How the Historical Context is absorbed into the “Language” of Comic Books for Children: The Case of Greek Tragedies’ Adaptations
Dr. Moula Evangelia Executive in Innovative Activities in Secondary Education, Rhodes, Greece [email protected]
Abstract Youth’s preference and interest in comic strip art suggests that it can be a viable medium for promoting and developing literacy. Comics realize semiotic realities. The visual elements, the combination of images with words in an inextricable relationship and the cultural context of their production and reception as well, are the basic components of comic books’ language. Comic book adaptations of classical works popularize and make classical texts accessible to the mass, promoting this way cultural literacy. Such adaptations give the original scripts the opportunity to shed their reputation for merely illustrating written narrative, and for serving the function of simplifying. Moreover, it is asserted that by incorporating comics in curriculums, the gap between real life and school could be bridged, provided that instead of reading comics just for fun, students are guided to understand and interpret their meaning generating mechanisms and to recognize how the historical and social realm is being inscribed in them. In other words provided students manage to read critically “between the lines”. We are going to examine two characteristic moments of Greek tragedies’ comic book adaptations for children, published in two different historical periods. Tragedy in modern Greece has mainly been used as the matrix for Greek national virtues, constructing and consolidating a continuous and non- negotiable national identity. Classics Illustrated adaptations that first appeared and were prominent during the 60s follow the norm of the literary tradition of Tragedies’ adaptations. The recently published (2006) comic book series of T. Apostolides subvert the cultural stereotypes. Through the comparison, we will try to show how the present tense of the comic books’ production affects their form and consequently their content. The texts in issue represent two different approaches and receptions of the Greek cultural identity and national destination, by utilizing commensurate comic-book languages. In fact they transubstantiate the original scripts into graphic versions imbued by their historical milieu, a fact that reflects on their stylistic and lingual profile as well.
Keywords: comic books’ language, adaptations, classics, cultural context.
Introduction: Greek identity and its affinity with the institution of literature and with ancient Tragedy Literature as an institution is inextricably interwoven with Nation (Apostolidou, 1995, p.22), reflects the hegemonic culture and ideology (Althousser, 1971, p.204)x and serves the high- minded aims of the national community. In every period of the literary production, one can trace down the intellectual images of the Nation that are converted into national stereotypes (Ikonomou Agorastou, 1992, p. 18-19). Trying to balance between their inglorious present and their glorified past, Greeks tried to reverse the fixed negative features of the Helladic reality, through literature. G. Theotokas (Theotokas, 1938, p. 2) used to say that the spiritual heritage of the ancient Greek tragedians was the missing backbone of the modern Greek literary production.
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As far as ancient tragedy is an organic part of Greece’s national literary heritage, tragedies’ adaptations have always been permeated by the political and aesthetic principles of each period, since the constitution of the modern Greek State. The history of the adaptations of ancient tragedy for the modern Greek stage is the history of an entire society that experiences the agony of its identity, which is perpetually re - invented and revisited (Andreadis, 1989, p.18). We are going to examine two characteristic moments of Greek tragedies’ comic book adaptations for children, emanating from two different historical periods and we will try to show how the present tense of their production affected the content and the form of them. These are the Classics Illustrated adaptations of Greek tragedies, and the recently published comic book series of T. Apostolidis, which represent different approaches and receptions of the Greek cultural identity and national destination.
Our rationale is that adaptation studies should definitely move away from formalistic concerns and be examined in the light of contextual (economic, cultural, political, commercial, industrial, educational) and intertextual factors (Naremore, 2000: 10 and 12)xi.
The objectives of this study are: . The establishment of comic books as an autonomous art . The understanding of comics as semiotic realities . The reception of adaptations as interpretative strategy, imbued by ideological messages . The use of comics as a tool for approaching the cultural context . The use of comics as a means for promoting critical thinking . The familiarization with the comic book language and the word- image interface in it.
