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Light;Emitting Diode 02/05/09 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightemitting_diode #1 Lightemitting diode From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A lightemittingdiode ( LED ) (pronounced /ˌɛliːˈdiː/), [1 ] is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple LED circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow spectrum light is emitted from the pn junction in a solid state material. LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area LED schematic symbol lighting. An LED is usually a small area (less than 1 mm 2 ) light source, often with optics added directly on top of the chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. [2 ] [3 ] The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. Besides lighting, interesting applications include using UVLEDs for sterilization of water and disinfection of devices, [4 ] and as a grow light to enhance photosynthesis in plants. [5 ] Contents 1 History 1.1 Discoveries and early devices LED displays allow for smaller sets of 1.2 Practical use interchangeable LEDs to be one large display. 1.3 Continuing development 2 Technology 2.1 Light extraction 2.2 Efficiency and operational parameters 2.3 Electrical polarity 2.4 Failure modes 3 Colors and materials 3.1 Ultraviolet and blue LEDs 3.2 White light LEDs 3.2.1 RGB Systems 3.2.2 Phosphor based LEDs 3.3 Organic lightemitting diodes (OLEDs) 3.4 Quantum Dot LEDs (experimental) 4 Types 4.1 Miniature LEDs 4.2 Flashing LEDs 4.3 High power LEDs 4.4 Multicolor LEDs 4.5 Alphanumeric LED displays 5 Considerations for use 5.1 Power sources 5.2 Lighting LEDs on mains 5.3 Advantages of using LEDs 5.4 Disadvantages of using LEDs 6 Applications 6.1 Indicators and signs 6.2 Lighting 6.3 Smart lighting 6.4 Nonvisual applications 6.5 Light sources for machine vision systems 7 Examples of use 7.1 Christmas lights 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History Discoveries and early devices The first known report of a lightemitting solidstate diode was made in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs when he noticed electroluminescence produced from a crystal of silicon carbide while using a cat'swhisker detector. [6 ] Russian Oleg Vladimirovich Losev independently created the first LED in the mid 1920s; his research, though distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, was ignored, [7 ] [8 ] and no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. [9 ] Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using GaSb, GaAs, InP, and GeSi alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvin. In 1961, experimenters Bob Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas Instruments, [10 ] found that gallium arsenide gave off infrared radiation when electric current was applied. Biard and Pittman were able to establish the priority of their work and received the patent for the infrared lightemitting diode. 02/05/09 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightemitting_diode #2 The first practical visiblespectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr., while working at General Electric Company. He later moved to the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. [11 ] Holonyak is seen as the "father of the lightemitting diode". [12 ] M. George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak's, invented the first yellow LED and 10x brighter red and redorange LEDs in 1972. [13 ] Up to 1968 visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US $200 per unit, and so had little practical application. [14 ] The Monsanto Corporation was the first organization to massproduce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. [15 ] Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced lightemitting diodes in 1968, initially using GaAsP material supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to have major applications for alphanumeric displays and was integrated into HP’s early handheld calculators. Practical use The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent indicators, and in sevensegment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal applications). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Later, other colors became widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more advanced, the light output was increased, while maintaining the efficiency and the reliability to an acceptable level. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led to use for illumination (see list of illumination applications). Some police vehicle lightbars incorporate LEDs. Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1¾ and 3 mm T1 packages, but with increasing power output, it has become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order to maintain reliability, so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for stateoftheart high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs. Continuing development The first highbrightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation and was based on InGaN borrowing on critical developments in GaN nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of ptype doping of GaN which were developed by Isamu Akasaki and H. Amano in Nagoya. In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of highbrightness LEDs demonstrated a very impressive result by using a transparent contact made of indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. The existence of blue LEDs and high efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the first white LED, which employed a Y 3 Al 5 O 12 :Ce, or " YAG", phosphor coating to mix yellow (downconverted) light with blue to produce light that appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention. [16 ] The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output to increase exponentially, with a doubling occurring about every 36 months since the 1960s, in a similar way to Moore's law. The advances are generally attributed to the parallel development of other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science. This trend is normally called Haitz's Law after Dr. Roland Haitz. Technology Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped , with impurities to create a pn junction . As in other diodes, current flows easily from the pside, or anode, to the nside, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Chargecarriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the pn junction . In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a nonradiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to nearinfrared, visible or nearultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with evershorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an ntype substrate, with an electrode attached to the ptype layer deposited on its surface. Ptype substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Light extraction The refractive index of most LED semiconductor materials is quite high, so in almost all cases the light from the LED is coupled into a much lowerindex medium. The large index Parts of a LED difference makes the reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients). The produced light gets partially reflected back into the semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat; this is usually one of the dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half of the emitted light is reflected back at the LEDpackage and packageair interfaces. The reflection is most commonly reduced by using a domeshaped (halfsphere) package with the diode in the center so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is minimized. Substrates that are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a reflective layer, increase the LED efficiency. The 02/05/09 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightemitting_diode #3 refractive index of the package material should also match the index of the semiconductor, to minimize backreflection. An antireflection coating may be added as well. The package may be colored, but this is only for cosmetic The inner workings of an LED reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the color of the packaging does not substantially affect the color of the light emitted. Other strategies for reducing the impact of the interface reflections include designing the LED to reabsorb and reemit the reflected light (called photon recycling ) and manipulating the microscopic structure of the surface to reduce the reflectance, by introducing random roughness, creating programmed moth eye surface patterns. Recently photonic crystal have also been used to minimize backreflections.
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