Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Update From A Would-Be Criminal Mastermind

If we want to solve the problems with our youth such as drugs, illicit sex, crime, vandalism, gangs and even the terribly high rate of teen suicide we must stop dealing with the symptoms and look at the disease. 1 For too many of our youth life has no meaning. They are screaming at us to give them some moorings and purpose in life. 2

“Kids know them as “roofies.” ” ______6 The Horrible Truth______11 We Have The Right______14 “Make the most of the Indian Hemp Seed and sow it everywhere.”______19 Harm Reduction______30 Prohibition______32 Gangster Bureaucrats______40 “Mexico’s a turncoat in the war on drugs.” ______46 “Politics is broken.” ______51 Attorney General Is Not Required To Be “Learned at Law”______58 After All, It’s A Small World______66 The Circle______77 Jimi______82 “The Empire never ended.” ______84 “Soft people become hard criminals.” ______91 Pharmacological Lobotomy______96 Superpredator______102 Munchausen______107 Patient’s Bill of Rights______114 Prison Sucks______117 Privatized Prisons______122 Chivalrous?______128 Pawns______137 Bystander Apathy______143 Pornography______149 $______157

1 Concerned State resident, Journal American. 2 Op. cit.

1 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Extinction______166 Pedagogy______175 Pain______181 !______186 The Net______196 Um . . .______203 “ “Clone” derives from the Greek word for “twig.” ” ______211 Schrödinger’s Kitten______215 “Snips and snails and puppy dog tails”______219 “Eyes in the back of your head” ______226 “Private enterprise puts up the money.” ______232 Doppelgängers______239 Animals “Smell” Fear______244 Dreams______249 March 13______252 Historicism______261 “Be kind to slugs.”______274 Tacks______277 “Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” ______284 “Kids know them as “roofies.” ” 3 Imagine all the fears of parents whose daughters have hit dating age packed into one white pill the size of a dime.4 You probably remember stories about the party punch spiked with alcohol or the brownies baked with marijuana [or marijuana laced with speed or drinks dosed with eye drops to cause diarrhea]. Well it’s still happening . . . but now it’s those drugs plus some new ones.5 It costs about $3 at the high-school water fountain 6…in its original manufacturer’s packaging.7 It is [tasteless,8, 9] colorless, odorless and quickly dissolves in a can of cola. In about 10 minutes, it creates a drunklike effect lasting eight hours. It strengthens the effects of alcohol, causing loss of inhibition, sleepiness, relaxation and – perhaps worst of all for its victims – amnesia. The pill is made of a drug called Rohypnol.10 Rohypnol is known by various street names: Roachies, La Roche, Rope, Rib, Roche, Rophies, Roofies, Ruffies. In an unconfirmed report out of Australia, it was referred to as “Stupefi,” and it has also been designated “the Quaalude of the ‘90s” in some media reports. 11

3 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rates soaring, The Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 4 Op. cit. 5 Jeff Lindenbaum, Parenting; ‘roofies’ go a step beyond spiked punch, , 4 Dec 1996, p. D2. 6 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 7 Jeff Lindenbaum, Parenting; ‘roofies’ go a step beyond spiked punch, The Seattle Times, 4 Dec 1996, p. D2. 8 Kemp hits ‘sad’ ethics; Gore decries ‘low road,’ The Seattle Times, 14 Oct 1996, p. A4 9 Staffer says security chief knew FBI files were gathered, The Seattle Times, 4 Oct 1996, p. A7. 10 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 11 David E. Smith, M.D., Donald R. Wesson, M.D., & Sarah R. Calhoun, M.P.H., Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) fact sheet, Haight Ashbury Free Clinics, Inc., 1997.

2 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Like Quaaludes, the trademark for methaqualone,[ 12] a drug popular in the 1970s, Rohypnol can make people forget their troubles.13 It is also known as “the forget pill” because it can cause temporary blackouts. 14 It has been used to extend or ease the effects of other drugs, or dropped in a drink to incapacitate unsuspecting people, leaving them with no memory of an assault or robbery.15 Rohypnol is a potent and hypnotic sedative,16…is 10 times more powerful than the commonly prescribed sedative Valium and is used legally in 64 countries before surgery and in treating insomnia. 17 They are legally prescribed as sleeping pills in about 80 countries but not in the United States 18 though Colombian drug traffickers, long the source of most of the world’s cocaine, are smuggling [the] powerful sedative onto the streets of the United States.19 The U.S. Customs Service said [March 5, 1996,] it is sealing the border against…Rohypnol. 20 The United States…banned imports of the sedative Rohypnol and said it would seize it from individuals, in the mail or in commercial shipments.21 Police in several states say men have slipped pills into women’s drinks prior to sexual assaults. 22 It’s the amnesia-producing effects of Rohypnol that make it the drug of choice for prospective rapists. 23 In Rohypnol-related , victims who are slipped the drug become dizzy and disoriented, and have trouble moving their arms and legs.24 Many cases have been reported, mostly in [Florida, Texas,25] and California.26 • Two…brothers and a friend were charged with repeatedly raping a 15-year-old…girl after they secretly put a roofie in her wine cooler.27 • A 17-year-old…girl raped Jan. 7, [1996,] while she was under the influence of roofies lost 10 hours between having dinner with friends and waking up in a strange hotel bed. Police…investigat[ed] a 29-year-old suspect who was at the dinner.28 • Prosecutors in Broward County, Fla., said one man bragged to friends that he had drugged and raped a dozen women.29 • One Broward County man who pleaded guilty to roofie rape in a 1993 case – Mark Anthony Perez of Plantation – told authorities he used it to rape as many as 20 women.30 • At least two Texas women have now died after unknowingly ingesting Rohypnol.31 The latest episode involved a 15-year-old and a female friend given the drug and then raped by five men in El Paso.32, [ 33]

12 Methaqualone, sold under the brand names Quaalude and Sopor, is a depressant similar in effect to barbiturates. — Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 186. 13 The , Powerful sedative from Colombia gains popularity among U.S. teens, The Seattle Times, 2 April 1995, p. A8. 14 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 15 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 15 June 1996, p. A2. 16 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 17 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 15 June 1996, p. A2. 18 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 19 The Associated Press, Powerful sedative from Colombia gains popularity among U.S. teens, The Seattle Times, 2 April 1995, p. A8. 20 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 21 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 5 March 1996, p. A4. 22 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 23 Jeff Lindenbaum, Parenting; ‘roofies’ go a step beyond spiked punch, The Seattle Times, 4 Dec 1996, p. D2. 24 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 15 June 1996, p. A2. 25 Op. cit. 26 Jeff Lindenbaum, Parenting; ‘roofies’ go a step beyond spiked punch, The Seattle Times, 4 Dec 1996, p. D2. 27 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 28 Op. cit. 29 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 30 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 31 Editorial, Fighting the ‘date rape’ drug, The , 8 Oct 1996. 32 Op. cit. 33 , ‘Date rape’ drug overdose kills girl, The Los Angeles Times, 4 Oct 1996.

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[From January 1 to June 28, 1996, Florida’s 34] poison-control center ha[d] logged more than 100 reports of sexual assaults on victims…[incapacitated by] “roofies” and law-enforcement officials say abuse among teenagers is growing.35 “In just three weeks, more than 100,000 tablets of this drug were declared and brought into the country through Laredo, [Texas,] alone,” said Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin. 36 The drug, first seen in Florida in 1992, has proliferated to such a point that the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Florida Department of Law Enforcement have joined forces with local police to have Rohypnol’s illegal-drug status strengthened to make penalties equal to [LSD,37] cocaine and heroin. “A lot of times the guys don’t think they’ve done anything wrong,” said Cooper City, [Florida,] Police Detective Kregg Lupo. “This is not a rape in their eyes. They think if the girl is not awake or alert enough to say, ‘No,’ it’s not rape.” “It’s very difficult making these cases,” said Dennis Nicewander, an assistant state attorney in the Broward sex-crimes unit. “Usually these victims . . . don’t remember a thing.” “It’s almost like the perfect crime,” he said. “Because they don’t have to worry about a witness testifying against them. And don’t think these guys aren’t figuring that out.” The drug also has the potential to make rapists out of men who without the drug might not commit the crime, he said. “Usually, they aren’t the kind of guys who would force themselves on someone for sex. They seem to be the kind of guys you’d see at happy hour with their buddies, the kind of frat-boy mentality that thinks it’s fun to get a girl drunk and have their way.” 38 “We simply cannot, in good conscience, stand by and leave our wives and daughters, sisters and mothers, vulnerable to these sexual predators,” said Rep. Gerald Soloman, R-N.Y.39 “The only way to protect them is to guarantee hard prison time for these cowards.” 40 “I can tell you I have told my 17-year-old daughter never to accept a beverage of any kind from anyone unless it is in a sealed container that she opens herself,” [Stan Peacock] said. “Does that give you any kind of an idea how concerned I am about it?” 41 In addition to using the drug to gain power over others, high-school and college students are increasingly taking Rohypnol to lower inhibitions.42 It is often taken in combination with beer as an “alcohol extender.” 43 “They take a pill and they drink a beer and they’re high for an entire day,” said police Sgt. John Johnston of Coral Gables, Fla.44 U.S. Customs Service Commissioner Gerorge Weise described it as “the party drug of today.” 45 The drug Rohypnol is gaining popularity as a cheap high in Colombia, the United States, the Netherlands, Germany and other countries.46

Legislation

In an emergency move to stem use, Florida’s attorney general upgraded the penalty for possessing the sedative Rohypnol.47 Rohypnol was previously grouped with drugs having a low potential for abuse.48 Now, the penalty for possessing Rohypnol has increased from three to 30 years in prison.49 A [California] state law made possession of Rohypnol…illegal as of [January 1].

34 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 27 June 1996, p. A6. 35 Op. cit. 36 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 37 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 27 June 1996, p. A6. 38 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 39 The Associated Press, Bill penalizes use of drugs to subdue rape victims, Journal American, 1996. 40 Op. cit. 41 David Kidwell & Connie Piloto (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Dime-sized, $3 pill sends rape rates soaring, The Seattle Times, 17 Feb 1996, p. A3. 42 Jeff Lindenbaum, Parenting; ‘roofies’ go a step beyond spiked punch, The Seattle Times, 4 Dec 1996, p. D2. 43 Op. cit. 44 The Associated Press, Powerful sedative from Colombia gains popularity among U.S. teens, The Seattle Times, 2 April 1995, p. A8. 45 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 46 The Associated Press, Powerful sedative from Colombia gains popularity among U.S. teens, The Seattle Times, 2 April 1995, p. A8. 47 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 27 June 1996, p. A6. 48 Op. cit. 49 Op. cit.

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The House, by a vote of 421-1, approved legislation [September 26] making it a crime to possess Rohypnol and similar powerful tranquilizers with the intent to commit a violent crime, including . 50 Use of… powerful tranquilizers to subdue rape victims would carry a penalty of up to 15 years in prison. 51 The potential jail term increases to 20 years when the victim is aged 14 or younger. Rep. Maxine Waters, D-Calif., voted ‘no.’ She said it was “haphazard” and “dishonest” election-year legislation that does not address similar use of other intoxicating substances, such as alcohol or cocaine. “It just sounds like typical political legislating by Republicans,” she said. 52 The Senate acted by voice vote [October 3] to control use of Rohypnol. The bill must return to the House, where a slightly different version was [previously] approved.53 Separately, the House, by voice vote, approved and sent to President Clinton a Senate bill requiring the Federal Bureau of Investigation [(FBI)] to establish a national database to keep track of felons convicted of sex crimes involving violence or minors. The data base will include names, addresses, fingerprints and photos. The bill requires released offenders to register with the FBI which in turn is required to notify state officials when an offender moves. Community organizations and private groups could tap into the database via local law enforcement.54

Rohypnol (Flunitrazepam)

Rohypnol, made by the Swiss company Roche [(a.k.a. Hoffman-Larouch,55 a.k.a. Hoffman-La Roche,56 a.k.a. Roche Pharmaceuticals, Inc.57),] is not sold in the United States but is available by prescription in Colombia, as well as in other South American countries, Asia and Europe.58 Rohypnol is marketed and manufactured in Mexico, South America, Europe and Asia,59…[and] although Rohypnol is illegal in the United States, residents have been able to bring it in with a doctor’s prescription from Mexico or any of the 60 countries where the drug is legal. 60, [ 61] Roche says it is not selling Rohypnol in the United States because there is too much competition with other sedatives.62 [Roche also] announced…it is converting to a smaller-dose pill that will not dissolve as easily in a drink.63

• • •

Rohypnol belongs to the family of medications called benzodiazepines which includes Valium (diazepam), Librium (chlorodiazepoxide) and Xanax (alprazolam). 64 Like other benzodiazepines, flunitrazepam taken alone is unlikely to produce death, even if an overdose is taken. Combining flunitrazepam with alcohol reduces the safety margin, however, and is more likely to be lethal due to enhanced central nervous system depression. Rohypnol intoxication is generally associated with impaired judgment and impaired motor skills, and the combination of alcohol and flunitrazepam is also particularly hazardous because together, their effects on memory and judgement are greater than the effects resulting from either taken alone. It is commonly reported that persons who become intoxicated on a combination of alcohol and flunitrazepam have “blackouts” lasting 8 to 24 hours following ingestion. Disinhibition is another widely reported effect of Rohypnol, when taken either alone or in combination with alcohol.65 50 Capital Watch, The Seattle Times, 27 Sep 1996, p. A6. 51 The Associated Press, Bill penalizes use of drugs to subdue rape victims, Journal American, 1996. 52 Op. cit. 53 Staffer says security chief knew FBI files were gathered, The Seattle Times, 4 Oct 1996, p. A7. 54 Op. cit. 55 Op. cit. 56 David Stipp, The business of genetics, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 67. 57 David E. Smith, M.D., Donald R. Wesson, M.D., & Sarah R. Calhoun, M.P.H., Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) fact sheet, Haight Ashbury Free Clinics, Inc., 1997. 58 The Associated Press, Powerful sedative from Colombia gains popularity among U.S. teens, The Seattle Times, 2 April 1995, p. A8. 59 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 5 March 1996, p. A4. 60 David Jackson (Dallas Morning News), U.S. forbids imports of seductive sedative used for date rapes, The Seattle Times, 6 March 1996, p. A8. 61 Mary Beth Sheridan, Americans fuel Tijuana drugstore boom; border: retailers are key suppliers to U.S. of popular, illegal Rohypnol, The Los Angeles Times, 5 July 1996. 62 The Associated Press, Powerful sedative from Colombia gains popularity among U.S. teens, The Seattle Times, 2 April 1995, p. A8. 63 Across the Nation, The Seattle Times, 15 June 1996, p. A2. 64 David E. Smith, M.D., Donald R. Wesson, M.D., & Sarah R. Calhoun, M.P.H., Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) fact sheet, Haight Ashbury Free Clinics, Inc., 1997. 65 Op. cit.

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Like other sedative-hynotics, flunitrazepam can produce physical dependence, and abrupt cessation may cause signs and symptoms such as anxiety, insomnia, intense dreaming, parenthesis, increased sensitivity to light and sounds, and grand mal seizures. From the pharmacological profile of flunitrazepam, withdrawal intensity from flunitrazepam alone would be expected to peak three to five days after cessation of use. 66 A patient who is physically dependent but taking only flunitrazepam could be withdrawn using Phenobarbital. 67

Watch Your Friend’s Back

• 5 out of 6 persons are expected to be a victim of an attempted or completed violent crime (rape, robbery, and assault, excluding murder) at least once during life, based on 1975-84 annual victimization rates. (See Lifetime Likelihood of Victimization, BJS, NCJ-10427, March 1987.) 68 • 1 of every 100 men and of every 323 women are expected to be a victim of murder, based on 1978-80 annual murder rates and lifetime probabilities. (See Crime in the United States, 1981, FBI.) 69

• • •

It’s important to teach your teen to be cautious without being paranoid.70 Don’t attend parties or other events alone.71 Always let a friend or someone else know where you are 72…[and] whom you are with.73 Be careful whom you accept opened food or drink from. Seek out an unopened package or can, or watch someone when they pour you a drink. Remember that punch-type drinks are very easy to spike.74 Avoid…situations…such as being left in a room alone with strangers or going somewhere alone with someone.75 You might want to review some basic rape-prevention techniques.76 Be assertive; don’t be intimidated into anything. Have confidence to say no and mean it.77 Children, and girls especially, are taught to fear sex crimes. They are told never to accept rides with strange men or to take candy from them. Yet the exact nature of the potential danger remains unknown and so the girl may build up an exceedingly great dread of a mysterious crime, perhaps thinking that it would be the worst thing that could happen to her. Thus, when she is attacked, she may be absolutely immobilized with fear. She freezes and is unablle to wage an effective counterattack.78

66 Op. cit. 67 Op. cit. 68 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special report: lifetime likelihood of going to state or federal prison (March 1997), 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/llgsfp.txt. 69 Op. cit. 70 Jeff Lindenbaum, Parenting; ‘roofies’ go a step beyond spiked punch, The Seattle Times, 4 Dec 1996, p. D2. 71 Op. cit. 72 Op. cit. 73 Op. cit. 74 Op. cit. 75 Op. cit. 76 Op. cit. 77 Op. cit. 78 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 479.

