Article

Leviathan: Interdisciplinary Journal in English No. 1, 5-15 © The Journal Editors 2017 WSPU Rhetoric: Reprints and permissions: https://tidsskrift.dk/lev DOI: 10.7146/lev.v0i1.96777 Justifying Militancy Recommendation: Mark Eaton ([email protected]) History, Society, and Culture 2

Emilie Boutrup Högagarð

ABSTRACT

This article investigates the rhetoric employed by the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in the UK during the campaign for women’s . It argues that the rhetoric, as a result of adopting a militant approach, increasingly served the purpose of justifying the method rather than the cause. Based on an analysis of speeches by leading members of the WSPU, the article finds that the Union rhetoric justified the use of militancy by systematically drawing on democratic and social values, attacking the credibility of the legislators, promoting binary thinking and situating the conflict within the framework of a “just war.”

Keywords: Women’s Social and Political Union, WSPU, , women’s suffrage, votes for women, militancy, rhetoric, just war, polarization, political rights, United Kingdom.

Corresponding author: Emilie Boutrup Högagarð ([email protected]) Department of English, Aarhus University

t 6 happens hich was

ent group being the National Union National the being group ent in 1908; ’s speech on speech Kenney’s Anniein 1908;

cial and Political Union (WSPU) would would (WSPU) Union Political and cial

Earp. - he he battle between and as the onegovernment Introduction SPU’s rhetorical justification of militancy in relation to the “just war” nent group: the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) (WSPU) Union Political and Social Women’s the group: suffragette nent e e WSPU sought to of cause women’s promote the suffrage, their rhetoric, he he two are often confused, but they are significantly different from one This paper demonstrates that the WSPU employed a rhetoric w

The Women’s Social and Political Union The and Social Women’s Due to the limited page range, this paper will refrain from analyzing the written 1908; and Mrs. ’s speech on October 17, 1912. In addition, two

I argue I that, while th opaganda, opaganda, although this can provide material for further study, and restricts itself to the rhetoric Labour Party (ILP) and the NUWSS, but became increasingly impatient with the lack of progress and progress of lack the with impatient increasingly became but NUWSS, the and (ILP) Party Labour formed formed in 1903 by Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel. Henceforth, the suffragettes will be used interchangeably with WSPU. term Christabel was a member of the Independen constitutional means. The suffragettes used more militant tactics to achieve the same goal. This paper This goal. same the achieve to tactics militant more used suffragettes The means. constitutional promi most the on focus will suffragists and suffragettes. The suffragists, with the most promin most the with suffragists, The suffragettes. and suffragists of Women’s Suffrage Society (NUWSS), campaigned for women’s suffrage through peaceful and the Edwardian campaign. The agents of the Edwardian campaign can be further divided into The campaign for women’s enfranchisement in Britain is traditionally divided into the Victorian and the Victorian into divided traditionally is in Britain enfranchisement women’s for campaign The tradition, is inspired by the work of Cheryl R. Jorgensen the of Cheryl work is by tradition, inspired Finally, Finally, the analysis of the W March March 19, by speeches Mrs. Pankhurst, from 1908 and 1913 will respectively, be used to a very limited extent. used used in the WSPU’s speeches. The analysis of WSPU rhetoric will be herrelease upon prison speech Pankhurst’s Christabel speeches: based primarily on three ‘just war’. pr encouraged binary encouraged thinking portraying by t a as campaign suffrage the framing by violence use of the justified it Finally, evil. and good between consistent consistent both in themes and in techniques. Firstly, the rhetoric focused on democratic and social values such as justice, liberty and unity. Secondly, it demonstrated the lessons of history. Thirdly, it as as a result of adopting the militant method, increasingly served the purpose of justifying the method rather than the cause. also within the organization, demanding a rhetorical strategy to accompany and justify it. to accompany justify rhetoricaland strategy a within demanding also the organization, come to realize that their adoption of militant methods was a point of contention, not just outside but outside just not contention,of point a was methods militant of their adoption that realize to come methods? They are met with criticism and resistance, and a great justificatory burden. During the So Women’s the suffrage, women’s for campaign Edwardian system; system; revolutionaries seek to overthrow the system and establish a new one. But what when reformers, who are supposed to work towards the stability of society, adopt revolutionary Revolution and reform. T another. Reformers seek modification within an existing system with the aim of stabilizing that