Literature Review The background of this study is miscellaneous. First of all, Cultural Studies legitimize the use of comic books in the classroom, be having established the equation of the value of literature to other meaning making resources and mainly to visual ones. So the literary reading has been extended to non literary texts (Easthope Antony, 1991, pp. 3-62)xii, among which comics are to be found. So comics’ theoretical setting is going to be the base of our researchxiii. Another major theoretical tool that is going to be used is the theory of adaptation. Adaptation has been approached from quite different standpoints, mainly concerning the narrativexiv and the filmic studiesxv. We will use selectively the terminology from these fields and adjust it to our needs. Children’s literature theory is also going to be taken into account, as long as comics, although they do not address only young audience, they mostly appeal to young people. So we will use as a yardstick, methods of content analysis applied in studies about classics’ adaptations for childrenxvi. As far as it concerns the reading of images we will turn mostly to Kress and Van Leewuen’s vocabulary of visual designxvii and we will also use taxonomies from studies about picture books’ functionalityxviii. Although there is a vast amount of theoretical discourse about peripheral subjects, the field of comic book adaptations of classics is still untrodden. We believe that this study steps on a new territory and may fire a spark of critical thinking about the way that popular cultural forms, like comic books, on the one hand submit ideological messages and on the other hand appropriate the classics and adjust them to the historical milieu.
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Methodology By choosing and amalgamating the findings of the above mentioned theoretical fields, we establish our own parameters that circumscribe the concept of the language of comics, we are going to use as a benchmark of our study. The comic books’ language is manifold and constituted of: . The visual elements that compose the images. . The lingual register . The meaning generating mechanisms- conventions of the comic book art . The cultural context that frames the comic book, which brings a critical understanding and orientates the individual reception.
By studying comics, students come to understand that messages are social constructions, that individuals negotiate meaning by interacting with them and that each form of communication has unique characteristics (Frey, N. and Fidher, D., 2008).
Research The historical context of Classics Illustrated Children’s literature after WWII (Tsaousis, 1983, p.22), was used as a vehicle to canalize the ideology of Greekness. Nevertheless, Greekness is an elusive concept, which used to adapt itself to the political aims and the respective rhetoric of every period. Greek State, after the - physically and psychologically- traumatic civil war with the Right wing governing the country, constructed a fictitious transcendental nation and obliterated the world “people” from its current vocabulary (Elefantis, 1991, p. 63). Nation, represented by the hegemonic party, doing away with the notions of class discrimination and social opposition, proclaimed itself as sworn and implacable enemy of Communism. The Christian version of the Greek-centrism became the ideological weapon against any progressive and therefore subversive political idea. Essentialism, which is innate to every bourgeois ideology (Βarthes, 1979, p.239), became a vital part of the political rhetoric of the time and banished any logical or scientific political thinking. The rulers, in order to protect their privileges and the status quo, enforced arbitrary laws and inculcated fear and self-control to people (Foucault,1975). They even tried to justify morally the suppression they exercised as well as the social inequalities or the persecution of their political opponents. Main goal of the rulers was the achievement of national consent and social balance, which had been shaken, because of the civil war backwash. For this reason, nationalism searched for underpinnings in the repository of the cultural heritage and adjusted mythical exemplars into its political molds.
Greek Identity as an essential – transhistorical entity in Classics Illustrated Graphic adaptations give the original scripts the opportunity to shed their reputation for merely illustrating written narrative, and for serving the function of simplifying (Chute and De Koven, 2006, p. 768). So comic book adaptations of classical works popularize and make classical texts accessible to the mass and pleasant to students, a condition that guaranties their popularity. Classics Illustrated, when first published, consisted a novelty in the field of children’s culture. In 1951 Pehlivanidis Publications acquired the license fees of the already successful American series (from 1944) of Gilberton - New York Publications. Classics Illustrated by adapting the masterpieces of the international literature into comic books and by offering an alternative to traditional and old fashioned educative methods (Scarpelos, 2000, p.169) aspired to educate and entertain at the same time. The series was based on the idea of cultural classicism (Grunebaum, 1980), according which, a past period of life is recognized as a fulfilled and perfect realization of peoples’ potential …
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and past’s standards are taken as exemplars and become committing for the present. Ancient tragedies were part of the 83 Greek issues. As it is almost impossible to look into the whole body of the adaptations, we are going to comment on specific examples and try to examine how cultural context was absorbed and inscribed in their text. Our first example is Philoctetes’ adaptation. Thematic extensions, stylistic expansions (Genette, (1982), 1992, p.254-264), multiplication of the scenes, addition of minor characters, insertion and inclusion of other mythical themes e.t.c, transform the tragic source into a brand new text, where any kind of ideological intervention is possible. Narration’s act seems like a relay race. Sometimes the narrator is a hero and some other times a “voice over” (Stanzel, 1999, p.146-147) under the disguise of the once upon a time established adult narrator (Rose, 1984, p.59), who controlled and manipulated children’s reception of the story. So, first person engaging narration (Schwenke Wyile, 2001) alternates