It is my pleasure here to take Botany as my special study, which was previously the knowledge of a few plants; today however the abundance of material has made it the most extensive of all the sciences. Linnaeus (Preface and Dedication to Species Plantarum 1753) An Evaluation of the ROles of Botanic Gardens in Recreation and Conservation by Anne Therese Pickering Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Town and Country Planning, University of Newcastle upon Tyne 1992 NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 092 50588 5 ---T-t-N42s. s 1.-‘4-01-4.1 ARC e a (i) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. K.G. Willis and Mr. G. Garrod in calculating the Economic Recreation Benefits described in Chapter 7. I am most grateful to them for their help and interest. Results from this work have been produced in a working paper (Garrod, Pickering and Willis, 1991). I would also like to acknowledge and thank all the members of the public and the staff of botanic gardens who contributed to this research by answering questionnaires and supplying assistance and data. In addition I would like to acknowledge the help and support of my family, friends and supervisor Dr. J.F. Benson. ABSTRACT Botanic gardens in the United Kingdom have a number of different origins and their ownership and financial status is diverse. Most are funded and managed through Universities though some are run by National or Local Government or by charitable or private organizations. Whilst they share a number of characteristics they are diverse in location, aims, objectives and facilities provided. As a consequence of changing economic and social conditions there is growing financial pressure such that a number have closed in the last decade and several are threatened with closure. The research sets out to evaluate the overall costs and benefits of botanic gardens. Their financial costs and revenues are analysed and compared with the costs of managing other urban green space. It is shown that the labour intensive nature of botanic gardens makes them much more expensive to run than Local Authority grounds. The role of botanic gardens in research and higher education is examined by literature review, analysis of published data and interviews with directors and others and shows that the gardens role in education and research is much less than formerly and that current botanical research relies on the gardens only to a small extent. Their current role in the conservation of biodiversity is evaluated. It is shown that, while they have a role in conservation education, with current funding, species conservation on any meaningful scale, could not realistically be accomplished. Their value in public recreation is examined. A cluster analysis of 48 botanic gardens in the UK is used to select a representative sample of four gardens; Edinburgh, Cambridge, Westonbirt and Sheffield, for detailed study. The travel cost method of valuation is used to show that, while recreation benefits are real and previously uncalculated, the sums are much less than the running costs of the gardens. The interests and attitudes of visitors are examined and show that the gardens are of great social value to particular groups. Finally, the diverse benefits of botanic gardens are contrasted with the pressures which are leading to a re—examination of their value and a case argued for a more coherent policy and an enlightened unified organization which will take account of the varied uses of botanic gardens and ensure that all current and future user groups are represented when funding is allocated. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aims and Objectives 1 1.2 Characteristics of Botanic Gardens 1 1.3 The Nature of Values 2 1.4 Structure of the Thesis 6 CHAPTER 2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BOTANIC GARDENS 2.1 The Earliest Botanic Gardens 7 2.1.1 China 7 2.1.2 Egypt 7 2.1.3 Greece 9 2.1.4 The New World 11 2.1.5 Summary 12 2.2 Foundation of European Gardens 12 2.2.1 Monastic Gardens 12 2.2.2 The First University Gardens 13 2.2.3 Botanic Gardens Attached to Universities 14 2.2.4 First Private Gardens in England 17 2.2.5 Public Gardens — Municipal Gardens 18 2.2.6 'Government' Gardens 19 2.3 Problems and Changes Faced by European Gardens Through Time 23 2.3.1 Changes and Developments 23 2.3.2 Botanic Gardens and Empire 24 2.3.3 Summary 25 2.4 