ISSUE 1 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2017 The ic strategy; ic Relief Bill,

and and ffiliated with the ILP, ILP, the with ffiliated goal, goal, their aim was for the

rty rty meeting and shouted: “Will the Manchester Guardian (Unshackled (Unshackled 44). The ‘peaceful’ work in his election address, she stressed: “We stressed: she address, election his in

It was clear that this was to be their bas their be to was this that clear was It

ational”

. The decision to “be independent of Labour men” led to news” and newspapers such as chised. chised. It was not until 1928 that suffrage was extended to all women ected by the House of Commons, Christabel concluded that, “peaceful methods hat working women needed a new organization which would focus on fighting for fighting on focus would which organization new a needed women working hat In In the early years of the WSPU, militancy was not on the agenda, as Christabel later wrote: ganization, prominent members left the Union and formed the Women’s Freedom League on the

membership membership increases and wider public support for the cause (Rosen 53). The WSPU suspended for WSPU speakers and an increase in membership. in increase an and speakers WSPU for a militant action followed by imprisonment, which led to media coverage, which resulted in had had expected, “militancy was audiences large in resulted publicity The Annie. and Christabel of trial the and WSPU the about wrote ensure ensure their imprisonment Christabel spat at one of the policemen. (Unshackled 50). As Christabel militancy, militancy, Christabel and Annie Kenney went to a Liberal Pa Liberal Government give votes to women?” They received no answer, but were dragged out and to Christabel Christabel decided to adopt the confrontational government acted, approach. then the If WSPU had a to create crisis such a crisis. was Marking the needed beginning of before WSPU the had had failed” (Unshackled 47). Finding that a ‘crisis’ had made the Scottish Churches Dispute Bill a priority and that the Manchester ‘riot’ had secured the passing of the Unemployed at at various meetings. However, after a Woman Suffrage Bill, in which they had invested much time and energy, was rej “Our “Our work was still speak entirely to country the peacefultravelling and MPs lobbying and petitions, of drafting demonstrations, educ legal included: thus granting equal women. franchise and to men thus granting 94; 34). In retrospect it seems they were right; in 1918 women were granted limited suffrage while all men over 21 were enfran existing franchise to be extended to women as they believed this to be a necessary first step (Rosen basis basis of organizational democracy. The WSPU carried on, now as an organization of “leaders and followers.” While they considered to be the ultimate Pankhurst Pankhurst instead selected a new committee and eliminated the parts of the constitution relating to or the ‘no party affiliation’ principle Mrs. When 159). Purvis and (Joanou democracy for call a and organization the within disagreements Mrs. Pankhurst and Christabel remained members until 1907 when they were no longer dependent on the forILP publicity, speaking platforms and financial support, thus making it possible to realize their interests. Therefore, they formed the WSPU with the resolution to remain “absolutely free from free “absolutely remain to resolution the with WSPU the formed they Therefore, interests. their a officially not was WSPU the While 38). Story Own (My affiliation” party any slogan slogan ‘Deeds not Words’ (Rosen 28). Mrs. Pankhurst, also an ILP member, shared her daughter’s t decided and view want friends who will do something practical,” setting the tone for what would later become a WSPU a become later would what for tone the setting practical,” something do will who friends want did not feel that working women could trust men, even Labour Party men, to protect their interests. suffrage women’s include to failed candidate ILP an When 7

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8 Earp, the - for several

al al justice” and creates a democratic and social democratic values

d again in WSPU speeches: justice, justice, speeches: WSPUin again d debated debated in parliament, however, when

hods. It would appear that Edwardian Britain was

Rhetoric

it very little attention, suggesting that their main objective is to

e e entitled to The argument vote.” is to designed to appeal of a injusticefeeling

mes, for while they are all present in the speeches that are subject of my analysis, they they analysis, my of subject are that speeches the in present all are they while for mes, minded person”minded 1908). (Christabel - ber ber of ways. In the phrase “we women,” which is repeatedly used in several WSPU speeches, The WSPU speakers create a sense of unity between themselves and the additional members in members additional the and themselves between unity of sense a create speakers WSPU The