with third person distancing narration and in between, there is an ample space for interpolations. Narrator functions as a directing- controlling and organizing power, in other words as an authority that qualifies for the authenticity of the narration by supplying references to different original sources. His main role is to impose his ideological stands, by addressing straightforward to the reader and by creating an pseudo- consensus, as if he and the reader share the same point of view (Kapsomenos, 2003, p.137). The narrator uses what Sniader Lanser (1992, p.178) calls a “public personal voice” and directs the narration “toward a narratee ‘outside’ the fiction who is analogous to the historical reader” (ibid, p.15) (Genette’s extradiegetic narratee). Heroes and Gods are presented through the deforming lens of the humanistic idealism and essentialism of the hegemonic ideology of the time, whose principal target was the achievement of national consensus. Hercules advises Philoctetes to show compassion and understanding and he, as being bewitched, forgets at once the repugnance that used to feel for the Achaeans, reconciles himself with them and consents to follow them not only expressingh pleasure but also gratitude for their arrival. Odysseus regrets so sincerely, that he reveals his secret about the Trojan horse only to his ex enemy Philoctetes, whom he deeply appreciates and trusts!!! They even exchange compliments to each other, forging national concord and union of hearts. In the addendum, titled “After the capture of Troy” an ominous shadow covers both winners and losers, that echoes like a warning to all those – regardless of their origin or class- who are presumptuous and desire more that they are predestined to get. Hubris incurs punishment from Gods. The theological- transcendental- super substantial conclusion of the story, that human destiny depends on the divine will, keeps pace with the rulers’ doctrines and principles, that promoted fanatic religiosity and conceded great power to the clergy. At the same time, the motto unites the political opponents under the umbrella of their common human destiny and mitigates the passions that divide the contemporary Greek society. By attributing the social upheavals to the supernatural powers, the adaptation transposes this way the reasons outside from the troubled and contestable sphere of the politics. On the other hand the exaltation of the self sacrifice and the glorification of the preponderance of the collective over the individual profit, - which is an anachronism totally contradictious to the epic and heroic standards-, highlight once more the intentions of the adaptation, to appeal for social collaboration and consensus. Prometheus was published in 1967, when Greece was ruled by the colonels and the turbulent political life seemed to have no way out. The story under the disguise of the innocent children’s reading, talks latently about people’s duty to resist against the unjust oppressors, to stand up for human rights, to protect their decency and mostly to prove that they deserve to belong to the dauntless and heroic Greek nation. At the same time Christian morality, that is symbolized and substantiated in the face of Prometheus, counterbalances the hidden ideological message of the call for rebellion. Prometheus is presented as the humnakind’s
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mind, the divine spark that sprung, in order to put the world in order, but most of all, as the “herald of the privileged Greek race that upraised the civilization to the stars”. He is illustrated in a way that reminds us of the Christ on the cross and this way the ancient Greek tradition is interwoven with the Christian onexix, in accordance with the dictators’ dictum about the interconnection of the ancient Greek and the Christian culture. At the end of the story the Olympians welcome Prometheus in Olympus by chanting the gospel “Glory to the deliverer and the delivered”, which once again bridges the gap between the mythical narration and the Christian philosophy. Examples of pedagogic censorship come from Oedipus and Medea. . In children’s literature, children are always faced with an adult reification of the world, presented as neutral or self- evident, so that censorship becomes a commonplace, almost an indispensable attribute of children’s literature identity (Ζervou Alexandra,1993, p.13-36). In Oedipus adaptation the relationship between the two protagonists has nothing in common with what centuries later inspired the psychoanalytic theory of Freud. They address each other in such a neutral way that nothing implies their conjugal or even affectionate relation. They give the impression of two companions that share royal authority. A point blanc declaration of the incestuous relation would raise reactions and cause a clash in the sanctimonious morality of the time. In Medea, specific words of the Pedagogue (verses 60-62 / 85-88) are omitted. So we never hear him wonder if one is supposed to have the right to call the rulers unwise and witless, or to say that everybody cares only for one’s interests and loves only oneself. Children need a stable moral ground to rely on, they must learn to obey the rulers and such opinions have no place in adaptations intended to children. Moreover, in Classics Illustrated the illustration’s stereo typicality and the mimic of the archaic art compose a sui generis classicistic style. The frontal angle of the participants should establish a kind of emotional involvement of the viewer (Jewitt Carey- Oyama Rumiko, 2001, p.141). On the contrary, the lack of natural movement and the mannerism of the figures’ postures, as well as the absence of background details which create a plain and neutral setting, as if participants exist in decontextualized surroundings (Kress- Van Leewuen, p.79), detach the viewer from the story. The inharmoniousness between the arbitrary, almost sensory use of color and the more or less naturalistic design (Bernstein, 1981) is an indication of the inconsequential and secondary role of illustration in the edition. Even more, the high leveled - epic register (Stephens and Mc Callum, 1998, p.10-15) of the adaptations and the meta-diegetic insertion of the chorals without any attempt to be adjusted to the new environment of the comic book, represent the dominating notion of tragedies as hallowed evidences of the great classic past, that ought to be as faithful as possible to the original script and its prerequisites.
