.3 Land Use And Irrigation In Karnataka 14 4 Table 1.4 Source Wise Irrigation Area In Karnataka 15 5 Table 1.5 Trends Of Irrigation Area In Karnataka 16 6 Table 1.6 District Wise Sources Of Irrigation Area In Karnataka 16 7 Table 1.7 Different Canal Systems And Ultimate Potential Target 21 Table 1.8 District Wise Planned , Ultimate Potential And 22 8 Cumulative Potential Created (Malaprabha Project) 9 Table 1.9 District Wise Irrigation Potential ( Ghataprabha Project) 26 Table 1.10 Cumulative Statement Cla Released (Malaprabha And 27 10 Ghataprabha Project) Table 1.11 Expenditure Incurred During Years(Malaprabha And 28 11 Ghataprabha Project) 12 Table 1.12 Selection Of Samples 28 13 Table 1.13 Sources Of Irrigation Details In Naragund Taluk (In Ha.) 34 14 Table 1.14 Sources Of Irrigation Details In Raibag Taluk (In Ha.) 37 15 Table 1.15 Sources Of Irrigation Details In Navalagund Taluk:(In Ha.) 39 16 Table 1.16 Sources Of Irrigation Details In Jamakhandi Taluk:(In Ha.) 41 17 Table 2.1 Age Composition of Respondents (above 40 years) 57 18 Table 2.2 Literacy and Educational Level of the Respondents 58 19 Table 2.3 Religious Composition of the Respondents 59 20 Table 2.4 Caste Composition of the Respondents 60 21 Table 2.5 Housing Pattern 61 22 Table 2.6 Size of Land Holding 62 23 Table 2.7 Size of Irrigated Land 63 24 Table 2.8 Annual Income of the Farmers 63 25 Table 3.1 Extent of change in cropping system 66 26 Table 3.2 Changes in cropping pattern 67 27 Table 3.3 Increased in gross cropped area 68 28 Table 3.4 Responses about crop yield 68 29 Table 3.5 Length of agricultural work in a year 69

30 Table 3.6 Number of working members in the family 70 31 Table 3.7 Marketing of agricultural surplus 71 32 Table 3.8 Investment and expenditure behavior 72 33 Table 3.9 Change in the level of income 72 34 Table 3.10 Saving behaviour of the farmers 73 35 Table 3.11 Family assets of the farmers 74 36 Table 3.12 Change in life style and standard of living 75 37 Table 3.13 Irrigation facility checks droughts 75 38 Table 3.14 Voting behavior of the respondents 78 39 Table 3.15 Contesting elections by the farmers 78 40 Table 3.16 Knowledge about Government schemes 79 41 Table 3.17 Literacy and educational level of the children 80 42 Table 3.18 Mass media and education of the farmers 81 Table 4.1 Details of land degradation under Malaprabha and 84 43 Ghataprabha 44 Table 4.2 Responses about land degradation 86 45 Table 4.3 Extent of water logging 86 25 Table 4.4 Responses about soil salinization 87 26 Table 4.5 Use of fertilizers pesticides and ecological problems 88 27 Table 4.6 Opinion about deterioration of water quality 89 28 Table 4.7 Opinion about loss of biodiversity 90 Table 4.8 Irrigation technology and health problems (use of 91 29 pesticides & fertilizers etc) 30 Table 4.9 Opinion about nature of health problems 92 31 Table 4.10 Problem of water availability 93 32 Table 4.11 Responses about problem of displacement 94 33 Table 4.12 Disputes among the farmers and between the authorities 95 34 Table 4.13 Cultivation of bad habits after irrigation 96 35 Table 4.14 Opinion about increased dowry system 97 36 Table 4.15 Problem of extravagance 98 37 Table 4.16 Responses about debt position 99

CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION: IRRIGATION ITS THEROTICAL BACKGROUND AND HISTORY

India is predominantly an agricultural based economy. Water and land are amongst the most important natural resources and the basic to agriculture. Water is essential for the sustenance of life in all its forms and integral part of the ecosystem. Sustaining and being sustained by it is a basic requirement for livelihoods and necessary inputs for economic activity.

Empirical evidences shows that the amplification of better economy, health, life conditions and welfare of the farmers is directly associated with the agricultural development through irrigation. It has considerable potential in contributing to higher income, employment generation and elimination of poverty and drought conditions. Agriculture is the main supporter of the majority of the people in India as well in Karnataka and water is the most important input in the process of crop production.

Agriculture is the backbone as well as the heart of rural community and is mainstay of Indian economy and same is true to economy of Karnataka. Hence, it is not merely an occupation but a way of life. In Karnataka a significant segment of population particularly the rural depends on natural resources for subsistence and livelihood and for them agriculture is the source of livelihood and irrigation is the contributory factor for agriculture development along with modern technologies.

The success of agriculture depends upon the adequacy and timely occurrence of rainfall. But rainfall in India and as well Karnataka is often scanty and uneven. Rain is confined to a few months in a year and it varies from year to year and region to region which makes large parts vulnerable to drought and famine. Boosting agricultural growth is essential for inclusive growth because this sector sustains livelihood for majority of the population. Agriculture development mainly depends on prerequisite factors like soil, water, climate and other related technologies. Thus, Relationship between natural resources and development has always been recognized as an important element in economic growth.

Several revolutions in agriculture have taken place to boost the agriculture sector. These include the Green Revolution, Blue Revolution, White Revolution, Yellow Revolution, 1

Revolution in Bio-Technology, Machine technology and ICT etc. The role of green revolution such as irrigation technology and machine technology is caused for speedy development in agriculture field.

Water for agriculture development is a basic ingredient. When irrigation is introduced into an established agricultural region the existing pattern of agriculture has greatly influenced. Thus; modernization of agricultural technology is complementary and supplementary for rural development. Technology is accepted as the basic of economic progress and is key driver for growth and transformation.

German economist; Schumacher said technology as a motor of development and an instrument of social change. Agriculture provides significant support for economic growth and social transformation. Agriculture in India and Karnataka has been characterized by many revolutions and that change the very face of agricultural sector. The green revolution is an important milestone in agriculture sector and one thing is common in this revolution was the use of ‘Technology’. Technology is the prime mover which helps to shape society.

Economists consider that; the four basic elements of an economy are land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. Sociologists and Anthropologists very often consider; technology as a fifth element. Technology is essentially a society’s pool of knowledge used for production. The system of transfer of technology from research stations to farming communities; has played a crucial role in modernizing the agriculture sector. Thus irrigation and allied technologies together contribute to change the face of land and life of the farmers.

Agriculture modernization is the blend of four technologies viz. Hydro-technology, Chemical technology, Machine technology and Bio-technology. Thus science and technology are the basis of economic progress. This technology really empowers the people to improve the quality of life and enables rural people to become self reliant. It contributes to improvement in socio- economic life of the people.

Water and other agricultural technologies are the magical properties of turning the desert into smiling fields. That is why it is said that irrigation is an insurance against drought. It may be considered, what education is for man, irrigation and other related technologies are for land and agriculture development. It is often said that nothing moves in the Indian society unless agriculture and it is truism to state that agriculture cannot move unless water into land.

Development is essentially a 20th century concept which is emerged as an important concern in the 1950’s with the beginning of the era of five year plans. Development is said to be a complex phenomena on several factors that have been alleged to be responsible for un- development. It is defined as double edge sword, which has far reaching effects on the environment and ecology. Development can be defined as all processes that bring about improvement in human life enhancing environmental and healthy living.

Irrigation has been practicing for at least 4000 years. It is the view that ‘without water nothing else matters’. Even as early as in 371 BC, Koutilya in his Arthashastra advised “Agriculture cannot be made solely dependent on rains which amount to gamble with nature”. After about 2400 years of civilization since then 70 years of planned development and since independence; only 40 percent of cultivated lands are covered under assured irrigation.

Therefore to inject dynamism in traditional agriculture assured water supply is essential. To inspire the farmers with hope in his farm operations and to work with optimism, assured supply of water remains one of the major means of achieving sustained agricultural production. Thus irrigation has become life line of progress and prosperity in agriculture and elimination of poverty of rural population in agricultural setup.

It is in this context, irrigation becomes important to provide insurance against possible risks in rain fed farming (Venkata Reddy M. 1990). Hence, irrigation is everything in India; it is the main input through which our farmers can successfully overcome from climatic vagaries. It has made effective application of new technology to farming system (Satyam Sundaram.I. 1997).

Irrigation network is an important indicator of the level of agricultural development of regions. This helps in improving the productivity of agriculture, intensification of land utilization and higher employment opportunities with longer duration. This in turn will improve rural income and reduce the level of poverty. (Gautam Purkayastha. 2004).

The green revolution has made tremendous changes in agrarian social structure beyond expectation. Irrigation has always been a central pillar of the national agricultural development. (Bansil, 2004) it is proven that the development of agricultural sector and

prosperity is possible only with the help of irrigation and water availability. Irrigation projects contribute directly and indirectly in enhancing the quality of the life of the rural people.

Development of India largely depends upon the development of rural societies. During the struggle for India’s independence Gandhiji repeatedly said that the development of the country and its prosperity depends on its villages. He advocated all through his life that all our efforts should be directed towards the development of our villages.

Since agriculture has been the backbone of rural society; Government of India and Karnataka has given top priority to the development of agriculture through the provision of irrigation and other facilities in various five year plans. During last several decades, anthropologists and sociologists from east and west have shown that Indian villages too are changing in a positive direction steadily owing to modernization, industrialization, westernization and globalization. Agriculture is now rightly accorded a very high priority in India’s national planning and ranks next only to defiance. (Jain,J.D.1967).

There is no doubt that green revolution transformed the country and state from ‘food deficient’ to ‘self sufficient’. The total geographical area of the country is 329 million hectares out of which, 141 million hectares is net sown area. About 42 million ha. has assured irrigation. Rain fed area accounts for 70 percent of the net sown area in the country. Out of total rain fed area, 68 percent falls in the low to medium region and remaining 32 percent is in the higher rainfall zone, receiving more than 1125 m.m.ranfall (Manjunath, 2000).

The planning commission has therefore attached a marked significance to the problem of irrigation right from planning era; (Acharya V.V. 1999). Regarding India’s position in the agriculture is 7th after Russia, Canada, China, USA, Brazil and Australia. India has the largest irrigated area in the world i.e. about 22 percent (Sidhu,et al.2004). The main aim of irrigation in India is not only to provide water to the land and control flood situation but it also increase intensity of cropping, by using agricultural inputs such as HYV’s, fertilizers, pesticides and credit facilities etc.

Agriculture with Irrigation Technology has multiple effects. Some of the impacts are desirable and beneficial while others are undesirable and adverse. Though technology

changes the life style and economic prosperity but leads for various environmental and ecological problems. Agricultural technology helps for fastest growth but there is an inverse relationship between economic development and environment.

Over dose of fertilizers, pesticides, unscientific and excess use of water for irrigation may cause for depletion of chemical and physical properties of the fertile soil. Attaining development requires ways of ecological resource utilization; which decides the direction of development efforts. In this perspective, present disharmony between man and nature has begun sounding an alarm bell, which needs to be considered.

Irrigation projects can have the major benefits, but the negative side effects are often overlooked. These impacts can potentially have far reaching consequences as present as well as future generations and hence can affects the very sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Technological development explores major resources and caused for ecological and social deprivation and environmental degradation.

Karnataka is the second largest drought hit region next to Rajasthan. Water projects being presented a panacea for rural agricultural development in the Northern part of drought regions of Karnataka. Karnataka is self sufficient in food and hunger free state at major extent.

In this study, an attempt has been made to analyze the relationship between economic development and environmental issues emerging out of irrigation. This study reveals that over exploitation and unscientific use of land and water has become rampant in some talukas of Dharwad, Belgaum , Gadag, and Bagalkot districts, which are come under Malaprabha and Ghataprabha irrigation project.

Over the years the produce of the arable land has been falling under intensive cultivation and also affected on ecology too. The negative effects are slow to manifest. Land losing its fertility; upsets ecological balance such as water logging, water shortage, water pollution, pest resistance and also affect on entire human life in different ways.

Hence, the present study is undertaken to investigate the socio-economic changes among the rural farmers in the irrigation setup. It is an attempt to understand the improvement and problems in the life of the rural people under the changing scenario. It is not only an attempt

to look into the socio-economic changes in the life of the farmers but also an effort to understand the environmental and ecological problems in the project region.

It is hoped that such micro level study will not only help to evaluate the changes but will also help to know the problems and thereby to make appropriate recommendations and suggestions to the farmers, planners, policy makers and extension workers who are engaged in agriculture and rural development activities.

IRRIGATION - MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE

MEANING: Irrigation means watering the fields by any means to the land or soil. It is the replacement or supplementation of rainwater with another source of water.

In simple words, irrigation means an artificial application of water to the soils to assist the growth of crops. It implies a deliberate human effort to carry the water to the crops in fields.

Naugtern, I (1970): has defined irrigation “as the provision measures and availability of temporary as well permanent nature aiming at supply of water in some cases together with other to the soil respectively to the plants in order to maintain the growth of crops”.

The definition given by Colin Clark (1970) is believed to be more scientific. He says “irrigation is the application of water by human agency to assist the growth of crops or grasses”.

Hansen, (1979) defines “irrigation as the application of water to the soil for any of the following purposes to supply the moisture essential for plant growth, for crop insurance against short duration droughts, to cool soil and atmosphere thereby making favorable environment for plant growth, reduce the hazards of soil piping, soften tillage pans and clods and delays bud formation by evaporation cooling”.

Jain S.K. (1992) defines “irrigation is the application of water to the soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture which is essential for plant growth”.

Venkata Reddy, M. (1998) “Irrigation is a system of providing water through artificial means to meet crop water needs in the absence of adequate and timely rainfall”.

Thus irrigation is a tool by which land is made useful in drought-prone areas by providing water for land. It is a technical and institutional innovation, which permits cultivation of land otherwise ill suited for agriculture.

SIGNIFICANCE OF IRRIGATION

Water is called the world’s all time essential resource. It is most vital for life, without which no living beings can survive. It is indispensible for economic prosperity and over all development. Therefore water is considered as prime natural resource, essential ingredient and a basic need and valuable national asset. It is estimated that 71 percent of the earth’s surface is covered with water and remaining 29 percent is land. Of the water portion 94 percent consists of salt water and remaining 6 percent fresh water that lies in the form of glaciers under polar ice caps or buried under ground.

From very ancient times man has been using water from natural resources or collected rain water for irrigating agricultural crops. With the advancement of civilization and the development of science and technology bigger water reservoirs and canal irrigation systems came into existence. They enable large tracts of land to be irrigated so as to produce more food grains and other crops. ( Gurjar,R.1990). Hence regulated water has become a basic requisite for the progress and prosperity of agriculture.

The need for irrigation has been recognized in India since time immemorial. Artificial supply of water to the land was practiced as far as back as the 4th B.C. Early irrigation works were under taken for the domestic and agricultural needs. They included wells, tanks, and reservoirs for storage of rain water. (Savant, 1991). According to Hindu mythology the whole universe is made up of five elements. They are Jal (water), Vayu (Air), Bhoomi (land/ earth), Agni (Fire) and Akash (Sky), These elements are to be duly respected and considered in planning for the progress of any country and to avoid disasters (Ravindar, 2004).

As early as 1815 Lord Hastings recognized the value of irrigation works in Indian society. Dalhousie in a minute, “Everywhere I found lands of vast extent, fertile properties now lie comparatively waste but wanting only water to convert them to plains of the richest cultivation”. (quoted in Bhattacharya, 1971)

Indian agriculture is characterized by instability. The instability of agriculture is caused by the vagaries of monsoon. Rains may be too early or too late, they may be too much or too 7

little, in these cases crop prospects are adversely affected. Excessive rains cause floods, destroy crops and cause soil erosion. Deficient rains cause droughts, famine and pestilence. Both floods and droughts cause a fall in agricultural output (Govindaiah. 1999).

It is rightly said that nothing moves in the Indian economy unless agriculture moves. And it is truism to state that agriculture cannot move unless water moves into agriculture (Agarwal,et al.1990) Charles Trevelyan ( quoted in Narasimhulu, K. et al. 1988) says “ irrigation is everything in India water is more valuable than land because when water is applied to land it renders a great extent of land productive”. These remarks bring out the importance of irrigation in the country. Our late prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru said, “Dams are the temples of modern India” (quoted in Rudra Datta and K.P.M. Sundaram, 2004).

The extension of irrigation has always been considered as an essential ingredient of any strategy for increasing agricultural production. It is supplementary and becomes an absolute necessity where the rainfall is not in time or sufficient (Dewett, et al. 2000). Application of irrigation water helps in stabilizing production under abnormal conditions. As a result it has potentially to bring change in land use, cropping pattern, techniques of production- productivity and occupational structure (Neelamani, 1993). It is often said that irrigation is an Insurance against drought and is key element in the new technology (Prasad, 1991). Irrigation facilities definitely help to shift from traditional cropping pattern to the most advanced cropping system. (Patil, et al 1978).

India has a large population, which is growing at a high rate of 2.1 per cent. According to census 2011 India’s population has crossed the figure of more than 1015 million. The rapid growth of population implies more burdens on agriculture and food security. Thus; by now it is actually realized that water resources constitute an indispensable support system for human development in India. (Salunke, 2000).

Our scriptures described; water is one of the manifestations of God and is essential for life and more so for agriculture. Irrigation is necessary for those states that are frequently affected by drought prone states such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andrapradesh and Tamil Nadu etc. The importance of irrigation has been well documented by Gulati who writes- “Irrigation is an old art in many courtiers but for the whole world it is a modern science i.e. science of survival” (quoted in Govindaiha,T. 1989). In fact it acts as a harbinger of change and brings far-reaching changes in the cropping pattern, input absorption capacity, influences production and productivity and investment pattern (Khan Mohamed Azimuddin,1992). 8

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Irrigation technology is a pivotal to agricultural growth and there by socio-economic development. Irrigation and other technologies are vital input of agricultural production. It is an agricultural practice to fight against poverty, generate employment opportunities, and mitigate drought and thereby prosperity of the farmers. Thus, agriculture has undergone drastic and revolutionary changes in the life of the farmers in recent days.

An agriculture operation in Karnataka as of the whole country is subject to vagaries of rainfall. The state falls in the category of high degree of drought and famine in this situation the development of the river valley projects has become a life –line of progress and prosperity. But on the other hand the irrigated regions are also facing socio-ecological problems. Thus; the aim of the study is to investigate economic development and environmental impacts of irrigation of Malaprabha Project located at Munavalli ( Naveel – teerth) dam and Ghataprabha river basin near Hidakal dam at Hukkeri of Belagavi district. The present study was carried out to know the positive impact in order to quantify the benefits and negative impacts generated by this project.

Irrigation development continues to be given high priority all over the region and at all times. It encourages the farmers to adopt techniques and go in for more crops and thereby to help in the development of agricultural sector. Assured water supply is essential to inspire the farmers with hope in his farm business and work at his optimum level. Water has magical power of turning the desert into smiling fields.

Thus irrigation deserves top most priority in achieving agricultural production. The analysis of the present study reveals the presence of positive impacts including increased agricultural production along with all socio-economic development. However, this project has led to multiple adverse effects in the hosting environment impact that need to be mitigated.

Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Projects are such a irrigation projects in the state which are ambitious project under taken by Government of Karnataka to provide benefits of irrigation to the farmers. The present study is confined to the Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Projects. The Malaprabha and Ghtaprabha command area covers the districts of Belgaum, Gadag, Dharwad and Bagalkot. The present study concentrates only four talukas from each distrcts and two from Malaprabha project and two from Ghataprabha irrigation project. The samples 9

are choosen; Raibag from Belgaum district, Naragund from Gadag, Navalgund from Dharwad and Jamakhandi from Bagalkot districts .

The reasons for selecting these regions are to know the climatic conditions, nature of soil, extent of irrigation, infrastructure facilities and socio-economic conditions of the farmers by and large similar, if not identical. The scope of research study includes the direct and indirect impact, positive and negative consequences of irrigation on the life of the farmers of these Malaprabha and Ghataprabha projects.

This Minor Research Project aims at studying the problems of farmers and their life in the changing scenario. It is hoped that, the findings of the study may be useful for preparing plans for socio- economic development and to use eco-friendly technologies and also to evolve proper irrigation and water distribution system. The present study is intended to analyze the socio-economic and environmental impact of irrigation.

Finally, since so far no attempts have been made to evaluate the positive and negative impact of irrigation from sociological viewpoint, the present study is a modest endeavor to examine empirically both the impacts of irrigation on rural community.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN KARNATAKA

Karnataka is the 8th largest state in the country, located in Deccan Plateau. The total geographical area of the state is 1, 90, 49,836 hectares accounting for 6.3 percentage of the total land area of the country. A total of 1, 23,100 km2 of land is cultivated in the state constituting 64.6% of the total geographical area of Karnataka. As of 2015-16, only 37.42 lakh hectares or 31 percent of the states cultivable land was irrigated.

According to census 2011 the population of Karnataka has 6.11 crores. The climate of Karnataka state varies from very humid rainy monsoon climate in the west coast the ghats and malnad areas to semi arid warm dry climate on the east. There are too many variations in the rainfall with higher amounts in the Western Ghats and reducing towards the eastern plains along the coastal Dakshina kannada district and the annual normal rainfall is about 400 mm. Historically; civilizations have been dependent on development of irrigated agriculture. In Karnataka references of various types of water harvesting structures can be found even in our ancient literature. Tanks were the main source of irrigation in olden days. Arakere the half 10

tanks, Volagere the mini tanks were used for irrigation. Katte is other kind of water bodies which were constructed by erecting artificial bunds.

The Kolla or kunte are natural ponds where rain water was used to get collected. Halla are mainstreams while kolla are ravine areas from where rainwater was Chanalized for irrigation purpose. The ‘Done’ or ‘Sone’ are water formations in the rocks or hills (Bagchi, 1995). In ancient Karnataka during 6th century Ganga King Durvinath constructed many tanks resembling oceans. The kings belong to Gangamat had constructed tanks as large as sea. Durvinath was the predominant of all the kings of the dynasty. The Ballaray samudra, Bharamsagar and Deveraya samudra etc., have been the major historical evidences.

The awareness regarding the necessity and priority for irrigation has began to increase in recent days. Kadamba King Chuta Nagari of Banavasi constructed tanks at Chandravali and Talagunda. He believed that the construction of tanks and canals was a meritorious work and it should be undertaken with the same interest with which temples were constructed. The Ballanarayana Samudra, Bharam Sagar, Devaraya Samudra etc., are some of the tanks constructed by the ancient kings, which exist even today.

The Nagawarma II in his Kannada dictionary (lexicon) ‘Abhidana Vastukosh’ (1042 AD) mentions about two types of lands such as Devamatrika land; the land which depends on rainfall and Nadimatrika land; which depend upon irrigation. The records of Yalundar taluk of 1960 AD, explain the sluices and canals of Cauvery. Chola Empire (985-1205 AD) built a number of tanks in Karnataka like Tangunda and Chikkaballapur tanks along with other 38080 tanks that were constructed throughout the state (Bagachi, 1995).

Among the big ones Ramasagara, Vyasa samudra, Masur- madakere, Sulekere and Ayankere are worth mentioning. Sulekere is the largest tank having more than 64 kmts, circumferences. In the Vijaynagar kingdom ; Harihar – I in 1336 AD and Bukka–I in 1355 to 1377 AD were the great propagator of irrigation works. The most famous of these is the Ananthrajsagar or Porumamilla tank of the Luddapah district, which took many years to get completed. Shrikrishnadevraya was the most remarkable king and is well remembered for his noted works at Korragal. He constructed large dams and connecting channels in 1521 AD.

Vijayanagar channel is one of the ancient and noteworthy irrigation works constructed during 1600 AD. Kaveri Delta Scheme (1836 to 1838 AD) had 765 kmts., long course along with

Deccan peninsula with 72520 sq. kmts., of total drainage area near Shrirangam. Krishna Delta Scheme (1851 AD) a big masonry dam was constructed across the Krishna river to harness more irrigation water and was 1021 meters long (Bagchi, 1995).