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The Horrible Truth

The preeminent pyschiatrist Sigmund Freud wrote that all incest memories were false. In other words, that incest never happens – but it does.79 A controversy has arisen in recent years over Freud’s abandonment of his seduction theory of the origin of psychological disorder.80 Freud eventually “realized” that the accounts he was hearing from patients weren’t literally true. The women weren’t suduced as children. Rather, they had unconsciously distorted their own sexual desires for their parents into a symbolic form and projected itoutward. [sic] That’s the way Freud put it – that he’d realized the truth. In 1984, however, an analyst named Jeffrey Masson strongly challenged this statement. Masson had reread a long series of letters between Freud and his friend and colleague Wilhelm Fliess (Masson was editing the letters for publication). Partly on the basis of previously upublished [sic] parts of these letters, Masson argued that the seductions were in fact real, that Freud had known it, and that Freud had chosen – eventually – to ignore their reality. Masson holds that Freud lacked the courage to bring to light a shameful truth: that violent child sexual abuse actually was widespread. Freud apparently was in a position to know that this was so. He owned books from the literature of legal medicine on the subject of childhood rape ([Masson, J. M. (1984). The assault on truth. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux 81]). He had attended autopsies where he’d seen something “of which medical science preferred to take no notice.” And Masson found that some of those autopsies may have been conducted on children who’d been raped and then murdered. Why would Freud lack the courage to stand up for his theory if he believed it? Two possible reasons stand out. One concerns Freud’s professional reputation. His first presentation of the seduction theory, in a speech to a professional society, was met with utter silence [(and angry glares)]. He was later urged not to publish it. By pointing to upsetting realities, Freud risked becoming an outcast in his profession. He needed a way out, to salvage his fast-vanishing career prospects. [(So he went undercover.)] The second issue concerned Freud’s friendship with Fliess. Masson claims there’s evidence that Fliess molested his own son. Thus, even as Freud was forming the view that psychological disturbance stems from sexual abuse, the person to whom he confided these ideas was guilty of precisely such abuse. Masson believes that Freud eventually came to realize this. Given these two pressures, says Masson, Freud was forced to banish the evidence of childhood seduction from his own consciousness. Masson also argues that seduction is an extremely unfortunate label for this theory and that the word is not at all typical of Freud’s first statement of the theory, in which he also used the terms rape, abuse, attack, assault, aggression, and trauma. It’s ironic that even as the theory was being set aside, a preferential use of the term seduction has made the theory’s implications seem more benign. Perhaps this terminology represents yet one last defense against a truly unacceptable truth. What really was the truth? We obviously can’t return to Freud’s era and investigate the rate of child abuse at the time. On the other hand, it has become clear that child sexual abuse today is far more common than once believed ([Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Victimization of children. American Psychologist, 49, 173-183; 82 Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). Impact of child sexual abuse on females: Toward a developmental, psychobiological integration. Psycholoogical Science, 4, 81-87 83]).84

Witch – Sexual Predator

The rise in reports of documented cases of child sexual abuse has been accompanied by a rise in reports of sexual abuse that cannot be documented. Members of the public, as well as members of the mental health and other professions, have debated the validity of some memories of sexual abuse, as well as some of the therapeutic techniques which have been used. The American Psychiatric Association has been concerned that the passionate debates about these issues have obscured the recognition of a body of scientific evidence that underlies widespread agreement among psychiatrists that the public confusion and dismay over this issue and the possibility of false accusations not discredit the reports of patients who have indeed been traumatized by actual previous abuse. 85 Human memory is a complex process about which there is a substantial base of scientific knowledge. Memory can be divided into four stages: input (encoding), storage, retrieval, and recounting. All of these processes can be influenced by a variety of factors, including developmental stage, expectations and knowledge base prior to an event; stress and bodily sensations experienced during an event; post-event questioning; and the experience and 79 Jennifer James, Confusion continues over repressed memories, The Seattle Times, 22 Oct 1995, p. L2. 80 Charles S. Carver & Michael F. Scheier, Perspectives on Personality, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996), p. 250. 81 Ibidem, p. 583. 82 Ibidem, p. 569. 83 Ibidem, p. 599. 84 Ibidem, p. 250. 85 Statement on memories of sexual abuse (American Psychiatric Association statement), 1995 Information Please (TM) Almanac, Annual 1995, p. 438(1).

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context of the recounting of the event. In addition, the retrieval and recounting of a memory can modify the form of the memory, which may influence the content and the conviction about the veracity of the memory in the future. Scientific knowledge is not yet precise enough to predict how a certain experience or factor will influence a memory in a given person.86 Some individuals who have experienced documented traumatic events may nevertheless include some false or inconsistent elements in their reports. In addition, hesitancy in making a report, and recanting following the report can occur in victims of documented abuse. Therefore, these seemingly contradictory findings do not exclude the possibility that the report is based on a true event.87 Memories can be significantly influenced by questioning, especially in young children. Memories also can be significantly influenced by a trusted person (e.g., therapist). 88 It has also been shown that repeated questioning may lead individuals to report “memories” of events that never occurred. 89 Many individuals who recover memories of abuse have been able to find corroborating information about their memories. However, no such information can be found, or is possible to obtain, in some situations. 90 There have been numerous studies that have validated repressed memories when the offenders and other siblings eventually admitted to being a part of acts of abuse.91 Some victims remember only smells (the sense of smell is closest to the memory areas of the brain so is a very powerful connector to events). Some only remember sounds or feelings, 92… [but] children, not knowing whether their memories are real, grow up unsure and unhappy.93 [(Teen angst.)] Children and adolescents who have been abused cope with the trauma by using a variety of psychological mechanisms. In some instances, these coping mechanisms result in a lack of conscious awareness of the abuse for varying periods of time. Conscious thoughts and feelings stemming from the abuse may emerge at a later date. 94 [(Early childhood memories resurfacing during one’s mid-twenties has often been labeled “sudden onset…[b.s.]”).] Psychiatrists should maintain an empathic, nonjudgmental, neutral stance towards reported memories of sexual abuse.95 A strong prior belief by the psychiatrist that sexual abuse, or other factors, are or are not the cause of the patient’s problems is likely to interfere with appropriate assessment and treatment. Many inidividuals who have experienced sexual abuse have a history of not being believed by their parents, or others in whom they have put their trust. Expression of disbelief is likely to cause the patient further pain. 96 Interviewing a child involved in a…case requires the knowledge of a trained professional who can elicit true testimony by asking questions that will not influence the child.97 Using televised testimony can help children avoid the trauma of facing the defendant in court.98

Compare And Contrast

Often the alleged victim is the only witness. Should we accept what the child has to say at face value? Some psychologists and children’s therapists say we must – that children don’t often lie, that their lies can usually be detected, and that the story they tell is generally detailed and explicit enough to make what they say believable. Many defense attorneys say we shouldn’t.99 Bass and Davis (1987), authors of the book Courage to Heal, which deals with sexual abuse, wrote, “If you are unable to remember any specific instances, but still have a feeling that something happened to you, it probably did.” Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus, however, believes that for some individuals, the “memory” may be inaccurate and the result of imagination, suggestion, or a means of explaining unhappiness in life (Darnton et al., 1991). 100

86 Op. cit. 87 Op. cit. 88 Op. cit. 89 Op. cit. 90 Op. cit 91 Jennifer James, Confusion continues over repressed memories, The Seattle Times, 22 Oct 1995, p. L2. 92 Op. cit. 93 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 94 Gail S. Goodman, Understanding and improving children’s testimony; in child abuse cases, Children Today, Jan-Feb 1993, 22(1), p. 13(4). 95 Statement on memories of sexual abuse (American Psychiatric Association statement), 1995 Information Please (TM) Almanac, Annual 1995, p. 438(1). 96 Op. cit. 97 Gail S. Goodman, Understanding and improving children’s testimony; in child abuse cases, Children Today, Jan-Feb 1993, 22(1), p. 13(4). 98 Op. cit. 99 Alan M. Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Sex abuse: the child as witness (30 Oct 1984), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 52. 100 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 201.

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A huge number of people are reporting that they were victims of ritual abuse as children. Some therapists and law enforcement officials believe stories of rape, human sacrifice, torture and incest, while others say it is mass hysteria or ‘false memory syndrome.’ 101 The False Memory Syndrome Foundation got its start in March 1992 in response to the cries of parents claiming they’d been wrongly accused of sexual abuse. 102

“Ancient signs of secret identification would return.” 103

The founding fathers were members of Templar influenced Masonic groups of the time, groups who swore their members to secrecy.104

Caution

Where such repair is possible, what often results is not the acquisition of fully normal status, but a transformation of self from someone with a particular blemish into someone with a record of having corrected a particular blemish.105

O.K., Did You Get All That?

101 Leslie Bennetts, Nightmares on Main Street; adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse and satanic cults, Vanity Fair, June 1993, 56(6), p. 42(9). 102 Paul McCarthy, UFO update: are UFO researchers using hypnosis to manufacture memories in abductees?, Omni, Nov 1994, 17(2), p. 85. 103 Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), p. 207. 104 Chris Bennett, Lynn Osburn, & Judy Osburn, Green Gold the Tree of Life: Marijuana in Magic & Religion (CA: Access Unlimited, 1995), p. 271. 105 Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (NY: Simon & Schuster Inc., 1986(1963)), p. 9.

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We Have The Right

Article 1

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peacefully to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

But . . . anything you say or sign may be used against you in a court of law. You also have the right to remain silent, . . . however, if you have anything to say in your defense, we advise you to tell us now. Your failure to talk at this interview could make it harder for a judge or jury to believe any story you give later on.106 How can a citizen have a right, and at the same time be “advised” that if he invokes that right, it will be made “harder” for him? 107 A staff report to Attorney General Edwin Meese argue[d]…overturning the Supreme Court’s 1966 decision in Miranda v. Arizana would “be among the most important achievements of this administration – indeed of any administration.” 108 The Miranda decision is…a symbol. It stands for every citizen’s right to know about his or her rights and to be free to exercise them without fear of reprisal.109 It would be a sad day if America went back to the time when the exercise of one’s constitutional rights depended on the level of one’s education and the ability to hire a sophisticated lawyer.110

• • •

Conservatives profess great reverence for the Constitution – as should everybody – yet they keep trying to change it. . . .111 The Constitution will face some of its most bitter tests in the…[months] to come. Even though the body of our Constitution is celebrating its bicentennial,…[we are] skeptical it will survive these challenges wholly intact to celebrate the two hundredth anniversary of the Bill of Rights – the first ten amendments to the Constitution, enacted in 1791. Although they are called amendments, the Bill of Rights is an organic part of the original document. Without them the Constitution would not have been ratified. By itself the Constitution created a structure for centralized power without sufficient assurances of liberty. The Bill of Rights gave us a strong government without the power to censor newspapers or otherwise curtail the rights of citizens. 112 In the [this] decade we [have] encounter[ed]…technological, biological, and ecological dilemmas that the framers of our Constitution could never have anticipated. Consider, for instance, governmental intrusion on the privacy of individuals. The framers were deeply concerned about this issue and manifested that concern in the Fourth Amendment which guarantees that the “right of the people to be secure in there persons, houses, papers, and effects” shall not be unreasonably restricted. They had experienced intrusive governmental searches, eavesdropping, and spying; so they wrote a constitutional amendment capable of dealing not only with these specific evils but also with as-yet-unanticipated violations of the right to privacy. Although the framers could not imagine the current state-of-the-art intrusions – wiretapping, miniaturized bugs, satellite interceptions, and computerized files – it is clear that they did not intend the Constitution to become obsolete with every change in technology. They endowed us with constitutional policies and language sufficient to adapt to the inevitable changes of the future.

106 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Of Meese and Miranda (27 Jan 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 251. 107 Op. cit. 108 Ibidem, p. 249. 109 Ibidem, p. 251. 110 Op. cit. 111 Scripps Howard News Service (26 March 1997), Constitution just fine, Eastside Journal, 1 April 1997, 21(226), p. A8. 112 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), The future of our Constitution (11 Dec 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 305.

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Even today we cannot begin to predict each of the scientific discoveries that await us in the third century of our constitutional history. The ever-changing lines between the human and the nonhuman, and even the possibility of alien life, will pose inescapable challenges to our Constitution. The world we live in barely resembles the one in which our Founding Fathers resided, and the world (or worlds) our grandchildren will inhabit may bear little resemblance to our own. Yet our Constitution must be capable of adapting to and governing all these worlds. It will take a broad-based commitment to liberty to weather the approaching constitutional storms. We will survive these challenges only if we remain together as a nation proud of our legacy of freedom and refuse to succumb to the seductive temptations of the quick fix. If we make it to 199[9] with our Constitution intact, we will truly have something to celebrate.113

“Skews Me” . . . I Have A Question For The Defendant

More than 5 million Americans are summoned for jury duty each year.114 Not long ago, few judges permitted jurors to take notes; now jurors routinely are given pencils and notebooks. 115 Reformers contend that jurors should be more involved in trials, instead of sitting passively while the judge and lawyers dictate what they will be told, by whom and when.116 “It’s the truth we’re after,” [a] jury forman said after…[a] trial. “Being able to ask questions helped us keep our attention.” 117 “None of us had done this before. . . . No one knew how to do this,” said the juror, a woman in her 40s who spoke to The Seattle Times on the condition that her name not be used. Jurors wrangled over the meaning of premeditation and self-defense, studied dozens of exhibits, made flip charts with a page for each witness, and worked to decipher the scribbles in everyone’s notebooks, she said. Stress, sleepless nights and nightmares became part of the process for the…jury, she said. 118 “Juries have no idea how much power they have,” says Don Doig, cofounder of the Fully Informed Jury Association (FIJA) in Helmville, Montana. FIJA supports laws requiring judges to tell juries of their power. 119 [For instance,] in criminal cases, the U.S. legal system gives juries the power, called jury nullification, to refuse to convict a defendant who they know is guilty of the charges. Moreover, no matter how biased the decision, the jurors cannot be penalized.120 “We know not all of the questions can be asked. But at least we know what the jurors are thinking,” said B. Michael Dann, a Phoenix judge who shepherded jury reform in Arizona, where asking questions is part of a jurors’ bill of rights.121 “It helps comprehension,” Dann said. “Question-asking can make deliberations more efficient.” 122 He said courtrooms should be more like classrooms – with jurors taking notes, discussing the case among themselves and raising questions.123 But critics say the practice has several drawbacks, including making trials longer. 124 “Jurors should be passive,” [Fairfax County Circuit Court Chief Judge F. Bruce] Bach said. 125 “They should not be players in the drama.” 126 “You work very hard to keep certain information out of the trial,” 127…Colin Dunham, president of the Independent Public Defender Association, a group of Washington criminal defense lawyers, 128…said. “Then all of your finesse and art and technique are thrown out the window when a juror comes in and asks, “Where were you on the night in question?” 129

113 Ibidem, p. 306. 114 Bill Miller (Washington Post), New courtroom trend: some let jurors ask questions, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A16. 115 Op. cit. 116 Op. cit. 117 Op. cit. 118 Dick Lilly, Students want role in grading teachers: high-school board proposes evaluations for Seattle district, The Seattle Times, 16 April 1996, 119(92), p. A1. 119 Bristol Lane Voss, More power to the jury, Omni, Sep 1991, 14(3), p. 38. 120 Op. cit. 121 Bill Miller (Washington Post), New courtroom trend: some let jurors ask questions, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A16. 122 Op. cit. 123 Op. cit. 124 Op. cit. 125 Op. cit. 126 Op. cit. 127 Op. cit. 128 Op. cit. 129 Op. cit.