The reformation of Greekness in Apostolides’ adaptations - Towards Universality The historical context This has mostly been the situation until the arrival of post- modernism and the establishment of mass culture. These trends, that marked a cultural shift, demolished the conviction of the acculturating mission of High Art, employed pure aesthetics and mingled the elite with the mass culture (Kondylis, 1991, p.268-269). The gradual debilitation of the autochthonous ideologies, as well as their replacement with emancipating and hedonistic ones, provoked an indifference towards the monuments of the past and cultural legacy, which allowed a prolific cross-fertilization of the intellectual products of the inland with those from outland. This was also decisive for the approach of Greek tragedies. At the same time, the arsis of the monopoly of Greek National theatre to perform in Epidauros, the filmic adaptations of ancient tragedies in Greece and abroad, the institution of
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tragic festivals, the multiplication of the performances worldwide and the attraction – not to say indulgence of the international theatrical avant guard in the tragic genre, after the middle 70s and mostly in the 80s, influenced the way we perceive Greek tragedy, enhanced and enriched the way of directing, performing and adapting it. Besides, more and more of the modern dramaturgy is inspired by the tragic myths and various styles of writing intercross on the minor field of tragicxx. Within this atmosphere the new series of comic book adaptations of two Greek tragedies appeared in the market. In Antigone and in Iphigenia in Aulis, the compilers (Tasos Apostolidisxxi- writer, K. Aronis- G. Tragakis – illustrators) succeeded in merging equivalently the greatness of Tragedy with the modesty and the absence of mannerism of modern drama and they molded all these ingredients into comic books (Moula, 2009). In other words they managed to get rid of the deforming lens of Greek ethnocentrism, through which tragedy was received and interpreted and orientated their spiritual quest of Greekness towards universality.