Hemawati and Laxmanteertha are the noted creations of the ancient rulers. The records of Shikaripura reveals the construction of Mahasethuve across the river Varada. Bangara Doddi canal constructed by Mysore King Kanteerava Narasimharaja is a well-known meritorious work (Govindaiah, 1989). Thus the several kings belonging to different dynasties had constructed a number of tanks during their respective periods. Table 1.1 contains all details pertaining to construction and renovation of tanks.

Table 1.1 Ponds Constructed and Renovated by the Ancient Kings Constructed and renovated ponds Dynasties Ponds & Tanks Ponds renovated constructed Gangas 33 7 Kadambas 7 -- Chalukyas 27 2 Cholas 20 5 Rasthrakutas 4 1 Hoysalas 215 36 Yadavas 8 1 Kings of Vijaynagar 77 19 Others 153 28 Total 634 99

Source: Govindaiah, T. “Karnataka Neeravari Arthashastra--” Samaj Viznan Samshodhana Samsthe, Banglore, 1994, P.11.

The above table; depicts the ponds constructed and renovated by the ancient kings in various parts of Karnataka. The more number of tanks and ponds renovated and constructed during the rule of Hoyasalas i.e. about 215 ponds constructed and 36 were renovated fallowed by kings of Vijay nagar i.e.77 constructed and 19 were renovated. The very less number of tanks constructed and renovated are in the regime of Kadambas and Rastrakutas.

Apart from the kings who constructed and renovated a good number of tanks and ponds. There are other nemours ponds and dams which are constructed after independence. The Cauvery channels were completed by the end of 19th century. The 20th century marked a milestone in the history of irrigation development. It has witnessed the birth of several major and medium irrigation projects in the state of Karnataka. (GOK, 1982). But before 1947 tanks and ponds were the main sources of irrigation.

Famine Commission of 1978-80 and the first Irrigation Commission of 1901-03 underlined the need for large-scale protective irrigation as a measure to mitigate droughts and famines. The Bhadra and Anjanapur two major irrigation works started in 20th century. The important projects like Vani-Vilas Sagar across the river Vedavati, Krishnaraj Sagar across river Cauvery were initiated.

Sir M.Visveshwaraih an out-standing engineer and statesman of Mysore were responsible for the establishment of many major and medium irrigation projects. He was an architect of Krishna Raj Sagar and Tippagondana reservoirs and also advisor to many other projects across the nation. Remarkable work in the field of irrigation development could be traced in the later middle of the 20th century, particularly during the Five Year Plans. Here are seven river systems in Karnataka with their tributaries drain in the state. They are given in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 River Systems of Karnataka Sr. No. River systems Drainage Area (000’ Sq. Kmts) (%) 1 Godavari 4.43 2.33 2 Krishna 111.74 58.66 3 Cauvery 34.27 17.99 4 North pennar 6.94 3.64 5 South pennar 3.76 1.97 6 Palar 2.97 1.56 7 West flowing rivers 26.39 13.85 Total 190.50 100.00

Source: “Irrigation in Karnataka”- National Information Center. (NIC). Secretary, Dept. of irrigation Bangalore. 6th Oct. 2003. PP. 1-4. There are seven major river systems in Karnataka such as Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, North pennar, South pennar, palar and west flowing rivers. Krishna river drains the major part i.e. around 58.66 percent (111000.74 sq.km.) fallowed by west flowing river i.e. 13.85 percent 13

(26000.39 sq.km) and very least drainage system is palar river system i.e. only 1.56 percentage. Table-1.3 LAND USE AND IRRIGATION IN KARNATAKA Table 1.3 depicts the land use pattern and irrigation in Karnataka (Area in lakh ha) Sl.No Classification Years 2010-2011 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 1 Total Geographical 90.50 Area 2 Net Area Sown 105.23 99.41 97.93 99.23 101.34 3 Area sown more than 25.40 21.18 19.55 23.44 21.13 once 4 Total cropped area 130.62 120.59 117.48 122.57 122.47 5 Area under Agricultural 111.62 101.23 98.74 103.94 102.26 Crops 6 Cropping Intensity (%) 124 121 120 124 121 7 Net Irrigated Area 34.90 34.40 34.21 35.56 36.59 8 Net Irrigated Area in % 33 35 35 36 36 9 Gross Irrigated Area 42.79 31.37 40.07 41.12 41.86 10 Gross Irrigated Area in 33 34 34 34 34 % 11 Cropping Intensity in 123 120 117 116 114 Irrigated Areas

Source: Karnataka state Dept. of Agriculture Bangalore ASCR Of DE & S 2014-15

About 2/3rd of the state receives less than 700 mm. of annual rainfall. Therefore state and central Govt. has giving mounting importance for irrigation to take-up projects to ensure stuffiest water to the land. Development and prosperity of the state is intricately and inseparably related to the management of scarce water resource ; it’s adequate use in quantity at right place and regular intervals. The important sources of irrigation in Karnataka are wells, tanks, bore-wells, tube-wells and canals.

Table -1.4 SOURCE WISE IRRIGATION AREA IN KARNATAKA ( In lakh ha.) Sources Gross Percentage Net Percentage Canals 14,73,177 ha. 14.73% 11,78,232 ha. 11.78% Tanks 1,96,220 ha. 1.96% 1,77,762 ha. 1.78% Wells 4,74,951 ha. 4.75% 4,23,411 ha. 4.23% Tube /bore wells 15,39,833 ha. 15.40% 12,77,637 ha 12.78% Lift irrigation 1,16,596 ha. 1.17% 90,325 ha 0.90% Other sources 3,36,087 ha. 3.36% 2,93,058 ha 2.93% Total 41,36,864 ha. 41.37% 34,4,0425 ha 34.40%

Source: Annual season and crop statistics report 2011-12 of DE & S Bangalore.

Table: 1.4 reveals that, accordingly the year 2011-12 the different sources of irrigation in karnataka by gross and net to the total is given in the above table. The major sources of irrigation in Karnataka is tube and bore wells. It occupies first place i.e. it irrigates 15,39,833 lakh ha. gross and 12,7.7637 lakh ha. net (15.40 % gross and 12.78% net), followed by canals irrigation i.e.14,73,177 lakh ha. gross and 11,78,232 lakh ha. net (14.73% gross and 11.73% net) irrigated area. The share of wells in the irrigation is third place i.e. 4,74,951 lakh ha. in gross and 4,23,411 is net ( 7.45% gross and 4.23% net) irrigation. It shows that major sources of irrigation are tube wells, canals and wells.

However the more number of canals in district wise are - Mysore and Mandya consists 33 and 22 in number respectively, more number of dams and reservoirs are in Belgaum district. Hasan, Ramanagar and Shivamoga are each 5 in number and number of tanks are more in tumakur district i.e. 1,642, Shivamoga 5,962, Haveri 1,904, Hasan 6,066, Uttar kannada 2,357. Tube wells and bore wells are more in Tumakuru 1,18,750, Kolar 81,837, Chikkamagaluru 49,727, Hasan 40,920, Ramanagar 38,059 in number. In related to wells; Belgaum occupies first place and the number of wells are 62,462, Bijapur 42,266, Dakshina kannada 40,057 and Tumakuru district 39,556 in numbers. So far lift is irrigation is concerned 6,504 in Belgaum district, 4,470 in Raichur district, shivamoga 4,134 and Bellary district only 3,597 in number.

Table-1.5 TRENDS OF IRRIGATION AREA IN KARNATAKA (In lakh ha.) Year Net area sown Gross cropped area Gross area Net cropped irrigated Area 1960-61 10228 10588 NA NA 1970-71 10248 10887 1355 12.45 1980-81 9899 10660 1676 15.72 1990-91 10381 11759 2598 22.09 2000-01 10410 12284 3271 26.63 2011-12 10404 12873 4096 31.82 2012-13 10523 13062 4278 32.75

Source: Karnataka at glance, Directorate of economics and statistics-2013-14

The above table 1.7 reveals that there has been a gradual increase in the gross irrigated area in the state. The gross irrigated area has increased slowly from 1980-91 onwards that is 15.72 percent to 32.75 percent in the year 2012-13.

Table-1.6 District Wise Sources Of Irrigation Area In Karnataka ( Samples Selected) ( Area in lakh ha)

Sl.No District Cannels Tanks Wells Tube wells Lift Irrigation Other Sources Total

Gross Net Gross Net Gross Net Gross Net Gross Net Gross Net Gross Net

1 Bagalkot 54685 54685 00 00 7675 6491 110173 101659 2544 2544 123321 15841 298398 281220

2 Dharwad 28261 20896 00 00 00 0 27859 22217 00 00 00 00 56120 43113

3 Belgaum 86300 77670 341 307 164749 148276 174635 157173 18990 17640 144493 129692 589508 530758

4 Gadag 36490 33052 260 260 349 349 49919 49919 00 00 16424 16424 103442 100004

Source: Annual season and crop statistics report 2014-15 of DE & S

Table 1.5 depicts the district wise sources of irrigation in Karnataka. Source wise irrigation from four districts; Belgaum stands first and its gross irrigated area is 5,89,508 and net irrigated area 5,30,758 hectares with all the sources fallowed by Bagalkot i.e. gross area is 2,98,398 and net irrigated area is 2,81,220 hectares. Gadag and Dharwad occupies 3rd and 4th place viz., 1,00,004 ha. and 43,113 ha., respectively.

MALAPRAHA IRRIGATION PROJECT

The northern regions of the present Karnataka state particularly the districts of Belgaum, Dharwad and newly formed districts viz., Gadag and Baglkot (previously Gadag and Bagalkot were in Dharwad and Bijapur district respectively) are in the scanty zone. The majority of the population of this region depends for their livelihood entirely on agriculture. This area was subjected to shortage and uncertain rains due to which the agriculture the main occupation of about 85 per cent of the people was not to be assured. The failure of rains led to failure of agriculture which in turn gave rise to alarming situations of scarcity and famines. It resulted in unemployment, poverty, starvation, low income, migration, death and other problems.

Therefore, Government undertook development works in these areas in order to prevent starvation and death of thousands of human beings and cattle’s and out migration of population to neighboring areas in search of food, fodder and drinking water. The drought or failure of rains always haunts the region like a nightmare, as failure of agriculture mainly affects on all the spheres of human activity.

The effect of these famines has been so devastating that; the large areas have remained pathetically backward. In this connection it is worthwhile knowing briefly about the northern region of Karnataka state, particularly the districts of Belgaum, Dharwad, Gadag, and Bagalkot which receive less rain fall i.e the order of 500 mm to 600 mm (NIC, 2003).

The recurring conditions of scarcity have been the root cause of continuous misery and poverty of the tract. It was therefore considered necessary to provide large-scale irrigation project to these areas by harnessing the water potential of the river.

With this motto a major irrigation scheme of Malaprabha Preoject has been formulated and put through. The proposal is to harness the water potentiality of Malaprabha Project for

providing irrigation facilities to the scarcity zones of the 4 districts of the northern part of Karnataka state.

In this context the Malaprabha river canal stands as monument to the successful reclamation of a part of great drought prone area. The efforts were made by the Government of India to construct the dams (GOK, 1991). Malaprabha Project comprises a dam acros the river Maaprabha at Navil Teerth near Munavalli village of Savadatti taluk of Belgaum district. The river after flowing about 136 kilometers through Belgaum district forms the boundary between the Navalgund and Ron talukas of Dharwad and Gadag districts. Beyond Gadag limits it passes north-east for about 64 kilometers through Badami and Hungund talukas of the Bagalkot district and joins the Krishna River at the Kudal-Sangama.

The project was setup to supply irrigation water for four (4) districts viz. Belgaum, Bagalkot, Gadag and Dharwad districts. These four districts cover with 8 talukas such as Bailahongal, Ramadurga, Savadatti (Belgaum district) Hubli and Navalagund ( Dharwad district) Naragund, and Roan (Gadag district) Badami and Jamakhandi (Bagalkot district) to provide irrigation to an extent of 2,20,028 ha., for four districts.

Irrigation potential created up to the end of May 2010 is 2,13, 537 hectares. The Malaprabha Dam comprises Rght Bank Canal (MRBC) 142 km. and 60 distributaries. Whereas 150 kmts., having 58 distributaries. Cumulative financial and physical progress achieved to the end of March, 2011 are Rs. 1172.36 crores and 2,13, 537 ha., respectively.

The Potential created up to the end of May, 2010 is 2,13,537 hectares. Cumulative financial and physical progress up to the end of March 2011 is 1172.36 crores and 2,13,537 hectares respectively. Malaprabha irrigation Project; at present has two main canals Viz; Malaprabha Right Bank Canal and Malaprabha Left Bank Canal.

MALAPRABHA RIGHT BANK CANAL ( RENUKA CANAL)

The Malaprabha right bank canal which is 138 k.mtrs. in length passes through Yallamma tunnel and has major branch canal viz., Naragund branch Canal measuring 42 kmtrs., to irrigate an area of 50,770 hectares of land. The total irrigable land under MRBC is 1, 34,044 hectares. This canal covers taluks of Naragund, Navalgund and Badami. These taluks come under the districts of Gadag, Dharwad and Baglkot respectively.

MALAPRABHA LEFT BANK CANAL (BALEKUNDRI CANAL)

The Malaprabha Left Bank Canal passing through the major tunnel at Katkol and Mudkavi which is 168 Kilometers in length and irrigates 53136 hectares. Malaprabha left bank canal (MLBC) is also known as Shri Balekundri canal covers Saundatti, Ramdurga, Badami and Bailhongal taluks.

KOLACHI WEIR

Kolachi weir across Malaprabha river near Ramdurga was to irrigate an area of 1477.99 hectares. The Kolachi weir project has 13.60 kilometers length of right bank canal with five distributaries.

MALAPRABHA DAM

NAME OF THE PROJECT MALAPRABHA PROJECT Location Navilteerth Year of inception 1960 Original and latest estimated cost Original estimated cost Rs. 20.00 crores & (Rs. in crores) latest cost 1383.48 crores Planned potential 2,20,028 ha. Length of canal MLBC MRBC A)Main canal 150 km. 142 km. B)Branch canal 26 km. 42 km. C) Distributeries 280 km. 677 km. Length of Ayacut 282.62 kmts. Districts benefitted Belgaum, Dharwad, Gadag, Bagalkot, Bailahongal,Ramadurg, Savadatti, Badami, Navalgund, Naragund, Hubli, Roan and Gadag Number of water Users Associations (WUCS) A) Formed 260 B) Registered 231 C) Handedover 208 Physical Financial Programmes during 2010-11 169 ha. Rs.234.00 Crores

Progress achieved up to the end of March 00 Rs. 94.81 Crores 2011 Programmes during 2011-12 --- Rs. 289.00 Crores

Cumulative progress up to the end of 2, 13,537 Ha. Rs. 1133.74 Crores March 2011

Source: Annual Report of Dept. of Water Resources Dept. Karnataka March 2011

AREA IRRIGATED FROM MALAPRABHA DAM

Table: 1.4 gives information about the different canals of Malaprabha and the land covered by irrigation in hectares. Table -1.7 Different Canal Systems and Ultimate Potential Target

Sr. No. Name of the Canal / form of irrigation Irrigation in Hectares 1 Malaprabha Right Bank Canal 1,28,628 ha. 2 Malaprabha Left Bank Canal 46,316 ha. 3 Kolachi Extension 8,094 ha. 4 Lift (Reservoir) 23,067 ha. 5 Lift Canal 6,475 ha. Total 2,13,206 ha.

Source: GOK, 1991. P. 65 and KNNB (Karnataka Neeravari Nigam, Belgaum) 2004-2005.

These are the main canal systems, from where water is supplied to the fields. The potential of right bank canal is 1,28,628 hectares followed by Malaprabha Left Bank Canal. The potential target of MLB is 46,316 hectares. There are other lift and extension irrigation facilities to the dam.

The soils of the Malaprabha command area is more of deep black cotton soil particularly on the right bank. These soils are alkaline and sticky and poor in physical condition and highly resistant to cultivate under dry conditions. As soils are hard and tough low in fertility thus; these soils are problematic. The soils of the left bank are mostly sandy and loomy with shallow superficial to medium depth. The soils are suitable for controlled irrigation for growing the crops like hybrid jawar, local jawar, hybrid maize, wheat pulses etc.

The soils in the command area of Malaprabha left bank canal and Yaragatti lift are mostly red, sandy and loomy with shallow to medium depth. The 50 per cent of the area is considered as black cotton similar to Malaprabha right bank canal and 50 per cent of the area is considered as red soil similar to that of Malaprabha left bank canal area.

CROPS GROWN (RIGHT BANK CANAL): The area is predominant in rabbi crops (after irrigation both season crops are growing). The common crops during rabbi season are rabbi jawar, wheat, maize, gram, cotton, sunflower, sugar cane safflower, linseed, soybean, groundnut etc.

CROPS GROWN (LEFT BANK CANAL): Here both Rabbi and Kharief crops are grown The type of crops grown during the Kharief season are sugar cane, cotton, hybrid jawar, hybrid maize, bajra, sunflower, ground nut, soybean, pulses etc (GOK, 1998).

The district wise distribution of ultimate potential and cumulative potentiality created up to December 2004 is given in Table 1.5 Table -1.8 DISTRICT WISE PLANNED , ULTIMATE POTENTIAL AND CUMULATIVE POTENTIAL CREATED (MALAPRABHA PROJECT)

Name of Planned Created Programme Potential Cumulative Progrmm the potential up to 2008 during 2008- created achievement e during district 09 during to the end of 2009-10 2008-09 Mar-2009 Belgaum 74043 ha. 73476 ha. -- -- 73476 ha -- Dharwad 41638 ha. 41080 ha. -- -- 41080 ha. -- Gadag 80368 ha. 74228 ha. 1673 ha. 803 ha. 75031 ha. 707 ha. Bagalkot 23979 ha. 19966 ha. 3283 ha. 1808 ha. 21774 ha. 1469 ha. Total 220028 ha. 208750 ha 4956 ha. 2611 ha. 211361 ha. 2176 ha.

Source: Water Resouces Dept. Major and Medium GOK. 2009-10

The ultimate field irrigation potential target is 2,20,028 hectares. The potential created up to 2008 was 208750 hectares and cumulative achievement to the end of march 2009 is 211361 ha.

GHTAPRABHA IRRIGATION PROJECT

The eastern part of Belgaum and whole of Bagalkot district lie in arid zone and therefore presently coming under famine stricken area. This project is a boon to the drought affected districts of Belgaum and Bagalkot ; where rainfall is low, scanty and unevenly distributed. 22

Ghtaprabha project comprises a reservoir across the river Ghataprabha near Hidkal in Hukkeri taluk. Under this project it is proposed to irrigate 3,10,823 ha. areas of Athani, Chikodi, Gokak, Hukkeri, Raibag, Ramadurg, Savadatti, Badami, Baglakot, Bilagi, Hunagund, Jamakhandi and Mudhol taluks of Bagalkot and Belgaum districts.

This project is being evacuated in 3 stages an irrigation potential of 1,39,614 hectares. The Ghataprabha river is the principle tributary of Krishna river in the northern part of Karntaka. The river originates near the edge of Sahyadri ghat in a place called Amboli Ramaghat about 40.20 kmts. from west of Belgaum city and flows towards the eastern direction for about 285 kmts., it enters the Bagalkot district in Mudhol taluka about 13 kmts.

Its length in the Bagalkot district in Mudhol taluka is about 112.70 kmts. It runs a course of about 80.50 kmts. first in south east till the villege of Budni and then east upto Bagalkot city.The Ghataprabha river has good Ghat fed catchment with an assured rain fall varying from 510 cmts. to 1250 cmts and drains about 28 TMC. about 125 kmts. on upstream of Gokak town of Belgaum district. The river Ghataprabha has a fall nearly 55 meter before entering the plains.

The objective of the construction of the Ghataprabha reservoir was storing water for irrigation. This is a composite dam, which is 53.34 meter high and 10,183 meter long. The first stage work was started in 1897 and comprised a 71 kmts., long left bank canal from the Dhupadal weir across Ghataprabha river Dhupadal in Gokak canal for providing irrigation to an extent of 0.425 lakh hectares.

The second stage of the Dhupadal weir from 72 kmts. to its full length extension of 109 kmts, across Ghataprabha river near Hidakal up to a hight of 650.14 meter. The Ghataprabha reservoir has storage capacity of 659 mcum. for providing irrigation to the total extent of 1396 lakh hectares of land. Efforts were made to utilize the water of Ghataprabha river as early 1852. A project of construction of masonry weir across Ghataprabha about 2.5 meters above Gokak falls was approved in the year 1877 and the Dhupadal weir and Gokak canal left bank was completed by 1897.

It has total catchment area of 1412 Km2 with a yield of 69.60 TMC capacities. It comprises of two canals viz. Ghtaprabha Right Bank Canal (GRBC) and Ghataprabha Left Bank Canal (GLBC) . The length of GRBC is about 202 Kmts. This reservoir was built to store water for

irrigation and it has a total extent of providing irrigatation to a total area at the extent of 13,96,000 hectares of land., with a capacity of 66.56 cumecs. It covers Belagavi and Bagalkot districts.

The entire scheme as conceived and now consists of the following components to provide irrigation over an area of 3,88,200 hectares in Bagalkot and 4,67,371 hectares in Belgaum district. In Ist stage, a storage dam at Hidkal with a storage capacity of 5.16 TMC feet and IInd stage, the left bank canal taking off from Dhupadal weir for length of 116 Kmts to command and irrigable area of 1.62 lakh hectares. Ultimately when lining is completed and in the IIIrd stage, Ghataprabha left bank canal for a length of 220 Kmts and Chikodi branch canal 86 Kmts length and to provide foreshore lift irrigation from the Chikodi branch canal. The storage reservoir has been formed by construction of 175 feet hight and 14,700 feet long composite.

The GRB canal up to 119 kmts is completed except balance lining work in 82 kmts and 83, 92, 110 and 111. All the works of GLB except lining completed. Presently lining works are taken up . the chokodi branch canal is completed up to 88 kmts. The commulative irrigation potential of 2,99,776. 94 ha. has been created to the end of March 2009 by incurring expenditure of Rs. 1191.98 Crores.

Ghataprabha project comprises, Ghataprabha left bank canal (GLBC) 109 kmts. Ghataprabha Right Bank Canal (GRBC) 199.93 kmts. There are 37 number of distributeries under GRBC and 61 number of distributeries under Ghataprabha Left Bank Canal (GLBC). And also 88 Kmts Chikodi Branch Canal ( CBC) and 25 no’s of distributaries andChokodi Branch canal (CBC) 88 Kmts.,long.

GHATAPRABHA LEFT BANK CANAL

Left bank canal taking off from Dhupadal weir runs for a length of 116 Kmts. This canal with distribution system will be lined to command 1.62 lakh hectares, out of total irrigated area from this canal. From this canal four talukas have benefitted in Belgaum district Viz, Gokak -3,42,634 hectares, Athani – 4,748 hectares , Chikodi- 8,337 hectares and Raibag 33,995 hectares.

THE RIGHT BANK CANAL

It takes off from the right bank of Hidakal dam and runs for about a length of 292 Kmts. The total irrigation area in this Right Bank Canal was about 1,55,567 hectares benefited by six talukas in Belgaum district viz. Gokak- 4,076 hectares, Hukkeri- 19,413 hectares, Ramadurg- 2,686 hectares, Soundatti -1,739 hectares , Chikodi14,730 hectares and Raibag-8,665 hectares.

GHATAPRABHA DAM

Name of the project Ghataprabha project Location Hidkal Year of inception 1972 Original and latest estimates cost( Rs. in Original estimated cost Rs. 90.54 crores latest crores) estimated cost ofRs.1435.00crores Canal and its length GRBC GLBC A) Main Canal 199 km. 109km B) Branch canal 88 km. 197km C) Distibuteries 994 km. 494km Length of Ayacut 600.35 km Districts benefitted Belgaum and Bagalkot Number of villages Athani, Chikodi, Gokak, Hukkeri, Raibag, Ramadurg, Soundatti, Badami, Bagalkot, Bilagi, Hunagund,Jamakhandi and Mudhol Numbers of water users association (WUA) a) Formed 302 b) Registered 302 c) Handover 285 Progress achieved up to the end of March Physical Financial 1882 2011 ha. Rs 84.22 Cr.

