NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 544 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation

A Biopsychosocial Approach to Creative Dissociation: Remarks on a Case of Mediumistic Painting

Everton de Oliveira Maraldi* and Stanley Krippner† ABSTRACT A category of religious experience that still preserves much of the original blurring and fusion between art and religion is mediumistic or spirit painting. Performed by spiritualist mediums in different locations around the world, this form of religious experience is characterized by the supposed ability of an individual to serve as an instrument for deceased artists to continue to perform their works. Little scientific research has been conducted concerning this topic. We present a brief analysis of painting activity performed by Jacques Andrade, a Brazilian medium. Born in 1945, Andrade, who has been active in the Brazilian Kardecist movement for many years, has dedicated most of his religious life to mediumistic painting at his center (The Leonardo da Vinci Salon of Mediumistic Art). Data about the medium were collected on several different occasions, from 1998 to 2013, and include psychophysiological measures (hand temperature, heart rate, bilateral skin conductance, muscle tension, and electrical brain activity), psychological measures (Dissociative Experiences Scale, Tellegen Absorption Scale, Revised Transliminality Scale, and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire), artistic material, observational data (photographs of paintings, observations of the medium in action), and some basic socio-demographic and biographical information. Basically we sought to evaluate: a) general aspects of the painting technique and style employed by the medium, b) the main features of his pictorial production, and c) the general behavior shown by the medium during the mediumistic activity. In an effort to combine and integrate our findings about this case, we propose a biopsychosocial approach to the study of what might be called creative dissociation.

Key Words: dissociation, creativity, religious experience, imaginative involvement, mediumship, mediumistic painting NeuroQuantology 2013; 4:544-572

Introduction1 by divinities or discarnate entities. The Today artistic manifestations are rarely tendency to connect artistic creativity, regarded as resulting from inspiration mediated dissociative states, and various forms of religious experience, however, is quite old, already discernible in rock paintings. Corresponding author: Everton de Oliveira Maraldi Address: *University of São Paulo, Brazil. E-mail: [email protected] Researchers argue that these paintings and †Saybrook University, San Francisco, US, e-mail: reproduced more than simple everyday [email protected] situations and such preoccupations as hunting e-mail  [email protected] and gathering. They also represented dream Relevant conflicts of interest/financial disclosures: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any content and hallucinations as experienced commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a during rituals (Chippindale, Smith, & Taçoi, potential conflict of interest. 2000; Lewis-Williams, 1987). Shamans, Received: September 1, 2013; Revised: October 28, 2013; Accepted: November 7, 2013 humanity’s first healers (Krippner, 2007), eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 545 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation included music and dance elements in their experiences such as reincarnation and visions of magic-religious performances (Krippner, 2000; auras. In her fundamental work on automatic Winkelman, 2010). One must acknowledge writing, Anita Muhl (1930) described many that, especially in more remote times, there was instances of spontaneous artistic productions not a clear distinction between art and religion. made by psychiatric patients in the form of The various forms of such experiences were poems, proses and drawings, with which she joined, and the separation that was was able to investigate their psychodynamics subsequently observed between rational and and unconscious motivations. Some of her aesthetic categories was not yet present. The patients’ materials were interpreted by element that most often unified such fields was themselves as mediumistic productions. myth (Campbell & Moyers, 1991). In many In order to encompass the underlying ancient rituals, there was a fusion of elements relationship between apparently unrelated that today make up the universe of both religion experiences such as inspiration, mediumship, and art. One can even say that the study of and surrealism, Michael Grosso (1997) myths is valuable for understanding the nature developed the concept of “creative of both art and religion, because myth dissociation.” In his own words, “creative represents a fusion of these two forms of human dissociation represents the mind’s evolved expression (Harner, 2013). ability to escape, transform, and possibly As stated by Berlyne (1980, p. 328): transcend the limitations of ordinary reality” (p. “What Westerners recognize as artistic 195). For Grosso, “a medium is anybody with a productions of another culture, are often facility for communicating with unconscious representations of magic-religious rituals or sources during dissociation... I use the word objects created for use in these rituals.” creative because some mediums reportedly Oesterreich (1930, p. 3) observed that, “in produce artistic works of quality” (p. 186). In ancient, as also sometimes in later times, it was fact, throughout the history of mediumship customary to class as possession other states of many mediums manifested talents that seemed enthusiasm or inspiration.” About the intricate to surpass their own expected abilities, like crossings between art and religion, Arnheim Hélène Smith (Flournoy, 1900), Pearl Curran (1987) defended the aesthetic experience as (Prince, 1927), and Augustin Lesage (Victor, important to the objectification of religious 1970). Even beyond direct mediumship experience, in that, for the faithful, it translated research, other interesting studies have also their faith into tangible, material terms. But this described a significant and positive correlation connection, noted by many researchers, between dissociation and artistic creativity between art and religious experience, is not only (e.g., Domino, Short, Evans, & Romano, 2002; a relic of the past; rather, it seems to remain, in Pérez-Fabello & Campos, 2011), which seems to a sense, to the present day. One example is the confirm Grosso’s idea of a relationship between use of recurring dance and music in various these two constructs. religious rituals such as the giras in Umbanda, Braude (2002, p. 6) has defended that a mediumistic Brazilian religion (Zangari, “dissociation can be a profoundly creative – 2003). Hastings (1991) enumerated many cases indeed, continually creative activity”, and he in which there was a connection between 2 outlined many situations in which dissociation channeling and creativity, even outside is used as a creative coping strategy against religious contexts or without the presumption suffering and trauma (e.g., DID), but also in of mediumship – although such productions other non-pathological activities, as seen in had a profoundly spiritual character. The certain creative hypnotic responses or behaviors neurologist Oliver Sacks (2007) reports the and in cases of spontaneous emergence of latent interesting case of a patient who, after being abilities (e.g. Pearl Curran). Thus, the concept struck by lightning, developed a strange of what we might call “creative dissociation” attraction to music; at the same time, he began (i.e., dissociation specifically related to creative to gravitate toward paranormal beliefs and and artistic elaborations) could illuminate the etiology of normal and pathological dissociative