The novelties and the subversions of the comic book adaptations The heroes of the adaptations are being humanized and civilized, high tones are lowered, grandeur is lessened, minor personas regain status and voice and everything is being re- modulated into a more intimate and familiar to modern readers frame. The defamiliarization which is according to the Russian formalist Sklovskj (Fokkema Douwe- Ibsch Elrud, 1995, p.46-47) a prominent characteristic of literariness is materialized by the lowering of the high- toned level of tragedy. The cinematographic practices of the illustration (moving camera- different points of shot, variable narrators or viewers) (Μartinidis, 1990, p. 50/78 / Branigan, 1992, p.39-44) make it possible to present heroes’ personality and constant change of mood with clarity (Moula, 2009). Most important of all, the point of view shot (Vanoye, 1989, p. 140-145) allows us to immerge into the heroes’ inner world and get a sense of them, creating this way a visual counterpart to narrative’s internal focalization (Chatman, 1974: 43-44). A remarkable technique, indicative of the philosophy of the adaptors, is the way words contradict pictures (Nikolajeva and Scott, 2000: 227-231), shaping an antiphony which engages reader actively, in order to decipher or decode the meaning of the scenes. A characteristic instance of this counter- narrative is when Iphigenia proclaims that she has decided to offer herself for Greece’s sake. Iphigenia had mainly been treated and utilized as a patriotic drama, which lauded noble sacrifice for the benefit of the nation. Critics, educators or directors had never raised questions about the warlike, bellicose or imperialistic character of the Trojan war. On the contrary, in the comic book Iphigenia’s body- posture. her lowered shoulders and gloomy face expression, sorrowful and looking down in despair, makes us almost hear her murmuring her decision in a low voice, instead of crying out with confidence. This picture does not permit any heroic interpretations, but resounds her pure skepticism in a sarcastic way. The combination of words and pictures subverts the ideological standards, so that Greekness superiority complex and the heroic principles undergo a certain depreciation. In our era, when humankind has suffered and still does, from countless futile wars, no Motherland’s interests seem to convince the contemporary reader for the worthiness of any war. Another interpolation that takes place subtly is the issue of gender inequalities in the male dominated society. Clytemnestra’s lamenting for her daughter’s fate composes an outright modern critic, that reviles against the heroic modus vivendi and impugns the taken for granted concepts of parenthood and the subjugation of the woman to the man. On a compositional level there are also many innovations. The chorals are being incorporated in the narrative course and create new scenes, which are sometimes foregrounded and limelighted, and some other times alluded. The members of the Chorus acquire voice, a
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communal singular one (Lanser Sniader Susan, 1992, p.21) in Anitgone and a communal sequential one (ibid, p.21) in Iphigenia. New scenes are invented or generated by the illustration of some narrative parts of the tragedy, while secondary characters are presented (Patroclos, Euridiki), so as to serve the story’s plausibility and the modern reader’s demands. On the content level the most distinguished subversion that takes place in the re- characterization of the heroic figures, Agamemnon and Achilles. Agamemnon’s expected and long established image of the decisive, effective, imperious, high and mighty army commander is changed radically. He is presented as a sensitive, gentle, softhearted tragic figure, an image that corresponds to the norm of the fragile and even decadent intellectual. The selection of certain passages from the original script and the omissions of others compose a resolutely new profile of heroism, in contradiction to the Homeric standard, consisting mostly of perceptiveness and sensibility. Achilles too, is not identified only as the greatest warrior or a super hero in a mythic stature, but he is endowed with the virtues of gentleness, tactfulness and tenderness. His inner self constitutes a psychological subjectivity, trying to balance between his feelings and his duties towards the army. Thus he represents the norm of the new masculinity of our era, who is not ashamed of admitting his vulnerability, reversing the standard of the almighty - man. The diverse stylistic choices of the illustrators are in congruity with the heroines’ character. The clear- cut outlines, the realistic attribution of the space, the dominance of the frames are representative of Antigone’s status. On the other hand the vague shapes, the blurred borders, the chameleonic fluctuation of the lines and the oneiric way of using the colors in Iphigenia become part of her characterization. At this point, we should make a special account about Iphigenia’s experimental not to say daring illustrated version. The participants do not create transactional images. The vectors are mainly formed by an eyeline, by the direction of the glance of them. This glance nevertheless usually levitates in void and challenges the viewer to imagine what the person is thinking about or looking at. This way illustration creates a powerful sense of empathy or identification with the heroes (Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen T , 1996: 68). Details tend to be de-emphasized in favor of what could be called mood or atmosphere, transforming the actions into symbolic suggestive processes (ibid. p.106). So, what is depicted is not a specific moment but a generalized essence, one imbued by existential questions and skepticism about the heroic values the text is supposed to promote. Persons and background are all lit by the same light, tending to the same hue, mostly to the blue of the nighttime and the yellow-ochre of the day. The mastery of the monochrome creates a gloomy and lumpish atmosphere, a choice that almost settles the agonizing feeling in a permanent way.
Conclusions In Classics Illustration the Great Narrationxxii that has always been used as a cohesive tissue to all modern Greek systems, interlocking the heterogeneous parts of Greek profile into the common axis of historical destination is once again present. National identity as a transhistorical essence marginalizes the other social conditions and empowers the myth of the Greek unified unadulterated entity. On the contrary Apostolidis’ adaptations constitute a novelty sustained by the major contextual changes that have taken place in our era. They mark a shift from the dominance of nature to the dominance of signification and from the dominance of the perceptual to the dominance of the conceptual. They reinterpret and transubstantiate Greek tragedy into a transnational product and property.