Cumulative Progress up to end of March, 2011 3,04,755 ha. Rs. 1394.88 Cr.

(Source: Annual Report of Dept. of Water Resources Dept. Karnataka March 2011)

Table-1.9 District Wise Irrigation Potential ( Ghataprabha Project) Name of Plan Created Program Potential Cumulative Programm the ned potential uptoMar.20 mes created progress at es during district 08 during during the end of 2009-10 2008-09 2008-09 Mar.2009 Belgaum 173422 ha. 170475 ha. -- -- 170475 ha. --

Bagalkot 137401 ha. 129031 ha. 2271 ha. -- 129031 ha. 2271 ha.

Total 310823 ha. 299506 ha. 2271 ha. -- 299506 ha. 2271 ha.

Source: Water Resouces Dept. Major and Medium GOK. 2009-10

Table-1.10 CUMULATIVE STATEMENT CLA RELEASED (MALAPRABHA AND GHATAPRABHA PROJECT) (Rs.In crores ) Year Malaprabha project Ghataprabha project 1996-97 1.50 --

1997-98 12.00 15.00

1998-99 10.00 12.50

1990-00 13.50 20.00

2000-01 -- 45.00

2001-02 10.00 5.00

2002-03 25.56 75.00

2003-04 -- 13.02

2004-05 12.00 62.09

2005-06 20.00 65.00

2006-07 13.50 30.85

2007-08 54.24 72.61

2008-09 30.54 52.04

2009-10 110.53 56.16

2010-11 00 20.6

Total 313.37 544.82 commulative

Source: Annual Report of water resources Dept. of Karnataka – 2010-11

Table -1.11 EXPENDITURE INCURRED DURING YEARS ((MALAPRABHA AND GHATAPRABHA PROJECT) (Rs.in crores) Year Malaprabha project Ghataprabha project 1996-97 5.12 -- 1997-98 14.92 20.47 1998-99 22.64 28.82 1999-00 9.87 20.04 2000-01 5.15 26.96 2001-02 15.87 72.77 2002-03 14.45 57.57 2003-04 14.42 55.45 2004-05 19.64 64.68 2005-06 19.62 92.47 2006-07 31.28 77.29 2007-08 56.37 76.90 2008-09 27.72 44.56 2009-10 31.99 72.35 2010-11 94.81 84.22 Commulative 383.87 794.55

Source: Annual Report of water resources Dept. of Karnataka – 2010-11

Table-1.12 SELECTION OF SAMPLES Sl.No. District Taluks Command area 1 Belgaum Rayabag Ghataprabha

2 Gadag Naragund Malaprabha

3 Dharwad Navalgund Malaprabha

4 Bagalkot Jamakhandi Ghataprabha

MAP OF KARNATAKA SHOWING THE DISTRICTS

MAP OF BELAGAVI DISTRICT SHOWING THE TALUKS

MAP OF DHARWAD DISTRICT SHOWING THE TALUKS

MAP OF GADAG DISTRICT SHOWING THE TALUKS

MAP OF BAGALKOT DISTRICT SHOWING THE TALUKS

BRIEF PROFILE OF THE STUDY REGIONS

ABOUT GADAG DISTRICT

Gadag district is located in Karnataka and was formed in 1997 and was split from the Dharwad district. Gadag was formed a separate district with 5 taluks viz., Gadag, Naragund, Munderagi, Ron and Shirhatti. Gadag district has an area of 4651 Sq. kmts and covers 2.48 per cent of the land area of the state. It is situated in the North of Karnataka. The districts that surround Gadag are; Koppal district in the east, Dharwad in the west, Bagalkot in the north and Haveri in the south.

The Gadag district borders such as Bagalkot on north, Koppal on the east, Bellary on the southwest. Gadag district has 7 tehsils , i.e. Gadag-Betageri, Roan , Shirahatti , Naragund , Lakshmeshwar, Gajendragad and Mundargi . Ron taluk has the maximum of 93 villages whereas Nargund has only 35 villages. Gadag district has 9 Municipalities and 5 municipal panchayats. Hyderabad, Karwar and Mangalore highways pass through the districts. Kappath hill and Nargund hill contain rich minerals and windmills are set up on these hills. Iron and gold ores are found in Kappath hills and limestone is available near Dony village of Munderagi taluk.

As per the census report of 2011 the total population of the district is 10,65,235 among the total population the male population is 5,37,147 and females are 5,27,423 . In respect of rural - urban population; the rural population is 6,29,652 and urban is 3,42,183 population. The density of population of the district is 229 per sq.kmts. According to census 2011 the rate of literacy of the district is 75.12 per cent. Of the total literates 84.66 per cent are males and 65.44 per cent are female literates. The sex ratio is 982 per 1000 males and the population density is 229 persons. According to 2011 census the total population of schedule caste was 1,18,850 whereas schedule tribe population was 20,534 persons.

Gadag district is an inland plane area. Rivers Malaparabha and Tungabhadra flow in the Northern and Southern borders respectively and stream Bennehalla joins river Malaprabha near Ron. Major portion of Gadag district is of black cotton soil and red soil mixed with sand is found in some other parts of the districts. It has moderate temperature, weather is pleasant and healthy. Climate of the district is generally hot. Generally there is no much variation in the climatic conditions except in the summer and the winter. The annual rainfall of the district is 577mm. 32

Of the total land; total area sown is 4, 42,433 hectares, the net area sown was 3, 92,790 hectares. 51,476 hectares of land. The taluks like Nargund and Ron have received the benefit of irrigation from the Malprabha dam. The major crops grown in the region are jawar, wheat, maze, green gram, bengal gram, and sunflower, cotton, Bazara etc. Along with these crops other food crops are also grown.

NARAGUND TALUK

Naragund town is situated at a strategic point to the north of Gadag district. Dharwad, Bijapur, Bagalkot and Belgaum are the adjacent districts of the Naragund taluk. Naragund was once a petty kingdom ruled by its King Babasaheb Bhave. During the British period it was known for its glory. Babasaheb Bhave made history by revolting against the British.

Naragund which is situated on the state highway of Hubli-Solhapur and which is near to developed cities like Hubli, Dharwad, Gadag and Bagalkot. The area of the taluk is 454 Sq.kmts, south v/s north and it consists of 35 villages. The geographical area is 43,562 hectares of which, 37,984 hectares is fit for cultivation and 2,117 hectares is unfit. The average rain fall of district is 588 mm.

Naragund which once was known as a ‘Neerillada Naragund’ (Naragund which has no water) because of scanty rainfall this area had remained economically backward. The region availed the facility of irrigation through Malprabha Dam during the year 1973-74. With the introduction of irrigation facility the people of this area have become prosperous. Economic prosperity due to irrigation has influenced the social and economic life of the people to a considerable extent.

As per the census of 2011, the total population is 1, 00,623 persons. The number of males is 51,276 while females is 49,347 populations. The rural-urban population is concerned 64,332 people are living in villages while 36,291 are in urban area. It means 36.1 % are living in urban setting and 63.9 percent are in rural areas. Of the total population of the taluk, 9,892 belong to scheduled caste and 4,969 belong to the scheduled tribes. It means 9.8 and 4.6 percent of total population respectively.

The sex ratio of the taluk is 962 per 1000 males. The density of population is 198 per Sq.kmtrs. From religious point of view Hindus constitute the majority with 85,869

(85.34 %) persons and the Muslim occupy the 2nd place with 13,925 population (13.84%) , Christians occupies 76 i.e. (0.08) Jains total 431 people ( 0.43%). As per the census 2011 the rate of literacy is 74.16 per cent. The male literacy is 73.77% and female literacy rate is 55.66 per cent.

Generally the taluk has black cotton soil and extent of total irrigated area is 37,241 hectares. Kharief area of the taluk is 34,270 hectares while rabbi is 18,750 hectares. Naragund taluk is known for multi cropped area. The farmers of different categories raised the different varieties of crops like wheat, jawar, cotton, maize, paddy, bengal gram, green gram, red gram, sunflower etc.

SOUCES OF IRRIGATION DETAILS OF NARAGUND TALUK (IN HA)

At present the important sources of irrigation in the Malaprabhs Command area are canals, lift irrigation, bore wells and wells. The canals accounts 2,69,713 (ha) it occupies 94.86 percentage fallowed by lift irrigation 10,767 (ha) i.e.3.79 % bore wells 0.75 % and wells occupies only 0.64 percentage. It indicates that the major source of irrigation is canals. The below table 1.13 shows the details of sources of irrigation and its percentage. Table- 1.13 SOURCES OF IRRIGATION DETAILS IN NARAGUND TALUK (IN HA.) Source of irrigation Net area irrigated (Ha) Percentage ( %) Canals 269713 94.86 Tanks 00 00 Wells 1694 0.60 Bore wells 2142 0.75 Lift irrigation 10767 3.79 Other sources 00 00 Total 284316 100.00

BELGAUM DISTRICT

Belgaum district has a long history; dates back to 6000 years. In the ancient times Belgaum was covered by full of bamboos where there was thick forest and was called ‘Valugram’, ‘Venugram’ ‘Belugram’ ‘Belgaum’ and ‘Belagaon’ etc. Belgaum district falls in the North Western part of the Karnataka state. This district is the 3rd largest 34

district in the state of Karnataka. It spread across 10 taluks viz. Belagavi , chikodi , Athani, Gokak , Hukkeri , Khanapur , Bailahongal, Ramadurg, Raibag and Savadatti . The district is surrounded by the Sangali district of Maharastra state in north , Uttar – kannada district in south , Bagalkot , Bijapur and Dharwad district in the east, Maharastra and Goa states in west.

Belgaum district has been further subdivided into 3 revenue divisions for administrative view point i.e Belgaum, Bailahongal and Chikodi. Among the talukas Chikodi taluk is the largest and Raibag is smallest one. The total geographical area of the district is 13.44 lakh hectares. As per census 2011 the population of the district is 47, 79,661 accounting for 7.97 percent of the state’s entire population.

Of the total population; male and female population is 24, 23, 063 and 23, 56,598 respectively. Out of the total 75.97 percent were rural and 24.03 percent is of urban population. The population density of the district is 356 km2; the sex ratio of the district is 973 for per 1000 men. Literacy is also an important factor, the average rate of literacy is 73.94 % among the total male literacy is 82.90 percent and female is about 64.58 percent.

Religious composition is another significant composition which affects on various factors. In Belgaum district Hindus consists 40, 38,331 (84.49%) , Muslims is about 5,28,412 (11.06 %) Christians 18,418 followed by Sikh, Buddhist and Jains. According to census 2011 the total SC population is 5, 77,418 and ST population is about 2,97,198.

The larger part of Belgaum district falls under the northern dry zone. Belagavi is different in a climatic conditions and soil types that enable its agriculture and allied sector. The remaining area falls under the northern transitional zone and hilly zone. The economy of the district is predominantly influenced by agriculture. Majority of the population depends upon agriculture directly and indirectly for their livelihood.

The district employs a major part of its cultivable land i.e. 48 percent of net sown area for agriculture to commercial cropping. It has of 26% of land remaining with 12 percent uncultivable and 14% covers forest. The average rainfall of the district is 808.03 mm,. to 862.06 mm.The district has two major type of soils viz. the black soil and red soil. The soil of the district is highly fertile which constitutes agricultural prosperity. The major 35

crops cultivated in the district are maize, sugar cane, ground nut sorghum, cotton, fruits and vegetables etc.

The Irrigation facilities of the district are largely depending on reservoirs, tanks and canals. Three major rivers such as Krishna, Malaprabha and Ghatapraba run though the districts. Belagavi as an above state average cover for irrigation with over 58 percent of the net area irrigated. This district has 38.50% of its cultivable area under irrigation from different sources. The shares of different sources are 31.40 % from wells, 20.80% from canal, and 15. 80 percent from bore wells. Lift irrigation and other sources contributed 12.30% and 17.70 percent respectively.

RAIBAG TALUKA

Raibag is a taluk located in Belgaum district of Karnataka. It is one of the 10 taluks of the district. It is sarounded by Athani in the North, Jamakhandi and Mudhol taluks of Bagalkot district in the east, Gokak in the south and Chikodi in the west. Raibag taluk has the total area of 958.80 Sq. kmts. There are 59 villages and 2 towns in this taluk.

According to census 2011 the taluk has 75,921 households and the total population is about 4,05,489 of which 2,07,142 are males and 1,98,347 are females. The sex ratio is around 958 per 1000 males. The total literacy rate is 56.98 percent out of which 64.01% males and 49.64 percent are female literates. The density of population of taluk is 426 per Sq.kmts.

Out of total population about 50 percent are urban dwellers and 50% are rural dwellers. There are 18.44 % population belong to schedule caste and 2.04 percent schedule tribes. The region belongs to various religious groups. Hindu occupies 3,38,005 population i.e. 83.36 percent followed by Muslims about 47,343 population (11.68 %) Jains 4.77 percent, Christians 0.07% Sikhs and Budhist 0.07 and 0.2 percent respectively.

The river Krishna, along with its tributeries Ghataprabha and Malaprabha are perennial and effluent in nature and flow in easterly direction. The soil of the taluk is black and red loamy. The main crops grown in this region are sugar cane, maze, jawar, soyabin, wheat, bajara, vegitables, banana etc. The average rainfall of the taluk is 534.40 only.

Table-1.14 SOURCES OF IRRIGATION DETAILS IN RAIBAG TALUK (IN HA.) Source of irrigation Net area irrigated ( ha.) Percentage Canals 24,750 50.73 Tanks 00 00 Wells 7.475 15.32 Bore wells 8,789 18.01 Lift Irrigation 7,771 15.93 Other sources 00 00 Total 48,785 100.00

Source: District at Glance- 2014-15 Govt. of Karnataka

The above table 1.14 indicates that canals occupies the highest irrigable land i.e. 24,750 ha.(50.73%) fallowed by bore wells i.e. 18.01 percent, lift irrigation is 15.93 percent and wells occupies 7475 ha. i.e. about 15.32 percent only.

DHARWAD DISTRICT PROFILE

Dharwad is one of the major progressive districts of North karnataka region and is an administrative district. It has a total geographical area of 4263 Sq. kmts. Dharwad is located at 425 kmts., northwest of Bangalore and 421 kmts., Southeast of Pune on the main highway between Chennai and Pune.

Dharwad Muncipal council first came into existence on 1st Jan, 1856. The word Dharwad means a place of rest on a long journey or a small habitation. For centuries Dharwad is acted as a gateway between the Malenadu region and the plains. It is situated in the western sector of Northern half of Karnataka state. This district is bonded on the north by the district of Belgaum, on the east Gadag , on the south Haveri and on the west Uttar Kannada districts. Hubli’-Dharwad twin cities population is second largest in Karnataka next to Bangalore.

Dharwad district comprises of 5 taluks viz., Dharwad, Hubli, Navalgund, Kalaghatagi and kundagol. The district has rich soil and climate and has vast agricultural potentials. Hubli Dharwad is fast growing as the commercial and industrial hub in the northern part of Karnatak. The district is also considered as the educational and cultural capital of the northern part of Karnataka. 37

According to censes 2011, Dharwad district has a population of 18,47,023. The density of population of the district is 434 per Sq kmts. Dharwad has a sex ratio of 967 females for every 1000 males. The literacy rate is 66.30 percent. Major religious communities of the district are Hindus (72.4%) fallowed by Muslims(12.2%) and 2.0 % Jains . Dharwad disrict is divided into 8 talukas viz., Dharwad , Hubballi rural and Hubballi urban, Kalaghatagi , Kundagol, Alnawar, Navalagund and Annigeri.

The district has healthy climate it has black and red soil and is quite fertile for agricultural crops. The district receives an annual average rainfall of 792 mm. and the actual rainfall is 476 mm. The irrigation facility from the Malaprabha river is available for parts of Navalagund and Hubli talukas.

NAVALAGUND TALUK PROFILE

Navalagund is one of the taluka place of Dharwad district. The geographical area of the taluk is 1,080 Sq.kmts. The total population of taluk is 1,90,177, it is the 2nd most populous taluka of the district. Of the total population 51 percent is male and 49 % are female population. The density of population is 163 per Sq. kmts.

Among the total population Hindus contributes 84 percent and the second largest religious community is Muslims which constitutes 15 percent of the total population. Sex ratio of the district is concerned among Hindus it is 959 and 981 among Muslims. General caste people are 85 percent, 10% is of SC’s and 5% belongs to schedule tribes. The literacy rate of the taluka is 75 percent. Among the total Population male constitute 84% and females 65 percent. There are 58 villages having 38,000 households. The Density of population of the taluk is 163 per Sq. kmts.

The soil of the region is black cotton and loamy soil. The normal rainfall is 463 mm. The major crops of the region are Maize, jowar, cotton, chilly, wheat, paddy, ragi, onion and chilly etc. The main source of water is canal irrigation from Malaprabha and Bennihalla.

Table- 1.15 SOURCES OF IRRIGATION DETAILS IN NAVALAGUND TALUK: (IN HA.) Source of irrigation Net area irrigated ( ha.) Percentage Canals 24,620 85.48 Tanks 00 00 Wells 104 0.36 Bore wells 207 0.71 Other sources 3,868 13.43 Total 28,799 100.00

Source: District at Glance- 1909-10

The above table 1.15 depicts the major portion of land about 86 percentage i.e. 24,620 ha. is irrigated through canal system and other sources such as Borewells and wells constitute below 1 percent. Other sources constitute 13.43 percent.

BAGALKOT DISTRICT

Bagalkot district falls in the northern part of Karnataka and is an administrative district and stands 11th rank in the state. It is situated in the interior deccan peninsular of southern India. The new Bagalkot district was carved out of Bijapur in 1997; earlier it was the part of Bijapur district. Historically it is the home land of great Chalukya dynasty. The district is surrounded by Bijapur in the South, Belgaum district in the west and Raichur in the east.The bifurcated Bagalkot district consists of 9 taluks viz., Jamakhandi, Badami, Bilagi, Guledgudda, Rabakavi-Banahatti, Hunagund, Illkal, Mudhol and Bagalkot. Bagalkot is 520 km. from Bangalore and having connectivity to Bijapur, Hubli and Belgaum.

The geographical area of the district is 6,593 Sq.kmts. According to 2011 census the population of the district was 18, 89,752, of which 9,50,111 are males and 9,39,641 are females. The density of population in the district is 288 persons per Sq.kmts. The percentage of males and females is 50 and 50 respectively.

According to 2011 census, the district was having the literacy rate of 69.37 percent in which male literacy rate was 80.16% and females 58.55 percent. The sex ratio in the

district is 977 females per 1000 males. Rural – Urban composition of population is concerned out of total population 71.03 are rural settlements and 28.97 percnt are urbanites. The population of SC’s ST’s of the Bagalkot district is 16.17% and 4.85% respectively. The estimated sex ratio of the district is 980 for per 1000 males. The main religious groups are Hindus fallowed by Muslims, Chrstians and Jains etc.

It is estimated that about 65 percent of the people are engaged in agricultural activity. The Soils are the most valuable land resources. Deep black soil, shallow black soil and mixed red and black soils are available in the region. The average annual rainfall of the district is 562 mm. The main source of irrigation are Krishna, Ghataprabha and Malaprabha river. The main crops grown are sugarcane, Jowar, Bajra, wheat, cotton Maize, pulses, sunflower, red gram, wheat, ground nut etc.

JAMAKHANDI TALUK

Jamakhandi was one of the Maratha princely states of British india and was administered as a part of the Bombay presidency. It is a major taluka station in Bagalkot district. There are historical reasons for the name Jamakhandi to come to this list. The ancient temple here is surrounded by the Jambakeshwara as the name of the town. Jamakhandi taluka is bounded by Mudhol taluka towards south, Athani taluka towards west, Bilagi taluka towards east, and Raybag taluka towards west.

Jamakhandi taluk is highly populated taluk in the Bagalkot district. According to census 2011 there are 90,067 houses in the taluk and 4,70,176 is the total population. Out of the total population 2,37,086 are males and 2,33,090 are females. The average sex ratio of Jamakhandi taluk is 983 for 1000 males. According to census 2011; out of total population 36.60% people are living in urban areas.

The average literacy rate in the taluka is 76.60 percent, The total sex ratio is 983 for 1000 males. Caste composition of Jamakhandi taluk is schedule caste (SC) constitutes 17% while schedule tribe (ST) were 1.2 percent. Religious composition is concerned ; Hindu constitutes 81.62% fallowed by Muslims 13.35% Christian 0.06% , Jains 4.74% fallowed by other castes like Sikh and Budhist.

Table-1.16 SOURCES OF IRRIGATION DETAILS IN JAMAKHANDI TALUK: (IN HA.) Sources of Irrigation Net area irrigated ( ha.) Percentage Canals 25,245 45.23 Tanks 149 0.26 Wells 7,200 12.95 Bore wells 1390 2.50 Lift irrigation 167 0.30 Others 21,406 34.53 Total 55,557 100.00

Source: District Statistical Office, Bagalkot ( 1999-2000)

The above table reveals that; the major portion of land is irrigated through canal system of irrigation i.e.45.23 percent fallowed by wells about 13 percent and other sources are 34.53 percent.

*****

CHAPTER- 2

METHODOLOGY; REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL SUPPORT

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Methodology is the kernel of any socio-economic investigation. The reliability of results depends upon the methodology. It includes objectives, hypotheses, description of the field, tools and techniques of data collection, design of schedules, finally presentation and interpretation of data etc. Here an attempt is made to present the methodology followed for this study.

Present study is confined to 170 farmer respondents of Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Irrigation Project from four districts viz., Belagavi, Dharwad,Gadag and Bagalkot of northern parts of Karnataka. The essential data for the study is collected from both primary and secondary sources by using Proportionate Random Sampling Method.

The field of investigation was carried out with the help of pretested schedules. The total sample size 170 is randomly selected and out of which 35 respondents were chosen for Pilot study from four talukas of 4 districts viz,, Rayabag from Belgaum, Navalgund from Dharwd Naragund from Gadag and Jamakhandi from Bagalkot district. The main respondents for the study were farmers. Farmers were classified as small farmers, medium farmers and large farmers. The land holdings of less than 5 acres are small farmers, land holding from 6 to 15 acres are medium farmers and land holding more than 16 acres are large farmers.

Irrigation for agricultural land brought so many positive socio- economic changes in the life of the farmers. But on the other negative impact of irrigation is not be denied in recent days. The phenomenon of water logging, salinization and other ecological problems are caused for damage for land, water and human health. The corresponding effects at macro level are decline in production, increase in incidence of diseases, ecological imbalance etc. With this backdrop the present investigation was under taken in four taluks viz., Navalgund, Naragund, Raibag and Jamakhandi of Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Command Area of Karnataka. 42

In this background researcher has referred and reviewed some of the important research books, research articles, magazines, journals, made contact with agriculture officers, doctors, watching and listening radio telecast, news papers and web references to find out literature for his work.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1) To evaluate the Socio-economic development due to irrigation in drought prone region of north Karnataka 2) To examine the extent & use of new technologies in agricultural operations by the farmers 3) To identify the health problems of farmers, consumers and living beings 4) To assess relationship between the emerging problems and issues of land degradation or health of soil and water and social consequences 5) To evolve and suggest a holistic model to address the ecological and environmental conservation and to evaluate water policies and laws

HYPOTHESIS

Hypotheses are normally derived from the theoretical assumptions, followed by empirical verification. Hypotheses of this study are made on the basis of pilot study which was administered on 35 farmers based on the objectives. The following hypotheses are set up for testing the validity of the study: 1) There is a close relationship between development of irrigation technology and mitigation of drought and brought economic prosperity 2) It is also observed that; there is link between development of irrigation technology and changes socio-economic level of the farmers 3) Irrigation technology generated more employment opportunities in the study region 4) Enhanced investment and expenditure behaviors among the farmers owing to strategy of new technology 5) There is a positive impact on educational and political aspects of the farmers in the study region 6) There is a inverse relation between irrigation technology and ecological problems 7) Mismanagement of natural resources there by land degradation and water crises 43

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

The essential data for the study is collected from both primary and secondary sources with a view to assess the development and deprivation in the life of the farmers. For this purpose an interview schedule was specially designed to collect the primary data. The interview schedule contained 103 questions and it was administered on beneficiary farmers for pre-testing. On the basis of the information received and the schedule was finalized.

