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Notebooks (Biji) and Shifting Boundaries of Knowledge in Eleventh-Century China

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Notebooks (Biji) and Shifting Boundaries of Knowledge in Eleventh-Century China Notebooks ( Biji ) and Shifting Boundaries of Knowledge in Eleventh-Century China Christian de Pee The Medieval Globe, Volume 3, Issue 1, 2017, pp. 129-167 (Article) Published by Arc Humanities Press For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/758500 [ Access provided at 27 Sep 2021 00:19 GMT with no institutional affiliation ] NOTEBOOKS (BIJI) AND SHIFTING BOUNDARIES OF KNOWLEDGE IN ELEVENTH-CENTURY CHINA CHRISTIAN DE PEE The Twelve Fields are the cords by which heaven is divided, so one can­ not use the Twelve Fields to understand heaven. The Nine Continents are the mesh by which the earth is divided, so one cannot use the Nine Conti­ nents to understand the earth. The Seven Epitomes are the categories by which books are divided, so one cannot use the Seven Epitomes to under­ stand books. To understand heaven, one must understand progressions; clear,to understand maps and the books earth, lose one their must order: understand that is inevitable. distance; to understand books, one must understand classification. Alas! If the classification is not1 Zheng Qiao (1161 CE) to identify a distinct moment in the Chinese past when print­ ing technology caused a radical change in the production or the transfer of knowl­ It Is dIffIcult third century, scrolls of paper, wrapped in cloth, replaced knotted lattices of wood edge. Paper came into use as a writing material during the first century CE. In the or bamboo as the preferred form for books. Booklets of folded leaves existed side by side with scrolls during the eighth and ninth centuries before replacing them in the course of the tenth century.2 By that time, printing technology was already Revolutions and to submit my essay to The Medi eval Globe, and for her ever stimulating I thank Carol Symes for inviting me to participate in the Symposium on Medieval Media comments, encouragement, and friendship. I also thank the participants in the symposium for their comments, especially Elizabeth Oyler, Kai-wing Chow, Warren Brown, and Jessica The Medi eval Globe. The Goldberg. The essay has also benefited from comments by Webb Keane, Dagmar Schäfer, essay is dedicated to my spouse, Lara Kusnetzky, who has long encouraged me to expand and Anna Shields, Angela Zito, and the two anonymous reviewers for publish a presentation I gave about the notebook as a marginal genre, at the 2005 annual meeting1 Tongzhi of the Association for Asian Studies. See Barrett, 2 , jiaochoulüe.1804.Woman Who Discovered Invention of Printing, Les Bibliothèques Concise Illustrated , 34–35; Brokaw, “Book History,” 253–54; Carter, History Scripture on the Ten Kings Science and Civilisation 3–8, 58–59; Drège, , 14; Luo Shubao, Printing and Publishing Zhongguo yinshua shi, , 136–39; Teiser, , 88–101; Tsien, , 1–132, 227–33; Twitchett, , 11–12; Zhang Xiumin, 4–7. 129– the MedI eval Globe 3.1 (2017) 10.17302/TMG.3-1.6 pp. 168 130 chrISTIan de pee ­ several centuries old. Invented sometime during the seventh century, woodblock cation of religious texts and ephemera: Buddhist spells and icons, calendars and printing during the Tang dynasty (618–907) was used primarily for the multipli almanacs, spirit money, prayers, amulets, medical handbooks, divination manuals, and so forth. The oldest surviving printed book is a copy of the Diamond Sutra (Jingang banruo boluomi jing 金剛般若波羅蜜經 ­ ters and intricate illustrations printed on a scroll of glued sheets of paper. ), dated 868, its distinct charac The complete Buddhist canon, the classical canon, and literary anthologies3 between the various courts that vied for power and prestige after the disintegra­ were first committed to print during the tenth century, in the cultural competition ­ ment printed encyclopaedias, histories, medical texts, materials for the imperial tion of the Tang Empire. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), the central govern examinations, and complete sets of the classical, Buddhist, and Daoist canons, incurring increasing competition from commercial printers in the course of the eleventh century. Of these eleventh­century printers at least one, Bi Sheng 畢昇 4 trays. The preferred form of printing, however, remained xylography. Tracing (d. 1051), experimented with movable type, made of baked clay and set in metal the reversed5 image of manuscript pages on planks of soft wood, woodblock carv­ ers reproduced pages with a pleasing, traditional layout that could combine with 3 See Barrett, Woman Who Discovered et passim Invention of Printing , ix–x, 42–85 ; Brokaw, “On the History of Les Bibliothèques, the Book,” 23; Brokaw, “Book History,” 254–55; Carter, , 38–59; Chia and Chūgoku shuppan De Weerdt, “Introduction,” 1–9; Drège, 265; Drège, “La Lecture,” 90–91; bunkashi, A Social History, Manifest in Words, Drège, “Des Effets,” 414–15; Edgren, “Southern Song