Botany and Medicine 26 2.5 Changes in Teaching and Research in Botany 28 2.6 Current Financial Constraints 33 2.7 Horticulture and Botanic Gardens 34 2.8 Gardens and the Public 35 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Financial Valuation 38 3.3 Economic Values 40 3.4 Social, Moral and Philosophical Valuation 47 3.4.1 Introduction 47 3.4.2 Survey Methods Used 48 3.4.3 The Sample of Visitors 54 3.4.4 Questionnaires 55 3.4.5 Data Collected 56 3.4.6 Analysis of Results 57 Page CHAPTER 4 FINANCIAL COSTS AND REVENUE 4.1 Introduction 58 4.2 Type of Botanic Garden 58 4.2.1 University Gardens 58 4.2.2 Private Gardens 60 4.2.3 Municipal Gardens 60 4.2.4 Central Government Gardens 61 4.3 Costs — Data 61 4.4 Hypothetical Botanic Garden 70 4.5 Local Authority Grounds Maintenance 72 4.6 Costs Other Than Salaries 76 4.7 Revenue 78 CHAPTER 5 BENEFITS: RESEARCH, EDUCATION AND AMENITY 5.1 Introduction 86 5.2 Internal Benefits 86 5.2.1 Research 86 5.2.2 Teaching/Training 88 5.3 External Benefits 89 5.3.1 Economic Impact of Botanic Gardens on Their Local Area 89 5.3.2 Education 91 5.3.3 Library Facilities 92 5.3.4 Research Benefits 93 5.3.5 Plant Production 94 5.3.5.1 Historical 94 5.3.5.2 Current Plant Production 95 5.3.6 Horticultural Plants 98 5.3.7 Heritage 98 5.3.8 Public Amenity 100 5.3.9 Public Education 102 5.3.10 Urban Nature Reserves 102 5.3.11 Garden Visitors 103 5.3.12 Botanic Gardens and Horticulture 104 CHAPTER 6 CONSERVATION OF SPECIES 6.1 Preservation of Endangered Species 106 6.2 Rate of Species Loss 108 6.3 Botanic Gardens Role in Species Preservation 109 6.4 Botanic Gardens: International Collaboration 112 6.5 Problems in Foreign Botanic Gardens 115 6.6 Recent Realization of the Scale of the Problem 117 6.7 Realistic Roles for Botanic Gardens 118 6.8 Ownership and Fair Return 120 6.9 Reintroductions 121 6.10 Successful Projects 122 6.11 Costs of Conservation Efforts 125 6.12 Habitat Preservation 127 6.13 Botanic Gardens Role in Education 127 Page CHAPTER 7 ECONOMIC RECREATION BENEFITS 7.1 Introduction 130 7.2 Travel Cost 131 7.3 Individual Travel Cost Method 133 7.4 Individual Travel Cost Method Results 133 7.5 Aggregation of Consumer Surplus Estimates Derived From the ITCM 138 7.6 Aggregate Lower Bound Yearly Consumer Surplus 139 7.7 Upper Estimates of Aggregate Total Recreational Benefits 139 7.8 Comparison of Aggregate Welfare Benefits Derived from the ITCM with the Grant—in—Aid Received by the Gardens 140 7.9 Contingent Valuation/Willingness to Pay an Entrance Fee 140 7.10 Aggregate Recreational Benefits 142 7.11 Comparison of both Estimates with Grant—in—Aid 142 CHAPTER 8 SOCIAL RECREATION BENEFITS 8.0 Introduction 149 8.1 Trends in Leisure Visits 149 8.2 The Sample of Gardens 154 8.2.1 Source of the Gardens Funding and How This Affects What is Provided for the Visitor 155 8.2.1.1 Edinburgh 155 8.2.1.2 Cambridge 156 8.2.1.3 Westonbirt 156 8.2.1.4 Sheffield 156 8.2.1.5 Discussion 157 8.3 The Nature of the Garden 158 8.3.1 Location 158 8.3.2 Costs Associated with Location 158 8.3.3 Accessibility 158 8.3.4 Size 158 8.3.5 Maturity 160 8.3.6 Greenspace Provision in the Locations 160 8.3.7 Previous Use of the Garden by Visitors 161 8.3.8 Size of Space Provided Compared with Distance Travelled to Use it 162 8.3.9 Accessibility and Mode of Transport 167 8.3.10 Visit Frequency as a Measure of the Gardens Importance in that Location 170 8.3.11 Visit Length 171 8.3.12 Distance Travelled 172 8.3.13 Visit Frequency and Distance Travelled 173 8.3.14 Total Visitor Numbers 176 8.3.15 Visitor Capacity of Sites 176 8.3.16 Summary 177 Page 8.4 The Facilities of the Gardens 178 8.4.1 Size 178 8.4.2 Attractions (Plants Grown, Seasonality, Ponds, Rock Gardens, Glasshouses, Buildings) 179 8.4.3 The Wildlife 180 8.4.4 Car Parking/Transport 180 8.4.5 Dogs 180 8.4.6 Visit in Relation to Alternative 180 8.4.6.1 Alternative Visit 181 8.4.6.2 A Garden as an Alternative 181 8.4.6.3 A Park as an Alternative 182 8.4.6.4 Other Attractions as an Alternative 183 8.4.7 Number of Other Gardens also Visited in the Last Year 184 8.4.8 Number of Other Botanic Gardens Visited in the Last Year 185 8.4.8.1 Visitors Attracted by Other Botanic Gardens 185 8.4.9 Summary 187 8.5 Marketing Strategy 188 8.5.1 Introduction 188 8.5.2 Advertising 189 8.5.3 Where Visitors First Heard of the Garden 189 8.5.4 Origin of Visitors 191 8.5.5 Distance from Home if on Holiday i.e.