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“You don’t generally want the jury making its own laws; it implies anarchy,” 130…notes Myrna Raeder, chairman of the Committee on Rules of Criminal Procedure and Evidence of the Chicago-based American Bar Association’s Criminal Justice section.131 For now, judges who permit [asking questions] are few and far between, according to one national survey, 132… [but] juries can ignore the law and get away with it.133 Dann said the change is “picking up steam” and generating discussion at judicial conferences.134

“Walls have ears” 135

“Employees are generally at the mercy of employers,” says Robert Ellis Smith, publisher of the Privacy Journal, an independent monthly. “There is no protection in the workplace.” 136 Nearly two-thirds of employers record employee voice mail, e-mail or phone calls, review computer files or videotape workers, the American Management Association said [May 22] as it released a survey that provides the most substantive look yet at the prevalence of employer spying. Moreover, the [association] said, up to a quarter of companies that spy don’t tell their employees. 137

• • •

The mother of a 16-year-old girl has sued Nordstrom and a member of its security staff, contending her daughter was wrongly detained at the department store in the Vancouver Mall. 138 The lawsuit contends [the girl] was in the store on April 6 to return items and shop for summer clothes when [a security-staff member] or other store employees secretly watched the girl disrobe in a dressing room. When [the girl] emerged from the dressing room, “[The security-staff member] handcuffed her wrist, twisted her arm behind her back and forced her across the merchandise display floor and up the escalator in full view of the public in handcuffs,” the lawsuit alleges. Paula Stanely, a spokesperson for the Seattle-based chain, said “Nordstrom is sorry that this incident happened, and we apologized immediately to the customer. “We have also met with the customer’s father and attorney in person to try to come to a solution with them, but their demands have been unreasonable.” 139

• • •

For more than a decade, the chancery building of the U.S. Embassy in Moscow – red brick, empty and forelorn – was a historical landmark, a cautionary monument to Cold War espionage. Seven years of reconstruction slammed to a shuddering halt in 1985.140 Shamefaced American officials belatedly discovered tens of thousands of microscopic listening devices embedded in its concrete walls and sealed off the entire structure.141 When ground was broken in 1979, Americans had caved in to their hosts’ demands that most of the workers and building materials be Soviet.142 The chancery,143…or embassy office building,144…was to cost $72 million; $22 million had already been spent on it when the bugs were discovered.

130 Bristol Lane Voss, More power to the jury, Omni, Sep 1991, 14(3), p. 38. 131 Op. cit. 132 Bill Miller (Washington Post), New courtroom trend: some let jurors ask questions, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A16. 133 Bristol Lane Voss, More power to the jury, Omni, Sep 1991, 14(3), p. 38. 134 Bill Miller (Washington Post), New courtroom trend: some let jurors ask questions, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A16. 135 T. E. Breitenbach, Proverbidioms ™ (NY: 1980). 136 Maggie Jackson (The Associated Press), Most firms spy on employees, survey finds, San Francisco Chronicle, 23 May 1997, 133(109), p. B1. 137 Op. cit. 138 Pacific Northwest, Shopper sues over detention, The Seattle Times, 20 April 1997, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. B3. 139 Op. cit. 140 Alessandra Stanley ( News Service), Embassy’s walls with ears to be rebuilt, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A5. 141 Op. cit. 142 Op. cit. 143 Op. cit. 144 Op. cit.

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Exactly how and when the Soviets managed to slip the devices into the embassy remains a mystery, but years of study and millions of dollars in research, U.S. intelligence agencies traced most of the bugs to the concrete. 145 Although American counterintelligence experts were supposed to oversee all aspects of the construction, security was obviously lax. “There were attractive female construction workers” at the chancery site, said one Russian who worked for the embassy on the construction project more than 10 years ago and spoke on condition of anonymity. “And despite all the guards and warnings, in the underground utilities tunnel, people could walk in and out. There were workers sneaking vodka in and others sneaking stolen equipment out.” When the United States revealed that the building was bugged, all Russian workers were expelled from the site. The episode instantly flared into a major scandal, sparking congressional hearings and intense scrutiny of the State Department and the CIA In [sic] 1987. The spy scandal grew even more dire after a Marine guard at the embassy, Sgt. Clayton Lonetree, who had been seduced by a female KGB agent, was arrested and convicted of espionage. 146 President Ronald Reagan wanted the building razed and a new one erected in its place. That option was deemed too expensive, and the building sat for years until President Clinton persuaded Congress to allocate funds to refurbish it.147 Because the bugging devices are too numerous and deeply embedded to remove, two floors will be lopped off and replaced and two new secure floors will be added to the top of the building, in a refurbishing known as Operaton Top Hat. Diplomats will work in the secure Top Hat areas. Unclassified business will take place on the remaining original floors, which remain susceptible to electronic surveillance. 148 Yuri Kobaladze, spokesperson for the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service, noted dryly: “In general, there is always a device that can break through any protection. The history of mankind has shown that whatever safety system you invent, there is always a way.…” He noted that the end of the Cold War had not brought espionage to a close. “The world may be a safer place,” he said, “but governments still keep secrets from each other.” 149

• • •

Workers renovating rooms in a Vienna hotel discovered sophisticated listening devices behind the walls, and authorities suspect they were planted by the CIA, and Austrian weekly reported [April 14]. German intelligence officials told the Austrian secret service that the bugs may have been installed to eavesdrop on the Iraqi and Iranian delegations to an OPEC meeting in November, the Profile weekly said. 150

• • •

Sometimes, the end justifies the means. Every once and a while, a journalist is ethically obligated to put a camera in her wig and a microphone in her bra and pose as a regular job applicant and employee.151

I Buy Music For Minors

Some of a college student’s most important learning experiences take place outside the formal classroom setting. Political rallies, guest lectures, campus movies, and dormitory “bull sessions” all supplement what the professors teach in class. Some colleges and universities seem to understand this better than others.

145 Op. cit. 146 Op. cit. 147 Op. cit. 148 Op. cit. 149 Op. cit. 150 World Report, Listening devices found in Vienna hotel., San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. 9. 151 Joann Byrd, Good journalist do must outweigh harm, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. E2.

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Throughout the country, efforts are underway to prevent college students from being exposed to certain “controversial” points of view, “offensive” forms of expression, and “dangerous” people. University administrators justify such censorship by invoking their paternalistic role as protectors of the students. But often, they are simply capitulating to pressure from alumni, parents, politicians, faculty and even students. 152

• • •

Dear High School Editor, I know how disappointed you must be in the U.S. Supreme Court’s…decision to censor your school newspaper. Many concerned citizens are upset at the negative message this sends to high school students about freedom of speech and journalistic responsibility. We are also concerned about the message it sends to high school principals: that they are relatively free to impose their own views about controversial subjects – such as divorce, birth control, and sex – on a captive audience of public school students. 153 The Supreme Court’s decision does not mark the last word about the freedom of high school students to publish uncensored newspapers.154 The school cannot censor outside newspapers – it would be good journalism and good education 155…[to] become independent.156 It will teach you about the real world of newspaper. You must sell your product, cultivate readers, find advertisers. You must compete in the open marketplace of ideas. If you are to succeed, your paper must be better than the principal’s paper. There has always been something anomalous about officially sponsored school newspapers. It is difficult to expect those who pay the piper not to try to call the tune. This is especially true when the official newspaper is a monopoly. Even independent newspapers have piper-players who try to call tunes: large advertisers, subscribers, conglomerate owners. But at least they are not government officials. And let there be no mistake: School principals are government officials, answerable to school boards and other politicians. 157 There is no assurance that the principal will approve. Few of those in power like to be criticized by those whom they cannot control. He many [sic] even try to stop you from distributing it on campus. And the law is unclear about whether he can.158 Test the issue: Try to distribute [(free of charge)] your independent newspaper within the school grounds. If the principal tries to stop you, sue him. Or distribute the paper outside the school gates. The current Supreme Court is seeking to cut back on the rights of high school students. The majority of justices seem to have more faith in the exercise of power by the authorities than in the exercise of rights by students. The American way is to fight back when your rights are being curtailed – even against school principals, and even against the Supreme Court. The independent school newspaper is one way to do it in a civilized, mature, and constructive manner. 159 Show the American people that high school students can exercise their First Amendment rights responsibly, in good taste, and with journalistic integrity. Show the world that censorship…is not the American way. 160

152 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Censorship has no place on campus (24 Nov 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 313. 153 Ibidem, Students can fight censors, p. 320. 154 Op. cit. 155 Op. cit. 156 Op. cit. 157 Ibidem, pp. 320-321. 158 Ibidem, p. 321. 159 Op. cit. 160 Op. cit.

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“Make the most of the Indian Hemp Seed and sow it everywhere.” – George Washington, Washington’s Diary Notes (1765) 161, [ 162]

The earliest known woven fabric was made from the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa, which people began working in the eighth millennium [(COLUMBIA HISTORY OF THE WORLD, edited by John A. Garraty and Peter Gay, Dorset Press, Harper and Row, NY, 1981,163 p. 54) 164].165 The oldest known picture of hemp…[is] from an illustrated Dioscorides manusccript [sic], “Constantinopolitanus” (British Museum). 166 Dr. Carl Sagan proposes evidence showing that hemp was the first plant cultivated by man, dating back to the time of primitive hunter-gatherers. In his book, THE DRAGONS OF EDEN, Sagan speculated that marijuana [ 167] (Cannabis sativa) may have been the first crop planted by stone age man, using the primitive lifestyle of pygmies of the Kalahari region in southwest Africa as an example. The pygmies were basically hunter-gatherers until they started planting the marijuana which they use for religious purposes. Marijuana is the only crop cultivated by the pygmies and they claim to have used it since the dawn of time. Both Professor Mircea Eliade and Sir James George Frazer (authors of THE GOLDEN BOUGH), two of the foremost authorities on the history of religious thought, also advocated the theory that early religions were derived from agricultural fertility cults. 168 Richard E. Schultes, a Jeffery Professor of biology and director of the Botanical Museum at Harvard University, stated in his article, Man and Marijuana: “early man experimented with all plant material that he could chew and could not have avoided discovering the properties of cannabis (marijuana), for in his quest for seeds and oil, he certainly ate the sticky tops of the plant.” 169 Hemp has played a prominent role in the development of the religions and civilizations of Asia, the Middle East, Europe and Africa. The insights gained from the marijuana high by the ancient worshippers were considered to be of divine origin and the plant itself an “angel” or messenger of the gods.170

• • •

It is a well documented fact the Presidents Washington and Jefferson both grew hemp. Washington wrote of separating the male plants from the females, a practice that which usually takes place when growing cannabis for phsychoactive [sic] resin production. There has been some speculation that besides using hemp for its fiber, the American founding fathers smoked it as well. 171 Entries in Washington’s 1765 diary include: May 12-13 – Sowed Hemp at Muddy hold by Swamp August 7 – began to separate the male from the female hemp at Do – rather too late [(Writings of George Washington, Vol. 33, p. 433 172)].173

161 Chris Bennett, Lynn Osburn, & Judy Osburn, Green Gold the Tree of Life: Marijuana in Magic & Religion (CA: Access Unlimited, 1995), p. 270. 162 George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, [Benjamin Franklin,] and other farmers and landholders made a point of collecting seeds during their travels abroad. — Paul Raeburn, Our founding fathers, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 74. 163 Chris Bennett, Lynn Osburn, & Judy Osburn, Green Gold the Tree of Life: Marijuana in Magic & Religion (CA: Access Unlimited, 1995), p. 476. 164 Ibidem, p. 2. 165 Op. cit. 166 Ibidem, p. 5. 167 marijuana or marihuana, Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1977). 168 Chris Bennett, Lynn Osburn, & Judy Osburn, Green Gold the Tree of Life: Marijuana in Magic & Religion (CA: Access Unlimited, 1995), pp. 2-3. 169 Ibidem, p. 3. 170 Ibidem, p. 4. 171 Ibidem, p. 270. 172 Op. cit. 173 Op. cit.

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On the other hand, [though highly improbable,] it is possible that Washington was referring to a disappointing yield of seeds resulting from his failure to remove the male plants to make more sunlight available to the remaining females. “As soon as the male plants shed their fauna,” wrote Thomas Jefferson in a book on farming, [“]cut them up, that the whole nourishment may go to the female plants” [(George Andrews and Vinkenoog, THE BOOK OF GRASS: AN ANTHOLOGY OF INDIAN HEMP, Peter Owen Ltd., London, 1967 174)].175

• • •

As one pharmacologist put it, “Those reading only Good Housekeeping would have to believe that marijuana is considerably more dangerous than the black plague.” Unfortunately, an evaluation of marijuana’s risks have been clouded by emotional debate. Let’s see if we can make a realistic appraisal. In the 1970s, it was widely reported that marijuana causes brain damage, genetic damage, and a loss of motivation. These are serious charges, but each has been criticized for being based on poorly done or inconclusive research ([Brecher, E. M. (1975a, March). Marijuana: The health questions. Consumer Reports, 40, pp. 143-149.B K; 176 Julien, R. M. (1985). A primer of drug action (4th ed.). San Francisco: Freeman; 177 National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (1976). Marihuana and health. Princeton, N. J.: Response Analysis Corporation; 178 Zinberg, N. E. (1976, Dec.). The war over marijuana. Psychology Today, pp. 92-98 179]). In addition, major studies in Jamaica, Greece, and Costa Rica failed to find any serious health problems or mental impairment in long-term marijuana smokers ([Carter, W. E. (Ed.) (1980). Cannabis in Costa Rica: A study of chronic marihuana use. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues; 180 Rubin, V., & Comitas, L. (Eds.). (1975). Ganja in Jamaica. The Hague: Mouton; 181 Stefanis, C., Dornbush, R. L., & Fink, M. (1977). Hashish: A study of long-term use. New York: Raven Press 182]).183 Marijuana stirs interest because it helps some people relax and can elevate the mood.184 The subjective effects of marijuana include feelings of euphoria, tranquillity, and passivity.185 Fair to strong intoxication is linked to reports of heightened perceptions, and increases self-insight, creative thinking, and empathy for the feelings of others.186 The major…[active chemical compound] in marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydroncannabinol which, perhaps to save energy, is usually referred to as THC. Other substances with possible psychedelic effects that are found in marijuana include cannabichromene and cannabidol. THC is found in the branches and leaves of male and female plants, but is concentrated highly in the resin of the female plant. Hashish, or “hash,” is derived from this sticky resin.187 The novice does not ordinarily get high the first time he smokes marihuana, and several attempts are usually necessary to induce this state.188 The effects of the drug, when first perceived [by a novice,189] may be physically unpleasant or at least ambiguous.190 The early stages of intoxication are frequently characterized by restlessness, which gives way to calmness.191 Once the drug has taken effect, subjective time passes slowly, and some users report increased sensory experience as well as mild perceptual distortions. Prior experience with the drug, expectancy of its effects, and the setting in which marijuana is used influence the precise reactions. 192 In the last century, marijuana was used almost as aspirin is used today for headaches and minor aches and pains. It could be bought without prescription in any drugstore. Today marijuana use and possession are illegal in

174 Ibidem, p. 475. 175 Ibidem, p. 271. 176 Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. R-4. 177 Ibidem, p. R-14. 178 Ibidem, p. R-20. 179 Ibidem, p. R-29. 180 Ibidem, p. R-5. 181 Ibidem, p. R-23. 182 Ibidem, p. R-26. 183 Ibidem, p. 166. 184 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 192. 185 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 300. 186 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 192. 187 Op. cit. 188 Howard Becker, On becoming a marihuana user, American Journal of Sociology, 1953, pp. 235-242, In Geroge S. Bridges, Deviant Behavior: An Anthology of Readings (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994), p. 52. 189 Ibidem, p. 57. 190 Ibidem, p. 56. 191 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 192. 192 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 300.