PRIMERY DATA: In order to collect primary data interview schedule was prepared. The data was collected in consultation with farmers, agriculture authorities, agriculture scientists and doctors etc. The interview schedule was focused on various positive and negative aspects in the life of the farmers.

SECONDARY DATA: Along with primary data various secondary tools were also used by the researcher to give the weightage for study. Books, journals, news papers, articles, record files etc, were used to gather information in related to the research work.

UNIVERSE OF SAMPLING: The universe of the study was large, medium and small farmers. Among the various sampling methods; proportionate random sampling method was used for the present study to collect the information and data. The sample size is 170 farmers with different land holdings. The final interview schedule contained questions to elicit both qualitative and quantitative information. The data was collected and have been analyzed by using statistical technique such as percentage method.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES: The collected data was processed with the help of computer. Then the processed data was tabulated using statistical analyses. The responses were calculated into percentage.

CHAPTERIZATION SCHEME

1. Introduction: Irrigation Its theoretical background, history of irrigation and its Significance 2. Methodology; tools of data collection, review of literature and theoretical Support 3. Irrigation technology induced socio- economic development 4. Irrigation technology; ecological issues and problems 5. Measures to tackle the problems of agriculture and farmers 6. Summary, Findings and conclusion

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter provides an exhaustive review of literature related to the various empirical literatures available on the subject. This review of literature enables the researcher to study the areas which are untraveled and plug the loop-holes exist in the form of research gaps and focus on dimensions of the problems. In this section of the chapter an attempt is made to review some important empirical works done by the scholars on the various aspects of irrigation, environment and ecology.

There is a long tradition for irrigation and environment literature and its impact with each other. The studies are under taken by scholars belong to various disciplines viz., Economists, sociologists, geographers, engineers, historians, environmentalists, agronomists etc., have studied the impact of irrigation in different angles.

This section aims at two purposes, firstly its reviews the literature; on how irrigation induced rural development and secondly its adverse impact on ecology. Several scholars, academicians and researchers have studied the impact of irrigation on different aspects like production, productivity, land use pattern, intensity of crops, man day works, generation of employability, income, health of soil-plant and living beings. These studies are carried out at the macro and also micro level. The most important studies conducted hitherto are reviewed with a view to obtain the impact of irrigation on rural society.

The literature on the subject is drought, poverty, employment, income etc. The Development v/s deprivation is a growing area of research. A few contributions on the subject of study have been reviewed to identify the major trends and to venture into new 45

area of research. The major approaches, conceptualization and methodology laid their focus on the success and shortfalls in terms of performance, as measured by income and employment generation or asset formation. But most of the studies have not attempted to quantify the negative externalities of the projects.

The various studies have undertaken by the scholars for the understanding of the related issues-

Gadagil, D.R.(1954): in his study entitled ‘the industrial revolution of India in recent times reveals that ; the economic effects of irrigation and calculated the total direct and indirect effects of irrigation projects were very favorable to the farmers. With the advent of irrigation project farmers received higher levels of income and there by farmers were able to make additional investment on cattle, farm implements, and commercial crops like sugar-cane and cotton. Further irrigation also generated additional employment opportunities too.

Epstein (1961): conducted a study during 1954-55 in Mandya district of Karnataka. She made a comparative study of dry and wet villages and concluded that, irrigation has considerably raised the farm productivity. This has also facilitated the growth of commercial crops; as a result the prices of land have gone up by about 3.3 times more. Introduction of canal irrigation has minimized instability of production and irrigation has reduced the risks to farmers caused by the irregular and meager rain fall in the area.

Garg, G.S. and Singh, G.N. (1971): have studied income disparity of dry and irrigated farms in Uttar Pradesh and come to the conclusion that the intensity of cropping varies positively with the farm size as it was 150.64 percent in the smallest size group and 158.53 percent in the largest size group. Though there is a variation in the intensity of cropping with the size group, yet the variation is most highly significant. It is mainly because the level of irrigation on all size groups was more or less uniform. The net income per hectare on dry land farms worked out at Rs. 414 as against Rs.1971.17 on irrigated farms as compared to dry land farms.

Kumar, (1978): made an attempt to examine the impact of irrigation on cropping pattern, intensity of crops, farm inputs, income and elasticity of production of farm inputs in various farmers of the Hirakud canal irrigation. Different methods were used by researcher like logarithmic way of arithmetical calculation, regression model with 46

random coefficients to express the relationships between the explanatory and dependent variables. He concluded that the field canals have led to an overall increase of 13 percent in irrigated area and 9 percent increase in cropping intensity.

Mishra and Vivekand (1979): made a survey of Tungabhadra Command Area to assess the impact of canal irrigation in Bellary district. They observed that, the pattern of crop cultivation has undergone some basic changes after irrigation in the region. Canal irrigation has induced the use of modern inputs and practices in farming and positively affected on employment of labor to a given unit of area. The study has conclusively proved that the productivity and the net income to an acre are higher in the irrigated region than in the dry areas. Further it is concluded by the researcher that large farm holdings are much better –off than the others in the command area. Thus the study reveals that irrigation has brought up several positive economic changes in the region.

Robert Chambers (1980) :in his study’ Managing Canal Irrigation’ emphasized the importance of main system of management in large and medium irrigation projects. He calls for a search analyses, understanding an idea with practical applications. Researcher has proven that irrigation has improved productivity, equity, stability and utility among beneficiaries. The welfare proposition rose by Chambers ‘who will gain and who will lose’ is an attempt to change the allocation of the resources and also underlines the importance of interdisciplinary approach for solving irrigation problems.

Alexander, (1982): made a comparative study of both irrigated and non-irrigated parts of the Ganga Nagar District of Rajasthan. It is concluded from the study that; irrigation facilitates the intensification of agriculture activity through increased use of labor, fertilizers, insecticides and other inputs that enables the famers to use improved tools and machines. Irrigation further has also paved the way to modernization of occupational values and their specialization.

Adinarayan (1984) : has made a survey on impact of irrigation in the formation of cropping pattern, farm productivity, capital assets, income and employment in Kakatiya canal of Shriramsagar project in Andhra Pradesh. He made a comparative study of irrigated and non-irrigated villages. His findings show that assets formation was significantly increased by about 3 times on fixed assets, while it was less on working assets of the irrigated farms compared to un-irrigated farms. There was an increase in employment of human labour by more than 100 percent and farm production of the irrigated land increased around 200 percent. 47

Charan (1984): observed the impact if irrigation on cropping pattern and income of the beneficiary farmers of Narmada command area in Gujarat state. The study reveals that gross returns in different size group were 2-3 times more on irrigated farms and also the total man days of employment were increased in the irrigated farms than in un-irrigated agriculture.

Chatarjee (1995): examined the relationship between irrigation and nature of soil. Irrigation has impact on cropping pattern, agricultural efficiency and use of HYV’s, spatial distribution, fertilizer consumption and crop yield in different zones. It is also observed by the researcher that, irrigation increases ecological problems and socio- economic disturbances like uneconomic nature of land holdings, unscientific use of water resources resulting in shortage of drinking water etc.

A study by Sarkar, A.N.(2001): deals with a detailed impact of ‘Indo-German’ – Watershed Development Programme (IGWDP) in Dongaon of Nanded district of Maharashtra. The study is based on the primary and secondary data collected from the project area to analyze the impact. In watershed development project and the impact is seen in spheres such as expansion in irrigated area, change in cropping pattern, change in productivity, livestock development, creation of family assets and common property resources, employment generation and ensuring social equality etc.

Rajendra, Singh (2002): conducted study in a village of UP and examined how the villagers mobilized themselves for improving their quality of life by contributing in building Ponds (Johads). The participation of the people promoted community to become self-reliant. He also examined the economic production raises four times and villagers are mobilized to improve their quality of life. It is also noticed that; owing to economic prosperity the rate of crime has declined. There is a improvement in the educational level and health consciousness etc. Thus overall quality of life of the people has improved a lot in the entire region of the project.

Sheshagiri et al. (2002): in their article outlines the successful implementation of lift irrigation project in tribal dominated region of Surat district in Gujarat. The findings indicated that the project plays a crucial role in improving the quality of life and economic status of the people in the area besides equipping them with a feeling of social empowerment and self esteem. This co-operative project offers ideal solution for complex problem of distribution of irrigation water on the basis of equity. This article 48

also pointed out some of the problems like conflict among the farmers, politicization of cooperative societies, non availability of credit and lack of extension facilities etc.

Somashekariah, N.T. and Mahendra kumar S. (2008): in their article an attempt is made to assess the impact of irrigation. Irrigation has made drastic changes in the study villages. There has been upward trend in the number of tube wells. The cropping pattern has undergone a forcible change. Irrigation technology induced remarkable increase in the level of income of the farmers and also employment and consequently helps to socio- economic transformation. The literacy level has gone up and the banking habits and transactions have developed. In simple the life style of the sample village has under gone drastic changes in recent years due to irrigation facility.

Bowonder and Ravi, (1989): researcher has noticed the water logging in irrigation projects which will cause for environmental hazards. The problems of intensity of water logging in three major irrigation projects have been discussed. According to researcher water logging means loss of an opportunity in terms of production cost and ineffective use of irrigation facilities. It causes loss of hope of the opportunities in terms of loss of fertile land and also non-availability of water to tail end farmers. This resulted in lower output per unit of investment and expenditure in agriculture.

Paul, P.P. et al. (1994): in his study -“Socio-economic Dimensions of Irrigation” observed that availability of irrigation is a significant technology which decides the cropping pattern i.e. change from traditional cropping to commercial cropping system. With the advent of irrigation cropping intensity is increased; farmers are able to grow more crops and it ceases the migration of the farmers. Survey also noticed that productivity of all the crops has increased at many fold. It is also examined that there is a close relationship between irrigation development and employment opportunities. Apart from this the researchers has also pointed out the adverse impact of irrigation; such as soil erosion, air pollution and health hazards.

Chatarjee, (1995): examined the relationship between irrigation and nature of soil. Irrigation has impact on cropping pattern, agricultural efficiency and use of HYV’s spatial distribution, fertilizer consumption and crop yield in different zones. Researcher has also observed that irrigation increases ecological problems and socio-economic disturbances like uneconomic nature of land holdings, unscientific use of water resources and lack of social awareness such as excess use of irrigation water, resulting in shortage of drinking water etc. 49

Folke Steen (2001): pointed out about water related conflicts and resolutions. The paper highlighted climatic change and its implications for India’s water resources development. Keeping in view the impact of climatic change, to meet out foreseeable demand in India. It was also examined several conflicts over canal irrigation in Mandya District of Karnataka in the command area of Krishna Raj Sagar Dam. The reservoir has brought not only relative prosperity in the district but also created conflicts between those who are favored by the land ownership caste and political backing and those who are not.

Hanumantha Rao (1994) : was focused on the inter-related important five themes viz., Agricultural growth, rural poverty, participatory rural development, environmental degradation and economic reforms in relation to agriculture. Both growth and environment interact in complex ways and each affecting the other was highlighted.

Navalawala, B.N. (1995): stated in his article –‘water logging problems and solutions’ that drainage is a measure to remove excess water from the soil or from soil surface. It is known that canal irrigation opens over the use and often leads to rise of water table. Drainage is necessary but even today adequate attention is not being paid to this while designing and planning of canal irrigation projects. The arid and semi arid areas have created serious problems of water logging/ saline and alkalinity.

Manikkumaran (1997) : In the state of Tami Nadu it was examined from the last 30 years. The study was carried out with the help of secondary data from 1930-1960 and pointed out that the agricultural growth is inversely related to rural poverty and directly related to environmental quality in the state.

Reddy V.(1998): Conducted a modest study to examine some of the issues and problems related to irrigation. He pointed out that irrigation has gained much importance in the post independence period and has been one of the critical factors in the growth of agricultural production. However he observed that, though huge investment was made the benefits were not commensurate with the investment.

Chandrashekar, (1999): In his article; Irrigation, literacy and development has pointed out that most of the people have an ostensive feeling regarding irrigation. Irrigation is a sign of prosperity; it opens the doors fortune of the people and society. Irrigation is panacea which is a means to eliminate poverty, starvation and unemployment. These are 50

the general feelings of the masses. In spite of all these there is also a feeling that irrigation has been more a curse than a blessing.

Tewari, (2001) :Conducted a study in regard with contribution of irrigation for agricultural production, renovation of irrigation capacity and causes for land degradation. Since independence the Govt. of India has given top most priority to irrigation. After partition; irrigation land in India has raised from 22.60 m.ha. to 80.76 m.ha. He has also thrown a light on the efforts made by the Govt. to improve water use efficiency such as raising the water rates, farmer’s involvement in management and greater flow of institutional finance etc.

It was also noticed that the major cause for land degradation is excess use of water to the lands and is caused for salinity. It may be natural or manmade, like poor natural drainage caused for sub soil condition, spilling excessive infiltration in higher table etc., manmade causes are seepage from canals, supply and application of irrigation water to crops beyond the exhalation, lack of motivation for night irrigation, inadequate drainage, and use of sodic water for irrigation.

The argument is that in the absence of proper understanding of complex process and scientific application of irrigation system, design, construction, operation and maintenance, utility and effectiveness of irrigation have not been appreciated properly.

Saxena (2003): in his study highlighted the importance of irrigation. He stressed how irrigation plays a vital role in increasing the agricultural production and maximizes the benefits from this sector. He has cautioned that water should be used efficiently and carefully and it should be the primary duty to educate and re-educate the farmers with regard to sensible and judicious use of irrigation water.

Researcher has suggested some prerequisite conditions to tackle the problems of irrigation. These include careful crop planning, less water consuming and short duration crops, control over water logging, use of appropriate techniques and discouraging flood irrigation etc.

Kuruksetra, Ministry of Rural Development (2011): in this journal the editor expressed his views; The Indian agriculture is at cross roads, The GDP in agriculture has fallen over the decades even as agriculture supports nearly 70 percent of population. 51

Despite the Green Revolution, yellow revolution, Blue revolution, and white revolution the compound growth rate in agriculture production has struck.

Agriculture scientists called need for the “Second Green Revolution” there are novel ways to increase productivity. Agriculture not only faces the challenges of how to increase productivity but also how to sustain it. Some agricultural scientists’ believed that the main problem in agriculture pertains to sustainability of resources and use and discriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Barna Maulick (2012): in his article environment and economic development : A co- relation highlighted that, although there is a inverse relationship between development and environment. The developing (low and middle income) countries of today have an opportunity to learn from the post history and there by to avoid some mistakes from earlier growth experiences. With increased awareness of environmental hazards and the development of new technologies in recent years that are before. We might hope to see the developing countries turn their attention to preservation of the environment at earlier stages of development than has previously been the case.

Shivakumar L. Biradar (2012): in his article entitled – Environmental Challenges and Issues of Indian Agriculture. He examined that the journey of Indian agriculture and its associated environmental problems has brought about reorganization. The future of agricultural growth and productivity will have to occur simultaneously with environmental sustainability. The environmental changes especially in terms of land degradation and ground water depletion, water logging and excessive use of chemical inputs are posing problems for future agriculture.

Author also addresses the problems and supported policies which led emphasis on promoting sustainable agriculture including organic farming. The National Mission for sustaining agriculture seeks to transform the agriculture in to an ecologically sustainable production system while at the same time exploiting its fullest potential and thereby ensuring food security. Equitable access to resources; enhancing livelihood opportunities and contributing to economic stability at the local and national level.

The yardstick employed by the researchers has helped only to quantify the positive impact of various developmental projects and programmes. Here researcher has neglected the adverse externalities. He pointed out that in view of the development all 52

over the world; policy makers have of late turned their attention towards environmental issues in achieving faster economic growth. The time has come now to review all the developmental projects totally with a different perspective.

The present project intended to give certain specific policy directions to conserve the resources and provide a better security to the farmers. The holistic analysis would help us to evolve suitable programmes to a particular region and enables to control the negative impact.

In this project an attempt has been made to quantify the externalities. Rural development programmes constitute a major activity in the country, involving huge amount of money aiming at alleviation of poverty and reduction of inequality and proper use of natural resources. Government of India as well as the state Governments restructured the objectives and approaches of various programmes and projects. The projects and programmes made an impact on the people and the rural life in several ways. The external and internal impacts comprised the environmental, social, economic and political dimensions.

Various quarries were made with the beneficiaries to assess the perception of socio- economic life and its impact on rural environment as the changes occurred in them.

THEROTICAL SUPPORT

About last six decades much amount has been spent on rural development, particularly after independence. It has been stressed by economists and sociologists that; the key to our development lies with development of rural people. Government has spent billions of amounts for the development of village communities. Stressing the need for studying the village community without a socio-historical bias ; Chitra Shivakumar and S.S.Shivakumar rightly observe; rural social change has been among the most important subjects of the study. Because, major national efforts have been predominantly located in agrarian social setting. The entire future of the development and its effort rest on what happens in rural communities (quoted in Doshi et al, 1999).

There are numerous theories developed by different disciplines to explain the direction and means through which changes occur. In this connection here an attempt is made to 53

co-relate present study with two theoretical supports viz. ‘Economic Determinism Theory’ of Karl Marx and ‘Theory of modernity’. Change in technology and change in economy affects on different spheres of life of the farmers and it consequently leads to changes in various fields and sections of the society.

KARL MARX’S THEORY OF ECONOMIC –DETERMINISM

During the last six decades development theory has taken several sharp turns. In the first phase, development essentially meant economic development. In the second phase the relationship between economic development and social change was more keenly realized and consequently emphasized.

Karl Marx has enormously popularized the economic theory of change. Social change is associated with stage of economic development. Marx and other later scholars emphasized the organization of production as the chief factor in economic development. The prime movers of change according to this view are changes in the economic infrastructure. Which in -turn bring changes in the whole system of the society.

Marx has significantly explained about his theory of ‘Materialistic Interpretation of History’ in his book ‘Critique of Political Economy’ (1859). According to him economic changes brought about corresponding changes in the superstructure, consisting of social, educational, political and religious etc. Marx and Engel throughout their study emphasized that; the primary of economy in human relationship and the centrality of the economic dimension in social structure.(Larson,C.J. 1973).

The theory of economic determinism underlines that; the whole development rests on the economy but they all react upon one another and upon the economic situation which is the sole active cause and that everything else passive effect (Francis Abraham, et al.1985). The most important characteristics of any society are its form of property, economic conditions that touch every aspects of people’s life. Material forces are more important than other forces “matter is primary and mind is secondary. Therefore matter rules the mind. Materialistic interpretation of history, Marx would also call it the economic interpretation of history.

Economy is paramount and all other factors in the human experience of social relations were subservient and dependent upon the economic factors. This theory underlines that, 54

the whole development, ‘rests on the economy’ but they all rest upon one another and upon the economic situations. Economy is the sole active cause and that everything else is nearly passive effect. There is rather reciprocity within a field of economic necessity which in the last instant always asserts (Francis Abraham)

THEORY OF MODERNIZATION

Modernization broadly refers to the use of modern science and technology with rationalistic attitudes towards the production process. Modernization is a process denoting a movement from a traditional or quasi-traditional order to certain desired types of technology (Dube, S.C. 1996). Nash says “Modernity is the socio-psychological frame work which facilities the application of science to the process of production.

In 21st century technological innovations in agriculture are going to be the most important determinant of the level of pace and sustainability of agricultural development (Singh Katar, 2001) The modern age is often called the as the age of mechanization. Hence, technology is the most important and fast moving phenomenon of present times. In utilizing the products of technology man provokes social changes. Technology plays an important role across the rural economy.

The literal meaning of technology is applied science or science dealing with industrial arts (Bharat, 2001). In broader sense technology is defined as the translation of scientific laws into machines, tools, mechanical devices, instruments, innovations, procedures and techniques to accomplish tangible ends to attain specific needs and manipulates the environment of practical purpose.

Western economists consider the basic element of an economy to be land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship. Sociologists and anthropologists often consider technology as a fifth element (Turner, J. 1978). The human development report 2001 has introduced a new tool and technology for human development. Technological development and innovations are the part of our life. It is argued that all problems of humanity can be solved through technology. The newer technology the better it must be (Chandra Datta, 2001).

Schumacher a German economist and the author of the famous classic ‘Small is Beautiful’ said that technology as motor of development and as an instrument of change. To underline the crucial role of technology, Schumacher’s perspective points out that sustainable development the crying need of the day, is the function of technology. The history of agriculture reveals a variety of implements, which have been employed by rural communities (Giri,D.K.2001).

All the technologies are relevant and appropriate depending upon the context and their application. New technology replaces the indigenous one. More technology means more progress and it is panacea to the complex problems ( Giri, D.K.2001). Indian agrarian society for longer periods of history cultivated its fields in a primitive way. It carried out its agricultural operations through indigenous breed of bullocks, seeds, manure and crude type of thrashing, primitive plough leveler etc.

Such a method of cultivation coupled with organic fertilizer did not give any market surplus. In such a stage; agriculture achieved a revolution by technological innovations. These innovations on the one hand saved much of manual labour and on the other increased the productivity. Thus technology has proved as a multiplier effect on production. An attempt to satisfy his wants and fulfills his needs-deeds and to make his life more comfortable, man builds civilization.

Technology is a product of civilization. Transfer of technology keeps the wheels of agriculture development moving. The success of agriculture and rural development strategy initiated, planned and developed by the policy makers. The planners and the scientists hinges on the effectiveness of the extension machinery, whose task is to transfer the technology from ‘lab to land’. Technology has brought about changes in the lives of people in the countryside and the farmers who have adopted the new technology and methods of cultivation (Desai, A.R.1978).

The invention of power driven machinery in modern times resulted into the production of such amazing labor saving agricultural machines as tractors, thrashers, weed removers, crop cutter, and also more yields from HYV’s, fertilizers and pest controlling technology. These new agricultural techniques are used on a large scale. Hence, the volume of agricultural products has increased in proportion to the advancement of agricultural techniques.

The extent of the material wealth of rural society therefore, depends mainly on the technical basis of agriculture. Higher is the technique applied greater is productivity of agriculture (Desai, 1978). The system of technology from research stations to the farming community has played a crucial role in modernizing agriculture.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE FARMERS

This section briefly deals with the analysis of information with respect to certain socio- economic conditions of the respondents. It is essential to study these aspects because these affect the life and behavior of the family members as a whole. Therefore it is very essential to understand the socio-economic parameters and variables of the respondents; such as family, age group, level of literacy, educational conditions, religion, caste, housing pattern, agricultural land and income etc.

AGE COMPOSITION

Age is one of the significant biological and socio-demographic factors, which indicate knowledge, position, and status of an individual in the family and society. In the study of farmers, age acquires a special significance as far as efficiency and ownership of land is concerned. Age of the head of the household decides the economic activities as well as his status in the family. Therefore, for scientific study age limit of respondents is taken above 30 years. The distribution of the age composition of the respondents is given in Table 2.1

Table 2.1 Age Composition of Respondents (above 40 years) Age group Frequency Percentage 30-40 32 18.82 41-50 64 37.64 51-60 51 30.01 61 & Above 23 13.53 Total 170 100.0

Table 2.1 reveals that, out of 170 total beneficiaries, 18.82 (32) per cent are in the age group of 30- 40 years, 37.64 (64) per cent respondents belong to the age group of 41-50 years, this is closely followed by 30.01 (51) per cent in the age group of 51-60 years and 13.53 (23) per cent are in the age group of 61 and above years. 57

Thus the age structure of the respondents clearly indicates that majority of the beneficiaries fall in the age group of 41-50 years. And there are less number of beneficiaries in the age group of 61 and above.

LITERACY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION

Literacy and level of education plays a very important role. These two are the determinant factors of an individual’s status and activities. Literacy means the person who is able to read and write but education is more than that. Generally the educational status of the head of the household would pave the way to lead the family in good stead. It is the key factor to social change and progress. The true index of development of a society perhaps depends on the level of education. Thus education plays a vital role in the life of an individual.