2 processes (Alvarado, 2005). Pathological According to Hastings (1991, p. 4), “Channeling refers to a process in which a person transmits information or artistic expression that he or dissociation is frequently linked to childhood she receives mentally or physically and which appears to come from a trauma, although there is some debate around personality source outside the conscious mind. The message is directed the plausibility of the trauma model (Dalenberg toward an audience and is purposeful”. eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 546 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation et al., 2012; Merckelbach & Muris, 2001). But fusion between art and religion, and is also socio-cultural variables tend to play an representative of creative dissociation, is important role in the differentiation between mediumistic or spirit painting. Practiced by pathological and non-pathological dissociation. spiritualist mediums in different places around Psychological processes can have both adaptive the world, including internationally renowned and maladaptive aspects, the same as trauma mediums such as the Brazilians Luiz Antonio producing both posttraumatic symptoms and Gasparetto (Gasparetto, 2009; 2013a; 2013b) growth. As Grosso said (1997, p. 182), and Florencio Anton (Anton, 2009a; 2009b; dissociative phenomena are culture-bound: 2009c; 2013), this form of religious experience “what looks like fragmentation or is characterized by the supposed ability of an disconnectedness may in fact be a prelude to individual to serve as an instrument for greater wholeness or higher integration... deceased artists to continue to produce their Creative dissociation is paradoxical because it is works of art. The justifications raised for such a destructive and reconstructive at the same return of illustrious or unknown painters are time.” Indeed, “according to some philosophical varied; they are often based on the belief that and religious stances [e.g., Buddhism], to be the artists are trying to demonstrate their human IS to live in a dissociated condition” survival after death, thus leaving a message of (Cardeña, 1997, p. 61). In this sense, we have to hope and consolation to those who still inhabit consider a more complex relationship between this world. Like automatic writing, mediumistic dissociation and psychopathology, and be paintings try to reproduce the same style sensitive to the socio-cultural, artistic and employed by the deceased painters, in order to religious variability of its expressions. As allow their identity to be verified post mortem. Krippner (1997, p. 6) adequately remarked: In some cases, like that of Hélène Smith Westerners are prone to take terms with (Flournoy, 1900), these paintings seem to have which they are familiar and superimpose them the additional function of representing, in on phenomena in other cultures with which concrete terms, the alleged spiritual world of they are unfamiliar. Like other hypothetical one's visions and mediumistic experiences. constructs in the social sciences, There are also cases in which the supposed “dissociation” is an attempt by a social group artistic relationship between the dead and the to describe, explain or otherwise account for living are expressed in more abstract and the world in which they live… So-called nonfigurative forms (Thévoz, 1990). “dissociative” phenomena have been given varied labels and interpretations in different Before expanding our discussion of eras and locations, as well as in diverse Brazilian phenomena, it is important to observe historically and geographically situated that, in the United States, the 19th century interchanges among people. An interest in mediums was dubbed “spiritualism.” understanding of this situation should prevent However, similar activities had been transpiring the reification of such expressions as in Brazil since the days of slavery; Candomblé, “dissociation” and “dissociative disorders”, Tambour de Mina, and other Afro-Brazilian and the uncritical acceptance of the Western constructions of these phenomena. religions cultivated contact with alleged spirits, and we are using the word “spiritistic” to refer For our purposes here, and considering to these groups as well as to the Spiritist the complexity involved in the religion that emerged later in the 19th century. conceptualization of dissociation, we can It took the name “Spiritist” to distinguish itself describe the term “dissociative” simply as: from the American movement, especially the …an English-language adjective that attempts Spiritualism Church. However, we will use the to describe reported experiences and observed term “spiritualist” to refer to people from behaviors that seem to exist apart from, or around the world who engage in behaviors that appear to have been disconnected from, the attempt to interact with “spirits,” whether they mainstream, or flow, of one’s conscious are discarnate entities who once lived on Earth awareness, behavioral repertoire, and/or self- or divinities (benevolent, malevolent, or both) identity. Dissociation is a noun used to who exist on another plane. describe a person’s involvement in these reported dissociative experiences or observed Little research has been conducted on the dissociative behaviors. (p.8) topic of mediumistic paintings. The authors A category of religious experience that could not locate, despite a detailed search in still preserves much of the original blurring and scientific databases, more than a modicum of eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 547 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation academic literature concerning the subject. This example (either the arts in general or, more is due, among other reasons, to the fact that particularly, specific fields of study such as the mediumship – for example – is a practice of psychology of art), an understanding of these great interest to the Brazilian culture – given experiences might help to elucidate the the wide proliferation of Spiritistic groups in boundaries between art and other cultural that country – but is not always cultivated in practices, including religious or so-called other contexts, at least with the same frequency “paranormal” activities. It is worth recalling, in (Hess, 1991). For instance, the dissemination of this regard, that the available evidence for Kardecist Spiritism in Brazil is more significant which categories of phenomena should be than in its own country of origin, France, the termed “paranormal” is still cause for heated home of Allan Kardec (1804-1869), whose debate; a broader and more detailed discussion writings triggered the development of this about this can be found in Maraldi (2011). For movement (Lewgoy, 2008). Moreover, unlike now, we limit ourselves to designating them the philosophical and scientific doctrine simply as allegations of peculiar experiences originally promoted by Kardec, the Brazilian that seem to contradict some established version of Spiritism came to acquire a character scientific principles (whether physical, far more religious as a result of both its initial biological, or psychological), and that may assimilation by the lower social classes and the perhaps demand, in order to be accepted, a established syncretism between Popular review of the principles and theories that they Catholicism and spiritistic practices (Stoll, challenge or propose to expand. In general, 2002). Therefore, most of the available claims of alleged paranormal experiences literature on mediumistic painting in Brazil is involve assigning magical or transcendental religious in nature, produced by the Spiritists properties to objects or living things (Zusne & themselves, so as to disseminate experience Jones, 1989). Psychologists who are dedicated from Spiritist centers or centros (Fernandes, to the study of these beliefs and experiences 2002; Rufino, 1999), biographies of painters often include in this description terms such as and other mediumistic artists (Brown, 1971; 'telepathy,' 'precognition,' and 'mediumship,' Victor, 1970), or reproductions of works that among others. depict classic philosophical aspects of the During our discussion, some important relationship between art and Spiritistic questions will be raised, such as the following: practices (Bozzano, 1930/1976; Denis, How might the phenomenon of mediumistic 1922/1990; Zanola, 1996). Some academic painting help us understand the process of studies were also dedicated to the topic of artistic inspiration and, consequently, the automatic writing or psicografia (Caroli, 2001; psychological condition of artists during their 2008) and spirit photography (Andrade, 2008). activity? In fact, we know of cases in which Only one recent Brazilian study on mediumistic automatic productions similar to those of painting with an anthropological approach was Spiritist mediums were elaborated by artists, found (Oliveira, 2009). However, Lins (1999) although without the presumption of has published a comprehensive review on the mediumship – such as Joan Miró (1893-1983) subject coupled with a preliminary analysis of and other surrealists as Andre Masson (1896- the productions of the Brazilian medium 1987), who even equated his productions with Jacques Andrade, to whose work we will devote that of mediums. There are also cases in which our analysis in this article. We also found academic artists have also mentioned French studies (Barrière, 1988; Delacampagne, mediumistic experiences in relation to their 1979; Deonna, 1932; Thévoz, 1990) suggesting a artworks, such as Ernest Josephson (1851- relative interest by researchers from the 1906). How might public perception, including homeland of Kardecist Spiritism. Thévoz (1990) that of spiritualists and society in general, defines mediumistic painting alongside the determine the recognition of an aesthetic work pictorial productions of psychiatric patients, as as an art object or as a “demonstration” of the well as an example of Art Brut, understood as paranormal? These are just some of the many productions free of formal influence or issues that a study like this could raise, imposition of styles. although it is not our intention to cover them all The scientific study of mediumistic in this paper. The issues listed above are painting, or psicopictografia, may be important perhaps of a greater relevance to the arts than in several respects. Regarding the arts, for to a proper investigation of the existence of eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 548 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation paranormal phenomena or processes behind occurrence, Andrade and his group sang mediumistic painting – even though a several hymns and prayed. Once the paranormal explanation should not be ostensible spirits had been “called,” completely ruled out prior to the emergence of Andrade dipped both his hands into jars new data. That is why formal aspects of the of paint and, with two canvasses in front composition of the paintings will be considered of him, swiftly began painting landscapes, in our analysis, but only as they contribute to still lifes, and portraits, two at a time. the biopsychosocial reading we intend to carry Krippner’s visits were sponsored by the out. Institute of Noetic Sciences as educational While it has previously been mentioned tours for its members and included stops that the verification of possible paranormal at various other Brazilian centers of processes are not the main objective of this spiritual activity. work, it is important to explain some of the 2) During a parapsychological conference in reasons why we consider an analysis exclusively Recife (Brazil) in 1999, Krippner and his focused on this aspect not to be helpful in the associates obtained psychophysiological elucidation of the phenomenon of mediumistic data from Andrade and other painting. If the proposal is to advocate a participants, gathering polygraph data in biopsychosocial perspective on these a Recife hotel room (this location was experiences, rather than an exclusively considered adequate for physiological 'parapsychological' or 'spiritual' one, then it measurement in terms of privacy, might be important to clarify the steps that led temperature control, standard room to this choice. That is, the phenomenological lightning, and comfortable seating). and psychosocial perspectives could be Participants also responded to complemented by an ontological perspective psychological scales on dissociation and (Zangari, 2003). It is not our intention; absorption. Obtained consent had been however, to go into metaphysical speculations secured through the Saybrook or to take a philosophical or religious position Institutional Review Board. For brevity’s regarding the reality of spirits, but simply to sake, it is important to mention that these verify, according to scientific arguments, findings have been partially published whether mediumistic painting manifestations elsewhere (Hageman et al., 2010; could involve the occurrence of events or Hageman, Wickramasekera & Krippner, processes that might be considered anomalous. 