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most states, but medical applications are being explored.193 Although much controversy has raged over the effects of marijuana, many states have now decriminalized the possession of small quantities of this substance. 194

Safer Than Aspirin, and It’s Almost Legal

If you pick any three Americans at random, one will have tried marijuana at least once (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1985). More than 18 million Americans may be regular users, which puts marijuana in a league with tobacco and alcohol.195 [By December 1969,] the National Institute of Mental Health estimate[d] that perhaps as many as 20,000,000 Americans – or one out of every ten – ha[d]…tried marijuana at least once. 196 In 1980 nearly 25 million Americans spent $24 billion to smoke marijuana regularly. Another 25 million have tried the drug. One reason that marijuana is the most widely used illegal substance in the United States is the tenacious belief that occasional joints do little, if any, harm. In February 1982 the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, chaired by Arnold Relman, editor of the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine, issued a long-awaited 188-page report on marijuana’s effects.197 The academy had to admit that as yet there is insufficient research to conclude that marijuana causes irreversible long-term damage to mental functioning and physical health.198 Nearly all medicines have toxic, potentially lethal effects. But marijuana is not such a substance. There is no record in the extensive medical literature describing a proven, documented cannabis-induced fatality.199, [ 200] This is a remarkable statement. First, the record on marijuana encompasses 5,000 years of human experience. Second, marijuana is now used daily by enormous numbers of people throughout the world. Estimates suggest that from twenty million to fifty million Americans routinely, albeit illegally, smoke marijuana without the benefit of direct medical supervision. Yet, despite this long history of use and the extraordinarily high numbers of social smokers, there are simply no credible medical reports to suggest that consuming marijuana has caused a single death. 201 A smoker would theoretically have to consume nearly 1,500 pounds of marijuana within about fifteen minutes to induce a lethal response.202 In practical terms, marijuana cannot induce a lethal response as a result of drug-related toxicity.203 By contrast aspirin, a commonly used, over-the-counter medicine, causes hundreds of deaths each year.204 “Congress should definately consider decriminalizing possession of marijuana. We should concentrate on prosecuting the rapists and burglars who are a menace to society.” 205

• • •

There is some evidence that marijuana inhibits ovulation (Abel, 1985); thus its use might make it more difficult to become pregnant.206 [Marijuana also] appears to have a modest reversible suppressive effect on sperm production in men, but there is no proof that it “[”impairs“]” male fertility. 207 [It] temporarily lowers sperm production.208

193 Op. cit. 194 Ibidem, p. 301. 195 Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. 165. 196 Forum Newsfront, Playboy, Dec 1969, 16(12), p. 72. 197 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 193. 198 Op. cit. 199 Francis L. Young (Administrative Law Judge, U.S. Department of Justice/Drug Enforcement Administration), Marijuana Rescheduling Petition (6 Sep 1988), DEA Docket No. 86-22 at page 56, Calyx Internet Access, June 1997, http://www.calyx.com/~olsen/MEDICAL/YOUNG/young4.html. 200 Carr, R. R., & Meyers, E. J. (1980). Marijuana and cocaine: The process of change in drug policy. In The facts about “drug abuse.” The Drug Abuse Council. New York: The Free Press, In Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. 165. 201 Ibidem, DEA Docket No. 86-22 at page 57. 202 Op. cit. 203 Op. cit. 204 Op. cit. 205 U.S. Rep. Dan Quayle (March 1977), In Calyx Internet Access, Marijuana and the War on Drugs, June 1997, http://www.calyx.net/marijuana.html. 206 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 131. 207 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 193. 208 Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. 166.

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[J.] Coates (1980), however, pointed out the benefits of marijuana in treating certain physical ailments. For example, open-angle glaucoma, an eye disorder that can lead to blindness, temporarily responds to the drug; patients nauseated by chemotherapy for cancer often find relief with marijuana treatment. Researchers are now experimenting with the use of marijuana for victims of multiple sclerosis and for people afflicted by seizures. Such findings – and there seem to be new ones almost every week – show how little we know about marijuana and how much we still have to learn [(Coates, J. (1980, March 26). Pot more perilous than we thought. . pp. 1, 14 209)].210

Our Drug Czar et al.

In a recent interview in Seattle, [Gen. Barry McCaffrey 211] noted that the Army today is virtually drug-free. That didn’t happen by “kicking ass and arresting people,” he said, “but by education and prevention.” So it is that education and prevention are the centerpieces of the national drug strategy that McCaffrey wants to talk about, if only somebody would listen. The general, who was commander and division chief of staff at Fort Lewis from 1982 to 1986, now claims this area as home.212

• • •

[O]n November [5, 213] voters in California [and Arizona 214] approved a referendum legalizing the medical use of marijuana – 215…and in the case of Arizona, heroin, LSD nnd methamphetamines as well. 216 In San Francisco, Proposition 215 got almost 79 percent of the vote, the highest percentage from any of California’s 58 counties. 217 “The proposition is the law of the land, but it is not being followed (in the rural areas),” 218…co-author of Proposition 215 and the director of the San Francisco Cannabis Cultivators Club, 219…[Dennis] Peron said.220 Police officers in Mountain View, Calif.,221…had seized six plants and equipment, 222…[but] at the direction of a Santa Clara County prosecutor, who said the county would not prosecute anyone who cultivated marijuana solely for medicinal purposes,223…the police returned the marijuana.224 The federal government refuses to sanction such legal use of marijuana, and has threatened physicians with prosecution or possible loss of their medical licenses if they suggest pot.225 The Justice Department and the Department of Health and Human Services…[is] attempt[ing] to draw a line between medical office discussions protected by the First Amendment and those that are contrary to the law. 226

209 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-28. 210 Ibidem, p. 301. 211 Mindy Cameron, Recent turbulence won’t throw drug czar off course, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. B6. 212 Op. cit. 213 Across the Nation, Drug czar open to possibility of allowing medical use of pot, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A6. 214 Op. cit. 215 The Associated Press, Police return seized marijuana, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI (50, 720), p. A2. 216 Across the Nation, Drug czar open to possibility of allowing medical use of pot, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A6. 217 Edward Epstein, Marijuana prescription protection; S.F. panel Oks measure to shield some doctors, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A20. 218 Glen Martin, State’s rural pot growers feel the heat; in spite of Prop. 215, police step up arrests, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A20. 219 Op. cit. 220 Op. cit. 221 The Associated Press, Police return seized marijuana, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI (50, 720), p. A2. 222 Op. cit. 223 Op. cit. 224 Op. cit. 225 Edward Epstein, Marijuana prescription protection; S.F. panel Oks measure to shield some doctors, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A20. 226 Robert Suro (Washington Post), Doctors get OK to talk pot, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A20.

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[So] a federal judge slapped a temporary restraining order on the U.S. Justice Department,…prohibiting the prosecution of California doctors who recommend marijuana to their patients. 227 “The judge clearly did the right thing in stopping the government from threatening doctors for simply practicing medicine,” 228…said Graham Boyd, the lead attorney in the doctor’s lawsuit. 229 Barring physicians from discussing marijuana with a patient “means the patient is forced to depend on information from unreliable sources,” Boyd said, “not from their physician, which is why the patient goes to the physician in the first place.” 230 Ralph Seeley, diagnosed 10 years ago with a rare form of terminal bone cancer, told the court that his constitutional rights were being violated by federal and state laws that allow doctors to prescribe cocaine and opium, but not marijuana.231 He said he has tried a number of painkillers, including the government-approved synthetic form of marijuana that puts the key active ingredient of the plant in pill form. But they made him so violently ill that he said he considered simply letting the disease run its course. Then he tried smoking marijuana and enjoyed almost instant relief from his agony.232 “I need this stuff in my system. I need it in my blood. Giving me a pill that I can’t keep down isn’t effective medicine,” Seeley told the court. “Anybody can get it. The question is, why do we have to choose between suffering and breaking the law?” 233 Encouraged by the recent passage of [a] California ballot measure, organizers here [in the Seattle region] are studying the effort that legalized the cultivation, possession and use of marijuana for medical purposes. 234 Wealthy national advocates of legalizing marijuana have joined the effort to liberalize Washington state drug laws. 235 [Initiative 685 236] faces July 3 deadline for collecting 179,248 signatures. 237 [Citizens for Drug Policy Reform] ha[ve] rewritten the initiative to remove a provision that would have allowed nurses, chiropractors or veterinarians to recommend controlled substances.238 The initiative, which would be on the November ballot, would: • Allow doctors to recommend that patients use illegal drugs, including marijuana, heroin and LSD for medicinal pruposes. • Release from prison all nonviolent people convicted of drug possession. • Allow judges to require treatment, not prison, for drug users. It also would require people convicted of a violent crime while under the influence of drugs to serve their full sentence and not be eligible for parole.239

Slow People Don’t Smoke Pot

Robert R. Pagano exemplifies in his text, Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences, that moderate marijuana users exhibit faster reaction times than both light users and subjects who had not previously used the drug. When all three groups were intoxicated on marijuana, moderate users demonstrated the least impairment in reaction times. Whether intoxicated or sober, non-users exhibited slower reaction times than users under the same conditions.240 In [another] experiment, marijuana smokers were given either a marijuana or a placebo cigarette to smoke. Some subjects were told to overcome the drug’s effects in performing tasks; others were not told to do so. The researchers wanted to find out whether subjects could control their performance even after marijuana intoxication – that is, whether they could “come down” from a “high” at will. Their results indicated that marijuana intoxication

227 Bill Wallace, No prosecution for doctors who recommend pot; Justice Dept. hit with temporary ban, San Francisco Chronicle, 12 April 1997, 133(74), p. A1. 228 Op. cit. 229 Op. cit. 230 Ibidem, p. A13. 231 Hunter T. George (The Associated Press), Medical marijuana ban goes before state supreme court. 232 Op. cit. 233 Op. cit. 234 Puget Sound , Calif. measure on marijuana studied, The Seattle Times, 18 Nov 1996, p. B2. 235 David Postman, Outside donors support initiative; $250,000 used to gather signatures on jarijuana effort, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A1. 236 Op. cit. 237 Op. cit. 238 Op. cit. 239 Op. cit. 240 Robert R. Pagano, Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences, 4th ed. (Minn.: West Publ. Co., 1994), p. C-57.

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influences the person’s ability to estimate time and to remember lists of words. Moreover, motivating subjects to overcome the effects of marijuana improved the subjects’ performance at estimating time but not their ability to remember lists of words ([Cappell, H., & Pliner, P. (1973). Volitional control of marijuana intoxication: A study of the ability to “come down” on command. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 82, 428-434 241]).242

Get Your Kid High Before Somebody Else Does: Go To A Zoo

In most cases, a child’s behavior is a result of both peer and parental influence ([Simmons, R. G., Conger, R. D., & Whitebeck, L. B. (1988). A multistage social learning model of the influences of family and peers upon adolescent substance use. The Jorunal of Drug Issues, 18, 293-315 243]).244 Many new users are ashamed to admit ignorance and, pretending to know already, must learn through the more indirect means of observation and imitation. 245 Kandel (1973) studied marijuana use by adolescents whose parents either used or did not use psychoactive drugs and whose best friends used or did not use marijuana. Among teenagers whose best friends were nonusers but whose parents were users, only 17 percent smoked marijuana. If only friends used drugs, 56 percent of the adolescents reported using marijuana. Howerver, 67 percent of the subjects used marijuana when both parents and peers were users. Thus, there was a combined impact of drug usage by parents and peers on marijuana use by adolescents. Age makes a difference,246…[and] the use of illicit drugs seems to depend less upon situational factors and more on the response to psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, or rejection. If marijuana has been used to resolve such personal or psychological problems rather than as a response to social situations, it is likely to lead to use of hard drugs.247 While drug use for preteens is still relatively low, a survey [March 4] says marijuana use by children in the fourth through sixth grades doubled last year – from 2 percent to 4 percent. 248 The survey, prepared for the New York-based Partnership for a Drug-Free America, found children in those grades less likely than before to believe drugs are risky, more likely than before to believe they are acceptable and more likely to experiment with them. 249 The survey also found children were less likely to believe “people on drugs are stupid.” 250 Among teens, 44% from millde and upper income homes reported trying marijuana vs. 34% from low-income homes.251 Over 6 percent of high school seniors use marijuana every day, and some smokeers and remain stoned while in school. Whereas adolescent boys are almost twice as likely as girls to be daily marijuana users, the use of tobacco by girls has increased in the past decade, until teenage girls are now heavier smokers than are their male peers.252 One cause for concern about teen-age smoking is that the better the lung function in early adulthood, the healthier a person is likely to be as an adult.253 Many non-users may imagine the typical marijuana smoker is a hippie; an unemployed, uninvolved twenty-something-year-old-loser-still-living-at-home-with-mother; a young suburban skateboarder; or an egg in a frying pan. Almost every psychoactive drug has been regarded by some society as a dire threat to public order and moral standards, while as a source of harmless pleasure by others. Almost every society has one drug whose use is tolerated, while others are regarded with deep suspicion,254…[but those who Duck and Cover, those] noted for strict observance of rites and ceremonies of the written law and for insistence on the validity of their own oral traditions concerning the law,255…[tend to also believe in Reefer Madness].

241 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-27. 242 Ibidem, pp. 300-301. 243 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. R-57. 244 Ibidem, p. 491. 245 Howard Becker, On becoming a marihuana user, American Journal of Sociology, 1953, pp. 235-242, In Geroge S. Bridges, Deviant Behavior: An Anthology of Readings (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994), p. 53. 246 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 491. 247 Ibidem, p. 626. 248 Marijuana use doubles among some children, study says, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A4. 249 Op. cit. 250 Time Friend, Report shows that more preteens are trying drugs, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 1A. 251 Op. cit. 252 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 624. 253 Jane E. Brody (The New York Times). 254 British Medical Association, Living with Risk (1990), In Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 9. 255 [non-denominational] Pharisee, 1, Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1991).

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We can stop insulting young people’s intelligence by trying to pass off anti-drug propaganda as drug “education.” 256 In America, the “Just Say No” campaign is losing credibility and is being challenged by more and more critics, but the official anti-drug view has not changed.257 In Britain, the Independent and have launched a crusade to legalize drugs on the grounds that prohibition is the root cause of about half of all crime, and that present policies simply do not work.258

Acid

LSD is the abbreviation for lysergic diethylamide acid [or lysergic acid diethylamide, 259, 260, 261, 262] a synthetic hallucinogenic drug.263 LSD or “acid” gained notoriety as a hallucinogen in the mid-1960s. Praised by users as a potent psychedelic, consciousness-expanding drug, LSD produces distortions of reality and hallucinations. “Good trips” are experiences of sharpened visual and auditory perception, heightened sensation, convictions that one has achieved profound philosophical insights, and feelings of ecstasy. “Bad trips” include fear and panic from distortions of sensory expriences, severe depression, marked confusion and disorientation, and delusions. Some users report “flashbacks” or the recurrence of hallucinations or other sensations days or weeks after taking LSD. Fatigue, stress, or the use of another drug may trigger a “flashback.” LSD is considered a psychotomimetic drug because, in some cases, it produces reactions that mimic those seen in acute psychotic reactions. It does not produce physical dependence, even in users who have taken the drug hundreds of times. Aside from its psychological effects, no substantial evidence supports the notion that LSD is dangerous in and of itself. Large doses do not cause death, although there are reports of people who have unwittingly committed suicide while under the influence of LSD. Initially researchers believed that LSD caused chromosomal damage and spontaneous abortions, but such events are probably attributable to impurities in the drug, the use of other drugs, or the unhealthy lifestyles of many users. 264

Ecstasy Combined With Acid Is Called A Candyflip

In the Swinging Sixties, LSD was touted as being capable of changing the world through the compelling self-insight it was supposed to afford. Two decades later, in a world still teetering on the brink, a drug called MDMA, or “Ecstasy,” is the new savior on the block.265

Ecstasy: The Love Drug

The derby soccer matches, in which two teams from the same city play each other, are notorious for generating violent incidents.266 One young man, who was very new to the Ecstasy/rave sence but something of a veteran of derby match violence, said that a shiver went down his back at the thought of what he expected to happen. 267 “And the last time I saw him he wanted to kill me and everybody like me. I thought, ‘Hello, here we go,’ and he just stands at the bar at the side of me and says, ‘Well, who’d have thought that we would be stood side by side the night before a derby game and there’s no trouble in any of us. It’s weird, innit? It could never have happened before E.’ Well, I thought to myself, ‘Thank Christ for that.’ ” 268

256 Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 18. 257 Ibidem, p. 21. 258 Op. cit. 259 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 301. 260 James P. Chaplin, Dictionary of Psychology: Revised Edition, (NY: Laurel, Dell Publ. Co., Inc., 1982(1968)). 261 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 111. 262 Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1977). 263 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 194. 264 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), pp. 301-302. 265 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 187. 266 Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 51. 267 Op. cit. 268 Op. cit.