Education is power which indeed adds to the stature of every individual. Hence, its importance even in agrarian society cannot be ignored. Therefore, information is collected regarding the literacy and educational attainment of the respondents and is given in Table 2.2

Table 2.2 Literacy and Educational Level of the Respondents Literacy & Education Frequency Percentage Illiterates 34 20.00 Primary 53 31.18 Secondary 43 25.29 PUC 22 12.94 Degree and other 18 10.59 Total 170 100.0

As per table 2.2 , of the total respondents illiterate beneficiaries are found to be 20 (34) per cent, 31.18 (53) percent have obtained primary level of education followed by 25.29 (43) per cent with secondary education. Those having PUC education are only 12.94 (22) per cent and 10.59 (18) per cent are degree and other educational level

RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION

Religion is one of the most important bases of social organization and also a significant institution of human society. Religion dictates one’s religious behaviors. It is universal, permanent, personal and pervasive institution. Therefore, religion has been the major concern of man and his belief on supernatural power. India is multi religious and multi caste society and the same is also true in every Indian communities. Hinduism is the older and longer established religion. In the study region majority of the people in the villages are Hindus and fallowed by others religious groups. Here an information is collected about the religious background of the respondents and is shown in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Religious Composition of the Respondents Religious groups Frequency Percentage Hindus 135 79.41 Muslims 24 14.11 Christians 01 0.59 Jains 10 5.89 Total 170 100.0

It is evident from Table 2.3 that, major religions which dominate in this region are; Hindus, Muslims, and Jains. Of the total number 79.41 (135) per cent belong to Hindu religion followed by Muslim and jain religions i.e. 14.11 (24) per cent and 5.89 (10) respectively. Thus Hinduism constitutes the major religious group followed by Muslims.

CASTE COMPOSITION OF THE RESPONDENTS

Caste is one of the unique and fundamental features of social stratification of Hindu society and also an important parameter to determine the status of individuals in the society. It is also a peculiar characteristic feature of Hindu social organization. Generally Hindu society is multi caste-group society and the same is true in all micro level communities too. Therefore caste has become so significant in Indian social structure; that a meaningful study is not possible without it being taken into account (Mukherji, R.K. 1961).

In India occupation is closely associated with caste system. Generally the land holdings of the higher caste are larger than the lower castes. The caste relations like high and low is like the master and ryot relations. But in the present context its prevalence can hardly be seen. There are mainly seven caste groups which are identified in the study region viz., Lingayats, Kudu-Vakkaligas, Raddi, Brahmins, Kurubas, Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes.

Traditionally Brahmin caste is the higher caste group and Lingayat caste is the dominant caste group in this region. After Lingayat caste, the Kurubas and Raddies occupy the next place with their numerical strength. The Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribes fallow these. The Kudu-Vakkaligas form less in number. The Brahmin stands in the last position. Table 2.4 Caste Composition of the Respondents Caste groups Frequency Percentage Brahmins 0 7 4.12 Lingayats 75 44.12 Kudu-Vakkaligas 16 9.41 Raddi 39 22.94 Kurubas 16 9.41 Scheduled Castes 10 5.88 Scheduled Tribes 06 3.53 Total 170 100.00

Table 2.4 shows that, there is a lot of variations among the castes. It can be seen from the table that the highest percentage of respondents i.e. 44.12 (75) per cent fall in the caste category of Lingayats, followed by Reddy 22.94 (39) per cent. The Vakkaliga constitute 9.41 (16) per cent and Kurubas 9.41 (16) per cent respectively. The Scheduled Castes are 5.88 (10) per cent. The percentage of the Brahmin caste is 4.12 (7) per cent and the Scheduled Tribes are 3.53 (06) per cent. which is perhaps the lowest of all the caste groups.

HOUSING PATTERN

In the material possessions the type of housing is considered to be the symbol of status. Housing is one of the basic inputs which influence the quality of life of the people. This is one of the significant parameter to assess the standard of living.

Housing does not provide only shelter and security against natural hazards but also served as the psychological and economic status needs in the society. It is an element of prestige which attached with its pattern. (Dharamraj Singh, 1985). The connotations of home run deeply in the human psyche. It represents shelter from not only physical elements but also social, spiritual and psychological (Podger, 1982).

Table 2.5 Housing Pattern Type of House Frequency Percentage Kuchcha 31 18.24 Kuchcha- Pucca 66 38.82 Pucca house 73 42.94 Total 170 100.0

Table 2.5 indicates the housing scenario in the study region. Of the total 170 respondents as many as 42.94 (73) per cent are living in pucca houses which are constructed with RCC and stonewall with cemented roofing. 38.82 percent (66) percent are residing in Kuchcha- Pucca houses. In local language this type of houses are called as ‘Madige Mane and Kuchcha houses constitute 18.24 (31) per cent. These houses are generally constructed with simple stone and thatched roof or simple roofing.

SIZE OF LAND HOLDING

In the Indian villages agriculture and agricultural land plays a vital role. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood of the rural communities. It is a significant factor determining the economic status of the farmers in the rural set up. Therefore, A. R. Desai (1978) rightly remarked that of all the resources land in rural society is the biggest capital. Hence lesser the land poorer is the man. Land determines the standard of living, economic condition and social position.

Farmers are divided into three main categories on the basis of size of their land holdings. They are; small farmers having land holding less than 5 acres, medium farmers having land holdings between 6-15 acres and large farmers having land holding of more than 16 acres.

Table 2.6 explains the distribution of farmers on the basis of their land holdings.

Table 2.6 Size of Land Holding Size of land holding Frequency Percentage Small farmers 66 38.82 Medium farmers 59 34.70 Large farmers 45 26.48 Total 170 100.0

Table 2.6 indicates that a great majority of farmers i.e. 38.82 (66) per cent owned land less than 5 acres followed by 34.70 (59) per cent of farmers who owned land between 5- 15 acres and 26.48 (45) per cent of farmers owned 16 and above acres of land. The above table indicates that majority of respondents are small farmers having land holding less than 5 acres.

SIZE OF IRRIGATED LAND OF THE FARMERS

This is an important aspect of the indication of economic status of the farmers. Mere holding of dry land is not the symbol of richness. As rainfall is uncertain and unevenly distributed all over the region. Hence farmers are not assured of their output from their dry lands.

But owning irrigated land farmers need not depend upon rains. Through irrigation there is possibility of raising double crops including food crops and commercial crops. Therefore much importance is attached to irrigated land. A farmer with few acres of irrigated land enjoys better status than a farmer having more dry land. Thus the size of irrigated land has also become a factor in determining the economic status. Table 2.7 shows the size of irrigated land of the farmers in the study region.

Table 2.7 Size of Irrigated Land Irrigated land Frequency Percentage Below 2 acres 46 27.05 3-6 acres 69 40.59 7-10 acres 26 15.29 11-15 acres 18 10.59 16 & above acres 11 6.48 Total 170 100.0

Table 2.7 Shows a major portion i.e. 40.59 (69) per cent fall under the category of 3-6 acres of irrigated land followed by the farmers below 2 acres it is about 27.05 (46) percent, farmers constituted the irrigated land about 7-10 acres is 15.29 (26) percent, 10.59 (18) percent constitute 11-15 acres of irrigated land and hardly 6.48 (11) percent farmers having irrigated land is more than 16 acres.

ANNUAL INCOME OF THE FARMERS

Income is one of the most significant factors which determines the economic status of the family and is also symbol of prestige. Further the quality of life of an individual is also determined by his income. Income is an outcome of various sources such as land, occupation and also a number of earning members in the family and size of land holding etc.

Since respondents of the study region are farmers and agriculture is their main source of income. It is very difficult to assess the income of the farmers because agricultural income is not always assured and certain. Since, it is depends on various factors such as climate, rainfall, irrigation, quality of soil and inputs used by the farmers and other necessary conditions and requirements. However; an effort is made to evaluate the annual income of the farmers from agriculture.

Table 2.8 Annual Income of the Farmers Annual Income (Rs) Frequency Percentage Below 30,000 31 18.23 30,001-40,000 42 24.70 40,001-50,000 45 26.47 50,001-60,000 19 11.18 Less than 1 Lac 11 6.49 1 Lac – 2 Lacs 12 7.00 2 Lacs & above 10 5.89 Total 170 100.0 63

It is evident from table 2.8 that, a majority percentage i.e. 26.47 (45) of the farmers have the annual income of Rs.40, 001 to 50,000. This is followed by 24.70 (42) per cent of the farmers having the annual income of below Rs.30,0001 to 40,000, nearly 18.23 (31) per cent of the farmers have the annual income below 30,000 and 11.18 (19 ) per cent farmers income is Rs. 50,001 to 60,000 , 7.00 (12) per cent is Rs. 1 Lac to 2 lacs, 6.49 (11) per cent is Rs. Less than 1 lac and 5.89. (10) per cent of the farmer’s annual income is of Rs. 2 lacs and above.

*****

CHAPTER- 3

IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY INDUCED SOCIO- ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In this chapter an attempt is made to investigate the impact of irrigation on economic conditions of farmers of the drought prone area. Before the inception of irrigation a large track of land was fallow for want of water. In this critical condition irrigation project acted as an insurance for agricultural production. The green revolution owing to irrigation and other supporting inputs brings about welcome changes in the socio- economic life of the farmers in the study region.

Indian agriculture has been characterized by many revolutions and that changed the very face of agricultural sector. The green revolution, blue revolution and white revolution etc., have been important milestones in Indian agriculture. One thing is common in all these revolutions that the use of technology. The revolutions could not have occurred without relevant technologies. The technological led agricultural development saw India an emerging as world leader in many important food commodities.

The agricultural revolution was one of the most profound events in human history leading to the rise of modern civilization. Green revolution in agriculture has made a significant contribution for development. Irrigation technology brought both direct and indirect impact on the farmers and farm activities. It brings changes in cropping pattern, intensity of crops, crop yield, land use pattern, generating employment opportunities and man day work etc., this in turn bringing noticeable change in the agrarian society. Malaprabha and Ghataprabha irrigation projects were not only transformed agriculture but also brought changes in the total life of drought prone area.

The drought prone land was rarely grown the crops and was hardly used for cultivation. It has now become green, cultivable and fertile. Over the last four decades the irrigation project has fundamentally changed its face. At present bi-season crops are grown viz., Kharief and Rabbi and also multiple cropping systems.

The impact of irrigation on economic conditions is measured in terms of income cropping pattern, crop yield, Market surplus, employment generation and employment 65

opportunities, saving habits, assets formation, expenditure behavior, social conditions, level of education, political participation etc. Thus irrigation acts positively on the life of the farmers.

EXTENT OF CHANGE IN CROPPING SYSTEM

Prior to irrigation majority of farmers used to raise single season and long duration crops that too rabbi crops. Multiple and high yielding crops were unknown to the region in the past but now it has become a common feature. Growing of two season and multi crops is possible in irrigated regions. After the inception of irrigation, farmers started to grow bi- seasonal crops with more confident. Table-3.1 Extent of change in cropping system Change in cropping system Frequency Percentage One season crops 41 24.12 Bi-season crops 129 75.88 Total 170 100.00

Table -3.1 depicts that about 24.12 (41) percent of the farmers grow crops only in one season owing to shortage of water that to tail end farmers. Whereas, 75.88 percent (129) of the farmers grow crops in two seasons. Thus the grown area has gone up with the impact of canal irrigation.

CHANGE IN CROPPING PATTERN

With the introduction of irrigation; farmers are growing different variety of crop in different seasons from arable land. During the period of survey, the region as a whole shows the trend towards crop diversification. Under this situation the canal water is considered as a godsend boon to the farmers.

A detailed enquiry was made regarding the cropping pattern and observed that, irrigation brought changes in cropping type. Irrigation facility altered the traditional crude cropping pattern and helped to switch over to the modern HYV’s cropping.

Table- 3.2 Changes in cropping pattern (Respondents have given multiple answers) Change in cropping pattern Frequency Percentage Maize 113 66.47 Sugar cane 121 71.17 Cotton 06 3.52 Jawar 27 15.88 Wheat 32 18.82 Bengal gram 21 12.35 Sunflower 82 48.23 Green gram 68 40.00 Other 18 10.59

Table-3.2 Portrays that among the 170 respondents 66.47 percent (113) percent of farmers grow maize as their crop, whereas 71.17 percent (121) sugar cane as the major crop, ( 06 ) 3.52 percent farmers grow cotton , ( 27 ) 15.88 percent jawar, ( 32 ) 18.82 percent wheat, ( 21) 12.35 Percent bengal gram, ( 82) 48.23 % farmers grow sunflower ,( 68) 40 percent respondents grow green gram and ( 18) 10.59 percent replied they grow other crops such as millets, vegetables etc.

Thus, study reveals that after the advent of irrigation farmers have given up to grow the traditional crops like red Jawar, coarse cotton, linseed and millets safflower, pulses etc. These crops are replaced by high yielding varieties such as Hybrid maize, hybrid jowar, Sugar cane, Hybrid sunflower, Varalaxmi cotton, hybrid wheat, hybrid bengal gram, green gram and white jawar etc. Thus the data analyses clearly indicates; majority of the farmers have changed the growing of old and traditional crops and adopted the new HYV’s of crops.

INCREASE IN GROSS CROPPED AREA IN THE REGION

Here an attempt has been made to investigate how far irrigation facility helps to enhance cultivable land. The pre irrigation and post irrigation phases revealed that, there has been increase in the gross cropped area due to irrigation. The positive changes have been observed in the pattern of cultivation. The attitudes of the farmers have also changed,

with regard to the use of land due to new agricultural technology. The portion of fallow land tends to show decline in production but now there is considerable increase in net area sown. Waste land has also been brought under cultivation.

Hence the information is gathered to know whether their cultivable land is increased or not. And the same is shown in below given table.

Table- 3.3 Increased in gross cropped area Responses about gross cropped area Frequency Percentage Increased highly 115 67.65 Increased moderately 42 24.70 Not increased 13 07.65 Total 170 100.00

The above table 3.3 indicates that, 67.65(115) respondents replied their gross cropped area increased at higher level, 24.70 (42) percent farmers said that, their income is increased at the moderate level and only 7.65 (13) percent respondents opined their income is not increased.

INCREASE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (YIELD)

Productivity is the most important indicator to assess the impact of irrigation. It is also one of the ultimate objectives of every project. Hence, irrigation is a basic input for increase in agricultural production and it influences on cropping intensity. Since the inception of irrigation, farmers have switched over to high yielding varieties of crops. This is clear from Table – 3.4 Table-3.4 Responses about crop yield Responses about crop yield Frequency Percentage Yield become double 46 27.05 Yield increased treble 49 28.82 Yield Increased four times 44 25.88 Yield increased by more than four times 15 8.82 Not increased in the yield 16 9.43 Total 170 100.0

As shown in the table, 27.05 (46) percent of the respondents said their agricultural yield becomes double in the same piece of land. While 28.82 (49) percent of respondents replied that, their crop yield becomes three times more than prior to irrigation, 25.88 (44) percent respondent replied their crop yield increased at the level of 4 times, 8.82 (15) percent opined their agricultural production become more than 4 times after the advent of irrigation and only 9.43 (16) percent respondents replied there is no change in their agricultural output.

This clearly indicates that irrigation facility certainly helps for enhancing their level of agricultural production for more than 2-3 times in some cases it is 4 and more than 4 times too. Those who said that there is no change in the yield are tail end farmers and small farmers and who are not using the modern agricultural technology at a greater level. Thus overall situation reveals that the agricultural production has increased in many fold compared to pre-irrigation period.

Present survey reveals that advancement in irrigation facilities boosted the cropping pattern and crop yield. It was also noticed that prior to irrigation the study region could not produce anything in drought situation or hardly grow the crops. Thus compared to pre project period the production of crop and crop yield registered a fairly good result.

LENGTH OF AGRICULTURAL WORK IN A YEAR

Working scenario of the farmers of the region has changed at a better level. The area which was once drought hit and scanty rains; farmers had very less number of days of work in the fields i.e. about 2-3 months. Due to shortage of man days some farmers tended to migrate to other places to work. But owing to irrigation remarkable and drastic change is observed in the length of agricultural works.

TABLE-3.5 Length of agricultural work in a year Length of work Frequency Percentage Less than 3 months 22 12.94 3-4 months 46 27.00 5-6 months 52 30.60 7 and above months 50 29.46 Total 170 100.00

Table-3.5 shows that, 12.94 (22) per cent of respondents said their length of work in farms is less than 3 months in a year, 27.00 (46) respondents replied that, after the inception of irrigation they get work in the fields about 3-4 months, 30.60 (52) farmers opined they work nearly 5-6 months in the fields and 29.46 (50) percent respondents replied that they get work opportunities in the fields for more than 7 months in a year.

The findings reveal that about 60 percent of farmers working days have almost increased at the rate of double. This implies two things 1) Irrigation has increased the number of working days of the farmers. 2) Irrigation has not replaced the human labour but enhanced the labour participation.

NUMBER OF WORKING MEMBERS IN THE FAMILY

Irrigation has two important effects i.e,, quantum of work and length of occupation in rural society. First, it has greatly increased employment opportunities. Secondly, it also made the farmers to work more in their fields. This impact is mainly owing to the multi- cropping system. The demands of using pesticides, fertilizers and also other allied agricultural operations. Thus irrigation has made more hands to work in the fields and naturally working members in the family has increased.

Here efforts are made to know the number of working members in the family. Information of the same is given in Table-3.6

Table-3.6 Number of working members in the family Working members in the family Frequency Percentage One member 15 8.82 Two members 47 27.64 Three members 56 32.94 Four members 28 16.48 More than four 24 14.12 Total 170 100.00

The above table reveals that a significant number of farmer’s working days have changed positively. It implies that after irrigation facility to the region, demands for more work and also more number of family members involved in agriculture.

MARKETING AGRICULTURAL SURPLUS

Prior to irrigation the agricultural production was very low. The amount of produce was just enough for domestic consumption and very less was remained. It was because of uncertainty and uneven condition of rainfall. But after the advent of irrigation, it is observed that majority of the farmers produce surplus amount of crops and tend to sell in the market. Table-3.7 Marketing of agricultural surplus Responses about market surplus Frequency Percentage Market surplus 129 75.89 No Market surplus 41 24.11 Total 170 100.00

The above table 3.7 show that, 75.89 (129) percent of farmers replied; they get surplus agricultural produce which they were able to sell in the market. The rest of the farmers i.e.24.11 (41) percent opined that they have no excess grains and crops to sell. Thus the data indicates that the economy of the farmers has transformed from subsistence economy to market oriented economy. The use of HYV’s, fertilizers and pesticides are also substitute factors, which have contributed lot for the happy turn of the events.

Thus, canal irrigation enlarged the scope and potential of agricultural yields in the region. However there are 24.11 percent farmers who opined that; they did not have any surplus for market. The reasons given by them are that small size of their land holding and fever inputs used for agricultural activities and tail end farmers.

CHANGE IN INVESTMENT AND EXPENDITURE BEHAVIOUR

Change in investment and expenditure behaviors is a significant impact of irrigation. With irrigation facility farmers grow multiple crops; crop verities, increase in gross cropped area in turn help the farmers for changing their investment and expenditure behavior.

Hence, farmers of all categories with their different economic levels have invested the capital on agricultural sector and also incurred more expenditure. It is needless to say that income from agriculture is proportionate to the investment made. It is also noticed that generally the farmers of a large holdings invest and spend more money compared to

medium and small farmers. This ultimately affects on the level of income of the farmers and it again results in the expenditure behaviors.

TABLE -3.8 Investment and expenditure behavior Investment and Expenditure Frequency Percentage Increased significantly 117 68.82 Increased moderately 53 31.18 Not increased 00 0.00 Total 170 100.00

The above table reveals that, about 68.82 (117) percent respondents replied their investment and expenditure behaviors is increased significantly and 31.18 (53) farmers said it is increased moderately. The above figures indicate that a majority of farmers do more expenditure and invest on the agricultural operations.

Thus expenditure behaviors of the farmers have increased significantly in new agricultural setup. Thus, this study helped to formulate hypotheses. “The investment and expenditure behavior of the farmers varies with their size of land holding”.

CHANGE IN THE LEVEL OF INCOME

Irrigation along with the use of modern technology has increased the level of income considerably. Therefore attempt is made to know at what extent the agricultural income of the farmers has increased significantly? Moderately, or it has remained same. Hence information is given table.

Table-3.9 Change in the level of income Responses about market surplus Frequency Percentage Increased significantly 126 74.11 Increased moderately 39 22.94 Not Increased 05 2.95 Total 170 100.00

Table 3.9 reveals that out of 170 farmer respondents 74.11 (126) per cent responded that after the introduction of irrigation their income was increased significantly, 22.94 (39) beneficiaries replied their level of income was increased at moderate level and very least number of farmers said there was no increase in their income. Thus the study 72

reveals that: the agricultural income of the farmers has increased substantially. Higher agricultural output and increased income improved the economic conditions positively. This consequently improved the life conditions of the farmers.

From the empirical study it is confirmed that; irrigation brought a significant changes in the level of income of the farmers. Hence, our formulated hypothesis “Irrigation increases the income of the farmers” is accepted.

SAVING BEHAVIOUR OF THE FARMERS

Man is a social animal and he always thinks about his future. Therefore he cultivated the habit of savings. Savings indicates an excess income left after meeting their needs. The saving habit generally depends on the ability and motivation of a person to save. He allocates his income in such a way that, his future needs are met within the income limits. An effort has been made to know the saving habit of the respondents in Table- 3.10 TABLE- 3.10 Saving behaviour of the farmers Saving habits of the respondents Frequency Percentage Able to save 122 71.77 Unable to save 48 28.23 Total 170 100.00

The above table reveals that, 71.77 (122) percent farmers reported that they were able to save the money and rest 28.23 ( 48) percent of respondents replied, they were unable to save from their income. This figure clearly indicates the saving behavior of the rural farmers has gone up along with irrigation facility.

INCREASE IN THE FAMILY ASSETS OF THE FARMERS

Creation of family assets and property are generally used as key indicators reflecting on social status in terms of standard of living. Hence, the economic condition of the beneficiaries can be judged on the basis of their asset possession. Prior to irrigation majority of farmers of the region were socially as well economically worse off and managed their life with minimum assets. But after the inception of irrigation and with due passage of time many of the beneficiaries who become affluent and possessing various types of assets. 73

Table-3.11 Family assets of the farmers Change in family assets Frquency Percentage Radio/Tape Recorder 155 91.17 Telivision 135 79. 41 Cooker 120 70.58 Gas Cylinder 80 47.00 Telephone/Mobile 125 73.52 Vehicles /Bicycles 76 44.70 Car/Jeep 25 14.70 Tractor 22 13.00

(Respondents have given multiple answers) The above table shows the different assets owned by the farmers. About (155) 91.17 percent farmers owned radio and tape recorder as their house hold gadgets, 135 (79.41) percent of the farmers owned audio visual instrument like TV/radio and tape recorder 70.58 (120) percent farmers use cooker, 47.00 (80) farmers are using the gas cylinder, 73.52 (125) percent respondents could buy telephones and mobiles for their means of communication. For transportation and agricultural activities various means were used as it was shown in the above table.

The above data indicates that, farmers increasingly use the modern gadgets and goods such as TV, tractor, mobile and telephone, motor cycles, car and jeep, radio /tape recorder etc. These are the important assets which are the symbol of improved economic and social life conditions of the farmers.

CHANGING LIFE STYLE AND STANDARD OF LIVING

Life style means an individual’s typical way of living. It includes the attitudes and his expression in a consistent manner of thoughts and his existence. Irrigation made favorable changes in all sections of the society. But the level and effect of change varies from small farmers to large and tail end to head reach farmers.

The important indicators of life style are both visible and non visible in nature. These consists of social customs, manners, speaking style; food habits , dress habits, education, health and sanitation, housing condition, mode of recreation, transport and communication facilities etc. 74

Table -3.12 Change in life style and standard of living Change in life style Frequency Percentage Changed to a great extent 90 52.94 Changed moderately 51 30.00 Not changed 29 17.06 Total 170 100.0

Table -3.12 reveals that, 52.94 % (90) of farmers life style and standard of living changed at greater level, 30.00 percent (51) respondents said it is changed moderately and 17.06 (29) percent said there is no change in their life style and standard of living.