Printing,” 5; Inoue, Teiser, Scripture on the Ten Kings, Science and Civilisation 95–97; McDermott, 9–13; Nugent, 39–47; Printing and Publishing, Zhongguo yinshua shi, 87–162; Tsien, , 132–54; Twitchett, , 4 13–26; Zhang Xiumin, 16–28.Invention of Printing Printing for Profit See Brokaw, “On the History of the Book,” 17–18, 23; Carter, Lost Books Books, Tales, and 68–74, 83–85; Chia, , 65–66; Chia and De Weerdt, “Introduction,” 9–11; Vernacular Culture Drège, “Des Effets,” 420–28; Dudbridge, , 1, 13–14; Dudbridge, Chūgoku shuppan bunkashi, , 5; Edgren, “Southern Song Printing,” 7; Egan, “To Count Grains,” 33–40; Concise Illustrated History Les Débuts Science and Civilisation, Fujieda, “Une Réconstruction,” 67; Inoue, 106–18; Luo Shubao, Printing and Publishing Zhongguo yinshua , 30–33; Pelliot, , 86–93; Tsien, shi Songdai chubanshi yanjiu 154–70; Twitchett, , 28–52, 60–62; Zhang Xiumin, See 5 , 30–156;Mengxi Zhou bitan Baorong, Invention ,of 58–90. Printing Concise Illustrated History Science and Civilisation, 18.8a–9a. Cf. Carter, , 212–18; Egan, “Shen Kuo Zhongguo yinshua shi Chats,” 138–39; Luo Shubao, , 59–60; Tsien, 201–3; Zhang Xiumin, , 529–41. The earliest surviving texts printed See Luo Shubao, Concise Illustrated History Zhongguo yinshua shi, with movable type were produced by the Xia Empire (1038–1227) in the twelfth century. Songdai chubanshi yanjiu , 61–62; Zhang Xiumin, 541–45; Zhou Baorong, , 177–80. biji 11th 131 NotebooKs ( ) and shIftInG boundarIes of KnowledGe In -centurY chIna relative ease characters of different sizes, as well as text and illustrations. The enduring shape of these carved texts allowed printers to store them away 6after their blocks to another printer willing to invest in the paper, ink, and labour for an the first print run and to print a second run when demand resumed, or to rent out imprint of his own, perhaps with added materials, changes to the text, or substitu­ tions. The close resemblance of the woodblock print to manuscript—both in its 7 culture and print, between carvers and copyists, that maintained them in compe­ aesthetic and in its flexible production—created a continuity between manuscript tition, preference for one or the other often a matter of relative cost. Only in the sixteenth century did printed books begin to surpass the number of manuscripts8 in private libraries, and only in the nineteenth century, with the introduction of lithography, did printed texts become decisively cheaper than manuscript copies.9 evident that beginning in the eleventh century the availability of printed texts In spite of this prolonged coexistence of print and manuscript, however, it is transformed practices of reading and writing.10 Ye Mengde 葉夢得 (1077–1148), for example, observed around the year 1123: 6 Invention of Printing Chia, Printing for Profit A Social On the techniques of woodblock printing, see Carter, , 34–35; History Science and Civilisation , 24–62; Edgren, “Southern Song Printing,” 5–6; McDermott, See Barrett, 7 , 13–20; Tsien,Woman Who Discovered , 194–201. Commerce in Culture , 10–14; Brokaw, “On the History of the Book,” Religious Experience Home and the World, 1–11 et passim Printing and 9–10; Brokaw, , 13–18; Drège, “Des Effets,” 426–29; Dudbridge, Publishing , 75–93; He, ; Twitchett, See Barrett, 8 , 68–86.Woman Who Discovered Printing for Profit , 40, 131; Brokaw, “On the History of the Book,” Songdai cangshujia kao, 15–16; Chia, , 11–12, 40–42; Chia and De Weerdt, “Introduction,” 12–13; Dr9 ège, “La Lecture,” 101–2; Drège, “Des Effets,” 416–21; Pan, Commerce in Culture, 7–10. Printing for Profit See Brokaw, “On the History of the Book,” 24; Brokaw, 260–62, Publishing, Culture, and Power Les Bibliothèques 266–74; Cherniack, “Book Culture,” 44–45; Chia, , 11–13; Chow, Books, Tales, and Vernacular Culture Home and the , 1–2; Drège, , 266–68; Drège, “Des Effets,” World 409–12, 414–16; Dudbridge, , 8–9; He, A Social History , 97–98; McDermott, “Ascendance of the Imprint,” 24, 55–57, 60, 62–93; McDermott, in private libraries during the Song dynasty should be interpreted as evidence of the , 43–78. Robert Hymes has argued that the high percentage of manuscripts abundance of printed materials in the eleventh century, rather than the reverse, because bibliophiles sought to distinguish themselves by the quality and the rarity of their collection, which printing did not supply until the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644). See Hymes,10 “Sung Society,” 548–51. Printing for Profit Les Bibliothèques Cf. Brokaw, “On the History of the Book,” 23–34; Cherniack, “Book Culture,” 21, 27–35, biji 47–51, 56–82; Chia, , 8; Drège, , 170–71, 265; Drège, Chūgoku shuppan bunkashi “Book “La Lecture,” 102–3; Drège, “Des Effets,” 431; Fu, “The Flourishing of ,” 109–11; Hymes, “Sung Society,” 548–65; Inoue, , 111, 118–41; McDermott, 132 chrISTIan de pee Prior to the Tang, all books were manuscripts. The technology of print­ ing had not yet been invented, and collecting books was regarded with the utmost respect.
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