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A reader studying political factions in Northern Ireland told [Nicholas Saunders] that the resulting breakdown in hard-line sectarianism among the youth was a cause of concern to the paramilitaries, but no one seemed to be trying to stop kids from making friends at raves.269 In the summer of 1994, just before the IRA ceasefire, [Saunders] spent three days in Northern Ireland visiting a Catholic club one night and a Protestant club the . [He] interviewed teenage kids at a rave event in the Catholic club with a home video camera. As new spread about what [he] was doing, lots of them were eager to tell [him] about the friendships they had made with members of the opposite sect, who, they assured me, they would never have met otherwise. 270

• • •

Users and proponents claim that Ecstasy allows clients in therapy to talk about things that would normally be too frightening. A Massachusetts woman took Ecstasy to enable her to discuss her terminal cancer with her family. A San Francisco rape victim used Ecstasy in order to be able to face her memories of her attack ([Toufexis, A. (1985, June 10). A crackdown on Ecstasy. Time Magazine, 64 271]). Lester Grinspoon, a Harvard University psychiatrist, says that Ecstasy “helps people get in touch with feelings which are not ordinarily available to them” ([Adler, J., Abramson, P., Katz, S., & Hager, M. (1985, April 15). Getting high on “ecstasy.” Newsweek, p. 96 272]).273 [Nicholas Sanders] carried out a small survey of [his] own on overall changes in attitudes resulting from Ecstasy use. During the winter of 1994, [he] included survey forms in the last 1,000 copies of E for Ecstasy, so the results apply to [his] readers rather than to typical users. One hundred thirty-seven questionaires were returned: most answered all the questions. The sexes were roughly equally represented. Twenty percent were students, but two thirds had full-time jobs; nearly half of these earned $22,000 or more, with several earning over $60,000. The average age was about 25, but 23% were over 30. Most had taken at least one other drug with their last E: the most popular was marijuana, followed by amphetamine, alcohol, and tobacco. Only 10% of the under-30s took Ecstasy by itself, compared with half of those who were older. Most people took a single tablet; as many took half a tablet as more than one. All questions related to effects as noticed in normal life, not while under the influence. In order, the significant effects of Ecstasy use reported were: 1. Increased enjoyment of dancing 2. Increased quality of life 3. Greater ease of self-expression 4. More caring for others 5. Increased spiritual awareness 6. Greater happiness 7. Increased closeness with lover There were no other significant changes in average behavior. In particular, patterns of sleep, paranoia, and casual sex were unchanged.274 Ecstasy has also been credited with relaxing social inhibitions, enhancing the joys of sex, and enabling people to trust one another. But unlike stimulants, Ecstasy in normal doses is not reported to produce a rush of euphoria; unlike hallucinogenics, Ecstasy apparently does not produce hallucinations [at conventional dosages] or impair the user’s ability to distinguish between reality and fantasy.275 Although many young people on the dance scene now drink and do not take Ecstasy, the normal way to behave is still free of [meaningless and superficial] small talk… 276 Ever hang around a group of people who don’t look at you when they talk? Who don’t include you in the conversation [(i.e., small talk),] and refuse to laugh at your jokes? Hang around those folks long enough and the slightest attention feels like a meal for the starving.277 …or sexual agression. Many younger people have not known anything else, so that this new style is not so much a rejection as the socially accepted way to behave. The difference widens the generation gap even further. 278

269 Op. cit. 270 Ibidem, p. 50. 271 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. R-39. 272 Ibidem, p. R-1. 273 Ibidem, p. 187. 274 Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), pp. 47-48. 275 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 187. 276 Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 49. 277 Rosie Black, Tired of Mr. Whitey, The Stranger, 23 Jan 1997, 6(18), p. 9.

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Behavior at raves during the first few years, when nearly everyone was on E, was very different from that at alcohol-based clubs and seemed to follow from lack of male sexual aggression. Hugging and even carassing strangers was acceptable on a sensous level without implying a sexual advance. Sheila Henderson (a researcher studying the way young women use Ecstasy and author of papers entitled, “Women, Sexuality and Ecstasy” [(Women, Sexuality and Ecstasy Use – The Final Report 1993, by Sheila Henderson, published by Lifeline, 101 Oldham St, Manchester M4 1LW 279)] and “Luvdup and DeElited,” [(Luvdup and DeLited, by Sheila Henderson, researcher for Lifeline, a non-statuory drug agency in Manchester. A paper given at South Bank Polytechnic, 5/92 280)] wrote in 1992, “Most men have the opposite of an erection: a shrinking penis.” Women can enjoy kissing at raves because it is safe – not a prelude to having sex. They are less likely to have casual sex following a night of raving than after going to an alcohol-based club. As one girl put it, “you don’t go to a rave to score.” 281

• • •

“The single best use of MDMA is to facilitate more direct communication between people involved in a significant emotional relationship,” 282…[and] for promoting self-understanding and spiritual and personal growth. Positive, mostly long-lasting, changes in relationships were reported by most.283 Other benefits that were claimed ranged from a greater acceptance of others to an appreciation of being alive and a feeling that they could be more warm and loving [(“Subjective Reports of the Effects of MDMA in a Clinical Setting,” by George Greer and Requa Tolbert, from Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 18/4, 1986 284)].285 According to the article in the American Journal of Psychotherapy by Grinspoon and Bakalar, [(“Can Drugs Enhance Psychotherapy?” by Grinspoon and Bakalar, from American Journal of Psychotherapy, 1986)] the effects of MDMA – heightened capacity for introspection along with temporary freedom from anxiety and depression – is said to strengthen the therapeutic alliance (between therapist and client) by inviting self-disclosure and enhancing trust. Clients in MDMA-assisted therapy report that they lose defensive anxiety and feel more emotionally open, making it possible for them to get in touch with feelings and thoughts that are not ordinarily available to them. 286 Couples resolved significant conflicts under MDMA.287 They were released from defensive anxiety and felt more emotionally open, which made it possible for them to get in touch with deeper feelings. A patient described the major difference between psychotherapy with and without MDMA as “being safe. Nothing could threaten me” [(Op. cit.)].288 [Self-therapy] can [also] work, but a helper is essential. There has to be someone to accept, listen, acknowledge, and give the support of unconditional love to the client, but not to control the session. It is easier to empathize if the helper is also on MDMA, but it is not necessary. MDMA can also be used in co-counseling-type sessions (where two people take turns at being therapist and client) [(Interview with Deborrah Harlow, research fellow at the Division of Addictions, Harvard Medical School, 10/93 289)].290

• • •

Overdose story – “I was fed up with the quality of E, so I went to Holland and bought 200, packed them in condoms, and swallowed them. I looked out of the plane window and saw the wing melt and the next thing I remember was waking up in a hospital with the police looking down at me. When the condoms came out, 50 pills were missing.” — Letter from a reader in prison [who survived 50 doses].291

278 Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 49. 279 Ibidem, p. 43. 280 Op. cit. 281 Ibidem, p. 44. 282 Idibem, p. 124. 283 Op. cit. 284 Op. cit. 285 Op. cit. 286 Ibidem, pp. 124-125. 287 Ibidem, p. 124. 288 Op. cit. 289 Ibidem, p. 133. 290 Op. cit. 291 Ibidem, p. 75.

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DEA & MDMA

Until 1995, MDMA was as legal as aspirin and Tums, although it is much more expensive (about $10-$30 on the street for a 100-milligram dose). But then MDMA became prohibited under the Controlled Substances Act of 1984, which permits the drug Enforcement Administration to temporarily ban drugs. 292 In 1985, the [Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA)] sought to “temporarily” place MDMA in Schedule I [ 293] under the emergency scheduling powers granted by 21 U.S.C. Section 811. Under those powers, the DEA had the authority to place drugs in Schedule I without providing the opportunity for public comment and hearings that it normally required for such placement.294, [ 295] Congress enacted the Controlled Substance Analogue Enforcement Act in October 1986. The Act provides that a “controlled substance analogue” intended for human consumption is to be treated as a Schedule I controlled substance, and defines an “analogue” as a drug that is not itself scheduled and that meets any one of the following descriptions: (1) Any drug with a chemical structure substantially similar to that of a Schedule I or II drug. (2) Any drug that has a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogenic effect on the central nervous system that is substantially similar to that of a Schedule I or II drug. (3) Any drug represented as having, or intended to have, a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogenic effect on the central nervous system that is substantially similar to that of a schedule I or II drug, if the person being charged under the Act is the person who made such a representation or had such intentions. The Act’s language has been criticized as overly broad; indeed, the language would seem to render illegal any substance, even sugar, if it were “represented as having” an effect “substantially similar” to that of a controlled substance.296 Beginning in 1987, several federal courts held that the temporary scheduling was invalid, and struck down the federal statute granting the DEA the power to engage in emergency temporary scheduling. [ 297] In 1991, the Supreme Court overruled the lower courts and upheld the DEA’s temporary emergency scheduling powers. In the meantime, the DEA issued a final rule in November 1986, permanently placing MDMA in Schedule I pursuant to the normal scheduling procedures. That final rule was vacated in 1987 by a federal judge, who held that the DEA had improperly given conclusive weight to the absence of FDA marketing approval as indicating a lack of accepted medical use or accepted safety for use under medical supervision. In an effort to remedy the improper scheduling, the DEA in 1988 [(March 23) 298] issued another final rule, again placing MDMA in Schedule I. The 1988 scheduling is flawed because the DEA relied on criteria subsequently ruled invalid by the Court of Appeals of the D.C. Circuit in a 1991 case, Alliance for Cannabis Therapeutics v. D.E.A., 930 F.2d. 936 (“the ACT case”).299

• • •

292 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 187. 293 The chairman of the [World Health Organization (WHO)] Expert Committee disagreed with this decision, stating, “At this time, international control is not warrented.” A clause was added encouraging member nations to “facilitate research on this interesting substance” [(22nd report of the Expert Committee on Drug Dependence 1985, published by the World Health Organization as part of its Technical Report Series #729)]. — Nicholas Saunders with Rick Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), pp. 10, 11. 294 Ibidem, pp. 92-93. 295 One widely publicized report referred to evidence that another drug, MDA, caused brain damage in rats and concluded that MDMA could cause brain damage in humans. The media spun horror scenarios of kids’ brains rotting by the time they were 30, although there is no evidence that MDMA causes brain damage in rats at a dose equivalent to that used by humans. On the other side were the psychotherapists who gave evidence of the benefits of the drug – but they had been unable to carry out scientifically acceptable trials in secret. Their evidence was regarded as anecdotal. — Ibidem, pp. 10-11. 296 Ibidem, pp. 93-94. 297 The DEA Administrative hearing ended with the judge recommending that MDMA be placed in a less restrictive category, Schedule 3, which would have allowed it to be manufactured, to be used if prescribed, and to be the subject of research. The recommendation was ignored by the DEA, which refused to back down and instead placed MDMA permanently in Schedule 1. — Ibidem, p. 11. 298 Op. cit. 299 Ibidem, p. 93.

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When the World Health Organisation (WHO) asked members of the United Nations to ban MDMA, it included a clause encouraging member countries to do research into therapeutic use of the drug. Although Switzerland is not a member of the UN, the Swiss government was impressed enough to be guided by its recommendation and licensed a group of psychiatrists to use MDMA from 1988 to 1993.300

300 Ibidem, p. 129.

25 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Harm Reduction

Harm reduction involves knowing the available options and getting educated to the risks.

• • •

Many legal drugs, including barbiturates, tranquilizers, analgesics, opiates, alcohol, and tobacco, can be addictive.301 Of course we’re a country addicted to drugs – from crack to Prozac.302 We are such a pill-popping culture that we seldom stop to think about whether we should take a certain drug. 303 “My experience has been that at parties, kids will take what is given to them. If someone said you could smoke a bar of soap and get high, I suspect kids would try to do it,” [observed Dr. Michael Shannon, a toxicologist at Children’s Hospital in Boston].304

• • •

The Food and Drug Administration moved [June 2] to limit the dosages of the active ingredient in many dietary supplements and ban the marketing of such products as long-term ways to lose weight or build muscles.305 Makers of ephedrine alkaloid products indicated they may object to the FDA proposals. 306 The proposals came in response to at least 17 deaths and 800 reports of illness associated with the stimulant ephedrine alkaloid, an amphetaminelike compound.307 Specifically, the agency would prohibit all ephedrine products from containing 8 milligrams or more per dose.308 Ephedrine alkaloids have also been used in traditional herbal medicine to combat cold and chest ailments, a practice which the FDA would permit as a short-term use under the new proposal.309 The proposals are not nearly as tough as state laws passed last year in Florida and New York. These laws ban all ephedrine alkaloid products. 310

• • •

A 14-year-old girl [March 11] was charged with stealing a mail-order shipment of a muscle relaxant from a neighbor’s porch and passing out the pills at a dance. The girl, whose name was not released because of her age, was charged with distribution of a prescription drug and stealing a controlled substance. She pleaded not guilty and was released on her own recognizance. The girl was among the 14 teenagers hospitalized after taking the drug baflocen at the Feb. 28 dance at the Woburn, [Massachusetts,] Boys and Girls Club. They have made full recoveries. 311

• • •

301 James E. Marti with Andrea Hine, The Alternative Health & Medicine Encyclopedia, (NY: Gale Research Inc., 1995), p. 156. 302 Cecile Andrews, Want to live long? Ask activist, age 99, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. E2. 303 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publ. Co., 1990), p. 128. 304 Quotation of the day, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A2. 305 Dina Bass (Los Angeles Times), FDA wants to limit use of herbal stimulants, The Seattle Times, 3 June 1997, 120(132), p. A7. 306 Op. cit. 307 Op. cit. 308 Op. cit. 309 Op. cit. 310 Op. cit. 311 The Associated Press, Girl, 14, is charged in case of pills at dance, The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A13.

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Crack cocaine poisoning has sent 22 people to [Winter Haven, Florida,] area hospitals [(six were in critical condition),312] and authorities warned…that the drug had…been laced with a chemical. 313 A man was arrested… with blocks of crack of an unusual shape, color and odor.314

• • •

The more enlightened authorities admit that preventing drug use is an unattainable goal, but still claim it is possible to reduce the harm caused by drug use. Harm reduction policies are based on the idea that harm results largely from the ways in which drugs are used, and that these can be influenced. This approach was first applied to heroin users, in response to the AIDS scare, by supplying free needles to prevent HIV from being spread through needle sharing.315 The state should consider getting needle exchanges off the streets and into drug stores, where pharmacists can exchange dirty syringes, said Bob Wood of the Seattle-King County Health Board.316 Harm reduction…has been adopted as a policy by the Manchester City Council in the form of the Safer Dancing Campaign. The policy accepts that it is impractical to prevent drug use within dancing venues, but that it is practical to reduce dangers resulting from the use of drugs by making those venues safer. As a result, many club owners are becoming more responsible and some even employ people to look after ravers. 317 Russell Newcombe, Ph.D., says that primary prevention has failed. However, it has been shown that education can slow the development of the more problematic forms of drug use. This suggets that it would be prudent to divert some resources toward secondary prevention or harm reduction – preventing the overdoses, addictions, and infections that result from ignorance. According to Newcombe, the four main components of a harm reduction strategy should be (1) rationale, (2) content, (3) implementation, and (4) evaluation. (1) It should be acknowledged that people like to get high, and that this is not likely to change. Drug use may be rational, not deviant, Newcombe says. It should be acknowledged that many psychoactive drugs are no more harmful than prescribed drugs. “The message that drugs are unhealthy is akin to warning soldiers in battle that chewing gum can cause indigestion,” he says. Harm reduction policies are based on a caring rather than a judgemental approach, and are therefore less likey to drive drug dealer underground. (2) The strategy must be based on knowledge. The focus should be on controlling use rather than on encouraging complete abstinence, which is out of place in modern life. Instructions should be given on suitable quantities, effects, safest methods of administration, obtaining help when needed, avoiding hazards, and methods of controlling mental states. (3) The implementation strategy should draw on knowledge of how to maximize the probability of success. Drug use tends to start with heavy smoking and drinking, so smokers and drinkers are a suitable target, although there may be a risk of arousing an interest in drug use, and there may be objections from parents. (4) It will be necessary to do before-and-after studies and long-term followups using control groups to evaluate the effectiveness of harm reduction strategies [(“High Time for Harm Reduction,” by Russel Newcombe, Druglink, 1/87 318)].319

312 Across the Nation, Bad batch of crack sends 22 to hospitals in Floria, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A8. 313 Op. cit. 314 Op. cit. 315 Nicholas Saunders with R. Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 135. 316 Washington, Across the USA: news from every state, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 9A. 317 Nicholas Saunders with R. Doblin, Ecstasy: Dance, Trance & Transformation (CA: Quick Am. Archives, 1996), p. 135. 318 Op. cit. 319 Op. cit.