2011), so will not be discussed in detail At the same time, we do not expect to perform here. Another paper including a full an exhaustive analysis even in this respect, but description of the psychophysiological only to make a comprehensive evaluation of the data is also under review. topic, as it presents itself. This is merely an 3) While attending to the 5th Psi Meeting (an overview, seeking to highlight reflections and international parapsychological event suggestions, including precautions to be taken conducted in Brazil in 2009, in the city of in future research. We will take as an example Pernambuco), Maraldi obtained photos of the work of a Brazilian painter medium from the mediumistic performances as well as the city of Pernambuco, José Jacques Andrade. of the paintings made during Andrade’s presentation. He also collected basic Materials and Methods demographical and biographical Born in 1945, Andrade has been active in the information about the medium in a brief Brazilian Kardecist movement for many years; interview and, later, through e-mail. indeed, he has dedicated most of his religious 4) In the beginning of 2013, Maraldi invited life to painting in his center (The Leonardo da Andrade to participate in an internet Vinci Salon of Mediumistic Art). The material survey that was part of a study discussed here was collected on several investigating dissociative experiences and different occasions: related variables among Brazilian 1) During visits to his center in the 1990s, respondents. On this occasion, it was Krippner observed a ceremony that possible to collect additional data culminated with Andrade “incorporating” regarding childhood traumatic many famous artists (e.g., Monet, Da experiences and transliminality. The same Vinci, Cézanne). In preparation for this instrument used to measure dissociation eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 549 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation was again applied to verify if there was cognitive behavioral therapy and any significant difference from the score pharmacological treatments of post-traumatic achieved in 1999. Informed consent was stress disorder (Lages et al., 2011; Lima et al., obtained from Andrade as part of the 2007). However, in this study, we did not use online questionnaire. The study was the threshold score for diagnostic purposes, but approved by the Institute of Psychology of only as an auxiliary procedure to differentiate the University of São Paulo Research high or low dissociative tendencies – in Ethics Committee. accordance with the recommendation by In this paper, we intend to focus on the Carlson and Putnam (1993). Still, we thought findings of the third and fourth occasions, that it would be useful to evaluate the presence although the other findings were equally of pathological dissociative symptoms, even important in the construction of our without prescribing any diagnose. A subset of 8 biopsychosocial model. items (3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13, 22, and 27) forms the Dissociative Experiences Taxon (DES-T), which is considered to be sensitive to pathological Measures dissociation (Waller, Carlson, & Putnam, 1996). A Brazilian version of the Dissociative A procedure to derive Bayesian taxon Experiences Scale (DES) was used in this study. membership probabilities from the DES-T The translation and adaptation was done by items was proposed by Waller, Carlson, and Fiszman, Cabizuca, Lanfredi and Figueira Putnam (1996) – see also Waller & Ross (1997). (2004). The instrument, which consists of 28 DES-T scores were associated with more items, serves as a screening tool for clinical and antecedents of psychological distress, poorer nonclinical populations to assess the intensity control of mediumship behavior, and poorer and frequency of dissociation, but is not social support in a sample of Brazilian Spiritist recommended for diagnostic purposes (Carlson mediums (Negro, Palladino-Negro & Louzã, & Putnam, 1993). In the original instrument, 2002). the answers are given on a percentage scale ranging from 0 to 100. In the Brazilian version, The Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS) is however, the authors opted to replace the intended to measure an individual's capacity for percentage system because of the difficulty experiences that involve both the narrowing respondents had with that response model. and broadening of attentional focus (Tellegen & Thus, it used the same response model as in the Atkinson, 1974). These attentional states are adolescent version of the DES (Smith & characterized by a significant restructuring of Carlson, 1996), which is more subjective and one's phenomenal self and worldview. Roche the responses on which vary only from 0 to 10. and McConkey (1990) term absorption as the No significant changes were observed, however, capacity to experience alterations of cognition in the overall scores, and the operational and emotion over a broad range of situational equivalence of the instrument was preserved experiences. Fantasy-prone individuals seem to (Fiszman, Cabizuca, Lanfredi, & Figueira, report many absorption experiences (Wilson & 2004). A total score of 30 or above is suggestive Barber, 1983), and absorption correlates highly of a dissociative disorder or a strong tendency with fantasy proneness (Rhue & Lynn, 1989). to dissociate (Carlson & Putnam, 1993). There is Fantasy proneness is also known to be an evidence suggesting the cut-off score of 30 as important correlate of dissociation (Lynn, useful to identify cases of dissociative Pintar, & Rhue, 1997). The TAS consists of 34 pathology, post-traumatic stress disorder, and true or false response items; administration psychogenic non-epiletic seizure disorder in time is approximately 10 minutes. A Portuguese Brazillian samples (Faria, 2008; Fiszman, translation of the TAS was employed in this Cabizuca, Lanfredi, & Figueira, 2004; Negro, study. Palladino-Negro & Louzã, 2002; Proença, The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire 2004). The Brazilian DES also showed (CTQ) consists of 28 questions related to convergent validity with measures of childhood various traumatic experiences, comprising five trauma and psychological distress, especially subscales: physical abuse, emotional abuse, those items taping the more pathological sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional dissociative experiences (Domingues Goi, 2012; neglect. Besides these five components, the Negro, Palladino-Negro & Louzã, 2002). In questionnaire includes a minimization/denial turn, DES scores diminished in response to subscale. The CTQ is an instrument easily eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 550 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation applicable both to adolescents (from 12 years of who validated the revised transliminality scale age) and adults. Each item is ranked according (Rense Lange). to a five-point Likert scale, and the test is self- Since part of the psychological battery administered. The CTQ is also sensitive to the used in this study did not receive proper frequency, severity, and duration of abuse psychometric validation for the Brazilian (Bernstein & Fink, 1998; Bernstein et al., population (TAS and RTS), the results must be 2003). The results may indicate a history of considered as exploratory and/or suggestive of traumatic experiences ranked 1) none or possible trends to be confirmed in future minimal, 2) low to moderate, 3) moderate to investigations. severe, and 4) severe to extreme. Each one of these criteria involves different cut-off scores Psychophysiological data from Andrade (Bernstein & Fink, 1998). Studies have been were obtained with a portable computerized conducted to translate and validate the polygraph from Thought TechnologyTM. The instrument for the Brazilian population psychophysiological equipment that was used (Brodski, Zanon, & Rutz, 2010; Seganfredo et measures hand temperature, heart rate, al., 2009). bilateral skin conductance, muscle tension (electromyography or EMG), and electrical The Revised Transliminality Scale (RTS) brain activity (electroencephalography or EEG). measures transliminality, “a hypothesized It records responses from both the peripheral tendency for psychological material to cross nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous thresholds into or out of consciousness” (Lange, system (CNS). The electromyography (EMG) Thalbourne, Houran, & Storm, 2000, p. 594). measured electrical activity within the frontalis The concept of transliminality involves such and trapezius muscles. Optimal muscle tension experiences as hyperesthesia, fantasy was designated as 3.1 microvolts. Bilateral hand proneness, tendency to interpret dreams, temperature measured relaxation or tension. absorption with nature, mystical experiences, Optimal temperature was designated within a magical thinking, paranormal beliefs and range of 92°−96°Fahrenheit (F)3. Heart rate experiences, and manic ideation. The scale has measured cardiac activity. Optimal rate was demonstrated clinical relevance, presenting designated within a range of 59−91 BPM. positive and significant correlations with such Electrodermal activity (EDA) measured changes variables as dissociation (Thalbourne, 1998), in the bilateral skin's electrical conductivity. schizotypy (Dagnall et al., 2010), propensity to Optimal conductance was designated as 44 have hallucinations (Thalbourne, 1998), micro-siemens. The EEG was used for spectral creative personality (Thalbourne, 2000), and analysis. reports of childhood traumatic experiences (Thalbourne, Houran, & Crawley, 2003). The Andrade’s psychophysiology was original transliminality scale comprises 29 measured under two baseline resting conditions items, but Lange, Thalbourne, Houran and (eyes open; eyes closed). His psychophysiology Storm (2000) demonstrated that 12 of these was then measured while he was performing items are biased (or reflect, “cause bias”) for intense imaginative work (e.g., “incorporating” gender and/or age, that the remaining 17 are a celebrated artist from the “spirit world”)4, and unidimensional, and that a Rasch model would again during the return to the baseline fit those items. Although only the 17 items of conditions (eyes open; eyes closed). Each the revised version are scored, all 29 items are condition lasted for four minutes. Although nevertheless presented to respondents, for the there is no consensus or established rules for sake of context. The translation into Portuguese time duration of research sessions for followed a “forward-backward” process physiological measurement and some undertaken by the members of the Inter Psi researchers may elect to test for longer than 4 Laboratory of Anomalistic Psychology and minutes, physiological reactivity may be Psychosocial Processes, São Paulo, Brazil (Zangari et al., in press) and is now undergoing 3 Although hand temperature was originally measured in degree validation. All the process of translation and Fahrenheit (F), we have converted Fahrenheit to Celsius in the back-translation was conducted and assisted by presentation of the results, because F is not a SI unit. psychologists and professional translators. The 4 Because data can be distorted by bodily movement, Andrade was back-translated version of the instrument was instructed to imagine incorporating a spirit rather than to engage in direct incorporation. This method was guided by previous research that reviewed and approved by one of the authors has suggested that imagery rehearsal activates virtually the same brain centers involved in actual performance (Feltz & Landers, 1983). eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 551 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation measured accurately in 4-minute sessions Table 3). Many factors could be involved in the because the sympathetic or parasympathetic decrease in his DES score. In many studies, nervous system response can occur rapidly dissociation has shown a negative correlation (e.g., one second). with age (e.g., Putnam, Helmers, & Trickett, The recommended procedures for the 1993). Andrade was 53 years old in 1999, and placement of the electrodermal measurements was 67 years old at the time of the second test and for EEG measurement were administered administration – see Table 4. However, the (Fowles et al., 1981; Pivik et al., 1993). The correlation with age found in the mentioned recording system by Thought Technology was investigations is based on studies across used for data collecting, and related software decades, not within a few years. Explanations in was employed for data editing and analysis. The terms of response bias or measure error are EMG, EEG, hand temperatures, pulse rate, and possible (e.g., regression to the mean). There skin conductance signals were processed using are no reasons to suppose that there was any the corresponding modules. The raw EEG significant problem with the filling out of the records were inspected and any epochs scales in both occasions. Although Andrade did containing eye movement or other artifacts not complete his studies, he is literate and were removed. Each of the physiological knows how to adequately use the internet, measures was computed for the averaged score having responded many of our e-mails. The for 4-minute sessions. researchers were also constantly available to clarify any doubts he could have, and his Our inquiry consists in a single-case study understanding of the DES questions was embedded design. Thus, the data were not confirmed through interview. Andrade based upon an experimental design requiring a informed Maraldi in the beginning of 2013 that control group, randomness, large sample size, he continues to participate as a medium at the or many repeated measures over a series of Kardec temple, and there is no reason to multiple sessions. The embedded single-case suppose that his interest and dedication have study design is an empirical form of decreased in some way (he visits the Spiritist methodology that allows for: center three times a week, and continues to do (a) a small sample size and/or sample mediumistic paintings). At the 5th Psi Meeting selection based upon specific criteria (e.g., a in 2009, when we collected photos of his medium using a specific technique); presentation, his productions were no better or worse than those produced years before, and his (b) few testing sessions that collect data performance maintained quite the same under multiple conditions (e.g., eyes open and characteristics. In any case, both his former and eyes closed conditions for serial testing of current DES scores put him in the “highly psychophysiological measures, in addition to dissociative” category. psychological measures, behavioral observations and analysis of artistic material); Following the factor analysis conducted by Carlson et al. (1991), we investigated if there (c) lack of randomness (e.g., medium’s was any difference in the mean scores regarding personality traits or mediumistic skills were not different types of dissociative experiences. As known to the researchers prior to testing); and, expected, we found that (d) multiple sources of data that may be depersonalization/derealization experiences used in triangulation to describe features, obtained the highest mean (see Table 1). context, and the process of a phenomenon (e.g., Amnesia and absorption, on the other hand, medium’s psychological data and artistic earned similar means. Depersonalization and productions; other data sets; other related derealization involve experiences of detachment research). All together, these facets contribute from oneself and others (e.g., out-of-body to the validity of the research analyses. experiences), including alterations in the perception of the surrounding environment. Results Examples of such items in the Brazilian DES Psychological measures include: “Some people have the experience of In the first data collection (1999), Andrade feeling that their body does not seem to belong obtained a score of 72 on the Dissociative to them. Circle a number to say how often it Experiences Scale. On the second occasion happens to you” (Andrade scored 10 on this (2013), however, Andrade’s score was 62.14 (see item), and “Some people have the experience of eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 552 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation looking in a mirror and not recognizing evidenced by an item on the transliminality themselves. Circle a number etc.” (Andrade scale that Andrade scored ‘true’: “My thoughts scored 9 on this question). These results are have sometimes come so quickly that I couldn’t consistent with reports of mediumistic write them all down fast enough”). Another experiences, to the extent that Andrade interesting item of the DES that received a score allegedly “incorporates” the spirits and feels of 10 by Andrade is indicative of his inspired and guided by them (i.e., alterations in mediumistic painting activity: “Some people the sense of self and agency). Andrade is usually sometimes find writings, drawings, or notes not able to fully control his movements or ideas among their belongings that they must have while he is writing or painting (as also done but cannot remember doing.”