FACILITY OF IRRIGATION CHECKS DROUGHTS AND FAMINES

Drought means less water availability for agriculture than usual. There by causing more pressure on agricultural production. Drought and famines are the natural calamities which are regularly interrupting the life of the farmers and again this situation affects whole living beings on the earth. Drought has severe impact on economy too. It affects on crops, level of water, livestock, soil, health problems etc., caused resulted in deaths also. Irrigation facility from the source of Malaprabha and Ghatabraha Projects the situation of arising such calamities is checked through irrigation. In connected to this question was asked and information gathered and given in table-3.13.

Table- 3.13 Irrigation facility checks droughts Responses about irrigation and drought control Frequency Percentage Strongly agree 141 82.94 Partially agree 19 11.18 Disagree 10 5.88 Total 170 100.00

Above table reveals that, 82.94 (141) percent farmers strongly agree that irrigation facility checked the problem of drought and famines, 11.18 (19) percent partially agree

and hardly 5.88% (10) percent are not satisfied with this facility. Study also reveals that, tail end farmers are not agree with the statement.

OLITITICAL PARTICIPATION FARMERS

In this chapter an attempt is made to analyze the impact of irrigation on political participation and educational achievements. In rural areas political mobilization is taking place due to economic development. Though the emphasis in this study is more on economic development, however its impact on political participation cannot be ignored.

Political scientists like Sidney Verba, Goel, Almand, Powel, Nie, Hortan, Smith, William, Anil Bhat and Ahamad defined “political participation means citizen’s voluntary involvements in political process. This political process involves selection of representatives influencing decisions of democratic institutions in various ways” (quoted in Gawati, 2000).

Economic development and change in political awareness is reflected in the form of involvement of the farmers in political dynamics. Since the inception of irrigation active political participation of farmers has increased. The economic background is considered to be the base line to find out irrigational impact on political involvement. The development of political structures at the various levels, their functioning and resulting the distribution of power are co-related with economy.

In post-irrigation period owing to economic development and new policies of the government towards the farmers bring change in political attitudes. Thus there is a linkage between economic development and political participation. Biplab Das Gupta and Morris Jones support this view. They opined that -there is a close relation between the level of economic-development and political behavior. “Economic development of the masses enables to participate more actively and effectively” (quoted in Gawati 2000).

Bhambhari and Verma support this view they says; individual’s resource position plays a crucial role in public life. It means, better is the economic condition greater will be the chances of participation in politics. Thus economic status of an individual may help in getting elected to public office. It indicates that higher the socio-economic status greater will be the chances to get and hold the important position and by that they can safeguard their status (Bhambhari, et al. 1973). 76

Further political participation includes voting, election, campaign, processions, agitations, leading delegations, organizing meetings and contesting elections etc. Political development; according to Pye Lucian, W. (1966). In the present context, society is on the track of new democratic values. There are several studies which have confirmed that income and political participation are positively correlated.

In short, economic prosperity of the region led to greater change in political behaviors, (Verba Sidney, 1961). Thus owing to economic changes the new political set up has affected the social structure of the villages. Agricultural innovations may be regarded as a significant instrument in changing the political scenario and mode of politics.

In recent past almost in every corner of the region, farmers are coming out in an organized way to draw the government’s attention to fulfill their various demands. It is evident from the earlier studies that economic development of the irrigated area has motivated the farmers to participate in political affairs. In support to this, Epstein (1971) in her study ‘Economic Development and Social Change’ pointed out that economic diversification led for wider economy and subsequently greater changes in political aspects. Therefore it is argued that economic changes are followed by political changes.

In the light of these the present study in this part intends to find out the political participation by the farmers in terms of voting behavior, contesting elections, canvassing, participation in processions and agitations etc.

VOTING BEHAVIOR OF THE FARMERS

Voting is the process of electing representatives to a body representing the people. It is one of the distinctive features of a modern democracy. Voting is the primary act of political participation. By voting behavior we mean the behavior of an individual as a political animal in the society in terms of his participation in electoral process and in terms of his choice of political parties and candidate.In order to understand the voting behavior of the farmers, a question was posed to the respondents. “Do you cast vote in the elections”? The responses are given in Table 3.14

Table 3.14 Voting behavior of the respondents Casting vote in elections Frequency Percentage Always 101 59.41 Rarely 49 28.82 Never 20 11.77 Total 170 100.00

Table- 3.14 shows, about 51.41 (101) per cent of respondents said that they always cast votes in elections, 28.82 (49) per cent of respondents replied; they rarely cast vote in elections and 11.77 (20) per cent said, they never cast. Hence it is clear from the data that a significant number of farmers have been involving in elections. Hence economy plays a significant role in the participation of political processes.

CONTESTING ELECTIONS

In rural communities there were traditional institutions and associations. But now economic development has given a way for new system of associations and institutions like banks, educational institutions, APMC, cooperative societies, political parties, peasant organizations with various ideologies.

Elections are in fact, lifeblood to the proper functioning of democratic political system and as well as backbone of democracy’ (quoted in Manas Chakrabarthy, et al. 2006). Since land and income constitute the main base of power. The allocation of power broadly coincides with the distribution of land and income. Hence in order to assess the level of participation of farmers in various political institutions and associations a question was asked to the farmers about contesting elections themselves or any of their family members. Table 3.15 Contesting elections by the farmers Responses Frequency Percentage Contested in elections 49 28.82 Not contested 121 71.18 Total 170 100.00

Table -3.15 shows that 28.82 (49) per cent of respondents said that they and their family members contested elections for different posts and positions, and 71.18 (121) per cent

of respondents replied that they or any other members of the family did not contest in any election sand any participation. Hence it is observed that farmers now have become politically forward and participate in decision making process of the society.

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT GOVERNMENT SCHEMES

Ever since independence: central and state governments have introduced a number of development programmes in the villages. Therefore to examine the awareness of the farmers towards government schemes a question was posed about availing benefits such as; Crop loan, Crop insurance, Kisan credit card, Yashaswini yojane (Scheme) regarding purchase of implements, animals etc. Table- 3.16 Knowledge about Government schemes Knowledge about Govt. schemes Frquency Percentage Know the schemes 85 50.00 Partially know the schemes 40 23.52 Don’t know 45 26.48 Total 170 100.00

Table 3.16 reveals that 50.00 (85) percent farmers know the various Govt. schemes, 23.52 (40) percent respondents replied they partially know the Govt. schemes and 26.48% (45) respondents replied they don’t know the Govt. schemes.

EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FARMERS

Among many social aspects; education received a top most priority. Prior to irrigation– technology unfavorable conditions arrested the educational progress. Agricultural development in rural areas increased the income and it consequently induced for educational achievements.

In post irrigation period farmers attached great importance for education. There are ample of instances where parents are illiterate or semi-illiterates but their children and grand children are generally more literates and educated. Hence expansion in agriculture and agricultural technology triggered the economic achievement and consequently it brought transformation in the life of the farmers.

The analyses conducted by Harbison and Myers indicated a significant co-relation between economic development and education. They pointed out that economic development led to substantial investment on education. Thus these two are co-related and influenced with each other. Higher level of literacy and exposure to new media is associated with socio-economic conditions of the farmers. In this connection an attempt is made to understand the educational achievement of the farmers and their family members. Table 3.17 Literacy and educational level of the children Educational level of the children Frequency Percentage Illiterate 29 17.06 Primary 48 28.24 Matriculation 27 15.88 PUC 36 21.18 Degree 20 11.76 Other 10 5.88 Total 170 100.0

Table 3.17 portrays the educational level of the children of the respondents. It is evident from table that 17.06 (29) per cent farmers said that their children are illiterates, 28.24 (48) per cent said their children have completed primary education, 15.88 (27) per cent members education is up to matriculation, 21.18 (36) per cent education is up to PUC, 11.76 (20) per cent degree education and only 5.88 (10) per cent said that their children have completed post graduation, diploma and other technical education.

MASS MEDIA AND EDUCATION OF THE FARMERS

There are number of agencies of education through which farmers get trained. The sources of mass education are Radio, TV, Newspapers and Agricultural Extension Agencies. These are not only the means of entertainment but also the source to impart knowledge concerning to different spheres of agriculture.

These communication net works broadcast and publish the latest weather report, rainfall, information regarding natural calamities, knowledge about latest techniques, use of HYV’s, pesticides, and fertilizers, market prices, information concerning to crops, cattle and poultry, innovations in agriculture etc. Generally, farmers listen and view the agricultural programmes like, Krushi – Darshan, Havamaan Varadi, Negila Yogi, and Anna -Daata, Krushi Bandhu, Krushi Vijaya, Krushi Samachar etc.

Apart from all these mass media communications; there are other agencies which are educating the farmers. These include CADA, Gram sevak, Agri-Universities and other agricultural institutions. These institutions and agencies were sponsored krushi melaas, field days, krushi gosti, film shows, TV talks and exhibitions etc.

Table- 3.18 Mass media and education of the farmers Extent of use of mass media Frequency Percentage Take help at greater extent 99 58.24 Take help occasionally 51 30.00 Not at all 20 11.76 Total 170 100.00

Table 3.18 revels that, 58.24 (99) respondents replied that they take the help of mass media to enhance their knowledge at greater extent, 30.00 (51) said they take help of these medias occasionally and 11.77 (20) percent farmers said they don’t take the help.

*****

CHAPTER- 4

IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY: ECOLOGICAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

This chapter intends to study the problems of farmers in an irrigated setup. Though green revolution has contributed significantly for development and helped for food security, poverty alleviation, prevention against drought and improve the quality of life of the rural population. It was made possible of development due to a happy blend of four technologies; biotechnology, chemical technology, hydro-technology and machine technology. Bio-technology produced HYV Seeds, Chemical technology provided pesticides, fertilizers and weedicides.

The process of development triggered the socio-economic changes but it does not mean that it is necessarily has an altogether beneficial impact on the life of the farmers and productive quality of land. Along with bless, irrigation also brought the inherent attachments of several problems.

Development may be defined as double edged sword. In spite of region blessed with number of positive impact but is besieged with several problems owing to new technology. At present day we have not only damaged our life generating and life sustaining normal ecosystems and environment but also created innumerable socio- economic problems.

The use of imbalanced fertilizers, irrational irrigation practices and indiscriminate use of pesticides affected the different spheres of agricultural land, environment and also on farmers. In the wake of this; the life security has been threatened. It is also observed that, prosperity become curse for farmers and human beings in general. Therefore, it is not only enough if the feasibility of irrigation project is examined only from the agricultural viewpoint and economic prosperity. But it is also necessary to evaluate the negative impact. The adverse impact of irrigation has affected on bio-diversity and especially the farmers in several ways.

Frequent and excess use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrational watering affected on lands fertility. Faulty irrigation practices and absence of proper and adequate drainage facilities have not only been responsible for waste of water but have also led to land 82

degradation. That has permanently damaged considerable portion of natural resources. Our natural capital like Land, Water, and Air and Biodiversity system is continuously being encroached.

At present day the problems; such as land degradation, salinity and alkalinity problem of health, problem of mismanagement of water, farmers displacement, litigations among the farmers and irrigation authorities, cultivating the bad habits like alcoholism, gambling, giving and taking dowry, problem of debt and extravagancy etc. These adverse effects may be some times direct or indirect and also immediate or later.

The field investigation was conducted where the benefit of Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Project are in operation. To determine the adverse impact of the agricultural technology on farming system and the sustainability of irrigated agriculture is being questioned economically, ecologically and environmental view point. Therefore, agricultural development faces a serious challenge in terms of sustainability.

The five basic natural resources on earth like land, water, air, biodiversity, flora and fauna. These natural resources are inter-related and interconnected and inter-dependent. With disturbance in the appropriate management of any one affects the other resources. Despite its remarkable socio- economic contributions, we all enjoy a short term success without having any proactive thoughts and evolving strategic plan. Local eco-systems are collapsing at an accelerating pace and affecting the environment and lead to decrease in production and also ecological consequences.

Environment is the most important agenda of 21 century. It is due to its far reaching consequences on the survival of human beings and other forms of bio-diversity on the earth. In the early stages of economic growth, the awareness of environmental problems is less or negligible and environment friendly technologies are not practicing for production.

In recent days with the help of modern technologies, agriculture sector has been facing many problems. Considering, the lofty dreams and aspiration of the planners of irrigation projects succeeded in executing. However, its expectation has brought about divesting consequences. There is an inverse relationship between economic development and environment. The range of issues concerning to environment and ecology is truly complex and bewildering while we think over the issues of environment and sustainable ecology. 83

There are some of the major constraints of irrigation such as - inefficient use of water, leakage from unlined canals, faulty use of irrigation water, over using water than required, flood irrigation. Soil fertility and quality maintenance, intensification of agriculture production, use of extended length of tertiary canals etc. These need to be removed more rapidly than they are replaced.

Table. 4.1 Details of land degradation under Malaprabha and Ghataprabha (Irrigation projects (saline, alkaline and watter logging) MALAPRABHA IRRIGATION PROJECT ( Affected Area in Ha.) District Taluka Water Saline Alkaline Total logged BELGAUM Savadatti 4017.79 424.22 00 4442.01 Bailhongal 100.00 00 00 100.00 Ramadurg 1978.00 149.00 00 2127.00 Total 6095.79 573.22 00 6669.01 DHARWAD Navalgund 3221.00 00 00 3221.00 Hubli 1187.00 00 00 1187.00 Total 4408.00 00 00 4408.00 GADAG Naragund 2767.00 46.00 00 2813.00 Ron 33.00 00 00 33.00 Total 2800.00 46.00 00 2846.00 BAGALKOT Badami 2681.00 549.43 00 3230.43 Grand Total 15984.79 1168.65 00 17153.44

GHATAPRABHA IRRIGATION PROJECT ( Affected Area in Ha.) BELGAUM Raybag 4830.00 1680.00 00 6510.00 Athani 3771.00 1700.00 00 5471.00 Hukkeri 2225.00 270.00 00 2495.00 Chikodi 2268.00 230.00 00 2898.00 Gokak 8840.00 2534.00 00 11374.00 Ramadurg 00 00 00 00 Total 21934.00 6414.00 00 28348.00 BAGALKOT Jamakhandi 4751.51 2112.65 00 6864.16 Mudhol 4905.00 1995.00 00 6900.00 Bilagi 2180.00 1235.00 00 3415.00 Total 11836.51 5342.65 00 17179.16 Grand total 33770.51 11756.65 00 45527.16

Source: CADA Malaprabha & Ghataprabha Projects, Belgaum

The above table indicates that the lands affected due to irrigation in both the projects is depicted. The four taluks of four districts are selected for empirical study. Dharwad and Gadag districts from Malaprabha project Belgaum and Bagalkot from Ghataprabha project.

The total area of land degraded is 3221 ha. in Navalgund taluk of Dharwad district and 2813 ha. in Naragund of Gadag district. Whereas from Ghataprabha project the total land under water logged in Raybag of Belgaum district is 4830 ha, and 1680 ha., is under saline and from Jamakhandi of Bagalkot district . Of the total land 4751.51 ha., is water logged. and 2112.65 ha., is under saline. This shows that the land under both the projects is threat to ecology.

IRRIGATION AND LAND DEGRADATION

Land is the most precious heritage and physical base of biomass and production of life supporting system infinite. Degradation takes place with various reasons like water logging, alkalinity and salinization and also excess use of fertilizers etc. In fact land degradation is a major threat to our food and environmental security.

Unbalanced and excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in intensive agricultural practices has led to the degradation of soil and water. Fertilizers and pesticides cause acidification and eutrofication of water. Application of sodium and potassium based fertilizers leads to deficiencies of macro and micro intensity reduce biomass production and increased suspended sediments; which in turn adversely affects on stream flow.

In the name of man’s greed land degradation is increasing in a severe extent. Land degradation indicates permanently or temporarily decline in ecosystem function and productive capacity. It may refer to the destruction or deterioration in the health of eco systems. It also caused for reduction of biological and economic productivity and complexity of crop lands.

Land desertification and land degradation took place in some parts of study region, where irrigation cultivation is more. It is resulting from mis-management practices and its implementation. It is threat to the environment as well as livelihood. Poor operational system, maintenance of canal network and high subsidy on irrigation etc. 85

Degradation of land is however common across and its consequent of physical, chemical and biological shifts driven by environmental, social and economic pressures. Land degradation is the consequence of multiple processes that both directly and indirectly reduce the utility of land. Hence information was collected on land degradation and is given in Table 4.2 Table 4.2 Responses about land degradation Responses about land degradation Frequency Percentage Highly degraded 27 15.88 Degraded at some extent 12 7.07 Not degraded 131 77.05 Total 170 100.0

Table 4.1 indicates that of the total samples 15.88 (27) per cent respondents replied that their land is highly degraded, 7.07 (12) percent said their land is degraded at some extent and 77.05 (131) per cent of respondents said their land is not degraded. Thus the study reveals that a small portion of land is affected with the use of irrigation and chemical based agriculture

WATER LOGGING

Water logging results primarily from inadequate drainage and over utilization of irrigated land, seepage from canals and ditches. Water logging concentrates salts, drawn up from lower in the soil profile in the plant rooting zone. Water logging occurs when the soil becomes overstored with water, promoting anaerobic conditions and plant roots became unhealthy, due to a number of chemical reactions including a reduction in soil iron and manganese oxide. Table- 4.3 Extent of water logging Extent of water logging Frequency Percentage Water logged 41 24.12 Not water logged 129 75.88 Total 170 100.00

The above table indicates that 24.12 (41) percentage of farmers land has water logged and about 75.88 (129) percent farmers land is not water logged.

SOIL SALINIZATION

Soil Salinization is the major cause of land being lost to produce and is one of the most prolific adverse environmental effects associated with irrigation. Soil Salinization happens when the salt content in soil increases above normal levels. Irrigation draws a significant amount of water from on area moving it to agricultural or land scaped lands. High salt levels make it difficult for plants to observe the necessary amount of water and nutrients from the soil.

Accumulation of salts is caused by mainly carbonates, chloride and sulphates in soil and ground water. The excessive of arid and semiarid are caused by over use and miss- use of water. The general accumulation of salt in the soil profile of many irrigated areas reduced crop productivity and may cause for bareness or out of production. Thus salinization reduces yield and can eventually lead to abandonment of land.

Table-4.4 Responses about soil salinization Status of land salinity Frequency Percentage More Land Salinized 13 7.65 Moderately Land Salinized 30 17.64 Not Salinized 127 74.71 Total 170 100.00

The above table- 4.2 reveals that about 7.65 % of farmers replied their land became more salinized, where as 17.64 percent farmers said, their land is moderately salinized and majority; that is about 74.71% respondents answered their land is not salinized. This indicates that, though there is not major portion of land is salinized but however there is a momentum for salinity of land is shown in both the project region.

USE OF FERTILIZERS, PESTICIDES AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Apart from the HYV Seeds the other equally important inputs to improve agricultural productivity are the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Agriculture chemicals are applied to reduce crop loss. The use of fertilizers and pesticides is spreading rapidly for boosting agricultural output. Since, the adoption of irrigation the use of fertilizers and pesticides has increase.

Use and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are threat to ecology. Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agro ecosystem containing nutrients that are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NKP). The excess use of fertilizers causes’ micronutrient deficiency in soil depressed the productivity of land. Toxic chemicals like insecticides, fungicides are generally used to protect crops. The insecticides and fungicides are generally known as biocides.

The high amount of fertilization of the crops to improve the yield upset the balance of life in irrigated regions. Chemical fertilizers lead to soil acidification and also deplete organic matter. This also causes for both the quality of ground water and also fertility of lands are being damaged. It also affects on health of human and animal beings. Excessive and inappropriate use of pesticide deteriorates the quality of water, which poses health hazards for human and leads to resistance of pests to pesticides.

Evidences showed that excessive use of fertilizers particularly, nitrogen cause crops low sugar content, acidifying action and increased incidence of weed and pest attacks. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers may decrease soil productivity in the long run. Chemical fertilizer leads to soil acidification and exhaust organic matter. As a result, the volume of soil pores and soil microorganisms and reduction in water holding capacity and soil erosion occurs.

TABLE-4.5 Use of fertilizers pesticides and ecological problems Use of fertilizes - pesticides & its affects Frequency Percentage Fully agree 102 60.00 Partially agree 21 12.35 Dis agree 27 15.89 Don’t know 20 11.76 Total 170 100.0

Survey reveals that ; after the advent of irrigation the use of pesticides and fertilizers became rampant and its affect is seen on ecology. The above table 4.5 depicts that about 60.00 (102) percent farmers said it affected more on ecology, 12.35% (21) farmers replied it is partially affected and 15.89 (27) percent respondents disagreed and 11.76 (20) replied they were unaware of its effect on ecology.

In recent days consumption of pesticide by agriculture is increased sharply. The use and indiscriminate use of pesticides has caused resistance of organism to them which in turn resulting low quality of produces and also complex environmental problems. Pesticides have the effect on the both biotic and abiotic systems on the earth. The finding has been supported by the fact that, the farmers have only limited awareness of the hazardous affects of pesticides and at the same time have little information on the environment friendly alternatives.

DETERIORATION OF WATER QUALITY

The availability of fresh water is going to be the most pressing problem. Intensive farming and over use of fertilizers and other chemicals in agricultural production is certainly affected on the quality of water. This in turn affects on land, man and other biotic system. Sometimes untreated runoff from agricultural land carrying chemicals is primarily responsible for deterioration of water quality and the contamination.

Table-4.6 Opinion about deterioration of water quality Opinion about water quality deterioration Frequency Percentage Strongly agree 39 22.94 Partially agree 31 18.24 Not agree 100 58.82 Total 170 100.00

The above table – 4.6 depicts that 22.94 (39) percent respondents strongly agreed for irrigation and loss of water quality, 18.24% (31) said they partially agree. And majority i.e. 58.82 percent replied that they don’t agree with regard to the above problem.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variety of living forms present in various ecosystems. It includes life forms from all sources such as land, water and other living beings. Over consumption, over utilization, over exploitation and over use of chemicals are the main threats for loss of biodiversity. Owing to this many plants and animals and species are severely threatened by destruction of their habitat. Biodiversity is essential for the sustenance of all living systems. 89

Many people depend on for health care, food, supplementary nutrition, fodder, bio -fuel housing and to other use etc. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, chemical pesticides and chemical herbicides has long lasting and deleterious effects on the soil health, biotic substances, quality of agricultural produce and other terrestrial and aquatic life and environment. Table – 4.7 Opinion about loss of biodiversity Opinion about loss of biodiversity Frequency Percentage Yes 65 38.24 No 68 40.00 Don’t know 37 21.76 Total 170 100.00

Table-4.7 indicates that, 38.24 % (65) of farmers said there is a problem of loss of biodiversity, 40.00% (68) respondents replied that there is no such type of loss of biodiversity and 21.76% (37) said they don’t know about the problem of loss of biodiversity.

IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY AND HEALTH PROBLEMS (USE OF PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS)

Irrigation development necessarily brings changes in inputs used like fertilizers, machines and pesticides. These chemical pesticides destroy pests and insects and fertilizer helps for more output. But injudicious use of pesticides and lack of self spray equipment and non protective clothing’s are causing significant short term and long term chronic health problems.

Use of chemicals; causes threat to the human health. The effects of these on human being may be immediate or over longer time. There are a number of evidences which have shown the adverse impact on the health of people. But it seems that the farmers are un aware of the same.

Many studies pointed out that, the use of these have caused adverse effects on human health by increasing heart disease, skin disease, breathing problem etc. Atu (1990)

pointed out that due to improper care of operation system of pesticides and fertilizers, farmers face some health hazards. He added that most of the pesticides and insecticides are dangerous as toxic can cause serious health problems to human beings.

During the application, chemicals spilled or sprayed on skin cause health hazards. Farmers also suffered from breathing difficulty and irritation. Thus in order to get more and more farm produces; excessive use of fertilizers is inevitable and these cause threat to human health. Water borne or water related diseases are commonly associated with introduction of irrigation. Irrigation frequently causes in the prevalence of water related diseases by increasing water contact by the human population in providing suitable habitat for disease vectors. Table-4.8 Irrigation technology and health problems (use of pesticides & fertilizers etc) Responses about health problems Frequency Percentage More health problems 15 8.82 Moderately health problems 48 28.24 Not facing any health problems 107 62.94 Total 170 100.0

As indicated in table 4.8 about 09 (15 ) per cent of farmers said that they face more health problems, 28.24 (48) per cent farmers opined that they feel moderate health problems due to use of new irrigation technology and 62.94% (107) per cent said that they are not facing any health problems. It indicates that health problems due to use of pesticides and fertilizers affected only a small number of farmers; a quite number of farmers are not facing health problems due to use of fertilizers and pesticides however still many are unaware about ill effects of pesticides and fertilizers.