eant eant to justify the methods employed by the union. In the words of Jorgensen a a num decades. Indeed, Christabel also says that “the reasons why women should have the vote are obvious obvious vote are the should have women why reasons“the that says also Christabel Indeed, decades. fair to every defend anddefend promote the method to needed obtain the goal. Perhaps it also indicates a refusal to keep defending a cause which they believe has already been sufficiently justified by women longer.” longer.” This is one of the few examples of WSPU rhetoric seeking to justify the cause rather than the method. Generally they give when when she makes the enfranchisement of women synonymous with “politic sense of urgency as she says: “We have waited too long for political justice; we refuse to wait any “women “women taxar payers speech, her of section concluding the in further step one it takes She justice. for call subsequent a and such such as justice, liberty and unity. In her speech in 1908, Christabel turns to the British constitution which states that “taxation and representation shall go together.” She then draws the conclusion that When arguing When in arguing defense of women’s suffrage, the WSPU emphasized Values Social and Democratic theses exact the exact theses the coherency. would affect so separating and them stringently overlap liberty, liberty, the government, the past, as well as the binary oppositions: guilty vs. innocent, villains vs. vs.enemies heroes, allies, men and vs. women. The structure of my analysis will not be divided into suffragettes faced the criticism “with a series of justificatory arguments remarkable for their thematic their for remarkable arguments justificatory of series a “with criticism the faced suffragettes an time appear which themes are there (27). Indeed, consistency” becomes very clear when one analyzes WSPU rhetoric and finds that most of it, directly or indirectly, or directly it, of most that finds and rhetoric WSPU analyzes one when clear very becomes is m resistance resistance they had received because of these met not ready for the reformist ‘violent’ woman that was the suffragette. The significance of this issue women’s women’s suffrage. However, in order to do this they would first have to address the criticism and The objective of WSPU rhetoric was to promote militancy as the necessary course of action to secure secure to action of course necessary the as militancy promote to was rhetoric WSPU of objective The courses and and artwork. courses these these were rejected WSPU militancy escalated into more violent and destructive methods including window breaking, arson, bomb attacks on private property, and destruction of telephone wires, golf militancy in 1910 and 1911 while two conciliation bills were

ISSUE 1 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2017 chisement. She Earp 32). One might One 32). Earp - pproach and the and of thepproach success d determination: “we women are are women “we determination: d y” (Jorgensen y”

(Kenney). In conclusion, unity exists between between exists unity conclusion, In (Kenney).

larifying larifying that women will adopt the militant ve used “for forty years” trying to present their case in a “quiet “quiet a in case their present to trying years” forty “for used ve pelled by a united and determined women’s enfranchisement ng ng but by alarming the legislators.” This juxtaposition between persuasion

the government and government moves only in response to pressure.” She praises women’s

“measures” because they “must”, but by saying that they will not go as far as men, she is also alluding alluding also is she men, as far as go not will they that saying by but “must”, they because “measures” (Christabel moral of restraint 1908). superiority to a female voice: “Similar vigorous measures must be adopted by women. The excesses of men must be avoided avoided be must men of excesses The women. by adopted be must measures vigorous “Similar voice: yet great determination must be shown.” She is c creates creates a sense of necessity by repeatedly using the modal verb “must” combined with the passive and and alarm emphasizes the difference between the constitutional and the militant approach. Thus, history serves as evidence for her claim that militancy is necessary to secure enfran ‘virtue of‘virtue action’ against repressive Furthermore, Christabel a that menemphasizes government. got the vote “not by persuadi change she effectively turns this ‘virtue’ into “the ‘vice’ of passivit of ‘vice’ “the into ‘virtue’ this turns effectively she change say that she is compelling women to accept militancy, given that they have no other choice, as a on “’virtue’ of patience” but by emphasizing that pressuring the government is necessary to generate and and patient manner.” Secondly, she places constitutional blame approach did not work because “women with have not been able to bring pressure the to bear government by claiming that the militant approach. Firstly, she portrays ha women that methods constitutional women as patient and innocent by referring to the The WSPU The the past of failure uses a to illustrate the the constitutional the defend to Movement Suffrage Women’s the of history the on draws Christabel approach. militant History social construct of class. construct social existing between women of every class, of every creed” every of class, every of women between existing suffragettes, but also spans across time, reaches outside the boundaries of the Union and breaks the enjoy” and links WSPU the enjoy” that by the future with strifetoday of will assuming “the win liberty and fellowship “grand a as WSPU the to refers also Kenney come.” to are that generations the for freedom measure” measure” (Christabel 1908). Annie Kenney does more than unite suffragettes with one another, as now we liberties the us for “won whose strife past of the with reformers connection a establishes she government’s refusal to honor democratic principles in regards to women, promotes the value of unity unity of value the promotes women, to regards in principles democratic honor to refusal government’s as she says: “They must be com roused roused […] we will never be quiet again” (Emmeline 1908). Christabel, after commenting on the the use of ‘we’ has a uniting effect while the repeated emphasis on the fact that they are women has an agency action, of women as them depicting effect empowering an 9