TABLE 1. Andrade’s DES Scores (Second Occasion, 2013). DES-Total Absorption Depersonalization Amnesia DES-T DES-T % 62.14 5.33 7.00 5.87 5.75 0.99 DES = Dissociative Experiences Scale, DES-T = Dissociative Experiences Scale Taxon, DES-T % = Dissociative Experiences Scale Taxon Membership Probability

Andrade's membership probability for the but also in other areas (Azevedo & Guerra, DES-taxon was 0.99, well above the usual 2001). It is possible that Andrade was exposed threshold scores (cut-offs) of 0.50 or 0.90 to some of these circumstances, like many (Waller & Ross, 1997; Giesbrecht, Merckelbach, others who live in poverty in Brazil, and this & Geraerts, 2007). could explain his responses to the CTQ, without In the same vein, we found that Andrade a need to resort to explanations in terms of bias had elevated scores on all CTQ subscales, which or false memories. While it is difficult to say means that he was probably exposed, in his whether his childhood experiences had an childhood, to many different experiences of impact on his pronounced dissociative trauma (see Table 2), some of them in a severe tendencies, we can hypothesize, based on or extreme form. If his responses were accurate Grosso’s speculations (1997), that the religious and not just the product of fantasy or and artistic activities at the Spiritist center confabulation, we could say that this is a case of (employing the use of creative dissociation) “pan-trauma” (Bernstein & Fink, 1998). The could have helped Andrade deal with his only subscale that did not reach a moderate to suffering and, in that way, to “escape, severe classification was physical neglect. More transform, and possibly transcend the important, the score on the limitations of ordinary reality” (p. 195). minimization/denial scale did not indicate underreporting of traumatic experiences; which TABLE 2. Andrade’s CTQ Scores. is consistent with the idea that he did not try to Subscales Subtotals Cut Classification minimize or distort his responses in a socially Scores Emotional Abuse 13 13-15 Moderate to desirable way. Despite the fact that Andrade Severe have filled out the questionnaire with easiness, Physical Abuse 15 ≥ 13 Severe to he seemed not to be very much willing to talk Extreme Sexual Abuse 8 8-12 Moderate to about his childhood experiences, and Severe considering that we were not conducting any Emotional Neglect 18 ≥18 Severe to psychotherapeutic treatment with him, we Extreme Physical Neglect 9 8-9 Low to decided not to move on with further Moderate questioning. It is important to mention, Minimization/Denial 0 ≥ 1 Valid Profile however, that violent and authoritarian CTQ = Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. practices of education in Brazil have a long and insidious history; only recently have they been TABLE 3. Scores in Different Measures on First and Second properly countered. Still today, it is not Occasions. DES TAS RTS uncommon to find cases of physical abuse that are relatively sanctioned by local values, based First Occasion (1999) 72 21 - on paternal and male authority over women and Second Occasion (2013) 62.14 - 32.5 children (including the use of force and physical DES = Dissociative Experiences Scale, TAS = Tellegen Absorption Scale, violence), especially in poor rural communities, RTS = Revised Transliminality Scale eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 553 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation In the first data collection (1999), proneness (“If I could not pretend or make- Andrade obtained a score of 21 on the Tellegen believe anymore, I wouldn’t be me – I wouldn’t Absorption Scale (TAS), which placed him in be the same person”), absorption in nature and the “medium absorption category.” He claimed, in art (“It is sometimes possible for me to be among other things, that he was moved by completely immersed in nature or in art and to songs that he enjoyed, was caught up in the feel as if my whole state of consciousness has action while watching a movie, and liked to somehow been temporarily altered,” “When watch clouds take various shapes in the sky. listening to organ music or other powerful While Andrade’s score on the absorption scale music I sometimes feel as if I am being lifted up was not as high as Pai Ely’s (another research into the air”), and manic and eccentric participant – see Hageman et al., 2010), he tendencies (“I have felt that I had received does not have to deal as extensively or special wisdom, to be communicated to the rest intimately with clients, and his duties at the of humanity,” “Sometimes people think I am a Kardec temple are not as demanding as those of bit weird because my ideas are so novel”). Pai Ely, who directs activities at an Afro- Interestingly, Andrade did not respond to the Brazilian temple in Recife. Still, when Andrade item “I am convinced that I am psychic.” In the “incorporates” his artistic predecessors from the Portuguese translation, we used the word “spirit world,” he often becomes so absorbed in “paranormal” instead of “psychic,” because the the task that he claims not to recall the details latter is unusual in Brazil. Yet Andrade was when the supposed discarnate entities leave the perhaps confused by this question and did not scene (although he said to Maraldi that he recognize the meaning of the word paranormal. remains in a conscious/waking state during the Another possibility is that he simply chose not mediumistic activity). to state that he is paranormal, considering that Andrade obtained a score of 32.5 in the this sentence could be interpreted in ways that Revised Transliminality Scale. According to would not involve mediumship but only psi Thalbourne, Houran, & Crawley (2003), the phenomena, for instance. Rasch mean is set to 25, with a standard Andrade’s social profile (Table 4) reveals deviation of 5 and a range of 13.7 to 37.3. a 67-year-old man, single, of low social income, Samples of undergraduate students from retired, who attended only elementary school. England and Australia showed the following Andrade lives alone (his mother died shortly RTS means: 20.96 (SD = 4.88), 22.36 (SD = before the latest round of work with him 4.74), and 24.2 (SD = 4.1) (Thalbourne & commenced). As we will see in the discussion of Maltby, 2008; Thalbourne, Houran, & Crawley, the results, these characteristics were of great 2003; Thalbourne, Crawley, & Houran, 2003, importance to our analysis. Besides his poor respectively). Andrade's score is significantly social conditions, Andrade was a victim of above the expected mean and standard significant social discrimination due to his deviations for the Rasch measure, a finding that auditory impairment. It seems that these may indicate a high transliminal mind, i.e., a experiences have contributed to feelings of low mind that frequently experiences psychical, self-esteem that apparently played an important mystical, and creative eruptions into role in the development of his mediumistic consciousness of preconscious and unconscious manifestations and interest in art (see Figure material (Thalbourne, 2000). This is consistent 8). with the view that “a medium is anybody with a facility for communicating with unconscious TABLE 4. Andrade’s Social Profile sources during dissociation” (Grosso, 1997, p. Age Marital Socioeconomic Educational Current Status Status Level Profession or 186). Although we computed only the 17 items Occupation on the revised version (following instructions from Lange, Thalbourne, Houran, and Storm, 67 Single Low Social Elementary Retired Class School 2000), we also conducted an individual analysis of each of the 29 items. Some interesting items scored as “true” by Andrade included: sense of Psychophysiological measures presence (“I have sometimes sensed an evil In general, the psychophysiological data presence around me, although I could not see obtained from Andrade on the first occasion it,” “At times I somehow feel the presence of (see also Hageman et al., 2010, and Hageman, someone who is not physically there”), fantasy Wickramasekera & Krippner, 2011) revealed several incongruent findings: 1) there was a eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 554 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation general reduction in skin conductance level but his EMG increased over 2 microvolts during across conditions. Since skin conduction is a the eyes closed recovery. Again, this result was measure of sympathetic activation or paradoxical. Andrade’s heart rate increased withdrawal, it is unusual to find it associated modestly in the baseline eyes closed condition, with constriction of the blood vessels and and in particular during the imagining of increased muscle tension during the incorporation. His heart rate dropped during imagination task, typically considered a both recovery sessions with little difference relaxing condition – instead, both sets of data between the eyes open and eyes closed suggest increased sympathetic activation in conditions. In general, his heart rate (59−63 these response systems. 2) The increase in bpm) in all conditions was low for a person of muscle tension during the eyes-closed his age though he increased his heart rate imagination condition and the associated modestly in the closed conditions. Although the increase in the percentage of alpha brain wave means for skin conductance are not included in activity during imagination are also paradoxical detail, paradoxically, Andrade’s mean SCL – these two measures (muscle tension and dropped across the entire session independent alpha brain waves) are typically negatively of other conditions and instructions. Generally, associated, not positively associated. The there was a greater sympathetic activation in his former indicates tension, and the latter left hand than in his right hand. indicates relaxation. Andrade’s EEG showed an increase in the Andrade had approximately a 5 degree percentage of theta brain waves from the eyes Fahrenheit (-15.000º C) discrepancy between open to the eyes closed baseline conditions, but his left hand and right hand temperature during a drop in alpha percentage. Paradoxically, the the baseline eyes open condition. When increase in the percentage of alpha was also Andrade was asked to close his eyes and relax, associated with a sustained increase in beta there was at least a 1 degree drop in percentage, even during recovery conditions. As temperature in both hands, but the discrepancy one would expect, during the imagination between each hand was less (about 4 degrees or exercise, there was an increase in the -15.556ºC). During the imagined fantasy of percentage of alpha comparable to the eyes incorporating an artist session, his left hand open condition, but, paradoxically, the increase dropped an additional degree, but his right in the percentage of alpha was also associated hand temperature barely changed. When he with a sustained increase in beta percentage, relaxed after imagining an incorporation, his even during recovery conditions. bilateral hand temperatures continued to drop In short, Andrade demonstrated an additional degree in both the recovery increased muscle tension and increased hand conditions. 4-degree discrepancy (-15.556ºC) temperature in the recovery eyes closed session. existed between both hand temperatures in Andrade increased his heart rate from the comparison to the imagining session. Thus, baseline eyes open condition to the baseline Andrade tested with right hand temperature closed condition, and also from the imagination higher than left hand in all conditions, 5 condition to the recovery eyes open condition. indicating an IR specifity for the right hand . In addition, Andrade increased his heart rate Andrade’s EMG baseline readings were from the recovery eyes open condition to the about 5 microvolts higher than the optimal (3.1 recovery closed eye condition. In general, his microvolts). When instructed to close his eyes heart rate (59−63 BPM) under all conditions and relax, his EMG increased almost a was low for a person of his age although he microvolt, which was contrary to expectations. increased his heart rate modestly in the eyes When instructed to imagine incorporating an closed conditions (for a graphical artist, his EMG increased an additional 4 representation of some of the results, see microvolts. During the eyes open recovery Figures 1-5 in the paper by Hageman, session, his EMG dropped over 6 microvolts, Wickramasekera & Krippner, 2011). We concluded that there were specific 5 At the time of the study, Andrade alleged no vascular disease that incongruences or “disconnects” in the could possibly explain some of the obtained results. In a test of peripheral (or outer) and central (or inner) cutaneous thermography with another Brazilian painter medium, physiological response systems. These include Tinoco & Guimarães (2006) verified blood vessel constriction in the medium’s right arm, but it was rapidly reversible after the mediumistic deviations during Andrade’s imagination activity. condition that were discrepant from what is eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 555 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation typically seen during an eyes-closed Limitations of psychological and physiological imagination condition. This supports the idea analysis that physiological incongruences and Methodological limitations of the psychological differences are frequent outcomes of testing and physiological analysis include: sessions with