Thus modern agricultural technologies that arrived after the introduction of irrigation have caused ill health conditions in one or other form. It is said that the new generation is eating and drinking toxic things in the form of food and water. Since this effect is not immediate and not visible easily too.

From field survey it is also observed that farmers stir pesticides with bare hands, chew tobacco or something even while spraying and applying. They sing and talk while spraying; sometimes don’t care to wash the hands cleanly after its application. Thus all

these cause for health hazards. The new agricultural technologies; particularly, thresher creates problem of sound pollution and is more dangerous to heart patients.

NATURE OF HEALTH PROBLEMS

Better agricultural practices are those which are safe to the environment, human beings and all other living beings on the earth. But the situation in irrigation setup is different because farmers are using chemicals and fertilizers to protect the crop practices and will certainly affects on human health and environment.

In addition to exposure during spraying the unsafe storage handling and disposal of pesticides by farmers and farm families to high levels of health risk and can contaminate the eco-system. Use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers destroys pests and helps for farming activities. But many studies pointed out that the use of these has caused adverse effects on human health and bio-diversity in general.

Chemicals and fertilizers caused for increasing heart disease, skin disease, eye irritation, breathing problems. Cancer risk could be high from nitrate as well other problems like adverse hormonial functions and liver damage etc.

Table-4.9 Opinion about nature of health problems Opinion about nature of Health Problems Frequency Percentage

Cancer risk 05 02.94 Heart diseases 19 11.18 Skin deceases 38 22.35 Breathing problem 13 07.65 Leaver damage 02 01.17 Eye irritation 30 17.63 Don’t know 63 37.10 Total 170 100.0

Table 4.9 reveals that out of 170 farmer respondents, 2.94 percent opined that there is a problem of cancer risk owing to use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, 11.18 percent

replied there may be chances of problems of heart diseases, 22.35% replied there may be the more chances of skin deceases, 13 respondents said about the breathing problem, hardly 02 respondents opined about the chances of lever damage problem, 17.63 percent replied more chances of eye irritation and large number i.e. 37.10 percent said they are unaware about the use of chemical fertilizers/ pesticides and its effect on their health.

PROBLEM OF WATER AVAILABILITY

Water is the major input and availability of water in sufficient quantum is the basic requirement for the crops. Shortage or excess of water adversely affects the crop yield and consequently affects on the socio-economic conditions of the farmers.

In recent days farmers are facing the problem of shortage of water. It is due to various reasons such as shortage of inflow to the river, scanty rainfall, mismanagement, unscientific use of water and extension in irrigated land etc. In connection to this, question was asked and responses are projected in Table 4.6.

Table 4.10 Problem of water availability Responses about water availability Frequency Percentage Fully satisfied 79 46.47 Partially satisfied 35 20.58 Not satisfied 56 32.95 Total 170 100.0

Table 4.10 shows that 46.47 (79) per cent of the farmers are fully satisfied with water availability to their lands. 20.58 (35) per cent farmers responded that they were partially satisfied and 32.95 (56) per cent are not satisfied. This clearly indicates that quite a sizable number of farmers of the region are facing the availability of water problem.

PROBLEM OF DISPLACEMENT

Dam-building is one of the most important causes for development related displacement. The construction of number of multipurpose dams caused for numerous issues such as displacement and resettlement. Though the objectives of projects are irrigation along

with hydropower generation and flood control but in this process the population has been affected.

According to UN guiding principles on internal displacement ‘internally displaced persons or group of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or place of habitual residence in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects. In this condition people are forced to displace from one place to another.

The construction of Ghataprabha dam has submerged an area of 6338 ha. affecting 22 villeges ( 21 villages from Hukkeri taluk and 1 villege from Belgaum taluk get submerged. Displaced families have been rehabilitated in 22 rehabilitation centre’s opened in Hukkeri (12) Belgaum (04) and Khanapur and Gokak (03) and 03of in Dharwad district. Whereas Malaprabha reservoir water spread and submerges an area of 13,578 ha and displacing a population of about 32 villages. Parasgad completely and Sampgaon and Khanapur were partly submerged.

The most significant issues arising out of projects are resettlement of people displaced by the various reasons; such as flooding of land and homes etc. This can be particularly disrupting the community. Human migration and displacement are commensurate with a breakdown in community infrastructure which will cause for unrest.

Table- 4.11 Responses about problem of displacement Responses about displacement Frequency Percentage Displaced 21 12.35 Not displaced 149 87.65 Total 170 100.0

The table 4.11 reveals that out of total 12.35% (21) respondents replied there is the problem of displacement and 87.65 percent ( 149) said there is no such problems of displacement out of irrigation project.

DISPUTES AMONG THE FARMERS AND BETWEEN THE FARMERS AND AUTHORITIES

In the irrigation setup issue of social disruption is quite common and is inevitable. Social conflicts are due to demands on water resources and un-equal distribution of water to the crops. Question was asked to the farmers in related to disputes and arguments between the farmers and authorities and other related issues. Farmers opined that irrigation has led for water related conflicts such as equal share and distribution of water at proper time etc.

It is learnt from the empirical survey that, the head reach and other influential farmers tend to take more benefit from canal water. And naturally it leads to shortage of water to the tail-enders and thus appropriate distribution of water is not possible. However, it is also observed that farmers want to irrigate their fields only during daytime.

Hence there is a competition on the use of water during daytime only and sometimes night flows go waste. It is also observed that high yield and more remunerative crops were grown by head-reach and middle-reach farmers whereas tail-end farmers grow few crops owing to shortage of water.

This kind of attitudes of the farmers leads to shortage of water and tension among the farmers and consequently caused for disharmonious relations. It also destroys the lives and properties of individuals and spoils the mental peace of the farmers. Conflicts occur not only among the farmers but also between the farmers and authorities. It is due to irrational and discriminative attitudes of the authorities, improper water management, lack of supervision and their negligence in respect of water distribution, improper and silted canals etc. In this regard the information is collected on how frequently conflicts take place and it is shown in Table 4.12 Table 4.12 Disputes among the farmers and between the authorities Occurrence of disputes Frequency Percentage Frequently 24 14.11 Occasionally 51 30.00 No disputes 95 55.89 Total 170 100.0

As per Table 4.12 about 14.11 (24) per cent of the respondents replied that the conflicts take place frequently, 30.00 (51) per cent said that, disputes occur occasionally, and 55.89 (95) per cent said there were no conflicts in this regard. It is concluded on the basis of empirical evidences that, though irrigation brought economic prosperity it has also led to a number of litigations and disputes. The disputes between relatives and neighboring farmers cause enmity for generations together.

CULTIVATION OF BAD HABITS

The adverse impact of irrigation is also seen on the personal habit of the farmers. The increased income level and facilities led for some addictions and habits. The common habits they cultivated are consuming alcohol, smoking, gambling, chewing and consuming tobacco, consuming non-vegetarian food by the vegetarian people etc.

Table-4.13 Cultivation of bad habits after irrigation Opinion about habits after irrigation Frequency Percentage Habit of alcoholism 49 28.82 Chewing tobaco and battles leaves 71 41.76 Smoking 65 38.23 Habit of gambling 52 30.58 Other habits 18 10.59 (Farmers have given multiple answers)

Table – 4.13 shows that a majority of the farmers i.e. about 28.82 (49) per cent said that they had cultivated the habit of alcoholism, Chewing tobacco and battle leaves is about 41.76 (71) per cent, smoking 38.23 (65) per cent and 30.58(52) per cent farmers agreed that the farmers have cultivated the habit of gambling etc.

In irrigated region farmers addicted to a number of habits. Of course generally farmers are smokers and consume tobacco and battle leaves. But in post irrigation period this habit increased many fold. However the habit of alcoholism, gambling and eating non- vegetarian food is a new trend developed by some farmers in recent years due to economic affluences.

These habits of rural people were considered to be a social stigma in olden days. But in post irrigation period, affluence brought changes in our outlook and behaviors. Now a day’s alcoholism and other habits have not at all remained as social stigma. Some farmers are coming out of certain religious and caste rigidities regarding food habits and other habits. This all is happening on account of economic development and prosperity brought by irrigation. More the people become prosperous more are the tendency of acquiring bad habits. It is also learnt that, there are cases where people have sold or mortgage their lands to meet out their expenditure on these habits.

PROBLEM OF DOWRY SYSTEM

The practice of dowry and amount of dowry has sharply increased in post irrigation period. Unfortunately dowry in these days has become compulsion rather a custom on the part of parents. The system of dowry is such a social practice, which on its own has made life virtually hell for many. Dowry in recent days has gained a status symbol for both the parties.

Here an attempt is made to show how irrigation-technology and economic development impetus for increase in dowry. Therefore, a question was asked to the respondents to draw the severity of dowry system in the irrigated region. Table 4.14 Opinion about increased dowry system Opinion about increased dowry system Frequency Percentage Strongly agree 89 52.35 Partially agree 44 25.88 Disagree 37 21.77 Total 170 100.00

Table -4.14 reveals that out of 170 respondents 52.35 (89) per cent respondents strongly agreed, 25.88 (44) per cent partially agreed and only 21.77 (37) per cent disagreed in response to the dowry practice is concerned. Thus, these figures clearly show that; the system of dowry is profoundly increased after the inception of irrigation. Thus there is close relationship between irrigation development, economic prosperity and level of dowry system.

PROBLEM OF EXTRAVAGANCE

In post irrigation period farmers have extreme faith on their farm business. Their income from land was assured. More income stimulates the farmers to spend more on marriages, rituals, festivals and on amusement like drinking, smoking, merry making etc. All these lead to wasteful expenditure.

In fact, irrigation encourages the farmers to borrow heavily. The loans are given on low interest for the purposes of farming. But generally farmers do not use it for productive purpose whereas it is used for unproductive purposes also. This unproductive and wasteful expenditure has trapped the farmers into debt. Table 4.14 indicates the problem of extravagance among the farmers.

Table 4.15 Problem of extravagance Responses about extravagance Frequency Percentage Fully agree 66 38.82 Partially agree 43 25.29 Disagree 61 35.89 Total 170 100.00 As per Table 4.15, about 38.82 (66) per cent of respondents fully agreed that they become extravagant, 25.29 (43) per cent respondents partially agreed and 35.89 (61) per cent respondents disagreed the statement. This indicates that farmers during post irrigation period became more extravagant rather pre-irrigation period.

PROBLEM OF INDEBTEDNESS

One of the most serious problems of rural economy of our society is indebtedness. In fact borrowing and indebtedness are two sides of the same coin, while borrowing causes for indebtedness. Provision of loan facility is good for the needy farmers they use it for agricultural purpose. To meet out agricultural needs Governments has also introduced a number of schemes with low rate of interest and subsidy.

Irrigation for agriculture generally needs huge amount for different purposes. Therefore, farmers seek loan from banks, financial institutions, and traders or from moneylenders by mortgaging their property like land, gold or any other movable and immovable assets. Some make proper use and some do not: this ultimately leads for indebtedness. 98

Unfortunately the failure of crops due to natural calamities, unscientific use of modern technology, unscientific watering to crops and unwise expenditure leads to mental tension and mortification. This consequently leads to personal and family disturbances. If the debtor fails to repay the loan with due interest, it leads to confiscation of assets for the debtors. Most of the farmers many a times fail to repay the loan and recover their assets within time prescribed. Hence, information is collected on the debt position of the farmers and is given in Table - 4.16 Table -4.16 Responses about debt position Responses about debt Frequency Percentage

More burden of debt 49 28.82 Moderate burden of debt 43 25.30 No burden of debt 78 45.88 Total 170 100.00

Table 4.16 shows that , 28.82% (49) farmers have more burden of debt, 25.30 percent (43) per cent of farmers said that, they have moderate burden of debt and 45.88 (78) percent don’t have any debt. This shows that farmers not only take the credit but also they fall in the debt trap.

Generally farmers need the finance to manage agricultural operations. But at the same time they wish to maintain dignity in the social and community life. They do not hesitate in spending far beyond their means. Usually farmers take loans for the agriculture purpose but they use it for social and religious purposes, for example spend for marriages, birth, death, fairs and festivals, rituals etc. Thus indebtedness is omnipresent among the farmers community.

As a result the farmers are unable to save themselves from sinking further into debt. Hence indebtedness obstructs all other developments. It causes the depression, making the farmers bankrupt and problem of suicides too. Therefore it is rightly said that Indian farmer is born in debt, lives in debt, and dies in debt and even debt passed from one generation to another. ****** 99

CHAPTER – 5

MEASURES TO TACKLE THE PROBLEMS OF AGRICUTURE AND FARMERS

Many of the problems in irrigated agriculture and farmers can be mitigated and controlled by improved technology and management. It is possible by adequate addressing environmental, cultural and social aspects. Effective management and rational use of natural resources is needed to achieve the best results for any society. Proper management and rational utilization of natural resources and is the key element of utilizing science and technology in such a way as to get long range benefits.

Despite the large strides in increasing agricultural production in the study region has challenge for more production and threat to the ecology. Many of the soil or ecological related problems could be minimized bin-stalling adequate drainage systems and other measures. Therefore it is an appropriate time that; the reconstruction of human mind and change in technology for our peaceful co-existence is required. It is also necessary to understand the fundamental principles of ecology and environment in which we all live. Better agriculture practices are needed to bring sustainability in Indian agriculture.

Development project should not only aim at economic gains but also at social and ecological benefits. Any technological strategy should be in principle with pro-nature. In other words it should be need based, people centered and eco-friendly. It is important to have appropriate institutions and policies for the development and diffusion of feasible technological alternatives.

Better agricultural practices; for sustainable agriculture development is present need of the day. The better agricultural practices such as; alternative agriculture, conservation of agriculture and organic farming which all advocates the use of better agricultural practices. This is needed to bring sustainability in Indian agriculture.

Excessive use of chemical pesticides and chemical fertilizers and chemical herbicides has long lasting and deleterious effects on the health of soil, quality of agriculture produce and also health of farm workers, consumers and other terrestrial and aquatic life and environment. 100

Better agricultural practices are those which are safe to the environment, human and all other living beings on the earth and simultaneously, it also helps in enhancing the agricultural production. Sustainable agricultural systems can be economically, environmentally and socially viable and contribute positively on local livelihood. Farmers should shift from chemical farming to organic farming or from mechanism to organism is now universally accepted fact. Organic farming maintains soil productivity and repairs environment damage.

ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming which advocates the use of better agricultural practices. These agricultural practices preserve environment and bio-diversity. It is holistic production management system. Organic Farming is a form of agriculture that realizes on ecosystem management and attempts to reduce or eliminate external agricultural inputs, especially synthetic ones or using organics in agriculture.

Ancient Indian scriptures like Ramayana –Mahabharata, Vedas and Upanishads have documented the use of animal excreta, fish –bones and various kinds of plant residues as manure, neem cake, use of fungi and bacteria etc. There are many benefits of organic farming viz., Organic farming helps to improve the soils chemical properties & reduces Pollution level and this type of farming ensures optimum utilization of natural resources reduces animal and human health hazards and helps to agricultural sustainability

USE OF BIO- TECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is one of the important areas of technology development. With the help of various technologies like genetically modified crops can lead our agriculture to higher growth. Use of bio- technological tools in agriculture could make food crops high yielding and more robust to bio-tic stresses. The environmental challenges especially in terms of land degradation, water logging and excessive use of chemical inputs are posing problems for future of our agriculture and man. Thus the agriculture is at cross roads. Therefore organic farming helps for ecologically sustainable production.

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USE OF BIO-GAS MANURE (BGM)

Biogas manure is natural substance used for enriching the soil. It is by-product obtained from the biogas plants as a result of fermentation of cattle dung or other biomass yielding generation of methane as rich gas. For example farm yard manure, biogas plant, vermi- compost, sesbenia, sun hemp etc.

Using biogas has various benefits such as; Bio-gas improves soil structure and has no bad smell, biogas manure increases micronutrient in soil and improves soil structure, qualitative improvement in taste, smell, size and color of the food and also good for acidic soil, it helps for water holding capacity of soil and ensures plant growth, biogas manures avoids growing insects, enhances nutrient uptake for better nourishment of plants etc.

PEST MANAGEMENT CONTROL

After the introduction of irrigation; the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides became rampant. Pesticide consumption in India has increased over time and its injudicious use has created problems like development of resistant strains in insects and plant pathogens, resurgence of pest species direct exposure to applicator.

Hence to control various impact of pesticides, pest nutrient management to increase soil nutrients and thus enhance crop productivity. Soil health can be improved through several site and soil specific management options. There are so many instances which are seen in history as to how mismanagement subsequently deteriorates the natural resources.

Conservation is defined as management of human use of the natural resources in the biosphere so that they may yield the greatest sustainable benefits to the present generation. While, maintaining the potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations. Sustainable development is multidimensional concept with three interacting angles for natural resource management such as ecological security, economic efficiency and social equity.

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JAL KRANTI AWARENESS PROGRAMME (Water Revolution Awareness):

Mass awareness campaigns designed to address problems and suggest solutions to meet the requirements of each segment of society under the continuing scheme of information, education and communication, use of social media such as twitter, face book, whats app etc. To engage the people awareness programme on radio and television use of print media such as books, booklets, magazines, posters, pamphlets etc.

Awareness programms need to be arranged through essay, painting and other competitions, rain water harvesting at schools and public places. Rejuvenating of defunct wells and bore wells, show -casing models for specific activities targeting the policy planners and opinion of makers, organizing conferences, workshops on important water development and management problems and issues, creating water literacy awareness etc.

PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP):

To mitigate the problems related to land, water and ecology; public private partnership should be promoted in development, management and dissemination of the improved verities.

BETTER MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

Availability of water is very essential for increasing the productivity in agriculture. In India as well everywhere majority of water goes to the agriculture sector. Therefore judicious and appropriate use of water is essential. Water management should also be closely synthesized with land management to tackle degeneration of ecosystems regulated by ground water and surface water.

Economic value of water must be recognized, water should be priced commodity; local people need to be consulted on goals and strategies in water planning. Impact assessment should be must for any water development programme. This can bring to attention the threats to water qualities as also to human welfare and social stability. We need to pay attention to the regeneration and revival of old irrigation systems and projects.

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NEED TO INFUSE INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Technology transfer in agriculture should focus on key interventions at different stages. Such as sowing of the seed, crop protection, harvesting, post harvest management and marketing. The need of infuse innovation systems such as insect resistant crops, efficient irrigation system, water management system, remote sensing and geographic information system for improvement and monitor the land use and advisory services.

APPROPRIATE AGRONOMIC APPROACH

Agronomic practices be under taken for choice of right crops and their varieties, right type of fertilizers, right dose in right time, appropriate time and method of fertilizers , application and proper weed control and water management that result in increased yield and also increase in the fertilizers use efficiency and helps for conservation of ecology.

USE OF NANO – TECHNOLOGY

Nano- technology can be used in agriculture in many ways. It can help in promoting soil fertility and balanced crop nutrition, effective weed control, enhancing seed emergence, development in agriculture chemicals etc.

GOOD GOVERNANCE AND POLITICAL WILL TO PROTECT THE PRECIOUS NATURAL RESOURCES

Government should formulate appropriate policies to ensure sustainable land and water use. Policy formulations include price distortions through Govt. controlled prices and taxes etc., which give incorrect price signals. Government projects which are directly cause for environmental damage. Subsidies or free supply of power and water has resulted in over exploitation and inefficient use and wastage.

CREATING AWARENESS AMONG THE FARMERS BY WAY OF DAY CELEBRATIONS

For conserving and protecting natural resources special days should be celebrated. Year 2015 is recognized as Inter National Year of Soil; brings more significance to the “World Soil Day” being observed on Dec.5th. The Food and Agriculture Organization of 104

the UN under the theme “soils”; a solid ground for life. It is an important for the Government and people to understand the significance of healthy soil to achieve food security and nutritional goals and work towards preserving and restoring sustainable eco -systems to ensure soil revivals.

INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ACOOUNTABILITY

Data should be made as simple as possible so that all departments have access to all the information which can be viewed holistically before understanding the projects that could impact the environment and ecology.

OTHER MEASURES

 Letting agricultural and crop residues to get back into soil instead of burning

 Immaculate land, take steps for leveling of land, policies and programms for land development to ensure the even spread of water etc

 Applying need based fertilizers, pesticides, sharing and caring of water

 Take appropriate steps for water harvesting, watershed development , aforestation , proper and better management strategy etc.

 Awareness and capacity building among the farmers; about land, water and ill effects of agricultural technology, proper use and reuse of technology and natural resources

 Proper and timely watering, introducing night irrigation for minimizing Water evaporation , promoting multiple use of water and solving water related disputes

 Promoting and co-coordinating of traditional and environment friendly technology

 Rehabilitation and restoration of damaged and silted canal system and practice integrated pest management system

 Conjunctive use of surface and ground water especially in areas where there is a threat to water logging adopt appropriate water conservation methods

 Adopting modern irrigation methods such as ; micro irrigation, drip irrigation, sprinkler system and formation of compulsory water users associations (WUA)

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 Constructing and percolation ponds, recharging ground or open wells and bore wells etc.

 Development of CADA , extending proper awareness and education to the farmers

 Practicing crop resistance seeds, crop rotation system and cropping pattern accordingly the need

 Proper and timely maintenance system and focus on short term profitability

 Rehabilitation and restoration of damaged and silted canals, adopting sprinkler and drip irrigation

 Introducing night irrigation to minimize water logging and water loss

 Revision of cropping pattern accordingly the availability of water  Growing of more trees and plants and encourage farmers for Mono- cropping

Fostering rapid sustainable and broad based growth; agriculture is a key priority. Keeping in mind, the overall socio-economic developmental path of the agrarian community. Especially, in the light of existing vulnerabilities that relate to a shrieking land resource base and issues emerging due to climate change.

To overcome from all these various natural resource related problems we need the strategic approaches. It will balance environmental health and economic profitability in agriculture to promote social and economic equity. These all measures are vital to the wellbeing of the people in this universe and play a significant role in local and national development.

From the history of irrigation development in Karnataka and India, it was revealed that there is need of revival of local –traditional irrigation management practices. From various past experiences and lessons, building of our concrete knowledge on complex soil-plant- water and environment relationship. Sustainable agriculture is a special kind of agriculture development along with farming techniques which makes maximum utilization of the environment without causing any form of harm to agriculture and ecology.

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CHAPTER-6

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

Technology is accepted as the basic process of economic progress and is key driver for growth and transformation of rural agriculture. New technology really empowered the people to improve the quality of life. German economist; Schumacher said that, technology as a motor of development, basis of economic progress and instrument of social change. Modernization of agriculture is the blend of four technologies viz., Hydro-technology, Chemical technology, Machine technology and Bio-technology. This technology really empowers the people to improve the quality of life and enables rural people to become self reliant.

Of all the living organisms human being has come to supersede other life forms in the evolutionary process due to his higher intelligence. Irrigation has contributed significantly to poverty reduction, food security, employment opportunities, mitigating the drought conditions, generating of more income, improving the life conditions and quality of the rural population. However the sustainability of irrigated agriculture is being questioned both economically and ecologically.

The present predicament of emerging socio- economic and ecological crises; deeply rooted in this naiveté. Since water soil and air are being polluted due to the universal process of modern of technology. Modernization of agricultural technology is complementary and supplementary for rural development. Several revolutions in agriculture have taken place to boost the sector. These include the Green Revolution, Blue Revolution, White Revolution, Yellow Revolution, Bio-Technology Revolution, ICT Revolution etc.

Water and other agricultural technologies has the magical properties of turning the desert into smiling fields, irrigation is the most powerful measure of protection against famine and drought , employment and income generation. That is why it is said that irrigation is an insurance against drought. It may be considered that; what education is for man irrigation and other related technologies for land and agriculture development. It is often said that nothing moves in the Indian society unless agriculture and it is truism to state that agriculture cannot move unless water into land.