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10 By By

y any shame connected shame any y people people better conditions.

made made conditions, and that - inaries ng who abused his powers and the

and therefore cannot be satisfied with satisfied be cannot therefore and

This simplified rendition of things promotes a

of the government by emphasizing problematic ieves ieves that “women must banish the idea that ‘weakness is rness rness to do so, she is also advocating for the cause, not just the “run on unconstitutional lines.” The suffragettes are fighting for a cause a for fighting are suffragettes The lines.” unconstitutional on “run

Polarization and Rhetorical B and Polarization s evil’ and of ‘us versus them.’

as being angry because they can see injustices which the legislators are not making not are legislators the which injustices see can they because angry being as

illains V U speakers use a polarizing rhetoric, creating rhetorical binaries between those for and those and for those between binaries rhetorical creating rhetoric, polarizing a use speakers U Christabel Christabel establishes a positive of image women in engaged militancy as she emphasizes that Furthermore, Furthermore, she undermines the credibility e poor, the old and the children and points to the symptoms of a faulty system: overcrowded prisons, prisons, overcrowded system: faulty a of symptoms the to points and children the and old the poor, e the role of the victim, for she bel innocence and places blame with the Government. She does not, however, allow women to remain in remain to women allow however, not, does She Government. the with blame places and innocence it is, “clearly thought out and vigorously pursued.” Furthermore, she takes awa takes she Furthermore, pursued.” vigorously and out thought “clearly is, it with imprisonment declares it she as the result legislation”. of “repressive She thus their emphasizes method (Kenney). claiming that women have the ability to improve the social conditions of the lower members of society of members lower the of conditions social the improve to ability the have women that claiming and by emphasizing women’s eage then the government, by denying votes for women, is also denying these Thus the suffragettes emerge as selfless heroines and the government as the selfish villain. By morality, but also but morality, women the priority. these thea only ones If are changing conditionswho care people,about of these the way things are. In fact she says that “it would be wrong if we women were satisfied […] if we women did not burn indignation.” with righteous suffragettes She portrays as a having high sense of workhouses workhouses and asylums. What she is implying is that these weak the protecting are with concerned are women, man as suffragettes, th conditions conditions in society. She challenges the audience to look at the conditions people are living under She of sick, of it vivid satisfied the can!” the conditions a picture as is if paints with life “be and you and political rights (Kenney). rights political and King John is the government, the is John King freedom individual for fighting are they monarchs; absolutist against fight the as righteous as is which barons barons made him sign the charter which would protect the English people comparing the against suffragettes to the barons, she his is declaring them heroes. The villain vices. corresponding to heckling heckling a politician and the government: “We women were like the Barons in the Saga of King John.” The traditional view is that King John was an autocratic ki Heroes and Heroes In her speech in 1908, Annie Kenney uses an allusion to create a binary between the suffragettes

idea idea of ‘good versu the government. against united of being enemy; common sense a The WSP The pertain to the factor is that they forms but unifying the in many occur The binaries cause. the against

ISSUE 1 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2017 . Instead Instead . Votes for for Votes 1 prey prey simile: “it is very d or chose to leave and and leave to chose or d - ers of the Union’s magazine magazine Union’s the of ers ical communication, and while it is not as as not is it while and communication, ical ts it makes to defend itself. Mrs. Pankhurst attitude. attitude. It has an exclusionary effect; it limits sm” of the movement and militancy in women from women in militancy and movement the of sm” breaking campaign of 1912 and hearing of plans of 1912 campaign the breaking hearing and - Lawrence (found Lawrence -

uffrage Government, you are parties to their guilt, and […] s

- us versus them reliant and strong’” (as quoted in Joanou and Purvis 158) Purvis and Joanou in quoted (as strong’” and reliant - ppressed