people claiming “mediumistic” 1) Problems with the use of DES in non- abilities. Not only are there incongruences English speaking populations have been between the mediums’ verbal reports and addressed in the literature (Icaran, behavioral observations, but also between their Colom & Orengo-Garcia, 1996). On the psychophysiological response systems as well. other hand, DES was adequately People with incongruences between CNS and translated and adapted for Brazilian ANS responses can be described as periodically culture, and the available research inhabiting two worlds, one in which they are suggests that this instrument showed critical, rational, and practical, and another in some predictive and convergent validity. which their fantasy and emotional reactivity Although the DES presented an inverse expand and deepen. As such, they often are “at correlation with intelligence (Fruech et risk” for somatization, i.e., psychosomatic al., 1996) and with cognitive deficits and illnesses (Wickramasekera, 1993). In fact, when aging (Walker et al., 1996), there are no Andrade responded to the online questionnaire reasons to suppose that there was any on the second occasion, he reported some significant problem with the filling out of apparent conversion symptoms (such as a DES the scale in both occasions. Although item taping analgesia, and also items on a scale Andrade did not complete his on pseudo-neurological symptoms). educational studies, he is literate and Nevertheless, since no neurological or medical knows how to adequately use the analysis was actually performed with Andrade, internet, having responded many of our we cannot be sure if the reported symptoms are e-mails. The researchers were also indicative of a somatoform or psychosomatic constantly available to clarify any doubts condition. Also, it would be useful to administer he could have, and his understanding of somatization and depression measures to the DES questions was confirmed samples of Brazilian mediums to test these through interview. hypotheses and replicate our findings. There remain many aspects of the mind/body 2) The self-report nature of CTQ makes it relationships that we did not study that we hope more vulnerable to bias, and we cannot will be explored in future investigations. ascertain for sure if Andrade’s scores are accurate or just the product of response Incongruences between CNS and ANS bias or confabulation. However, the score response systems are not unusual among on the minimization/denial scale did not spiritual practitioners, according to the “high indicate underreporting of traumatic risk model” (Krippner, Wickramasekera, Tartz, experiences; which is consistent with the 2000; Wickramasekera, 1993; Wickramasekera idea that he did not try to minimize or I, Krippner, Wickramasekera II, 1997). It is distort his responses in a socially taken for granted that some practitioners, desirable way. There are also culturally- especially self-styled “mediums” and based evidences sustaining the “channelers,” will demonstrate incongruences reasonableness of the obtained scores between their behavioral observations and their (Azevedo & Guerra, 2001). CTQ is a brief verbal reports. For example, they might appear and relatively noninvasive instrument calm and composed, but speak of calamitous and therefore suitable for administration events from their clients’ “past lives” or (Bernstein & Fink, 1998), and was terrifying episodes from the lives of their adapted and validated for Brazilian clients’ deceased relatives. These incongruences respondents. between verbal reports / behavioral observations and physiological responses are 3) We have to be cautious about essential to the discussion concerning psychological research across cultures, dissociative processes, and deserve further since culture-bound beliefs and practices investigation. (e.g., idioms of expression) my influence how individuals from differing cultures score on dissociation and absorption measures (Cardeña and Krippner, 2010). eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 556 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation For example, a tendency toward we came to a few conclusions about the hyperbole may be more common among mediumistic painting activity performed by Latin Americans than among Europeans, Andrade: Canadians, and individuals from the United States, which is congruent with 1) The technique used to elaborate the Krippner and Weinhold’s (2001) finding paintings is, except in a few cases, the same for that Brazilian dream reports contain high all 'spiritual' painters levels of emotional content and Krippner Andrade uses his hands to make the artistic and Faith’s (2001) finding that twice as productions. In general, he starts by spreading many “exotic” dream reports appear in small amounts of paint on canvas or paper, at Brazilian dream reports as compared specific points, and then moves his hands, with with dreams from participants in the greater or lesser intensity and speed, mixing United States. Dissociation must also be paints and outlining the contours that result in understood through a cultural lens the final image. The medium denotes an because certain life experiences may be impressive ability with this technique, putting it adaptive to life event that are culturally into action at with extraordinary speed and related (Calof, 2002; Krippner, 1997). dexterity. He employs the back of the hand, his This highlights some caution in using a fingers, and his wrist to execute the details. strict interpretation of high absorption During the sessions we observed, Andrade did and high dissociation as risk factors for not employ any other techniques. Lima (1998) somatization (e.g, psychosomatic mentioned Andrade’s preference for using his illnesses) for multicultural research. right hand, although he frequently used both Now that we have outlined the main hands6. features of Andrade’s psychological profile, let While these performances are apparently us pass to a qualitative analysis of his improvised, during sessions open to the public, mediumistic paintings. without the possibility of correction or improvement (which, however, does not Analysis of painting technique and style completely invalidate a previous workout), they In the previous discussion, we could see that provide little evidence on the painters to whom Andrade frequently reports dissociative, they are attributed. We know that Dali, Miró, paranormal, and creative experiences that may and Picasso drew on many different techniques, have an important function in his mediumistic including sculptures, ceramics, mural painting, painting activity. Suggestive neurophysiological photography, etc. They had preferences, of evidence of dissociated processes was also course, but their art techniques were versatile. obtained in his case. However, it is to However, Andrade uses only his hands, demonstrate how creative Andrade is, and regardless of the supposed disembodied artist’s whether his paintings could indicate a identity. Moreover, Andrade claims not to have paranormal explanation, as he himself believes. taken any sort of painting course prior to the Throughout our discussion, we will try to manifestation of his mediumistic experiences7. establish some associations between Andrade’s Such characteristics of mediumistic work and the performances of other renowned painting technique tend to render difficult a painter mediums, in the hope that the analysis verification of the authenticity of the alleged of his manifestations may also illuminate the spiritual authors, since the procedures used do reading of similar cases. We have tried to not provide any indication of specificity or analyze, among other things: a) the general aspects of the painting technique employed by Andrade, b) the main features and style of his pictorial productions, and c) the behaviors 6 Postscript (01/08/2013): recently, we have been informed that displayed by the medium during the activity. Andrade are currently employing the paint-brush instead of his hands, The analysis of painting technique and style apparently because of skin irritation. served here as a qualitative measure of 7 Postscript (01/08/2013): A Brazilian spiritistic blog has recently creativity, and also as a qualitative and published an interview with Andrade in which it was mentioned that in his childhood he took a few classes in a School of Fine Arts. Those impressionistic form of analysis concerning classes were said to be a preparation for his future work as a medium. possible paranormal processes underlying On the other hand, it has to be said that his aspiration for drawing Andrade’s mediumship. Following this script, dates back to early childhood (and was first noticed by his mother), many times before he initiated those classes. eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 557 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation particularity that would help in an identification life, etc.), and are not always consistent with process8. the themes usually explored by the artists to whom they are attributed. These paintings also manifest an evident lack of depth and symbolic richness that was a hallmark of the works of many artists who allegedly signed such mediumistic productions. Dalí, as we know, was a surrealist. But we see him painting through Jacques Andrade a simple picture without any significant indication of surrealism. Also well-known in the art world are the surreal paintings of Miró. In Andrade's hands, however, we see him producing a religious painting, with Jesus at the center, devoid of all surreal forms that characterized his previous works. The paintings made by Andrade lack the depth and symbolic richness that were hallmarks of the famous painters to whom they are attributed. In fact, the reproductions are not even close to the actual painters’ style. The content of the productions, in most cases, has a merely decorative value, and does not transmit any message, convey significant knowledge or social criticism, or have any function other than to entertain the viewer. These productions are actually as empty in content as suggested by the short time in which they are produced. Regarding the artists who supposedly signed them, these images reveal their most superficial side. In this sense, the apparently impressive finding that nearly 300 different artists were represented in a collection of mediumistic paintings by Andrade (Lima, 1998) is actually not so striking, if we consider that virtually all these productions do not display good evidence of authorship. One could argue that, since many modern artists have initially come from an academic background, they probably knew how to draw in styles other than their own; moreover, many of them were men of versatile genius. This argument, although reasonable, only reinforces Figure 1, 2 and 3. In this sequence of images, we see how the enormous difficulty in obtaining significant Andrade forms a landscape from small ink dots spread across the paper. evidence of paranormal processes from 2) Painting themes are always similar mediumistic paintings, since excessive stylistic (religious, floral, portraits, landscapes, still plurality tends to preclude the development of parameters by which it is possible to make an accurate identification. Others might argue that 8 Some mediums resort to using their feet, employing only one foot or these authors’ originality could not be both alternately – See Anton (2013) and Gasparetto (2013b). However, embedded so unilaterally in an artistic painting with one’s feet does not necessarily offer evidence on the authorship of spiritual paintings. Although it seems to constitute movement. However, even if this is a legitimate something beyond the normal, giving the impression that a paranormal argument, it has not been widely observed agent would be behind the performance of the medium, it is a throughout the history of art (Eco, 1995; procedure that only emphasizes one’s motor skill, not a relationship Hauser, 2003). In one way or another, critics with any deceased artist. Although difficult and noteworthy, painting with feet can be taught and does not constitute in itself an anomalous tend to develop some form of categorization or paranormal phenomenon. eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 558 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation that facilitates the location of these artists at a when Mondrian would have actually simplified, given time and space or conceptual scheme. abstracting to the fullest. The result is, perhaps, When used sparingly, this procedure may be a Cubist pastiche. useful to delineate more objective parameters It is known that the work of modern without entirely reducing the uniqueness of the artists such as Klimt, Picasso, Dalí, and Breton artwork. contained a strong critique of conventionalism, the society of their time, with an appeal to the erotic, to dreamlike visions, to an innovative perspective of reality. The artistic movements in which these artists participated were widely studied and discussed in a series of publications in manifestos, journals, books, and newspapers, fighting certain perceptions of reality and mainstream culture. These artists did not paint just for the sake of painting; their art mirrored their philosophies and their worldviews, and had a broader cultural role than just to entertain or “beautify” (in fact, some of their works were often criticized for their lack of academic rigor).