27 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Prohibition

America has always been given to puritanical snits – sex, alcohol, tobacco, drugs and any form of music favored by youths have always sent moralists into outrage.320 [Now House Speaker Newt] Gingrich proposes that drug dealers get mandatory life terms on first convictions and the death sentence for second convictions. “If you sell it, we are going to kill you,” he said.321 The Texas Legislature is about to criminalize cigarette smoking in teens, and a federal judge in North Carolina ruled last [April] that nicotine is a drug and can be regulated by the Food and Drug Administration.322 [Author of “The Pleasure Police: How Blue-Nosed Busybodies and Lily-Livered Alarmists Are Taking All the Fun Out of Life,” David 323] Shaw, himself a fairly militant anti-cigarette cigar-smoker, is correct in his scenario. “Supplies plummet. Demand soars. A black market quickly develops to fill the void. Prices skyrocket. As with [the alcohol] Prohibition, people start making their own illicit cigarettes. People get sick – and die – from the toxic bootleg product. . . . Latter-day Al Capones use modern terrorist tactics in a battle to control the illicit tobacco trade.” 324

• • •

Prohibition creates more problems than solutions. We've created a war-like relationship between government and its citizens over such…beneficial plant[s] 325 [– Cannibis sativa, C. sativa indica, Erythroxylon coca, and Papaver somniferum,[ 326] among other chemical compounds].[ 327] “It’s a war out there – and we’re losing,” says former customs inspector [Mike] Horner.328

• • •

Cocaine, like the opiates, is for some people a highly and debilitating drug. To legalize it in the sense of making it available for consumption to everyone would produce a set of problems comparable to those resulting from the fact that alcohol is legal. That is, most people who use cocaine would not become addicted and in time mechanisms for controlling its use would develop within the culture. Doctors and other specialists would become more knowledgeable about how to help people for whom the drug was addictive much as we have learned how to help people cope with problems of alcoholism. Needless to say, this solution is not a perfect one, but the alternative – making the drug illegal and thereby creating crime networks – is a very high price to pay for a relatively small benefit. It is unlikely that many more people than presently experience problems with cocaine would experience problems if the drug were legal. When alcohol is an illegal commodity, the number of alcoholics is not significantly lower.329

320 Molly Ivins, A capitalistic nanny state, San Francisco Chronicle, 20 May 1997, p. A23. 321 Op. cit. 322 Op. cit. 323 Op. cit. 324 Op. cit. 325 Joan Conrow, Grass-roots movement pushes hemp, Honolulu Advertiser, 21 March 1993, pp. A8+. 326 In their fresh form, the illegal poppies, known as Papaver somniferum, grace gardens all over the country. Boquets of the poppies can even be bought in supermarkets,…most any florist’s shop or craft store, where they are sold for dried-flower arrangements. — The New York Times, Dried poppies become cause célèbre, lead to charges against Seattle man, The Seattle Times, 25 May 1997, 15(21), p. B2. 327 Primatologists try[] to learn about the animals: how they fight, mate, play. Recently fresh eyes peering through the underbrush have focused instead on what humans can learn from the great apes – specifically, what they know about medicine. “We call it ‘zoopharmacognosy,’ ” says John P. Berry, a 24-year-old plant biochemist at Cornell University who has spent months in Bwindi studying mountain gorillas. “Anthropologist Richard W. Wrangham and my advisor, Eloy Rodriguez, came up with that term after several beers in an African disco” to describe their novel approach to drug hunting: analyze the plants that other animals eat when they feel ill. — Science and the Citizen, Jungle Medicine, Scientific American, Dec 1996, 275(6), p. 20. 328 Trevor Armbrister, Our drug-plagued Mexican border, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 58. 329 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 215.

28 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Marijuana use is much less harmful than the use of alcohol. Where marijuana use has been essentially legalized (in California for example), crime networks have dissipated in importance in the production and supply of this commodity.330 Indeed, the elimination of profits from drugs and gambling would reduce the annual take of crime networks in the United States by billions of dollars. Since money is power, it would correspondingly reduce their power. 331 The second condition necessary for reducing the power and influence of crime networks is the creation of organizations to survey government operations. We cannot expect the [FBI,332] police or the CIA to control their own criminality. The forces that lead to their criminality are far too powerful. What is necessary is that citizen groups form that will constantly watch over government agencies. 333

• • •

The seeds for the first national organized crime networks were planted in the late 1800s. In the face of massive worker unrest and demands for the right to organize trade unions, big business hired thugs as strike breakers. Rather than rely on the uncertain supply of local talent to control recalcitrant workers, large corporations imported gangs from other cities. This required a degree of organization and cooperation that ended in the creation of companies specializing in “strike breakers.” Many of these same groups later became involved in organized crime networks.334 Between 1914 and 1937, lawmakers and law enforcement agencies eagerly lobbied for and passed legislation that filled the need of organized crime networks for a commodity that was illegal, that required the kind of organization and expertise they possessed, and that was extremely profitable. During these years laws were passed making it illegal to import, distribute, sell or use “mind altering substances” ranging from opium and its derivatives (especially heroin) to cocaine, marijuana, peyote, and the amphetamines. 335 In 1914 the sale or possession of opium and its derivatives, including heroin, was made illegal with the passage of the Harrison [Narcotic 336] Act. By 1914, however, there was a large population of opium-addicted [veterans,] workers, housewives, and merchants, not to mention the Chinese immigrants who brought opium habits with them when they emigrated to the U.S. It is an economic axiom that where there is a market, large profits, and an available supply of a commodity, people with find ways to supply the demand. The merchants who profited from opium and heroin when it was legal did not immediately cease their operations simply because of international agreements and statutes making their business illegal. Quite predictably they continued to trade in opium, although the illegal nature of the enterprise changed the character of the business considerably. Distribution practices had to change, police and customs officials had to be bribed, but the import business thrived in spite of the complications that accompanied the illegality of the interprise.337 The event that most accounted for the growth and development of organized crime both nationally and internationally was prohibition. The passing of the Volstead Act in 1918, making it illegal in the U.S. to sell, distribute, and consume alcohol, created ideal conditions for the emergence of national crime networks. The demand for alcohol was far greater than the U.S. government’s willingness to expend the money and energy necessary to stamp it out. There was, nonetheless, a sufficient zealousness to enforce the laws to make it necessary for those who would distribute and sell the “evil rum” to create criminal enterprises. As a result, different criminal groups specialized in, and monopolized, the smuggling of alcohol from different countries. Some smuggled scotch from Scotland, others brought rum into the U.S. from Cuba, whiskey and beer from Canada, and wine from France. This was not an easy feat. The import-export business is complicated and requires international banking, and, when people do not fulfill their contracts, ways of sanctioning transgressors. The picture is further complicated because the sine qua non of capitalism is, of course, competition. The business structure can be unstable for the importation of illegal commodities because all of the business dealings must be carried out without the formal cooperation of banks, law enforcement agencies, courts, and international treaties. The essential infrastructure for the importation of illegal commodities must be organized “informally.” People who do not fulfill their contractual

330 Op. cit. 331 Op. cit. 332 [Republican Senator Charles] Grassley [of Iowa] wrote: “Questions have been raised in the public arena in recent years regarding the FBI’s ability to investigate iteslf.” — The Associated Press, Justice Dept. to probe possible FBI cover-up, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A4. 333 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), pp. 215-216. 334 Ibidem, p. 157. 335 Ibidem, p. 159. 336 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 188. 337 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), pp. 183-184.

29 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

obligations must be forced to do so by whatever means is available: ususally this means relying on violence or the threat of violence. Enter, then, the specialists in violence who served to break strikes and financiers of legitimate business who had the capital and the wherewithal to make and keep international monetary agreements. Here, then, are the makings of the national and international crime networks that flourished in the 1920s and 1930s. These were the “parent companies” that spawned today’s networks.338 When prohibition ended in 1932, the specialists and organizations that had grown up to facilitate the smuggling of alcoholic beverages transferred their talents, contacts, and personnel to the smuggling of drugs. When, in the thirties, marijuana and cocaine were added to the list of illegal drugs, the business expanded and smuggling became an international enterprise of gigantic proportions.339 In 1937, the controversial Marijuana Tax Act was passed which created a new source of crime. No primary empirical evidence was presented about the effects of the drug…only hearsay and emotional pleas from the Federal Bureau of Narcotics and a few state law enforcement agents. The law was tied neither to scientific study nor to law enforcement need. The legislative review concluded that Congress had been ‘hoodwinked.’ 340 The affluence in the U.S. that followed the end of World War II brought record sales to the manufacturers and industrialists. The affluence was equally kind to the purveyors of illegal commodities and services. Between 1945 and 1965 narcotics consumption in the United States and Europe grew by leaps and bounds. First the ghettoes then the middle and upper classes comprised the market, just as the mining towns and factories had been the mainstay of the market in the 1800s.341 Meyer Lansky was a true capitalist with connections to organized crime. He began his empire in “1933 with the opening of a gambling casino and high class brothel in Broward County, Florida.” 342 “Lansky was unique among organized crime figures in that he was scrupulously honest in the division of profits among his “stockholders” 343…[and] recogni[zed] that it was more important to make powerful politicians and their law enforcers partners in his illegal operations than to merely bribe them.” 344 These points cannot be understated. A blooming opium market was growing in America, and “following World War II…[Marseilles, France 345] became the international center for converting raw opium from the Middle East into the highly refined #4 heroin.” 346 [Lansky’s] extraodinarily profitable investments in Florida, Cuba, Las Vegas, and in international narcotics smuggling surpassed those of his fellow criminals.347 In the 1950s 348…his experience gained during prohibition in smuggling alcoholic beverages gave him the know-how and the international connections necessary for successful smuggling operations. He knew where to locate investors with “venture capital,” was connected with banks, politicians, and law enforcement people nationally and internationally, and could take advantage of all these networks to maximize profits and minimize risks for himself and his investors. 349

C.I.A.

Established in 1947 to coordinate American intelligence activities abroad, the Central Intelligence Agency played only a minimal role in the crusade against Communist influence in the United States in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The presence and prestige of the agency did, however, produce jealousy in FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, who accordingly redoubled his efforts to discover domestic subversives in the United States. 350 By that time, rising public concern among Americans about Soviet espionage had convinced the Truman administration to establish formally the CIA, with authority to conduct intelligence operations abroad. In 1950, President Truman named Allen [W.] Dulles deputy director of the CIA. With inauguration of President Dwight David Eisenhower in January 1953, Dulles was named director of the CIA.351 338 Ibidem, pp. 157-158. 339 Ibidem, p. 184. 340 Chris Conrad, Hemp Lifeline to the Future (Los Angeles: Creative Xpressions, 1993). 341 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the George Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 184. 342 Ibidem, p. 160. 343 Op. cit. 344 Op. cit. 345 Ibidem, p. 185. 346 Op. cit. 347 Ibidem, p. 160. 348 Ibidem, p. 184. 349 Ibidem, pp. 184-185. 350 William K. Klingaman, Encyclopedia of the McCarthy Era (NY: Facts On File, Inc., 1996), p. 59. 351 Ibidem, p. 120.

30 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

[Mr.] Dulles’ appointment of William Bundy to a post in the CIA infuriated McCarthy.352 Concerned that Soviet espionage agents had infiltrated the CIA and frustrated by his inability to compel the appearance of a CIA official named William Bundy before his Government Operations Committee, McCarthy vowed to launch an investigation of the Agency. President Dwight David Eisenhower moved immediately to quash any such inquiry. 353 Eventually Vice President Richard M. Nixon intervened in the dispute and convinced McCarthy to abandon his investigation of the agency, but only after the administration promised to carry out an extensive purge of the agency’s personnel 354…to remove any impression of subversion.355

C.I.A.II Lansky In Olympia

[Lansky’s] enterprise worked marvelously for a number of years despite the mostly symbolic efforts of drug enforcement agencies and international commissions to break up illegal drug shipments. 356 Temporary disruptions occurred but the overall pattern of drug trafficking survived.357 Lansky was becoming deeply involved in Washington state politics.358 On first blush it made no sense that Meyer Lansky – who controlled a vast international empire of banks, gambling casinos, and an international narcotics smuggling network, and whose political partners included presidents, vice presidents and members of congress – would devote so much attention and money to the governorship of Washington, even if his son did live in the state.359 Important changes were taking place in national organized crime networks. 360 A symbiotic relationship between politics, law enforcement, legitimate business, and organized crime was absolutely necessary for organized crime to survive and flourish.361

Principle Of Scientific Parsimony: The Most Simple Theory Explains A Given Set Of Facts

This time in America – 1960 to 1970 –…was totally f[--]ked. I’m sorry to tell you this, but that’s the truth. Fancy terms and ornate theories cannot cover this fact up. The authorities became as psychotic as those they hunted. They wanted to put all persons who were not clones of the establishment away. The authorities were filled with hate.362 The day they moved Angela Davis, the black Marxist, out of the Marin County jail, the authorities dismantled the whole civic center. This was to baffle radicals who might intend trouble. The elevators got unwired; doors got relabeled with spurious information; the district attorney hid. 363 After Lansky was indicted for perjury and tax evasion, the power shifted from Lansky- and Teamster Dave Beck-backed Democrats to Teamster Jimmy Hoffa-backed Republicans.364 An informant in the Drug Enforcement Agency told [William J. Chambliss] that Lansky’s lifelong competitor and oft-time nemisis, Santo Trafficante, Jr., went to Southeast Asia in 1968 carrying “untold millions” in cash which he generously distributed to Asian narcotics manufacturers, especially to one Vang Pao, in order to insure a constant supply of heroin from them.365 Then Frank Sinatra, the fair-haired favorite of Las Vegas night clubs and casinos, who for years had the run of the city, was thrown out of the Sands Hotel, punched in the mouth by a Sands employee and banned from ever entering the hotel or casino again.366

352 Op. cit. 353 Ibidem, p. 59. 354 Op. cit. 355 Ibidem, p. 131. 356 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the George Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 185. 357 Op. cit. 358 Ibidem, p. 152. 359 Op. cit. 360 Ibidem, p. 153-154. 361 Ibidem, p. 154. 362 Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), pp. 11-12. 363 Ibidem, p. 12. 364 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the George Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), pp. 152-153. 365 Ibidem, p. 153. 366 Ibidem, p. 154.

31 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Between 1968 and 1972 there was a dramatic change in the pattern of international narcotics smuggling. Prior to 1968, 90 percent of the heroin coming into the United States came from opium grown in the Middle East. 367 When the United States entered the Vietnam War after France’s ignominious defeat at Dien Bien Phu, the U.S. inherited the dependence on opium. The U.S. military and particularly the CIA set about organizing opium smuggling out of Southeast Asia to an unprecedented degree. The Centeral Intelligence Agency arranged to pick up and distribute the opium to the major cities of Southeast Asia where laboratories sprang up that converted the opium into morphine and heroin. For this purpose, the CIA established an airline called Air America. 368 By [1972,369] over 45 percent of the heroin entering the United States came from opium grown in the Golden Triangle of Southeast Asia.370 Seattle and Vancouver, British Columbia, had never been significant import centers for heroin. By 1972, however, as much as 40 percent of the heroin entering the United States came through these two ports. 371

C.I.A.III The Scrub

The worldwide review began in 1994 under the former Director of Central Intelligence, R. James Woolsey Jr., and gathered steam in 1995 under his successor, John M. Deutch.372 Behind closed doors, the [Senate] Intelligence Committee staff, at [Senator Richard C.] Shelby’s direction, has been researching some major policy issues under [nominee for Director of Central Intelligence, Anthony] Lake’s control. These include what Mr. Lake knew about Chinese missile sales to Pakistan,373…not immediately sell[ing] stocks in four energy companies in 1993 when the White House counsel’s office told him they posed a possible conflict of interest, 374…his failure to tell Congress about President Clinton’s tacit approval of Iran’s arms shipments to Bosnia’s Muslims in 1994[-1995,375] and whether he played down human rights abuses in Haiti under the government the White House helped install in 1994.376 [Mr.] Lake has begun contacting Senate leaders to say he now wishes he had told Congress about Clinton’s decision to raise no objection to the 1994 Iranian arms shipment to Bosnia. 377 If confirmed, Mr. Lake’s] prize will be the Central Intelligence Agency – now suffering self-inflicted wounds from two treasonous officers, [slack security,378] botched economic espionage operations against allies and an abiding midlife crisis as its 50th birthday approaches – and the rest of the intelligence services.379 [Clinton] made a strong plea…for the Senate to end the delay and confirm Lake as the next director of central intelligence. He described his nominee as “suberbly qualified” and the architect of peace in Bosnia. 380 “Clinton is now looking for another nominee to be CIA Director. Clinton said he’s looking for someone who can keep a low profile, is highly intelligent, capable of crossing ethical lines when warranted, and then denying any involvement. He’s looking for Hilary, really.” — Jay Leno, “The Tonight Show with Jay Leno” 381

367 Ibidem, p. 153. 368 Ibidem, pp. 184-186. 369 Ibidem, p. 153. 370 Op. cit. 371 Op. cit. 372 Tim Weiner, C.I.A. breaks links to agents abroad, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A12. 373 Tim Weiner, Lake is alive but only just pure politics with C.I.A., The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A12. 374 Connie Cass (The Associated Press), Despite apology, Lake’s CIA confirmation uncertain, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 16 Dec 1996, 133(301), p. A6. 375 Jill Lawrence, Specter may oppose Lake for CIA, USA Today, 12 Dec 1996, 15(63), p. 4A. 376 Tim Weiner, Lake is alive but only just pure politics with C.I.A., The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A12. 377 Connie Cass (The Associated Press), Despite apology, Lake’s CIA confirmation uncertain, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 16 Dec 1996, 133(301), p. A6. 378 A lone gunman firing an AK-47 assault rifle methodically picked off employees outside the CIA’s headquarters in Langley, Va.… Before then, an attack on the campus-like facility was so unthinkable the guard shack didn’t even have a clear view of the street.… The dragnet that netted suspect Mir Aimal Kansi in the 1993 shooting attack on CIA headquarters brought relief [June 17] to families of slain CIA workers, as well as witnesses and former agency officers.… “Today marks a clear triumph of good over evil,” acting CIA director George Tenet said. — Steve Marshall, Relief over suspect’s capture; CIA director: ‘Clear triumph of good over evil’, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 3A 379 Tim Weiner, Lake is alive but only just pure politics with C.I.A., The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A12. 380 Reuters, Helms ot vote against CIA-nominee Lake, The Seattle Times, 16 Feb 1997, 15(7), p. A5. 381 The Last Word, Eastside Journal, 1 April 1997, 21(226), p. A8.