8 March 1908. agree agree […] should set themselves free.” She praises their years of service,

suffrage members are made out to be predators and the suffragettes as the “gentler the as suffragettes the and predators be to out made are members suffrage -

Sunday Times, nemies campaign, Mr. and Mrs. Pethick Mrs. and Mr. campaign, - ng ng women and encouraging them to pursue militancy even if it leads to imprisonment

) started questioning the increasingly violent methods of the WSPU. As a result, they were th.” The anti The th.” suffrage members of the Government,” Mrs. Pankhurst uses a predator -

Originally from llies to those who completely agree with Mrs. Pankhurst, and it makes an enemy of anyone who

1 right right to blame the innocent prey for whatever attemp Consequently attacked. being are they attackers, not are suffragettes the order; the reverses effectively of dea of animals,” the prey. The logic is that in a ‘survival of the fittest’ scenario, the predator hardly has the “anti point the at when resistance desperate in turn who animals gentler the reproaching prey of beasts like When claiming that there is “a great deal of critici of deal great “a is there that claiming When the O and The Oppressor explicit, its essence is the same as George Bush’s famous declaration: “Either you’re with us, 234). (Stocchetti us” against or disagrees. The possibility for bystanders to be moderate or neutral on a certain aspect is removed and removed is aspect certain a on neutral or moderate be to bystanders for possibility The disagrees. polit in uncommon not is sides. It choose to forced are they polarizing polarizing rhetoric as it furthers an a “So “So long as you keep in office an anti we offer you the same opposition [as we give them]” (Emmeline 1912). This is an example of thus manages to come off in a positive light. However, one cannot statement help is directed but at them wonder or perhaps if a warning to her other members, next not to follow their example: has been some disagreement, she avoids specifying whether they were expelle were they whether specifying avoids she disagreement, some been has that those who cannot there that clear is it While way. own their in work each they that everyone for best is it that convinced Women expelled. Giving a speech shortly after on October 19 1912, Mrs. Pankhurst opens with “it is better complete obedience. After the massive window After the obedience. complete arson an for Allies or E Allies expected they WSPU, the within criticism any accepted not had Pankhursts the 1907 in split the Since (Christabel 1908). (Christabel empoweri self be must Women womanliness. she concludes by saying that imprisonment “will not deter women from asking to vote,” thus 11

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12 has an destructive in destructive was greater greater responsibility of itant itant and very direct in PU militancy. While I refer to it to refer I While militancy. PU Earp calls “a double justificatory double “a Earp calls - and and the general public (which could

defense turned to as a last resort against last resort turned to as a defense - 1908, Mrs. Pankhurst’s only reference to

Militancy throwing and not being initiated before 1909, before initiated being not strike hunger and throwing e repeats e the repeats pattern five times, but alters the pattern in the -

break them,” replacing the epistrophe with “break them”

–

ragettes ragettes had to defend their views and tactics not only as reformers but also as