Figure 6. Detail of a mediumistic painting attributed to Piet Mondrian.

In some of the pictures of these authors an art critic could find the most varied artistic Figure 4 and 5. The picture on the upper is a portrait attributed to Salvador Dalí. The image on the below is assigned to Miró. influences (Eastern, Western, other), as well as the most varied social and symbolic meanings (as in Picasso’s “Guernica”). Their art urged The works of Piet Mondrian have an their audience to think as they did. However, abstractionist conceptual framework, developed the Gustav Klimt of Jacques Andrade does not by the author in his philosophical and artistic incorporate his elaborate and provocative quest for a geometrical synthesis of reality. But eroticism or his initially proposed historical and in a painting by Andrade, what we find is an realistic art. After death, Klimt seems to have overlay of colored geometric shapes resolved to devote himself to producing simple (resembling buildings) and a large yellow circle portraits and landscapes similar to those of all at the top of the figure, like a sun (Figure 6). other spiritual painters – see Figure 7, below. There was no synthesis, but an excess of colors and geometric shapes. The image does not capture the same sense of geometry as a true Mondrian. Andrade tries to form a landscape, eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 559 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation consciousness attests that, under certain mental conditions, some people may manifest latent capabilities that go far beyond their usual abilities and accessible knowledge (Braude, 2000; 2002; 2003). At such times, they tend to produce artifacts that they are considered unable to do ordinarily, with the emergence of talents previously unknown (or else an increase in capabilities already developed). The emergence of such potential would be an expression of latent or unconscious aspects not previously accessed due to many unforeseen biographical, social, and familial determinations. Therefore, it is possible that a medium might imitate the style and signature of deceased authors with fluency and ability, without conscious premeditation. In fact, this spontaneous form of imitation combined with Figure 7. Mediumistic painting attributed to Gustav Klimt. imaginative elaboration may be a central aspect of creative dissociation (Grosso, 1997). 3) Regardless of greater or lesser authenticity Although the precise mechanisms underlying of signatures, one cannot be sure whether their such unconscious capabilities are not well reproduction was previously practiced by the comprehended, the many cases reported in the medium, or if there were intervening factors of literature attest to its possibility (e.g., Pearl an unconscious nature. Curran, Hélène Smith, Leonora Piper). The analysis of the signatures from mediumistic There are certain ways of verifying the paintings would certainly require an expert, actual occurrence of a change in the mental which we are not. However, it is important to state of the medium, either by interviews, mention that, just like in any other investigation questionnaires and ethnographic data or by of alleged paranormal phenomena, an measurement of neurophysiological variables. important first step is to check for the As we saw in the case of Andrade, the available possibility of deception. Signature imitation is evidence actually pointed to the occurrence of a something that many individuals perform well dissociative state during mediumistic sessions. enough to impress even expert analysts: this On the other hand, the dissociated state does also happens with possibly fake works of art, not need to be completely unconscious, but may which tend to call into question their real allow some contact with the environment, authorship. Even when the suitability and although somewhat reduced. Many mediums honesty of the individuals involved are verified, claim not to become unconscious or unaware of one should ensure the necessary controls to things around them, but they can feel, for guarantee that there will be no deviations from example, that they do not fully control the the established order. We are not stating here movement of their hands, arms, or vocal cords, that this is necessarily the case with Andrade, as is the case of Andrade. since we do not have the necessary analytical tools for such an evaluation; in fact, we have no 4) The production time of each painting is evidence of deception concerning this particular extremely rapid, which tends to impress the medium. To the contrary, Andrade has been observer by the medium’s dexterity. However, cooperative and accommodating in all of our this speed is usually contrasted with the longer various encounters. However, it is an important periods that many artists took to complete methodological procedure to be stressed, one some of their most important artworks. which future investigations will have to Some of the great works of Western art consider initially, before the development of depended on a long time of studies, refinement, other hypotheses. and details until they were finished. Before In any case, we have to deal with other finalizing his picture of the cathedral of Rouen, issues no less worrisome. The psychological for example, Monet drew several previous literature on dissociation and altered states of studies at different times of the day, following eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 560 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation the inclination of the sun over the cathedral. In recurrent in the performances, but tell us total, his studies involved a series of 50 images, nothing about the alleged spiritual authors. made between 1893 and 1894. The many In the performance that took place during difficulties involving the termination of the the 5th Psi meeting, the medium at a given works of Leonardo da Vinci, who left many moment said that “there is Joan Miró, and Miró unfinished productions, are also well known. likes a lot of joy”, whereupon Andrade started In the spiritual world, however, the artists singing and dancing, and invited everyone to seem to have more haste than when they were sing. Such an isolated behavior provides little incarnate, since their performances do not last evidence about Miró. This, in turn, was virtually more than a few minutes. Lima (1998) reported the only specific behavior that differed from all that, before beginning to paint, Andrade the others displayed during the session. hesitated for about 20 or 30 seconds. According to her calculations, the average time spent by 6) There is a prevalence of authors of modern Andrade on a painting was 6 minutes and 28 art. seconds. Although impressive to the public, Would this be symptomatic of a trend? The these mediumistic performances seem to style of modern artworks tends to be seen associate painting with a kind of “spiritual sometimes as 'easier' to imitate than the showmanship.” What becomes important is not neoclassical and Renaissance artworks, which so much the quality of the productions bore an excessive rigor and complexity. individually, but how skillfully and quickly they Although they were great designers and are made. The content is left in the background, painters, many modern artists preferred, for with priority given to the ability of the medium. stylistic reasons and as a critique of Although aesthetically accessible, these academicism, a simplification that nevertheless paintings remain quite lean, which decreases followed a conceptual proposition. In general, their confirmatory evidence. Interestingly, in significantly fewer mediumistic works are these sessions, the medium is put directly in attributed to non-modern artists than to contact with the public, in such a way that we modern artists. There are, for example, some can compare them with some types of productions attributed to the pre-Renaissance performance paintings (Goldberg, 2006). painter Giotto, as well as to Bernardino Luini and Nicolas Poussin in the gallery website of 5) While doing the paintings, mediums do not Florencio Anton (Anton, 2009c), but the provide other evidence of something effectively majority are certainly attributed to modern paranormal in their behavior. Their actions artists such as Renoir, Manet and Van Gogh. Is are always the same, invariably ritualistic. this a strategy of persuasion on the part of the If, during their performances, mediums behave mediums? Since it is apparently simpler to in a way that expresses traits or behavioral imitate these artists, there should be a greater characteristics of the deceased painters, this likelihood of convincing the public of the might serve as suggestive evidence of something authenticity of the productions. paranormal (especially if these are behaviors Notwithstanding, the above argument is that only family members or people very close not entirely generalizable, if we think that to the artist could have had access to, rather Cézanne or Dalí, to name just two, are any less than attitudes widely known or expected by the complex or difficult to imitate than previous general public). Andrade – as well as other masters. Thus, another possible explanation is mediums, such as Anton and Gasparetto – that people imitate modern artists because they typically adopts a ritualistic posture while are better known nowadays. If we think that the painting. His movements, his gestures, always more art becomes contemporary, the more the suggest much more a creative urge than unique personality and life of the artist become aspects of the personality of the deceased important as well (Hauser, 2003), then the act painters. Andrade sometimes smiles during the of signing the paintings is not only an attempt session, as if possessed by a bewildering joy. At to legitimize the phenomenon, but also has to other times, he seems nervous, conveying the do with a broader social process of idealization impression that he cannot fully control all his of the artist and his work. In all of Andrade’s actions; sometimes, he may remain absorbed mediumistic paintings analyzed during the 5th with his eyes closed. All these behaviors are Psi Meeting, the supposed authors had some notoriety, even when they were not well known eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 561 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation to the general public. This gives weight to the Miró created when he was alive. But it could manifestations, but is also interesting for the also reflect the artist’s inability, from the exaltation that it makes of these painters. In the spiritual world, to recapture the craftsmanship two Spiritist centers of São Paulo visited by exhibited while alive. Maraldi during research for his master’s thesis All these counter-arguments, as well as (Maraldi, 2011), the local mediums did not sign others possibly considered by spiritualists their works, because their paintings and themselves, are based on the idea that scientists drawings clearly are inferior to those of already are not well informed about the rules that recognized mediums. The impression one gets govern life in the spiritual world and the from this finding is that the quality of supposed communicability between the living mediumistic performance is more or less and the dead. Such justifications end up proportional to the deceased painter’s grandeur resorting to metaphysical speculations not – a sort of “spiritual aristocracy.” These verifiable by scientific means. They are ad hoc findings seem only to strengthen a psychosocial explanations, without the same validity as interpretation of the cases. testable scientific hypotheses. They may seem logical to the spiritualists, but to the extent that 7) The spiritualist explanations given to such they relate to an invisible world – thus subject contradictions tend to resort to metaphysical to different interpretations – and that they can speculations that are not always scientifically be explained more parsimoniously according to verifiable. theories and psychological phenomena already Surely, spiritualists have many different known, there seems no need for the scientist to explanations for some of the contradictions resort to these speculations. Moreover, there involving a paranormal or spiritualist may be some tendency to extend indefinitely hypothesis. The first one would be, perhaps, the possibility of formulating that type of that there are certain limitations to be justification – always somewhat malleable and considered in the manifestation of spirits adaptable to the facts – and thus we would through mediums. Bozzano (1938/1982), for never arrive at a satisfactory and objective example, referred to the phenomenon of conclusion about the case presented. “animism,” i.e. an overlay, so to speak, between We believe that, with the seven arguments the medium’s unconscious motivations and the cited and scrutinized above, we ended up communicating spirit, through which elements minimally supporting reasons for choosing and of both personalities become mixed in the developing another approach to explaining resulting manifestation. This would explain, for these phenomena besides the one based on the instance, the fact that mediumistic paintings, occurrence of paranormal processes. There are even while resembling the style of great artists, many other interesting cases of mediumistic cannot fully reproduce their original quality. paintings that deserve a careful analysis, using According to the spiritualists, this is because the the methodology that we proposed earlier: the disembodied artists have to adapt themselves to cases of Augustin Lesage (Victor, 1998), Hélène the “instrument” (the medium), and, therefore, Smith (Flournoy, 1900; Maraldi, Alvarado, there is no pure mediumistic manifestation, but Zangari & Machado, 2013), and Thompson- one that always involves mirroring, fusion, and Gifford (Braude, 2003; Hyslop, 1909), among adaptation to local conditions. The better the others. This exploration, however, is not medium (e.g., dedicated, disciplined, devoted to possible in this work. Nevertheless, the analysis moral and spiritual causes), the better the of these other cases could contribute much to mediumistic capacities; but they are still limited the discussion here established; even perhaps at a certain level. considerably extending our results (see Maraldi, The fact that some mediumistic paintings 2012, for an analysis of some of these cases). It present elements that are not congruent with is important to say, however, that it was not our the artists’ original style could be explained by intention, with the previous arguments, to saying that these artists have changed their way reject entirely the possibility that paranormal of being or seeing things during their time spent processes are effectively underlying some of in the spiritual world. This would explain, for these experiences. For now, we believe that example, the episode in which Andrade there is still no sufficient evidence in this assigned a religious painting to Miró, although regard, particularly in the case of Jacques it did not evoke the same surrealist forms that Andrade, to reach this conclusion. eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 562 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation A possible counter-argument to this pathways to be followed in the study of creative perspective would be that, given the enormous dissociation. Our model can be summarized variability of aesthetic opinions, we cannot according to six general premises or arguments: actually achieve any reliable judgment on artistic productions. But that would be 1) Dissociative experiences (including admitting a total relativism, which is mediumship) tend to conform to the historical inconsistent with the fact that the qualitative and social environments in which they are interpretation and analysis of an artwork may manifested. sometimes find consensual agreement on the Evidence collected over time about paranormal part of other critics, as long as they follow the experiences, dissociation, and altered states of same assumptions of reasoning, regardless of consciousness demonstrate that such their subjective position (Eco, 1995). Besides, occurrences are decisively influenced by some of the criteria on which we relied to contextual factors (Cardeña, Lynn, & Krippner, construct our analysis of the case are quite 2000; Locke & Kelly, 1985; Moreira-Almeida & objective – the stylistic movement to which the Lotufo Neto, 2003). A hallucinatory experience, deceased artist belonged, the technical and for example, would be interpreted differently in formal characteristics of his paintings, his the Middle Ages, as compared with the signature, the themes or subjects of his interpretation that it currently elicits in our productions, the conceptual proposal of the culture (Bentall, 2000). In Brazil, mediumship author regarding his works, etc. We are is predominantly understood from Spiritist and convinced that it is not possible to reach a Umbanda perspectives, two similar definitive conclusion – as in many other areas mediumistic religions, but in countries like the of science – but, considering the greater or United States, many mediums – including lesser weight of the data, the mediumistic alleged psychics and channelers – do not follow paintings could, perhaps, be admitted as a systematic group practice or philosophical- suggestive evidence of paranormal processes. religious doctrine (Hughes, 1991). In each of To the extent that Andrade attended only these contexts, mediumship is understood and elementary school and lived most of his life practiced according to certain culturally under poor socioeconomic conditions, established values and norms. Even the way the victimized by trauma and discrimination, his “spirit world” will be seen will change from one painting abilities and his