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[Meanwhile,] the “scrub,” as it was called inside the agency, was resisted by some station chiefs and covert operators who argued, in effect, that they could not recruit saints to spy on sinners. 382 But it was pressed by Mr. Deutch and his general counsel, Jeffrey H. Smith, who argued that if the C.I.A. had to dine with the devil, it should bring a long spoon.383 The scrub was “a rigorous evaluation of each one of the agents we recruit,” [Mr. Deutch] said. 384 “If the information these assets provide is no longer relevant,” he said, “if we can get that same information elsewhere, if questions of human rights violations, of criminal involvement outweigh the value of the information to our national interests, then we will end the relationship with the asset.” 385 According to…Government official[(s),] as many as 1,000 foreign agents – somewhere between one-quarter and one-third of all the agents on the C.I.A.’s payroll in 1995 – failed to meet this test,386…were not worth the thousands or tens of thousands of dollars they were paid annually,387…[and] the quality of their information did not justify keeping them on the payroll after the cold war. 388 Throughout Latin America 389…from the early 1950’s onward,390 Asia, the Middle East and Africa, the agency has long-standing official liaisons with military, intelligence and security services. Some of the officers of these services are violent or corrupt, but they are among the C.I.A.’s most valued informers. The agency also has had on its payroll people who are terrorists and drug dealers, or who were terrorists and drug dealers. 391 For example, a Presidential panel, the Intelligence Oversight Board, reported in June [1996] that the C.I.A. knowingly hired as paid informers [Central American 392] military officers suspected of political assassinations, murder, kidnapping and torture.393 These people provide information that the C.I.A. says is difficult to obtain elsewhere. 394 In 1995, the 395…$30-billion-a-year intelligence establishment 396…had on its payroll…[an] informer [who] once had been a terrorist himself…[which is] no bar to his employment by the C.I.A.397…under the guidelines laid down by the scrub, Government officials said.398

Poppies

Known for its severe punishments – such as severing the hands of thieves or stoning adulterers to death – the Taliban banned hashish growing and smoking several years ago. Afghans say hashish can hardly be found anymore. But there has been no campaign against opium poppies, certainly not in the lower Helmand River Valley village of Nad-i-Ali, which has a distinctly American flavor. The United States created the irrigation system that turned the area from a desert to farmland, built mud-and-brick living compounds and planted trees and bushes to hold the soil.399 By U.N. estimates, Afghanistan is now the world’s largest supplier of opium – producing more than 2,200 tons in 1996. American estimates are somewhat lower, show Afghanistan as the world’s No. 2 producer but coming up fast. American officials are painfully aware that Afghan land made fertile thanks to several-hundred millions of dollars from American taxpayers now produces narcotics for American and European addicts. Narcotics experts estimate that heroin made from refined Afghan opium accounts for almost one-fifth of the heroin coming into the United States. In Europe, the percentage is much higher.400

382 Tim Weiner, C.I.A. breaks links to agents abroad, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A12. 383 Op. cit. 384 Op. cit. 385 Op. cit. 386 Op. cit. 387 Ibidem, p. A1. 388 Ibidem, p. A12. 389 Op. cit. 390 Op. cit. 391 Op. cit. 392 Op. cit. 393 Op. cit. 394 Op. cit. 395 Op. cit. 396 Tim Weiner, Lake is alive but only just pure politics with C.I.A., The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A12. 397 Tim Weiner, C.I.A. breaks links to agents abroad, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A12. 398 Op. cit. 399 Knight-Ridder Newspapers, Flourshing opium trade contradicts Islamic ban, The Seattle Times, 2 Feb 1997, 15(5), p. A18. 400 Marc Kaufman (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), U.S. made Afghan land fertile – to grow opium, The Seattle Times, 2 Feb 1997, 15(5), p. A18.

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“We cannot banish the poppy until our people have other crops to grow and work to do,” said Mullah Abdul Hamid Akhundaza, the Taliban director of the foreign ministry’s liaison office in Kandahar, the southern Afghan city where the Taliban originated. Others suggest the Taliban has a different motive for its apparently hands-off policy on opium: It is still fighting an expensive war in the north and needs cash to feed and supply its army. In war-ravaged Afghanistan, there are few other products for a government to tax.401 “Poppies are a very good crop, because they bring a high price and go easily to market,” Amin said. 402

• • •

The West’s growing heroin habit pours up to $500 million a year into the hands of some of the world’s deadlies terrorists, financing kidnappings and bombings that have killed thousands, U.S. drug agents say. The Kurdistan Workers Party, known by the initials PKK, demands protection money from heroin labs in eastern Turkey, the crossroads and processing center for Afghan heroin on its way to Europe and North America. The PKK may even run some of the labs, say undercover Drug Enforcement Administration agents who spoke to The Associated Press on condition of anonymity. While more popular in Europe, heroin processed in PKK-controlled areas has made inroads into the United States – where it sells for $305 a gram – especially cities with large Middle Eastern populations, including New York, Detroit, Chicago and Los Angeles, the agents say.403 More than 21,000 people have died in fighting since the PKK started its war in 1984. According to FBI and State Department records, the PKK committed more terrorist acts from 1991 through 1995 than any other such group in the world.404 PKK terrorists regularly plant bombs in crowded areas of Istanbul, killing and maiming foreigners as well as Turks. In 1995, two suspected PKK agents died in a premature explosion while hiding bombs in a teddy bear. 405

Money Laundering

When Seattle’s crime network was in full swing, on the fifteenth of every month an official of the state House of Representitives flew from Seattle to San Francisco carrying a satchel full of one-hundred dollar bills. This was “laundered money,” from gambling profits. The amount in the satchel varied each month depending on how much Seattle bookmakers, gamblers, and narcotics dealers owed investors in other parts of the United States. It also depended on how much Seattle’s people wanted to either launder through banks into secret accounts or invest in enterprises in other parts of the country.406 Venezuela also is an important…financial center for drug money laundering.407 Laundering methods [also] include padded construction contracts and investing in restaurants, nightclubs, dry-cleaning firms, shopping centers, travel agencies and trucking lines. 408 For years, drug cartel money-launderers in New York have been sending up to $1.3 billion a year back to Colombia through 409…hundreds of small businesses licensed to send money abroad – storefront check cashing places, phone centers, telegram offices, even travel agencies 410…– where those without bank accounts, mostly immigrants, pay a fee to send cash to relatives abroad.411 Officials of a joint Federal, state and local task force on money-laundering, known as El Dorado, found in 1995 that $1.3 billion was being sent to Colombia every year through 1,600 of these small businesses. Since there were 25,500 Colombian families in New York, each

401 Op. cit. 402 Op. cit. 403 Richard Cole (The Associated Press), Heroin trade finances some of world’s deadliest terrorists, Eastside Journal, 16 Dec 1996, p. A5. 404 Op. cit. 405 Op. cit. 406 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the George Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 156. 407 U.S. Department of Justice/Drug Enforcement Agency, Intelligence Bulletin (1 July 1996), 30 April 1997, http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/cocaine.htm. 408 Eric Geiger, Hungry for tourists, Austria caters to Russian mafia, San Francisco Chronicle, 23 May 1997, 133(109), p. A17. 409 Robert D. McFadden, Limits on cash transactions cut drug-money laundering, The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A1. 410 Ibidem, p. A11. 411 Op. cit.

34 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

household would have to be sending $50,000 a year to account for the vast flow, though median household income was only $27,000.412 The major restraint on this electronic smuggling has been a Federal requirement that transactions of more than $10,000 be reported to the Government,413…[but] money launderers, often working with crooked remitters, would break their loot into increments under $10,000. To make transactions seem authentic, names and addresses would be taken from the…telephone book and listed as senders, while names from phone books in Colombia would be used as recipients. Cartel operatives carrying phony identification would then show up at the wire offices in Colombia.414 But since last summer,…a Treasury Department order quietly imposing a $750-per-transaction limit on 1,600 remittance shops suspected of wiring most of the illicit money has won a small victory in the war on drugs, sharply cutting the electronic transfers to Colombia and forcing the cartels to return to crude old methods of smuggling money in bulk 415…[by] stashing cash in coffins, bowling balls and other hiding places.416 At airports and seaports along the East Coast, agents seized $29 million in smuggled money during the first three months the order was in effect, compared with $7 million in the same period a year earlier, investigators said. 417 “The $750 limit is a major hurdle when you have to move $500,000,” 418…Andre Flores, the chief agent of the United States Customs Service on Long Island, said in an interview.419

• • •

Almost $30,000 laundered from illegal narcotics transactions was donated to the Democratic National Committee [(DNC)] in 1992 and to President Clinton’s 1993 [Presidental Inaugural Committee General Fund, 420] according to an indictment returned [April 9] against an Arkansas lawyer. Mark Steven Cambiano, 42, of Morrilton, Ark., surrendered [April 9] to face a 31-count indictment handed up by a federal grand jury in Little Rock. The indictment charges Cambiano with laundering $380,219 from drug transactions involving a second Arkansas man, Willard Burnett, who has pleaded guilty to trafficking in methamphetamines and is serving a federal sentence.421 The indictment does not accuse Cambiano, a defense attorney who specializes in death-row cases, of direct participation in drug sales or manufacturing, but of hiding the proceeds of the crimes by causing banks to fail to file reports of cash transactions in excess of $10,000, as required by law. 422 Cambiano also used part of the money to buy real estate, put in a swimming pool, pay off a loan used to pay taxes and pay off his home mortgage, the indictment said.423

412 Op. cit. 413 Ibidem, p. A1. 414 Ibidem, p. A11. 415 Ibidem, p. A1. 416 Op. cit. 417 Op. cit. 418 Op. cit. 419 Op. cit. 420 Nation, Drug money aided Clinton, indictment says; Arkansas man accused of laundering funds, San Francisco Chronicle, 10 April 1997, 133(72), p. A24. 421 Op. cit. 422 Op. cit. 423 Op. cit.

35 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Gangster Bureaucrats

“We should be able to understand that guns and violence and money laundering and drug smuggling are all linked and that none of these can be addressed without taking into account the economic security, the economic growth of the nations,” [drug czar, Gen. Barry] McCaffrey said.424

Cosa Nostra

In Peter Maas’ breakthrough book “The Valachi Papers,” a low-level member of organized crime, Joseph Valachi, confirmed the existence and revealed the inner workings of Cosa Nostra, the true name of the Mafia. In a new book, “Underboss” (HarperCollings), Maas reports on his secret talks, conducted under the tightest security, with Salvatore Gravano – whose testimony sent John Gotti, the Gambino crime family boss, and other mobsters to prison. [PARADE] asked Maas to compare Gravano with Valachi and with other “informers” he has written about over the years, including Frank Serpico, the cop who exposed corruption in the New York City police force, and Marie Ragghianti, a state official who blew the whistle on the illegal sale of pardons and paroles in Tennessee: In a packed, hushed federal courtroom in September 1994, the judge declared, “There has never been a defendant of his stature in organized crime who has made the leap he has made from one social planet to another. …” 425 The man the judge was describing was Salvatore (Sammy the Bull) Gravano,…the highest-ranking member of the Mafia in America ever to defect and break his blood oath of silence to testify against his boss, John Gotti. Gravano had been the underboss – or second in command – of the Gambino crime family, the most power in the nation. [Not! Only N.Y.] Because of the flamboyant Gotti’s uncanny ability to escape convictions in both state and federal trials time and again, despite charges that he was the Mafia’s top chieftain, the media had dubbed him the “Teflon Don.” That all ended when Sammy Gravano took the witness stand in 1992. And today John Gotti is serving life in prison without the possibility of parole. [He’s still alive?!] The judge, I. Leo Glasser, himself a product of New York’s meanest streets, continued from the bench to second the opinion of a federal agent that Gravano’s decision to testify was “the bravest thing I have ever seen.” By then, Gravano’s testimony had sent to prison dozens of other key figures in Cosa Nostra, besides Gotti, or caused them to plead guilty. With a [measly] $2 million price tag placed on his head by Gotti, Gravano subsequently disappeared, presumably for good, in the anonymity of the federal Witness Protection Program. 426 Josepth Valachi was the first member of Cosa Nostra to reveal its existence – at a time when many in this country, including FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, insisted that it was the figment of overwrought imaginations. He also revealed that it consisted of 24 crime families from coast to coast and that each family had an identical paramilitary structure with a national commission that set rules and policy.427 While he was present at its birth in the late 1920s and had an acute ear for what was going on, he was not directly privey to its highest councils. Sammy the Bull, on the other hand, could take us into the uppermost inner sanctums of an underworld that had dominated [the Mafia’s] organized crime in the United States for nearly 70 years. He could – and did – expose a world we often read and hear about [only] from the outside. 428 Among [Maas’s] previous books was Serpico, the story of Frank Serpico, the intrepid cop who, in exposing deep-seated [(emphasis added)] corruption in the New York City Police Department, said: “When I took an oath to enforce the law, it didn’t say against everybody except other cops.” Another book was Marie: A True Story, about Marie Ragghianti, a valiant young single mother of three children who, as chair of the Pardons and Parole Board in Tennessee, revealed the widespread sale of pardons and paroles to convicted rapists, armed robbers and murderers by the office of the governor she was serving. Marie and Frank were indisputably genuine heroes. Then, of course, there was Joseph Valachi. And now Sammy the Bull Gravano. But they all had one common denominator, regardless of their backgrounds: They were all doing the right thing.429 Sammy was a model citizen compared to the truly sociopathic killer with whom [Maas] spent several days in prison, interviewing him for a book titled In a Child’s Name. That killer was Dr. Kenneth Taylor – an Indiana-raised dentist with an all-American, golden boy appearance. He had viciously bludgeoned his wife to death, smashing her multiple times in the face and head with a 24-pound dumbbell.

424 The Associated Press, U.S. links drug war, economic aid to tiny Caribbean nations, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. A11. 425 Peter Maas, My secret talks with Sammy the Bull, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: PARADE Magazine, 20 April 1997, p. 6. 426 Ibidem, pp. 6-7. 427 Ibidem, p. 7. 428 Op. cit. 429 Op. cit.

36 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Taylor’s defense was that he had rushed to the defense of their 5-month-old son, whom his cocaine-crazed wife was sexually abusing. In fact, according to the prosecutor in the case, Taylor was the cocaine addict. During the course of [his] investigation, [he] discovered that Dr. Taylor also had attempted to murder a previous wife, who was pregnant. Yet, in prison, Taylor continued to claim his innocence: He was the victim. Sammy the Bull Gravano never came remotely close to anything like that. 430 Once it was learned that Gravano had become a cooperating witness for the government, a campaign of vilification was launched by John Gotti and his allies. In sentencing Sammy Gravano to five years in prison plus three years of supervised release, Judge Glasser took note of this. “I can’t recall seeing any reference to Gravano that wasn’t preceded by words such as ‘rat,’ ‘snitch,’ ‘turncoat’ or some other pejorative word…” he said.431 “Is assisting the government to bring major criminals to book a contemptible thing?” Today, as fearless as anyone [Maas] ha[s] ever encountered, Sammy Gravano has elected to leave the constrictions of the Witness Protection Program. He is out there somewhere. 432

Soviet Collapse

After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the unthinkable is occurring: The Communist Party once again dominates the Russian parliament. Free-market reformers in Boris Yeltsin’s government have been purged, and Yeltsin has distanced himself from the West. Yevgeny Primakov, a former chief of foreign intelligence who backed countries that supported terrorism, is foreign minister. And a new nuclear-weapons program is under way.433 U.S. aid has discouraged reform by abetting organized crime and official corruption. 434 Russia’s justice minister asked to be relieved temporarily of his duties [June 21] after a tabloid published grainy photos from a secret videotape allegedly showing him cavorting with nude women in a sauna frequented by a notorious Moscow gang. Valentin Kovalev, 53, a former law professor and former member of parliament, asked to step aside “until all the circumstances have been clarified,” the ministry said in a statement. 435 Kovalev sits on the Russian Security Council, a body of high-ranking officials that advices the president on military and law-enforcement problems.436 Until 1991 the Soviet government and its ruling Communist Party owned virtually everything – from local shops to vast farms and factories. With communism’s collapse, reformers hoped that privatization would let Russian citizens own a stake in the new system.437 Soon after the Soviet Union collapsed, the new Russian government asked the West for billions of dollars in grants and loans. Its petition went before the International Monetary Fund (IMF), a global financial institution in which the United States is the largest contributor. At first, with Washington’s urging, the IMF quickly loaned Russia $1 billion in 1992 and another $1.5 billion in 1993. Reformist finance minister Boris G. Fyodorov rejected a third loan, saying Moscow continued to subsidize huge, inefficient state industries. Frustrated by this, Fyodorov resigned, and the IMF balked at further loans. Yeltsin called on President Clinton to pressure the IMF to send more money. The Administration responded. In December 1993, according to the New York Times, Vice President Al Gore blasted the IMF for being too hard on Moscow, accusing it of making austerity demands that would provoke a nationalist backlash. The IMF relented and in April 1994 released another $1.5 billion. More was to come. In early 1995 the IMF extended a roughly $6-billion loan. And last March [(1995)] it approved about $10 billion to be delivered over the next three years.438 The funds were being transferred to Russia in monthly payments equaling about $17 million a day. At the same time, according to Russian news reports, an average of $50 million a day is being pumped out of the country to private bank accounts in Switzerland, Cyprus and elsewhere.