ack at the early years when the term ‘militant’ was first applied to suffragettes she says: says: she suffragettes to applied first was ‘militant’ term the when years early the at ack ar” f militancy: “protesting at public meetings” and “marching to the House of Commons in eadership, eadership, to defend their methods. This became the main purpose of their speeches and articles; to surprise surprise that women, in a time where Victorian ideals still lingered, had a women women (9). It might seem redundant, even politically incorrect today, but it should not be a major militant acts. There was also the issue of what Cheryl R. Jorgensen R. Cheryl what of issue the also was There acts. militant burden.” The suff justify justify it to the government (who could grant them a reform) the out carry to had who members, WSPU the to itdefend to had also they government,) the pressure l justify and promote the use of militancy to achieve women’s suffrage. Not only did they have to A “Just W “Just A With the implementation and escalation of militancy came an increasing need, for the WSPU meeting to rebellion” (Emmeline 1912). meeting emphatic emphatic effect. Indeed, this section is constructed cleverly considering her aspiration to “incite this final two clauses of the section suggesting further intensification. For example, in the sentence “those sentence the in example, For intensification. further suggesting section the of clauses two final of you who can break windows complex form of repetition (symploce) which combines the anaphora “Those of you who can express can who you of “Those anaphora the combines which (symploce) repetition of form complex and the militancy” epistrophe “do so.” Sh nature nature and Mrs. Pankhurst is very recommending explicit the approach. about She places extra ways emphasis on of this section being of the speech mil by using a 1913, looks b looks 1913, militancy WSPU however, 1912, By 1913). (Emmeline all” at militant not was “It as militancy, it seems relevant, while dealing with the development of militancy, to point out that this that out point to militancy, of development the with dealing while relevant, seems it militancy, as in Pankhurst, Mrs. as Indeed, nature. in destructive than rather disruptive was militancy of form early procession” (Christabel 1908). With stone With 1908). (Christabel procession” WS for accounted exhaustively) not (while essentially has Christabel (Emmeline 1908). Christabel is a little more explicit in her speech, also given in 1908, providing two two providing 1908, in given also speech, her in explicit more little a is Christabel 1908). (Emmeline examples o militancy is when she advises “every one of you to do your part” and adds “you need not go to prison” prison” to go not need “you adds and part” your do to you of one “every advises she when is militancy campaign campaign as the rhetoric is much more explicit militancy regarding compared to the speeches of the earlier years. For example, delivering a speech in March The The later speeches of the WSPU reflect the increase in violent militancy in the late years of their oppression (Emmeline 1912). (Emmeline oppression of self but not of aggression an expression is militancy their

ISSUE 1 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2017 es the and too far in far too

exhausted; exhausted;

ence used in the in used ence ence ence in a Christian Earp that the WSPU framed framed WSPU the that Earp - mployed (Taylor 58). The use of all all other options had been after after

orally orally superior to those of men, she moves to proving that her the WSPU had the ‘just war’ concept in mind, it is certainly certainly is it mind, in concept war’ ‘just the had WSPU the her

ed ed with British men for explanation and justification for their acts” gh thegh framework of a ‘just war’. As long as the audience accepts this out and carefully carried out with regard for human life; that the good - appeal appeal was mostly implicit in the earlier campaign by years, 1912 it has – nstitutes as evidence to the claim made by Jorgensen by made claim the to evidence as nstitutes Earp Earp 10). Thus, by extending the rationale of the ‘just war’ tradition to women the e e the ‘just war’ - Whil

secret idol of property” idol of property” (Emmeline 1912). secret more about “the security of property.” She declares: “we shall continue this war” and offers a rationale rationale a offers and war” this continue shall “we declares: She property.” of security “the about more for the material nature of WSPU militancy as she encourages followers to “still further attack the suffragettes fight for the “liberty,” “dignity” and “welfare of women,” whereas the government car government the whereas women,” of “welfare and “dignity” “liberty,” the for fight suffragettes thus portrayed suffragette methods as m such a moral superiority also exists in regards to the values they protect, as she states that the warfare warfare of men. For example, as Mrs. Pankhurst says in her speech in 1912, the suffragettes do not Having warfare.” their in men the to that leave We enemy. the to that leave We life. human “endanger framework, framework, it provides a justification for the use of violence and even viol the to allows compared merciful and controlled limited, highly as violence their the portray suffragettes to intention is for the audience to look at suffragette militancy ‘democratic society’ but throu not through the framework of the growing growing simultaneously with the increasingly violent methods e words normally associated with warfare is indicative of the radicalization of WSPU militancy. Its become become highly explicit, suggesting that the need for justification, through “the logic of warfare”, is to be gained (liberty for half the population) from the violence outweighed the evil inherent in the (destruction of property). violence that the violence was thought clear clear that they focused on some of the same issues that are raised in the ‘just war’ tradition. They sought to prove that suffragettes turned to violence only accept that such a tradition, which allowed men to use violence for a just cause, should not be equally equally be not should cause, just a for violence use to men allowed which tradition, a such that accept whet of Regardless them. to applicable suffragettes “highlighted the hypocrisy of those who claimed that the suffragettes had gone had suffragettes the that claimed who those of hypocrisy the “highlighted suffragettes their pursuit of justice” (153). The suffragettes did not invent a new tradition, but they refused to conservative conservative tradition they shar (Jorgensen society. society. It states that a war is justifiable only if the reasons for going to war can be justified proper conduct in war is exhibited (the means must be justifiable). The ‘just war’ was a “common violence violence as part of a just war. The ‘just war’ doctrine was developed by Christian theologians in the Middle Ages to address the moral/ethical issues connected with war and viol of militancy. This co This militancy. of of speak use the of in terms Whilenot do violence. the WSPUjustifying war, until explicitly leaders use the of necessity the prove they and act, to them force that injustices the prove they years, later the 13