precocious interest in context to another, from one religion to art are indeed of a creative nature, in the sense another. This is no different in the case of of a creative coping strategy in opposition to mediumistic painting. suffering and low self-esteem. The dissociative Mediumistic practices have their history and semi-automatic character of his work in Brazil. In its early days, this history was indicates that these talents and potential were marked by marginalization and exclusion as a not entirely integrated into his ordinary stream result of persecution conducted by medical of consciousness and self-concept, thus authorities, police, and Catholic clergy in the requiring a specific set of circumstances to late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. evolve and develop, including a culturally Especially during the autocratic government of validated form of expression (i.e., mediumship). President Getúlio Vargas, many Spiritist centers had their doors closed (Giumbelli, 1997; 2003). Discussion and Outlook Perhaps it is strange to think that mediumship We would like to discuss some of the was once a marginal and “outlawed” practice in implications of the results previously presented Brazil, but this is its history, and if today a in order to outline the contours of a painter medium can reach international success biopsychosocial approach to the study of and see his work recognized as a proof of creative dissociation. As said before, our immortality or as a subject of scientific inquiry, considerations are not intended to be such a reality is the result of a historical and exhaustive. We intend to develop some basic social achievement by the spiritists, an principles and working hypotheses to be achievement only made possible by social improved and verified in future investigations. negotiations among mediums, medical We hope the reader will bear with us as we authorities, and other religious authorities. propose a tentative (and, at this point, relatively unsupported) delineation of some of the eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 563 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation 2) Mediumship and creative dissociation are As much as he can, he seeks to encapsulate in disciplined by a given culture or social group, himself the elements for such a demonstration, which provides the basic elements and the which legitimizes his beliefs and his identity as outline of its manifestations. a medium, while legitimizing the beliefs of the In Spiritist centers, mediums learn to control attending Spiritist group, in a dialectical their experiences and to interpret them process. The objective of the mediumistic according to a defined framework of beliefs and activity is not to elicit just an intellectual or values. There, they can discuss their perceptual reaction from the public, but more of experiences with other mediums, and take an emotional one. It is probably for this reason courses that help them understand more about that such presentations are conducted in the their experiences and how to make the best use manner of performances or spectacles. The of their “potential.” The practice of goal, therefore, is to cause an emotional impact, mediumship, therefore, does not arise from impress the public by one’s dexterity and speed, nowhere, alone. It makes sense only within a thus giving the sense of something transcendent social group or a given culture. Without the or spiritual. group intervention, the experience becomes idiosyncratic and does not achieve wider 3) There is a dialectical relationship between significance. The group interprets the spiritual personal meanings and certain collective issues experience in a particular sense, offers names and dilemmas. Therefore, creative dissociation (psicopictografia), stipulates the types of should be understood both as individual and behavior expected of a good medium, teaches social coping. different means of stimulating, conditioning, In cases of mediumship studied recently in and controlling the experience, etc. But most Brazil (Maraldi, Machado, & Zangari, 2010; important, the Spiritist group legitimizes the Maraldi, 2011; Zangari, 2003), it was found that experience for the individual. For the group, alleged paranormal experiences have profound mediumship is not mere enactment or mental influences on the life history of mediums, illness, but a real communication between the fulfilling important therapeutic and social living and the dead. The group interacts with functions. Just as when an individual chooses a the individual to turn these beliefs into profession (Bohoslavsky, 1977), people do not irrevocable assumptions of the mediumistic randomly choose to follow the path of experience. So, if mediums are “incorporating mediumship. This path has its roots in the spirits,” one should not talk to them biography, not only explicit but also implicit – presuming that they are in their ordinary state, conscious and unconscious. Brazilian mediums because for now they are other individuals, tend to say that they chose their path before spirits who are now using their bodies as a being “reincarnated”. Andrade argues, for communication and expressive tool. The example, that “I was invited to reincarnate to mediums, in turn, having learned to stimulate fulfill the mission on Earth, like all other and control their dissociative state, will start to humble spirits of God.” Whereas his meet the expectations of the group as they mediumship “developed” only in 1980 in a define the role they play in that context. In fact, Kardecist temple, Andrade believes that he shortly before his presentation, Andrade passed through out-of-body experiences as a approaches the artistic material and places it in child. But behind his doctrinal discourse and a certain order, preparing himself mentally narrative, what we really have access to are his through prayer, or giving instructions to two behaviors, his personality, and the way he young women who help him. These interprets his own history based on the characteristics highlight not the posture of an Spiritistic beliefs. outsider, but the attitude of someone already accustomed to the constant reproduction of that In a previous study of Andrade’s case, religious practice. Lins (1999) noted that, when the topic of the painting is a landscape, as in most of the When Jacques Andrade says “there is images, there is the presence of fences, which Joan Miró”, and asks everybody to sing and could symbolically represent Andrade’s hearing dance with him, the onlookers accede to his impairment, his restrictions and limitations to request, while Andrade continue to paint. The communicate and interact with others. By medium here fulfills the role of an intermediary making reference to this psychoanalytic between this world and the transcendent world. interpretation, we are not saying, categorically, eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 564 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation that Andrade chose to be a medium only as an sources will depend primarily on the automatic attempt to overcome certain feelings of and involuntary aspect of the phenomenon, as inferiority derived from a hearing disability. well as the content of such productions, that This reasoning would enormously reduce the would differ from one’s conscious ideas or understanding of the complex and interrelated behavioural repertoire (the criterion would causes underlying paranormal beliefs and therefore be incompatibility with self-concept). experiences. However, such emotionally As these psychological contents frequently charged events and circumstances of life may emerge in a dissociated manner (lack of control illuminate some of the motivations of these of the hand or little awareness of the content individuals to report dissociative and produced), the self tends to perceive them as paranormal experiences. What we are saying is incompatible with certain voluntary aims or that such experiences may acquire a specific with self-concept. The intelligent (or at least meaning to the individual, which plays an intentional) aspect of such productions seems important role in his self-concept and identity. to serve as another element that could help The repercussions of this are perhaps even sustain a spiritualist interpretation. Experiences larger, covering also the socio-cultural context. of low self-esteem in childhood could enhance Ramos (2004) suggested that, in Brazil, feelings of passive influence and avoidance of one of the most evident cultural complexes has personal responsibility for success, thereby been the feeling of inferiority, visible especially reinforcing paranormal or spiritual allegations in the relationship with other countries (an involving external (or invisible) agencies. allegation that we believe has diminished since Schematically, we would have the following: Ramos first described it). Among the features of Low self-esteem or impaired self-concept due to this complex, Ramos identified the various biographical and social circumstances overvaluation of all that is foreign to the → Repression or absence of sufficient detriment of national talents, such as self- stimulation and encouragement to develop deprecating jokes and the lack of appreciation individual capacities → Eruption of latent of what is native. In this sense, would potential in the form of automatisms and mediumistic painting and writing, in a certain dissociative phenomena (maybe enhanced by aspect, be expressions of a culture of innate dissociative tendencies) → inferiority? It is reasonable to think that, if Accommodation of anomalous (dissociative) Brazilians (especially those of Andrade’s era) do phenomena under paranormal belief systems not feel good enough to accomplish great things (Figure 8). or attain success, including artistic and literary In fact, there are other interesting cases in realizations, then many mediums would the history of parapsychology and psychical logically think: When I do such amazing things research that also seems to adhere to these (paintings, writings, etc.), it should not be me, hypotheses. When the French medium but a spirit that manifests through me (and Augustin Lesage (1876-1954) had his first preferably not Brazilian!). The talent or ability mediumistic experience, it took the form of a of which individuals are relatively unconscious voice he heard while working in a mine. The may end up being considered as a kind of voice presaged that, one day, he would become antigen, a foreign body that they are unable to a great painter (Victor, 1970). At that time, reconcile with their own self-concept, thus Lesage was a humble and dedicated miner, and personified as an inhabitant of the spiritual did not harbor the expectation to follow such a world. distinctive career. Indeed, the voice proved to In a previous study with 11 Brazilian be a very fearful and strange experience to him, spiritist mediums, using a multi-methods attaining significance only after his conversion qualitative approach (interviews, observational to Spiritism. Maybe the voice was an initial sign data, and psychodynamic analysis of of his tendency to dissociate. When he mediumistic writings and drawings), one of us participated in a spiritualist séance for the first (Maraldi, 2011; 2012) developed a preliminary time, he immediately became the principal model relating dissociation, paranormal belief medium, causing a series of raps and other systems and self-esteem that seemed to be also ideomotor phenomena. On a later occasion, he relevant in explaining the case of Andrade. made his first automatic drawing and thus According to this model, the attribution of started to receive regular messages from the authorship of these productions to external spirits (Victor, 1970). One can hypothesize that eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 565 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation the artistic talent of Lesage was so unconscious in answering the first e-mail sent by Maraldi, to him that the only way such potential could the medium responded, “I remember the reach partial awareness would be through an Congress of Parapsychology. Yes, it was nice to auditory hallucination (and, further, through know important people” [emphasis added]. motor automatisms). This was mainly due to his When asked if he had suffered any kind of socio-economic condition that made him discrimination due to his status as a medium or unable to envision new possibilities in life or to his hearing impairment, he replied: “There were assert himself beyond the hard work of a miner. many, many people who did this to me, As in other cases, his talent was somehow spiritualists or not. Many times they hurt me.” unable to emerge due to an inconsistent or In answering a question on the online restricted self-concept. The quasi “teleological” questionnaire, “Were you a victim of character of the ‘voice’ he heard at the mine discrimination or offensive jokes?” Andrade does not pose a theoretical problem for our choose the option “6 or +,” in a range of never model, considering that many mediumistic to 6 or +. Although short, these responses are at manifestations have the same characteristic least significant to the assumptions made (Flournoy, 1911; Maraldi, 2011), one which is previously regarding low self-esteem. The most also found in mental patients like important thing to understand is that, once schizophrenics and those who suffer from having entered the Spiritist center, Andrade’s dissociative identity disorder (Ross, 1989). biography became intertwined with the history Psychological contents have an almost natural and practices of the group. A religious group tendency to be personified, as occurs in dreams, has its ideology, built for the individual and mythology, automatisms, or other imaginative objectified by it. When the painter medium productions, and it is not likely to be very helps with the task of spirits to “demonstrate” different in the cases of Lesage and Andrade the survival of the soul through his own (even if we discard evidence of mediumistic capacities, he is legitimizing that psychopathology). These personifications could belief system for the group. He embodies the be further influenced and molded by belief doctrine, and, while defending it and disclosing systems containing paranormal elements, it, he is also defending and maintaining his own acquiring thereby a more stable and acceptable identity as a medium, the same identity that presentation in a given religious group. The permits him to take control of his dissociative teleological character of some mediumistic tendencies. It would be harmful to the group’s messages or manifestations has something in belief system not to interpret his experiences as common with Jung’s concept of individuation mediumship. The spiritual source of the (Jung, 1948/1977). Accordingly, if Lesage had experience is never flatly denied, but only its not listened to that voice, or if he had not quality or provenance (e.g., a higher or inferior accepted Spiritism, maybe he would not have spirit), thus preserving group identity and the developed his potential the way he did or would structure of its doctrinal beliefs. Once again, we have had more trouble accepting his new have a dialectical process of individual-group. condition and self-image as a painter. Thus, the voice could be understood as a trigger that 4) Dissociative phenomena cannot be would accelerate or facilitate individuation. adequately explained in terms of a separation These assertions also become more between cognitive and somatoform understandable in the case of Andrade, when manifestations. Cognitive dissociation also has one considers the precarious situation of the its roots in measurable psychophysiological educational system in various regions of Brazil processes. – Andrade did not complete his studies – the Since dissociation is not a unidimensional lack of social stimulation in relation to areas construct, it is important to consider not just its such as scientific research, and even the popular cognitive (or ‘psychoform’) facet, but also its tendency of Christianity to recognize the somatoform manifestations and functions behaviors of self-worth and esteem as a sign of (Nijenhuis, 2000). In a previous study, Maraldi arrogance and unnecessary pride – a (2011) observed that reports of somatic remarkable characteristic, for example, in the symptoms are quite common during spiritist case of Chico Xavier (Maraldi, 2013). séances. Evidence indicated significant and Interesting examples of low self-esteem can be positive correlations between psychological seen in the following statements from Andrade: dissociation and conversion/somatoform symptoms (Brown et al., 2007; Nijenhuis, eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 566 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation 2000). It has been common for researchers to or triggers of somatization are varied, ranging verify positive associations between from traumatic childhood experiences – also somatization and dissociation (Kruesi et al., common in dissociative and conversion 2004; Ross et al., 1990; Saxe et al., 1994; disorders (Binzer, Andersen, & Kullgren, 1997; Walker et al., 1992), as well as between Roelofs et al., 2002; Stonnington, Barry, & somatization and conversion (Binzer, Andersen, Fisher, 2006) – to stressors related to specific & Kullgren, 1997; Stonnington, Barry, & Fisher, socioeconomic conditions such as poverty or 2006). It is known that somatization is strongly exposure to violence (Tófoli, Andrade, & Fortes, linked to anxiety and depressive symptoms, and 2011). Some researchers speak of a that stress is a common factor underlying “somatization trait” typical of Latin American dissociation, conversion, and somatization cultures (Tófoli, Andrade, & Fortes, 2011). (Coelho & Ávila, 2007). The psychosocial causes