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At the same time, comics establish themselves as a serious and autonomous kind of art, which having assimilated the paradigms of other artistic expressions, - narrative, painting and cinema- cast the classics into a brand new and challenging mold.
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______Althousser Louis, Lenin and Philosophy and other essays, London, New left books. 1971. 2 Naremore, J. (1990) ‘Authorship and the Cultural Politics of Film Criticism’, Film Quarterly 44 (1), 14-22. (2000) ‘Introduction: Film and the Reign of Adaptation’, in J. Naremore (ed.) Film Adaptation. London: Athlone, I- 16. Orr, C. (1984) ‘The Discourse on Adaptation: A Review’, Wide Angle 3Easthope Antony, 1991, Literary into Cultural Studies, New York, Routledge: 3-62 (he sets questions about the literary value and dissolves the present literary object). 4 Μartinidis Petros, 1990, Comics : Art and techniques of Illustration, Thessaloniki: ΑSΕ/ Eisner Will, Comics as sequential art, 2003 (1985), Poorhouse Press. 5 Hutcheon Linda, (2006), A Theory of Adaptation, New York- Abingdon, Routledge/ Mireia Aragay, ed., (2005) Books in Motion: Adaptation, Intertextuality, Authorship ,Amsterdam: Rodopi, / Orr, C. (1984) ‘The Discourse on Adaptation: A Review’, Wide Angle 6 (2), 72-6. / Barthes, R. (1988 (1968)) ‘The Death of the Author’, in D. Lodge (ed.) Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader. London and New York: Longman, 167-72. 6 Branigan, Edward, 1992, Narrative Comprehension and Film, London and New York: Routledge. / L. Braudy and M. Cohen (eds.) (1999 (1974)) Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. Oxford: Oxford University Press/ Wagner, G. (1975) The Novel and the Cinema. Rutheford, Madison and Teaneck: Farleigh Dickinson University Press./ J. Naremore (ed.)2000, Film Adaptation. London: Athlone 7 Stephens Stephens John- Mc Callum Robyn, 1998,Retelling stories- Framing culture, Garland Publishing Inc., New York and London./ Miller Naomi J., Reimagining Shakespeare for children and young adults, N.Y. , Routledge, 2003 / Moula Evangelia, 2006, The tragic myth of antiquity for the childhood, Thesis (unpublished), University of Aegean, Rhodes./ Erickson Peter, Rewriting Shakespeare – rewriting ourselves, University of California Press, Berkeley- Los Angeles – Oxford, 1991. 8 Kress, G. & van Leeuwen, 1996, T., Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Routledge, London./ Jewitt Carey- Oyama Rumiko, 2001, Visual Meaning : A Social Semiotic Approach, in Van Leeuwen T. and Jewitt Carey, Handbook of Visual Analysis, L.A., London, New Delhi, Singapore, ,Washington, Sage :134-156 (141). 9 Nikolajeva Maria – Scott Carole, How Picturebooks work, Garland, New York and London, 2001. Press, Westport CT, 1997./Nikolajeva Maria- Scott Carole, The dynamics of picture book communication, Children’s literature in education, vol.31, no 4, 2000. / Nodelman, Perry, The eye and the I: Identification and first-person narratives in picture books, Children’s Literature, 19, 1991, pp.1–30/ Schwenke Wyile, First-Person Engaging Narration in the Picture Book: Verbal and Pictorial Variations, Children’s Literature in Education, vol.32, no. 3, September, 2001.
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10 In an Apulian Crater of 350-325 a.D., which is exhibited in Berlin in Steetliche Museen, the figure of Prometheus, with curly hair , beard and a long pallium , has probably contributed to the later on iconographic attribution of Jesus (Greek Mythology, Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon, 1986, 2nd vol. , p.35). 11 See: Philoctetes of Ziogas (1975) see; Hasapi:1025-1033), Clytemnestra of A. Staikos (1977) (see :Siaflekis Z.I., (1994), 1998;76-78), Campanellis trilogy (1991-1994). 12 Aristophanes’ adaptations by Apostolides and Akokalides had anteceded (1983-1986) and had had a great success. See : Calcani Eleni,2004, 352-357.
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