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The ecological and economic crises can be seen as an opportunity to fundamentally question our path of development and social equity. Though there is economic development so there is concern that we cannot continue with growth at the expense of environmental quality. Water, land and biomass are the precious resources. Land and water is scarce hence care needs to be taken on its equitable distribution and management, particularly its wasteful and excessive exploitation. Therefore this needs to be done from all fronts viz., social, ecological and material perspectives. There is no doubt that; the exploitation of the natural wealth needs to be checked and positive actions need to be taken to repair at least as much as damaged.

However it is not mean that; modern technology has no place in the process of rural development. In fact a combination of modern, traditional and indigenous technology for rural development is viable and sustainable. Agriculture need to change and change for better than the best. Sustainable agriculture resource management and conservation of natural resources are base and the orientation of technological and institutional change.

In such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Land, water, animal and genetic resources should be environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. National Commission on Farmers Report suggests attention should be given to soil health care, water harvesting and conservation, water management technology and input to achieve more growth rate in agriculture.

The model for technology development in agriculture is needed. Once we know the cause we have to think on making them positive and this is what not happening. We have to think in a proactive manner to build the society with global knowledge with new strategy of science and technology as a supporting component with new policies, programmes and human mind set.

To overcome from the problems we need strategic approaches which balance environmental health and economic profitability in agriculture to promote social and economic equity. Agricultural literacy programme and appropriate use of other related technological training, proper guidance and direction is to be needed. Therefore, this is not the work of an individual; everyone should join their hands for the agriculture 108

development and protection of ecology. After all these the fallowing important changes occurred in rural community due to agricultural technology:

 Farmers have achieved better socio-economic status in the wake of agricultural development owing to modern technology

 It is also noticed that; irrigation technology, machine technology and chemical technology can have a critical impact on soil, man, water and living beings

 Water and land is scarce resource to be managed and protected for the whole mankind

 Government has to initiate some plans and programs to mitigate the socio- ecological problems along with public awareness

 There is the need in the change of mind set of the stakeholders and need of integrated solution for the issues of natural resources

 Greedy Farmers are recently getting aware of regarding their precious natural resources of land, water, flora and fauna at some extent

 Water after all is the gift given by the nature. We need to use it judiciously and sensibly for our own shake and for the generation to come

SUGGESTIONS

On earth; there are an innumerable of natural resources for human use. Humans are part of nature and nature is something to overcome with this attitude towards human beings. Technological advances increase our ability to use earth’s resources. Now the concept of 2nd Green revolution has to build up with great caution and concerns for sustainability. Eco- system assessment refers to natural systems as humanity’s life support system providing essential services for existence and economic wellbeing.

Strengthening the agricultural research and development system; significant improvement in the sophistication of the technology and dissemination methodologies are essential for achieving rapid and sustainable growth in agricultural productivity. Finally, educating the people is important and has to be done with the involvement of various stakeholders.

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Hence, there is a need of sustainability of agriculture which is based on organic practices that are economically viable, environmentally safe and socially acceptable. Sustainable agriculture is one of the buzz-words of recent times. It has been attached to any number of social and economic pursuits; we need sustainable economic growth and sustainable ecosystem. Principles of sustainable agriculture are farm productivity is enhanced over the long term.

E. F. Schumacher asserted that the problem of environmental deterioration is not just technical but it stems from the life cycle of modern world. It’s most basic belief its metaphysics. No model of economic growth can sustain for long, if it doesn’t respect ecology in local and regional level and at the same time the environment as broad concern including the inter-relationship of natural, human made and socio-cultural environment.

The 21st century is generally considered as the century of development in science and technology and advances in economic development. It was also regarded as a century of the dissemination of environment through the overuse of the renewable and nonrenewable resources of the planet in the name of development. Efficient use of water and land resources is basic to survival of the ever increasing population.

But on the other, care should be taken for sustainable development. Sustainability influences with economics through the social and environmental consequences of an economic activity. Sustainability of economics involves ecological economics where socio-cultural, economic and health related aspects are integrated.

Water is critical input of our agriculture which is crucial for its growth in the future. Better water and soil management are important components of better agricultural practices. Scientific irrigation and water management provides the best insurance against weather induced fluctuations. Water harvesting is the best practice for conservation of natural resources. Water harvesting is a traditional technique first used by Greeks and Islands. People to save the water and obviously it can be solution for water d scarcity. People can find the solution for their water deficiency by the caught and storing of rain water.

There are other ways to conserve natural resources such as; organizing trainings, work shop and capacity building measures on water use and recycle. Farmers and people 110

fallow the ‘3’ R’s that is Reduce, Reuse and Recycle the water and other natural resources. Desalinization of sea water is another big solution for water scarcity. Singapore and Middle East countries wholly depend on their technology for increasing their water supply.

The resource conservation practices such as land leveling to ensure the even spread of water, applying need based fertilizers and water to crops, organic farming for better agricultural practices; which are biological in nature and eco-friendly. These agricultural practices preserve environment friendly farming. Organic agriculture is the holistic production management system, which promotes and enhances agro- ecosystem health. Organic farming has emerged as the only answer to bring sustainability in agriculture which is good for the environment and human beings. This also helps in creating an ecological balance and environment.

There are some examples where countries have given explicit national support for sustainable agriculture. The countries are putting it at the centre of agricultural development policy. Cuba has a National Policy for alternative agriculture, Switzerland has three tiers of support for both types of sustainable agriculture and rural development, Australia, Denmark, Sweden and Finland have given explicit national support for organic farming.

In India; Tamil Nadu farmers are experimenting with “Row Planting, and planting distance, bio-fertilizers, organic manures and basil fertilizer applications. Hence better agricultural practices will promote conservation of agriculture. There is a rising concern to examine and monitor the changing health status of soil land and water in the rural hinterland. Technology transfer options have to be assessed in the context of training for farmers, especially the small and marginal’s.

Finally it is a line of caution that, introduction of technologies; particularly in rural areas need to be planned with proper and abundant care. Poverty reduction and economic growth can be sustained only if natural resources are managed on a sustainable basis. The Planning Commission notes in its approach paper to the 12th five year plan that- “Economic Development will be sustainable only if it is pursued in a manner which protects the environment. Let us; care, share and conserve natural resources such as soil, water and other biotic and a-biotic substances which are protecting our life.

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Better agricultural practices were part of our farming in traditional way. The farming systems are sustainable agriculture, conservation agriculture and organic farming which all advocates the use of better agricultural practices. Sustainable agricultural practices are economically, environmentally and socially viable and contribute positively to local livelihood.

There is the need of change in mindset of the stake holders, and also need to an integrated solution for irrigation system - such as introduction of micro irrigation systems, application information technology and sensor based water conveyance etc. “The more crop per drop” principle needs to be followed for sustainable production and enhancing water productivity.

Water is the most important input in agricultural development and prosperity of the society. Thus water projects being presented a panacea for rural agricultural development in the northern part of drought region in Karnataka. In this study an attempt has been made to analyze the relationship between economic development and environmental (ecological) issues emerging out of irrigation. This study reveals that over exploitation of land and water has become rampant in some talukas of both the Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Irrigation Project. Over the years the productive capacity of the arable land has been falling under intensive cultivation.

Development is essentially a 20th century concept and concern.A spectacular improvement in living standards of people accompanied by great progress in science and technology. Development emerged as an important concern in the 1950’s with the beginning of the era of five year plans.

Development is said to be a complex phenomena on several factors that have been alleged to be responsible for non-development. It is defined as double edge sword, which has far reaching effects on the environment. However, there are several synonyms for development, viz. Modernization, Improvement, Liberation and change etc. Thus development can be defined as all processes that bring about improvement in human life enhanced environment and healthy living.

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CONCLUSION

Since, agriculture in Karnataka has been characterized by many revolutions. But one thing is common in this revolution that; it was the use of ‘technology’. Technology is the prime mover, which helps to shape society. The green revolution is an important milestone in this sector. To bring changes in agricultural sector many irrigation projects are working. Every project is launched with certain mottos and these two projects are not an exceptional. The Malaprabha and Ghataprabha projects came in to operation to supply irrigation water to the drought prone region of northern part of Karnataka.

Irrigation projects being presented a panacea for rural agricultural development in the northern part of drought region in Karnataka. In this study an attempt has been made to analyze the relationship between economic development and environmental (ecological) issues emerging out of irrigation. This study reveals that over exploitation of land and water has become rampant in some taluks of Belgaum, Gadag, Dharwad and Bagalkot districts of north Karnataka.

The conclusions of this survey suggest that there are both positive and negative socio- economic and some other ecological impacts. Unless; water resources are properly developed and managed the state will face acute crises and de-stabilization of water and soil affecting the hydrology, ecology and economy.

Land, farmer and inputs are the starting points in agriculture. The prospects of agriculture and agricultural production depend on inputs like water improved seeds, pesticides and fertilizers. Despite the availability of these inputs sometimes the yield may be low. It is due to lack of knowledge about watering, agricultural operations and mismanagement of agriculture related activities.

Above all these; Government and Authorities should also have to take appropriate measures whenever needed. Fair knowledge about agricultural operation and use of new technology and proper use of water and land are the urgent needs of the day. Along with this farmers are also addicted for a number of bad habits and that should also be solved within the framework to lead healthy and wealthy life.

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There is an urgent need to change in the attitudes of the people towards the use of water and new agricultural technology. There should be campaign to educate the public about water use and use of natural resources. Water pollution and technological ill effects and it should teach every farmer’s child about the need, practice and its consequences.

Though there are the problems connected with irrigation technology it means there is no need to stop irrigating the lands. We need irrigation, we need fertilizers, we need new technology and we need better production. There are some mistakes with way in these schemes are implemented and technology is using. Therefore, attitudes of the farmers, irrigation authorities and government that should be set right and eco friendly technology are the best ways and means to overcome from the problems.

We should treat water and land as Gold. Its judicious and proper use is strongly recommended in all sectors. And therefore, micro irrigation and biotechnology are the latest and efficient method of water utilization and protection of environment. Then only there may be the hopes to conserve water and protect the environment and ultimately help usher in better socio-economic future.

In this direction prospects of irrigation project is analyzed keeping in view of farmers’ opinion and suggestions. Though; irrigation has acted as a prime mover in the agriculture development by way of enhancing and sustainability of crop production. Government has also made huge investment for the development of irrigation projects. However, there are number of issues that are the cause of concern.

The United Nations massage is loud and clear “Water and land is scarce resource to be managed and protected”. Therefore it is moral responsibility of each and every one to protect our natural resources for ourselves and for future generations and also to see that the benefits of irrigation should reach to all the classes. Water belongs to whole mankind; therefore joint social efforts should be needed. Water is the gift given by the nature. We need to use it judiciously and sensibly for our own sake and for the generation to come.

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ANNEXURES INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY INDUCED RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS: A CASE STUDY IN KARNATAKA

IDENTIFICATION PARTICULARS Name and address of the respondent: Shri/Smt.------

Name of the District ------Name of the taluk ------

Name of the village------Date of Interview------

INFORMATION FROM OF THE RESPONDENTS Sl.No. Questions Coding type Name of the respondents Options Responses 1 Age of the respondent 25-30 1 31-35 2 36-40 3 41-45 4 46 & above 5 2 Gender of the respondent Male 1 Female 2 3 Educational Qualification Illiterate 1 Primary education 2 Secondary education 3 PUC 4 Degree 5 Any other 6 4 Religious information Hindu 1 Muslim 2 Christians 3 Jain 4 Any other 5

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5 Caste information Lingayats 1 Kudu-vakkaligas 2 Raddi 3 Brahamins 4 Kurubas 5 Scheduled caste 6 Scheduled Tribe 7 Any other 8 6 Type of family Joint family 1 Nuclear family 2 Exteded family 3 7 Number of members in the family 1 Member 1 2-3 Members 2 4-5 Members 3 6-7 Members 4 8 & Above members 5 8 What type of house do you have Kachcha house 1

Pucca house 2

Kachaha-pucca house 3

9 Which type of farmer you belongs Small farmermer ( less than 5 1 to ? acres.) Medium farmers (6- 15 acres 2 ) Large farmers (above 16 3 acres an) 10 No of working members in the Less than 2 members 1 field 2-3 members 2 3-4 members 3 4 and above 4

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11 How much of irrigated land do Less than 2 acres 1 you have? 2-3 acres 2 3- 4 acres 3 4-5 acres 4 5 and above 5 12 Is there increase Yes 1 in your farm income? No 2 13 After irrigation, how many times Double 1 the yield of your farm has Tripple 2 increased? Increased by 4 times 3 Increased by more than 4 4 times Not increased 5 14 Is there emergence of Marketing Yes 1 of agricultural surplus? No 2 15 At what extent your agricultural Increased significantly 1 income has been increased? Increased moderately 2 Not increased 3 16 What type of cropping system do One season 1 you adopt? Bi-season 2 17 What type of cropping pattern Maize 1 have you practicing? Sugar cane 2 Bengal Gram 3 Cotton 4 Jowar 5 Wheat 6 paddy 7 Sunflower 8 Green gram 9 Other 10 18 Is there increase in gross cropped Increased 1 area after irrigation? Not increased 2

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19 Do you have your own Yes 1 agricultural implements? No 2 20 If yes, which of the following? Wooden plough 1 Iron plough 2 Tractor 3 Bullock cart 4 Sprayer 5 Thresher machine 6 Sowing modern machines 7 Sowing traditional machines 8 Any other 9 21 Do you have livestock? Yes 1 No 2 22 If yes, which of the following? Cow 1 Oxen 2 Buffalos 3 Sheep & goats 4 Any other 5 23 Is it increased after irrigation? Increased 1 Not increased 2 24 Do you hire agricultural laborers? Yes 1 No 2 25 If yes, from where do you get the From same village 1 agricultural laborers’? From neighboring villages 2 Any other 3 26 Is there marketing surplus? Yes 1 No 2 27 How many months in a year Less than three months 1 yourself and other members of 3-4 months 2 your family work on farms? 5-6 months 3 7 and above months 4 28 Is level of income increased after Increased significantly 1 irrigation? Increased moderately 2 Not increased 3 126

29 What is your annual income? Below 30,000 1 30001- 40000 2 40001- 50000 3 50001- 60000 4 Less than 1 lac 5 1 – 2 lacs 6 30 Have you cultivated the saving Able to save 1 behaviors? Unable to save 2 31 If able to save; where do you Deposit in Banks 1 invest ? Deposit in post office 2 Purchase of agricultural 3 implements Purchase of lands 4 Purchase ornaments 5 Lending the money 6 32 Do you taken agriculture loan ? Taken 1 Not taken 2 33 How much of loan you have taken? Less than 20000 1 20000- 60000 2 60000- 1 lakh 3 1 lakh – 2 lakh 4 2 lakh – 3 lakh 5 3 lakh and above 6 34 Is holding of family assets increased Yes 1 No 2 35 If yes, what are the family assets Radio/ tape recorder 1 and gadgets ? Television 2 Cooker 3 Gas cylinder 4 Refrigerator 5 Telephone and mobiles 6 Bicycle and motor cycles 7 Car and jeep 8 Tractor 9 other 10

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36 Is there change in investment and Increased significantly 1 expenditure behavior? Increased moderately 2 Not increased 3 37 Is there change in life style and Changed to a great extent 1 standard of living? Changed moderately 2 No change 3 38 Development in canal irrigation Yes 1 enhanced educational, health and No 2 other services? 39 If yes, what is the extent of Primary education 1-7 1 literacy/educational status of your High school education 8-10 2 family members PUC education 3 Higher education 4 Traditional Education 5 Technical education 6 40 Do you adopt crop rotation Yes 1 system? No 2 41 Is participation in the community Increased 1 activities and membership of Decreased 2 voluntary organizations increased Constant 3 or decreased? Don’t know 4 42 How for agricultural technology is It increases agricultural 1 good for development? production Helps for employability 2 opportunities Reduced poverty level 3 Increases the level of income 4 43 Do you have knowledge about Yes 1 mechanical operations of the No 2 farming such as use of pesticides, Partially 3 fertilizers etc. 44 How frequently you tend to use All the times 1 fertilizers and pesticides? Occasionally 2 Never 3

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45 Do you use HYV’s ? Always 1 Occasionally 2 Do not use 3 46 Pesticide usage pattern? /how you With machine 1 tend to use the pesticides? Manual 2 47 Is your land degraded? Yes 1 No 2 Don’t know 3 48 Do you feel there are more Agree 1 problems with irrigation Disagree 2 development? Partially agree 3 Don’t know 4 49 At what extent your land is Highly degraded 1 degraded? Moderately degraded 2 Not degraded 3

50 Is salinity and alkalinity is Yes 1 affected to your land No 2 51 From when did you are facing the After 5-10 years 1 problem in related to agriculture After 10-15 years 2 and environment after the After 15-20 years 3 inception of irrigation? After 20 years 4 52 Do you feel that irrigation Yes 1 technology affected on No 2 environment and ecology? 53 If yes, what type of problems you Land degradation 1 are facing? Health problems 2 Affect Flora and fauna 3 Water contamination and 4 sedimentation Desertification 5 Water logging 6 Soil Erosion 7

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54 What is the extent of soil 5-10 –percent 1 degradation? 10-20 percent 2 20-30 percent 3 30 -40 percent 4 40 and above 5 55 Do you agree, in recent years the Decreased 1 yield is decreasing? Not decreased 2 56 If so, what is the percentile of 10-20 percent 1 decrease of yield 20-30 percent 2 30-40 percent 3 Not decreased 4 57 When did you aware off regarding From 2-5 after irrigation 1 the environmental problems? After 6-9 years of irrigation 2 After 10 and above years 3 58 According to you, what are the Improper Implementation 1 major reasons for problems of Mis- management 2 land degradation? Lack of awareness 3 Improper planning 4 Non formulation of 5 appropriate laws Faulty Govt, projects 6 Week public institutions 7 Farmers negligence 8 59 Dou you feel that, misuse and Yes 1 over use of irrigation watering is No 2 practicing for the fields? Don’t know 3 60 What do you feel about Leads to degradation of soil 1 unbalanced use of chemical Water contamination 2 fertilizers and pesticides? Effect on health of animals 3 and human beings All the above 4

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61 What are the reasons for misuse Free / subsidized supply of 1 and over use of water ? water Free/subsidized supply of 2 power Weak Govt. policies 3 Farmers negligent attitudes 4 towards natural recourses All the above 5 62 Is the region facing displacement Yes 1 problems? No 2

63 Is Govt . has under taken Taken 1 resettlement and rehabilitation Not taken 2 facilities ? 64 What do feel about Govt. Policies Good 1 and programmes related to Moderately good 2 agriculture and environment? Not good 3 Don’t know 4 65 Is there effect on the price and Yes 1 physical property of the land due No 2 agricultural problems? 66 On what extent it is affected on Less than 20% 1 the ecology? 20- 30 percent 2 31- 50 percent 3 50% above 4 67 Do you feel that irrigation Yes 1 affected on bio-diversity? No 2 68 Is irrigation technology Yes 1 affected/farm technology on No 2 human and animal health 69 At what extent do you and your Greater health problems 1 family members facing health Heath problems at some 2 problems? extent No health problems 3

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70 If yes, how? While using of chemicals 1 Applying fertilizers 2 Spraying/applying Pesticides 3 All the above 4 Don’t know 5

71 What time is appropriate for Early in the morning 1 watering to the lands? At the evening 2 At night 3 Don’t know 4

72 What are the spheres of health Water-borne diseases 1 problems generally you are Chronic diseases 2 facing? Eye irritation 3 Cancer risk 4 Liver damage 5 Adverse hormonal functions 6 Skin irritation 7 Stomach problems 8 Breathing problems 9 73 Is there land dispute arises out of Highly 1 irrigation , water distribution and Occasionally 2 land related matters? No land disputes 3 74 Do you agree after the advent of Yes 1 irrigation inequality increased in No 2 the region ? 75 Is farmers of the region indulged Indulged 1 in unrest related to agricultural Not indulged 2 issues? 76 If indulged , for what reasons? Due to land acquisition 1 Due to water distribution 2 No good prices for their 3 product No good transport facilities 4

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77 What type of policies do you There should be proper 1 suggest for protection of land, training to the farmers about natural resources water and environment? Penalty should be impose by 2 Govt. Impose more taxes for water 3 and land 78 Is there any deficiencies in the Yes 1 project formulation and No 2 management? 79 If yes, what project deficiencies Gross level study was not 1 and Miss- management do you properly made prior to observed? formulation of irrigation project No proper watch of the 2 Project Agencies Water users associations are 3 not functioning properly Negative attitudes of the 4 farmers regarding project 80 What are the measures you Practicing organic farming 1 suggest for sustainable Appropriate use of water and 2 agriculture? other technologies Proper training and 3 workshops Scientific use of all natural 4 resources All the above 5 81 What measures do you suggest Power pricing and market 1 for judicial use of natural value of water resources? Introduce penalties for 2 exceeding the limits of use of natural resources Provide incentives to the 3 farmers those who save the natural resources Reorganization and awards 4 to the farmers

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82 Do you identified, what are the Poor on farm water use 1 technical problems for salinity and alkalinity? Poor quality of construction 2 of canals and drainages Operation and maintenance 3 of irrigation Lack of drainage 4 infrastructure Floodwatering 5

Penalty for misuse 6

83 What physical improvement Design –construction and 1 should be needed for proper and operation of new irrigation judicious use of water? project Construction of new drainage 2 facilities Improvement of existing 3 drains Reduce canal seepage 4

84 According to you, what are the Use of bio-technology 1 measures to tackle the agricultural Rain water harvesting 2 land related problems? Information system 3 accountability Common property 4 management Remediation of waste land 5 All the above 6 85 Do you practicing organic Use of bio-fertilizers 1 farming? If yes, how? Bio/ synthetic –pesticides 2 Use animals in agricultural 3 operations Use of indigenous mannures 4

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86 What do you feel for the It is farmers responsibility 1 sustainable development? Credit providers 2 responsibility Policy makers responsibility 3 Consumers responsibility 4 All the above 5 87 Do you have the knowledge about Yes 1 new initiatives to boost agricultural growth? No 2

88 If yes, which of the following? National Mission for 1 Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) Rastriya Krushi Vikas 2 Yojana (RKVY) National HorticultureMission 3 (NHM) National Food Security 4 Mission (NFSM) All the above 5

89 Do you have water users Yes 1 association? No 2 90 If yes, what is your opinion Water is equally being 1 regarding water users association supplied to all (WUAs) ? Wastage of water is 2 controlled Association has created 3 many more problems Don’t know about it 4 91 Do you agree irrigation is caused Strongly agree 1 for disputes among the farmers? Partially agree 2 Disagree 3

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92 What is your opinion about Agree 1 problem of extravagancy? Disagree 2

93 Do you agree irrigation indirectly Agree 1 caused for indulging in bad Partially agree 2 habits? Disagree 3 Don’t know 4 94 Do you agree prosperity brought Yes 1 giving and taking dowry more in No 2 marriages? 95 Do you taken any loan? Taken 1 Not taken 2 96 If yes, what is the level of Below 30000 1 indebtedness? 30001- 50000 2 50001-70000 3 70001- 90000 4 90001- 110000 5 110001 and above 6 Yes 1 97 Is farmers addicted for bad habit ? No 2 Don’t know 3 98 If agree, which are the addicted Alcoholism 1 habits? Gambling 2 Smoking 3 Habit of tobacco chewing 4 Visiting non –veg. Hotels 5 99 What is your opinion about canal Very satisfactory 1 system? Satisfactory 2 Not satisfactory 3 100 What is your opinion regarding Fully successful 1 the success of Malaprabha and Partially successful 2 Ghataprabha Projects? Not successful 3

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101 If not successful, what are the Authorities failed in their 1 main reasons? duties Silted canals 2 Disproportionate water 3 supply Violation of cropping pattern 4 rules Less inflow to the river 5 102 What do you feel about It is boon 1 Malaprabha and Ghataprabha It is bane 2 irrigation project Cant say anything 3 103 What are your suggestions for Timely supply of water 1 successive implementation of Penalty for water rule 2 project? violators Repair of canals 3 Appropriate management 4 Mutual understanding 5 between farmers and authorities

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