1) Low self-esteem (or impaired self-concept) "Pan-trauma" (childhood). Social due to various biographical and social discrimination. Hearing Impairment. Low self- circumstances esteem.

2) Repression or absence of sufficient Lack of incentive and encouragement to study. stimulation and encouragement to develop Poverty. individual capacities

3) Eruption of latent potential in the form of Automatisms. Passive Influence. automatisms and dissociative phenomena Depersonalization. Sense of Presence. Creative (maybe enhanced by innate dissociative Dissociation. tendencies)

Mediumship. Spiritism. Atribution of 4) Accommodation of anomalous (dissociative) authorship to deceased artists. Avoidance of phenomena under paranormal belief systems responsibility for success.

Figure 8. A comparison between the model (Maraldi, 2011) and the case of Andrade.

The literature reviewed above usually muscle tension. Thus, it seems inappropriate to considers the two forms of dissociation separate one form of dissociation from another, (cognitive and somatoform) as sometimes since defined physiological reactions are occurring separately, but despite studies present during a cognitive task. In this sense, highlighting their strong positive correlation, we need to consider the individual as a whole the researchers have not yet been able to when studying dissociation, i.e., biological, explain how these two variables are interrelated psychological, and societal dimensions. The (but see Krippner, Wickramasekera, Tartz, Dissociative Experiences Scale is considered to 2000; Wickramasekera, 1993; Wickramasekera be an instrument that assesses predominantly I, Krippner, Wickramasekera II, 1997). cognitive dissociation (Nijenhuis, 2000), but, However, what our study with Andrade since the results showed that there was suggests is that cognitive dissociation also has something more than cognitive processes taking its roots in measurable psychophysiological place during dissociative and absorptive processes. While Andrade performed intensive experiences, perhaps we should redefine our imaginative work, his psychophysiology way of conceptualizing dissociation and its responded to this cognitive exercise with manifestations. Replications of our study design alterations in skin conductance level and eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 567 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation are urgently needed to establish our findings after religious conversion, for instance, or and their theoretical implications. investigating differences between non-medium attenders, beginners, and advanced mediums 5) The differences between pathological and who dedicate themselves regularly to those non-pathological dissociation may be more practices). complex and subtle than we would expect them In research conducted by Peres et al. to be, and socio-cultural variables tend to play (2012) with beginners and advanced mediums, an important role in that differentiation. both dedicated to the practice of automatic As Grosso (1997, p. 195) stated: “creative writing, the most experienced evidenced a low dissociation represents the mind’s evolved activation of brain areas responsible for ability to escape, transform, and possibly attention and planning while doing automatic transcend the limitations of ordinary reality, writing, a result that not only justified their which are, generally speaking, dangerous, claims of dissociative state, but also seemed depressing, and frequently traumatic.” contradictory to the best textual productivity of However, Grosso was aware of the influence of these individuals during the task under socio-cultural factors in the definition of what is dissociation compared to the same task when traumatic: “What we in our rationalistic society they were out of a dissociative state (the control may characterize as pathologically ‘dissociative’ condition). In other words, these individuals may appear under a different guise in another produced better writings in trance than in the culture… before we can ‘reassociate’ on a higher control condition (according to an analysis of level we first have to ‘dissociate’ from some the quality of the writings by a specialist who aspects of lower selfhood or ordinary reality” (p. was blind to the medium’s degree of 182). development and to which texts were produced In the case of Andrade, it has been shown in the experimental condition). In less that his life history was marked by social experienced mediums an inverse phenomenon discrimination and other traumatic experiences. was observed: the areas related to planning But despite these difficulties, his spiritual and were more activated during the experimental creative activities at the centro seem to be condition, suggesting that they (consciously) functioning as an effective coping strategy were struggling to produce better writings when against trauma and its consequences. At the compared to the experienced mediums. These centro, he is a valuable medium. Although some results seem to demonstrate that 1) there is a of the spiritualists seem to have discriminated measurable difference between beginners and against him, he is a frequent and dedicated experienced mediums, which suggests that volunteer at the centro, he has many good creative dissociation may be trained or friends there (as he indeed stated), and he is developed in some way, and 2) automatic also being studied by scientists and lay productions cannot be entirely explained in researchers. All these practices and terms of simulation or fraud. Although opportunities have possibly helped him deal participants reported several dissociative and with his spontaneous dissociative experiences psychotic-like experiences, and also presented a and his low self-esteem tendencies. On the basis pattern of cerebral activation that was similar to of the DES-Taxon criteria, it is possible to that of schizophrenic patients, they did not suggest the presence of pathological dissociative suffer from schizophrenia or other mental symptoms in his case (But see Giesbrecht, illness and were well-adjusted. Although Merckelbach, & Geraerts, 2007, for a critique of mediums and psychic claimants are often the DES-taxon). Notwithstanding, it would be placed in a “high risk” category for somatic inadequate to diagnose a dissociative disorder ailments (Krippner, Wickramasekera & Tartz, based on a screening instrument like DES, and 2000), these vulnerabilities are not inevitable without further corroborative evidence. It is because the various methods of prevention, also premature to say that the spiritist practices self-regulation, and health maintenance are really fulfilling a therapeutic function based involved in religious and spiritual practices. exclusively on our present findings (see also Maraldi, Machado, & Zangari, 2010; Maraldi & 6) Possible paranormal processes underlying Zangari, 2012). Longitudinal studies are these experiences need not be neglected, but important to elucidate this question (obtaining acquire secondary importance. measurements of psychopathology before and eISSN 1303-5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2013 | Volume 11 | Issue 4 | Page 544-572 568 Maraldi and Krippner., Biopsychosocial approach to creative dissociation From the viewpoint of the biopsychosocial undermine the theoretical assumptions of art model adopted, it is possible to explain and reduce all aesthetic judgment to a matter of mediumistic painting without resorting to social convention, of changeable and flexible paranormal processes. A similar conclusion was definitions, continually redefined in the course reached by Krippner (2002) on a previous study of art history. What is or is not art depends, concerning stigmatic phenomena. However, ultimately, on the interpretive context within such processes cannot be denied. We should be which artistic objects are produced. After open to any changes in the model, as the data Duchamp, art was never the same, at least in deviate from the initially formulated the Western World. hypotheses, requiring considerations other than But even if someone questioned the status those of a physiological or psychosocial nature. of mediumistic painting as artistic expression, it Indeed, there are a few cases of mediumistic is undoubtedly an aesthetic (and, at the same painting that do suggest psi, such as the time, spiritual) experience of great import to an Thompson Gifford’s (Hyslop, 1909). Cardeña, understanding of the interactions between these Iribas & Reijman (2013) have also focused on two fields of knowledge: art and religion. Even various connections between art and psi, while more than a spiritual/religious or aesthetic John Palmer developed interesting experience, mediumistic painting is a cultural experimental investigations suggesting that phenomenon, and it is maybe for that reason motor automatisms and dissociation would be that it is reminiscent of an era when the vehicles of ESP expression (Palmer, 2011; divisions existing today between different forms 2013). However, these studies require further of knowledge were not rigidly established. discussions, well beyond the limits of this Mediumistic paintings seem to preserve the paper, and we will restrain ourselves here just nostalgia for a time when art served largely as a to point out their importance when discussing demonstration of the transcendent and was these matters. somehow identified with it.

Conclusion A final issue related to mediumistic painting is Acknowledgements whether or not these productions deserve the The authors would like to thank the medium Jacques label of artistic manifestations. After all is said Andrade for all the information provided and for his and done, can mediumistic painting and other kindness in allowing the publication of this article. forms of creative dissociation be considered We also would like to thank FAPESP – Foundation art? for Research Support of São Paulo, Brazil, and the The answer to this question rests on an Saybrook University Chair for the Study of even more complex one: What exactly is art? Consciousness for funding this research. The authors express their gratitude to Egydio Colombo Filho, art The simplicity of the argument of Marcel professor (Brazil), and to Dr. Guilherme Ricciopo Duchamp (1887-1968), objectified in his ready- Rodrigues for their comments on an earlier draft of mades (like the urinal that he tried to present at this paper, and Dr. Teresa McIntyre and her the Society of Independent Artists in New associates for providing the Portuguese translation York), hides deeper reflections, which sought to of the Tellegen Absorption Scale.

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