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Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems RSC Energy Series Basant Agrawal and G.N. Tiwari Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems For Sustainable Developments Thermal Systems Thermal Photovoltaic Integrated Building Agrawal & Tiwari & Agrawal Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems For Sustainable Developments Energy Series Series Editor: Julian Hunt FRS, University College London, London, UK Titles in the Series: 1: Hydrogen Energy: Challenges and Prospects 2: Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Modules and its Applications 3: Compound Energy Systems: Optimal Operation Methods 4: Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems: For Sustainable Developments How to obtain future titles on publication: A standing order plan is available for this series. A standing order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately on publication. For further information please contact: Book Sales Department, Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge, CB4 0WF, UK Telephone: +44 (0)1223 420066, Fax: +44 (0)1223 420247, Email: [email protected] Visit our website at http://www.rsc.org/Shop/Books/ Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems For Sustainable Developments Basant Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India RSC Energy Series No. 4 ISBN: 978-1-84973-090-7 ISSN: 1757-6741 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library r B. Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari 2011 All rights reserved Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page. The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work. Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK Registered Charity Number 207890 For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org Preface Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are one of the most promising renewable energy technologies, producing electricity on site directly from solar radiation without harming the environment or depleting materials. The building inte- grated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT) system is a technology that merges PV and thermal systems, simultaneously providing both electric and thermal energy. Through this combination, more energy is generated per unit surface area in comparison to the stand-alone photovoltaic system. This book is intended for specialists, scientists and people involved in research in the disciplines of renewable energy, energy studies, building energy or carbon credits. For the practicing professionals, advanced senior or graduate students with work experience, the book should be used as part of an inte- grative programme enabling deep linkages to be made and thus better decisions in the professional world. The work is a summary of the knowledge gained by the authors from the experience of years of research and teaching. The book has been divided into nine chapters. Chapter 1 begins with the fundamental concepts of solar energy and the methodology to determine its availability in terrestrial regions. Chapter 2 reviews the technology for manu- facturing silicon and non-silicon photovoltaic solar cells and modules. Chapters 3 and 4 describe human comfort conditions and review passive heating and cooling concepts. Chapter 5 deals with the worldwide installation of photo- voltaic systems and a few case studies in this context with regard to BIPVT systems. Chapter 6 deals with thermal modelling, energy and exergy analysis. It shows that the use of BIPVT systems significantly increases electrical perfor- mance. Chapters 7 and 8 deal with embodied energy analysis, energy payback periods, carbon mitigation and trading. This concludes that the suggested system has a negligible impact on the environment. Chapter 9 provides the techno-economics of the BIPVT system, showing that it has a faster payback time than any traditional system. It is recommended that beginners read Chapters 6 through 9 in the same chronological order as given in the book. SI RSC Energy Series No. 4 Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems: For Sustainable Developments By Basant Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari r B. Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari 2011 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org v vi Preface units have been used throughout. Appendices and a glossary have also been included at the end of the book. There is no other single book which covers all the basic and the advanced concepts related to the implementation of solar energy for the passive heating and cooling of buildings. In addition, the present book covers the concepts of modelling and analysis of the BIPVT system, which has not been made else- where. All chapters are supplemented with numerous diagrams to understand the concepts better. Anyone who goes through the book cannot miss the enor- mous work that has gone into preparing the text in the present form. We hope that this book will be a milestone in the widespread deployment of solar designed buildings. It is our immense pleasure to express our heartfelt gratitude to the Director of IIT Delhi and Head of CES, IIT Delhi for their kind encouragement. We express our appreciation to the reviewers of this book. We wish to thank all the authors that are represented in the references for granting us permission to reproduce their work. We acknowledge with thanks the financial support by the Curriculum Development Cell, IIT Delhi, for preparation of the book. Full credit is due to our publishers, RSC Publishing, Cambridge, UK, for producing the book. We express our deep gratitude to our respected parents for inspiration and their blessings. Not the least, we thank our patient families for their for- bearance during the lengthy process of putting this book together. Comments and suggestions for further improvements of the book can be mailed to the authors at [email protected] or [email protected]. Basant Agrawal G. N. Tiwari Contents Chapter 1 Solar Radiation and its Availability on Earth 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Sun 1 1.3 The Earth 3 1.4 Apparent Path of the Sun 3 1.5 Solar Radiation on the Earth 5 1.6 Variation of Radiation in Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Regions 7 1.7 Terminology Associated with Solar Radiation 7 1.7.1 Air Mass 7 1.7.2 Diffuse Radiation 9 1.7.3 Beam or Direct Radiation 10 1.7.4 Total Radiation or Global Radiation 10 1.7.5 Insolation 10 1.7.6 Irradiance, Radiant Exitance and Emissive Power 10 1.7.7 Latitude 11 1.7.8 Longitude 11 1.7.9 Solar Time 12 1.8 Measurement of Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface 12 1.8.1 The Normal Incidence Pyrheliometer 13 1.8.2 The Pyranometer 14 1.8.3 The Sunshine Recorder 15 1.8.4 The World Radiometric Reference 16 1.9 Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship 17 1.9.1 The Declination 17 1.9.2 The Hour Angle 19 1.9.3 The Zenith Angle and the Solar Altitude Angle 19 RSC Energy Series No. 4 Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems: For Sustainable Developments By Basant Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari r B. Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari 2011 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org vii viii Contents 1.9.4 The Slope 21 1.9.5 The Surface Azimuth Angle 21 1.9.6 The Solar Azimuth Angle 21 1.9.7 The Angle of Incidence 22 1.10 Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface 25 1.11 Radiation on an Inclined Surface 27 1.12 Estimation of Average Solar Radiation 30 1.12.1 Monthly Average of the Daily Total Radiation on a Horizontal Surface 30 1.12.2 Monthly Average of the Daily Diffuse Radiation on a Horizontal Surface 31 1.12.3 Beam and Diffuse Components of Daily Radiation 31 1.12.4 Beam and Diffuse Components of Hourly Radiation 32 1.13 Heat Transfer through Conduction 34 1.13.1 Thermal Conductivity 35 1.13.2 Heat Transfer through Parallel Slabs 35 1.13.3 Heat Transfer through Coaxial Cylinders 36 1.14 Heat Transfer through Convection 39 1.14.1 Dimensionless Heat Convective Parameters 39 1.14.2 Free Convection 41 1.14.3 Simplified Free Convection Relations for Air 42 1.14.4 Forced Convection 42 1.14.5 Combined Free and Forced Convection 43 1.14.6 Convective Heat Transfer Due to Wind 43 1.15 Heat Transfer through Radiation 46 1.15.1 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient 46 1.15.2 Sky Radiation 47 References 49 Further Reading 49 Chapter 2 Photovoltaic Technology and its Development 50 2.1 Introduction 50 2.2 Evolution of the Solar Cell 50 2.2.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 51 2.2.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors 52 2.2.3 p–n Junctions 55 2.2.4 Photovoltaic Cells: Generating Electricity 57 2.2.5 The Limits to Cell Efficiency 61 2.3 Historical Developments 65 2.4 Technology Generation 68 2.4.1 First-generation Technology 68 2.4.2 Second-generation Technology 69 Contents ix 2.4.3 Third-generation Technology 69 2.5 Silicon Solar Cell Materials and Technology 70 2.5.1 Production of Silicon 70 2.5.2 Bulk Monocrystalline Silicon Ingot Production
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