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14 oal defending defending the belief that

t and in response, the WSPU reinforced the

ion istic oppressive hypocrites who only sought to maintain Conclus

uilty, good with usuilty, or against us?or evil, good

innocent or innocent g polarizing polarizing rhetoric making it clear that there was no room for indecisiveness or cowardice in war. Listeners had to choose sides, and the choice was made simple for them; are you a hero or a villain, women, women, but forced to employ them as it was the only thing the immoral government responded to. As militancy increased so did reservations relating to i They They justified their methods by proving that it was the only method that would accomplish the g beneath were they that aware resort; last a as methods these used only WSPU the that emphasizing and their own interests and failed to honor the principles of the constitution; the very basis of democracy. democracy. of basis very the constitution; the of principles the honor to failed and interests own their deeds deeds and words. They adopted a militant method accompanied by a rhetoric which attacked the legislators by portraying them as material unfulfilled unfulfilled promises from the legislators, the WSPU had had enough of women should have the same political rights as men. They moved from defense to offense both in The The WSPU campaigned for women’s suffrage, yet they did not focus much explaining of why women should their be allowed rhetoric to vote. on After decades of rejections, postponements and

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. Century Century

st .

8daf75a7c881, accesse 8daf75a7c881, accessed - - . Edited by Lord Pethick . EditedLord by The National Archieves, NationalThe Archieves, 9be7 9be7 - - Transcript of speech upon given of speech Transcript h.htm, accessed 30 May 2017. 30 May h.htm, accessed War of the Women’s Social of the and Women’s War - 4603 4603 - - Publishers, 1988. Google Books, Books, Google

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Rise Up, Women: The Militant Campaign of the Women’s Social and PoliticalRise The of the Up,Militant Campaign Women’s Women: . . 1914. . Manchester University Press,. Manchester 1998 University www.gutenberg.org/files/34856/34856 - Discourse, War, Terrorism, Discourse, War, Earp, Cheryl Earp, Cheryl R. - t, Christabel. 1908. 1908. t, Christabel. ics.” ics.” My Own Story. www.historyisaweapon.com/d Polit to and Culture, Approaches Politics,Discourse Society 2007, pp. 223 Company, Transcript of speech. of speech. Transcript discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/143bc05f 2017 30 May Union 1903 Gutenberg, of speech. 1908. 19 March Transcript Meeting, Transcript of speech. of speech. Transcript 2017 accessed 30 May www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2007/apr/27/greatspeeches, her release prison from release her www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/struggle/suffrage/sources/source16/christabel.html, 2017 30 May accessed of Peaslake, Co.,Hutchinson 1959. & Lawrence Royal Albert Hall Meeting, 19 March 1908. Transcript 19 March Albert Meeting, of speech. Hall Royal discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/143bc05f 2017 30 May Perspectives Political Union books.google.dk/books?id=CzLJBwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=da&source=gbs_atb#v= 2017 , 30 May accessed onepage&q&f=false

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Taylor, Maxwell. Taylor, Stocchetti, Matteo. “The Politics of fear: a Critical Inquiry into the Role of Violence in 21 into the Role of CriticalViolence a “The Politics Matteo. Inquiry of fear: Stocchetti, Rosen, Andrew. Andrew. Rosen, ------Pankhurst, Emmeline, speaker. “Freedom or Death.” Hartford, Connecticut, 13 . Connecticut, 13 November Hartford, or Death.” “Freedom Emmeline, speaker. Pankhurst, Pankhurst, Christabel. Christabel. Pankhurst, Pankhurs Kenney, Annie, speaker. Annie, “Speeches Kenney, Jorgensen Joanou, Maroula and June Purvis, editors. June and Joanou, Maroula

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ISSUE 1 | LEVIATHAN | FALL 2017