430 Ibidem, p. 8. 431 Op. cit. 432 Op. cit. 433 J. Michael Waller, To Russia, with cash; former Communist hack and “gangster bureaucrats” are rollng riches – the result of our misued money. Meanwhile, Russia is testing ultramodern missile prototypes, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 177. 434 Op. cit. 435 David Hoffman (Washingtonn Post), Russian offical asks for leave after exposé, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. A14. 436 Op. cit. 437 J. Michael Waller, To Russia, with cash; former Communist hack and “gangster bureaucrats” are rollng riches – the result of our misued money. Meanwhile, Russia is testing ultramodern missile prototypes, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 177. 438 Ibidem, p. 179.

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In a letter, Moscow-based Italian journalist Giulietto Chiesa told the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee that money is stuffed aboard airplanes, “many of which get over the border with the help of highly placed persons in the government.” 439 The Drug Enforcement Administration arrested the son of Rep. Randy “Duke” Cunningham, R-Calif., earlier this month [(January)] for allegedly flying an airplane loaded with more than 400 pounds of marijuana into a small airport near Boston. Todd Cunningham, 27, a San Diego bartender, pleaded not guilty to marijuana trafficking and conspiracy to violate drug laws. Authorities said that on Jan. 17, they saw kilogram-sized bricks of marijuana unloaded from a twin-engine turbo plane at the Lawrence Municipal Airport in North Andover, Mass. The elder Cunningham, a decorated combat pilot anf flight instructor, is known in the House for his fiery rhetoric and strong stands on illegal immigration and drug trafficking.440 The U.S. government has committed $355 million for a variety of programs to encourage free enterprise. But huge chunks of the money appear to have been misused by what Toronto Star international-affairs columnist Stephen Handelman calls Moscow’s “gangster bureaucrats.” American University professor Louise Shelley, an authority on Russian crime and corruption, cites a large construction project in St. Petersburg that was bought by organized crime. Today signs in front of the project boast that it is being funded by U.S.-backed multilateral development banks.441 Hoteliers and restaurant owners are spellbound by the wads of dollars, deutsche marks and Swiss francs shelled out by the visitors from Moscow or St. Petersburg. And often, they thumb their noses at warnings by law enforcement officials that at least some of the “tourists” may be linked to the most violent criminal organization to surface [in Europe] in recent years – the Russian mafia, whose continentwide activities range from drug trafficking, financial fraud, [illegal gambling, 442] prostitution and extortion to money laundering. “We don’t give a darn how our Russian guests obtain their cash as long as they spend it here,” huffed a Salzburg hotel manager.443 “Russian mafia groups already have invested some $20 billion of cleasned hot money in Austrian business firms,” said Rudi Anschober, the public safety spokesman for Austria’s Green Party, which is known to have excellent contacts with the police.444 Nothing could be more foolhardy than to ignore the many Russians who are trying to make democracy prevail against criminals, Communists and ultranationalists. “In no event should the West turn away from Russia and leave it to its fate,” says Sergei Kovalev, a former political prisoner and current reformer in the parliament. “That would leave Americans and other nations with a dangerous, aggressive, unpredictable neighbor.” 445

AK-47s

A Chinese court has [finally] convicted four people of illegally spiriting 2,000 AK-47s into the United States, nearly a year after U.S. investigators accused government arms merchants of smuggling automatic weapons rifles. [The] conviction and sentencing of the four, announced by the official Xinhua New Agency, was the Chinese government’s first public admission that it had any evidence to substantiate the embarrassing U.S. allegations. Three of those convicted are believed to be executives of China North Industrial, or Norinco, a government-run maker of arms ranging from heavy artillery to pistols. Its ranks are filled with former generals and the relatives of powerful Communist Party leaders. In April 1996, U.S. investigators wrapped up a 16-month sting operation that had agents posing as Miami mobsters eager to buy weapons. Seven people were arrested and warrants were issued for seven more for allegedly selling 2,000 Chinese-made AK-47s, which arrived in the United states in February 1996. They received prison terms ranging from three to four years in prison for dereliction of duty, Xinhua said. Qi Feng, former manager of Douweidi Science and Technology, was sentenced to 14 years in prison as one of the plot’s masterminds, Xinhua said.446

439 Op. cit. 440 Across the Nation, Calif. congressman’s son arrested on drug charges, The Seattle Times, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. A6. 441 J. Michael Waller, To Russia, with cash; former Communist hack and “gangster bureaucrats” are rollng riches – the result of our misued money. Meanwhile, Russia is testing ultramodern missile prototypes, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), pp. 177-178. 442 Eric Geiger, Hungry for tourists, Austria caters to Russian mafia, San Francisco Chronicle, 23 May 1997, 133(109), p. A17. 443 Op. cit. 444 Op. cit. 445 J. Michael Waller, To Russia, with cash; former Communist hack and “gangster bureaucrats” are rollng riches – the result of our misued money. Meanwhile, Russia is testing ultramodern missile prototypes, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 181.

38 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Friendly Fire

When Ronald Reagan sent U.S. forces to invade the Caribbean island of Grenada in 1983, they had only outdated British charts and a tourist map, leading to…an air attack that injured and killed U.S. ground troops. 447

Ganja

The 14-member Caribbean Community…feared the United States would focus only on the drug war at the May 9-11 conference, continuing to push for pacts allowing U.S. law enforcement agencies to pursue suspected traffickers into their territorial air space and waters. While most Caribbean countries have signed such agreements, Jamaica and Barbados have held out to negotiate broader pacts that include shared intelligence and cooperation to prevent gun-smuggling from the United States.448

M(obile) A(rmy) S(urgical) H(ospital)

A construction worker, embittered by South Korea’s corruption scandals, threw two months’ worth of salary out of a Seoul hotel room window [May 27,] witnesses said. “If you politicians need the money that badly, take it,” he shouted. The man who, was not identified, threw four million won ($4,488) onto the street, where pedestrians scrambled to grab the money, witnesses said. South Korea is embroiled in several corruption scandals, with two former presidents Chun Doo Hwan and Roh Tae-woo behind bars for bribary. President Kim Young-sam’s second son was arrested earlier this month [(May)] on charges of bribary.449

Just Like Home

“Many of the world’s terrorist groups have a presence in Canada,” the Canadian intelligence service said in its annual report to Parliament, filed April 23. The intelligence service said it believed militant groups use Canada for fund raising, safe haven and recruiting Canadian citizens in ethnic communities. They also provide “logistical support for terrorism outside Canada,” according to the report.450

Fight Fire With Fire

It was a call fit for Gotham City. A bat – not one in tights, thank you – was lurking in a condominium stairwell. And what better place to call for bat control than the city’s new Police Department. 451 [The o]fficer…poked it with his nightstick. The bat hissed. He poked it again. The bat hissed again like a truck tire leaking air. Neighbors’ doors opened. “What is it? A snake?” “A bat? Whose bat is it?” 452 [(Robin’s…) –] the bat only went deeper into hiding.453 Building good community relations is crucial to the new department. Federal Way’s first city-run police force took over patrol Oct. 16, a month before a contract with King County Police ended.

446 The Associated Press, Four Chinese convicted of smuggling rifles into U.S., The Seattle Times, 18 May 1997, 15(20), p. A15. 447 Jim Molnar, The messages that lie behind maps of the world, The Seattle Times, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. K3. 448 The Associated Press, U.S. links drug war, economic aid to tiny Caribbean nations, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. A11. 449 Daily Briefing, P.S., The Seattle Times, 27 May 1997, 120(126), p. A8. 450 Anthony DePalma (The New York Times), Canada seen as terrorists’ haven; Hezbollah network claimed, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A21. 451 Nancy Bartley, Federal Way’s building a police station from scratch, The Seattle Times, 11 Nov 1996, p. B3. 452 Op. cit. 453 Op. cit.

39 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

From the white-shirt-and-tie detectives to [the officer’s] polite inquiry to the woman who made the bat call – “Is there anything else I can do for you, Ma’am?” – the department is putting its best foot forward. Some wonder how long the enthusiasm can last as the department works through the dilemmas of doing what no other city in the state – and maybe the nation – has done: Create a police department for a city of 75,260 from scratch.454 [The officer] notes with amazement how “the city has just exploded” with development. “It’s good to be home,” [the officer] said, as he cruised through his old neighborhood.455

• • •

The nation’s police forces soon are expected to have in their crime-fighting arsenal sophisticated scanning equipment that will show whether a person 60 feet away is carrying a hidden weapon. 456 But like all wonderful technological developments, this one has potential for abuse. 457 The scanner…is a camera X-ray imaging system that does not penetrate the person’s body but emits a very low dose of radiation, comparable to five minutes of sun exposure at sea level. Within one second, an electronic image shows anything the person is carrying under his or her clothing.458 Are we really ready to have our bodies scanned without our knowledge as we go about our law-abiding business in a public place? Isn’t that an unlawful search? It’s certainly an invasion of privacy. Just how far are we willing to go in trading personal rights for improved public safety? A crime-ridden nation that often prizes individual freedoms above the good of the whole constantly must wrestle with that fundamental question. It’s clear that any police use of such a device must be carefully controlled and legally predicated on probable cause. And it’s equally clear that the more technologically advanced – and tempting – such crime-fighting devices become, the more necessary it will be to cling to the Constitution for guidance in their use. Otherwise, some fundamental constitutional guarantees may slip away in our enthusiasm for quick-fix technological solutions to deep-seated social problems.459 Optically fed sensors create [an] image by registering the natural electromagnetic emissions – millimeter waves – from a suspect’s body.460 A [individual] could simply move the camera from head to toe…to build an image on the machine’s LCD screen. Software algorithms automatically correct for motion. And…images can be digitally stored.461

• • •

At the time it seemed like a good idea. In 1992, Spencer, [Massachusetts,] was short on cash; its full-time 12-member police force seemed like a luxury. So the cutbacks began and, this year, all that [changed].462 “You get what you pay for,” says William R. Shemeth III, the current head of the town’s board of selectmen. What they got, many residents say, was a low-budget force that harassed motorists as part of personal vendettas, pressured women drivers for dates, threatened innocent people with guns, stole from the town. The townspeople say they were afraid to speak out at first, but complaints began piling up, until finally the selectmen ordered nearly all of the force to turn in their guns.463 So far, one officer, John Cote, has been indicted on counts of breaking and entering, assault, and sexual misconduct. Town Police Chief Louis Martin was allowed to retire. His second-in-command resigned. The part-timers and volunteer auxiliary cops – some of whom were doing regular policing with little training and supervision, officials acknowledge – were laid off. Two full-time officers remain.464 [A local businessowner] said an officer once stopped one of his female employees on the road for no apparent reason and tried to pressure her into a date.

454 Op. cit. 455 Op. cit. 456 Opinion, High-tech police scanner raised same old question, The Seattle Times, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. C2. 457 Op. cit. 458 Op. cit. 459 Op. cit. 460 Hank Schlesinger, Gun collector, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 40. 461 Op. cit. 462 Jeff Donn (The Associated Press), Townspeople say police abused law instead of inforcing it, The Seattle Times, 29 June 1997, 15(26), p. A4. 463 Op. cit. 464 Op. cit.

40 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“These guys that were cops in town were basically the little wimps in high school. Now they’re going to get even with the world,” [he] said. He said his complaints got him a little “going-away present” from a couple of soon-to-depart officers: a $150 dollar speeding ticket. “The whole department has humiliated this town,” said [another local businessowner]. “We go to other towns; people laugh at us.” 465 “None of the[] [police officers] knew what they were doing,” she said. “They were a bunch of senseless and brainless yahoos.” 466 The department is now led by Sgt. Daniel Clark, a state trooper who said many of the local department’s problems were minor enough to be handled with a reprimand or brief suspension, but that internal discipline was faulty. “If you don’t handle your problems internally, they become public,” he said. After a spate of arrests by state police, some residents credited them with cleaning up a drug-infested neighborhood. Selectmen hope to hire a new chief…and build a new force.467

465 Op. cit. 466 Op. cit. 467 Op. cit.

41 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“Mexico’s a turncoat in the war on drugs.” 468

Mexico blunty told the [U.S.] administration that anything other than a passing grade for cooperation is an insult. Too bad; this is no time for diplomatic niceties.469 The head of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency told Congress that the DEA does not have a single trustworthy relationship with Mexican law enforcement. The rot among police is compounded by the corruption linked to the family of former President Carlos Salinas de Gortari and the governing Institutional Revolutionary Party.470 Mexican prosecutors released evidence [April 9] suggesting that former President Carlos Salinas took part in a coverup of the role his brother is accused of playing in a 1994 political assassination.471 Carlos Salinas has maintained that during his presidency he was unaware of most of his brother’s business and personal dealings. Recently, he has remained silent rather than defend his brother against mounting charges of graft and fraud.472 A man accused of being the top money launderer for one of Mexico’s major drug-trafficking cartels escaped “inexplicably” from police custody,…Mexican officials said, but authorities failed to disclose the incident until hours after President Clinton certified Mexico as a full ally in the war on drugs. Humberto Garcia Abrego, the brother of Juan Garcia Abrego, a convicted cocaine trafficker imprisoned in the United States, slipped away from police officers assigned to guard him during questioning at government offices in downtown Mexico City,…the Mexican Attorney General’s Office said. 473 The incident is the second during the intense two-week lobbying campaign that preceeded [February 29’s] certification decision in which Mexican officials withheld disclosure of an embarrassing development, even as Clinton administration officials were lauding them for their sincerity and wholehearted cooperation. After the arrest on Feb. 6 of Mexico’s top anti-narcotics official, [Army 474] Gen. Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo, on charges of collaborating with the country’s top trafficker, Mexican officials kept his detention secret for 12 days. They announced it only after newspapers reported that anti-narcotics troops had searched several of the general’s homes.475 Rebollo, the head of Mexico’s anti-narcotics agency, was arrested on charges of protecting Amado Carillo, the nation’s most powerful drug lord. Soon after, another army general, Alfredo Navarro, was charged with protecting cocaine shipments from Tijuana into California.476 The news out of Mexico could not have been worse for [U.S. Gen. Barry] McCaffrey,477…[Gutierrez Rebollo’s counterpart here,478] in substance as well as timing.479 Prior to the arrest he had described Gutierrez as having “absolute unquestioned integrity.” 480 Its drug czar arrested, 36 employees of the anti-drug agency dismissed; it was widely reported that the country’s justice system is a shambles. In Washington, D.C., an instant debate erupted over Mexico’s status as a partner.481 Much of Mexico’s anti-drug strategy – from informants’ names to intelligence methods developed over the years – has been passed into the hands of criminals as a result of the…corruption of this nation’s top anti-narcotics official, a former senior official said. Dozens of agents probably have been compromised, and key operational plans will have to be redesigned, said Francisco Molina Ruiz, ex-director of the National Institute for Combating Drugs.482 The National Institute for Combatting Drugs was set up with U.S. assistance in 1993 and was modeled on the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Gutierrez Rebollo was the institute’s director during the two months before his arrest. 483 U.S. officials hoped the institute’s agents would prove less corrupt than those of the other anti-drug forces. But since

468 Editorials, An ally’s nasty habit, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, p. B6. 469 Op. cit. 470 Op. cit. 471 Julia Preston (The New York Times), Mexican ex-president implicated in coverup, San Francisco Chronicle, 10 April 1997, 133(72), p. A12. 472 Op. cit. 473 Sam Dillon (The New York Times), Mexico delays report it ‘lost’ drug suspect, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A1-A13. 474 Robert Collier, Unsolved scandals mount in Mexico; coverups feared in high-profile assassinations, drug cases, San Francisco Chronicle, 8 April 1997, 133(70), p. A6. 475 Sam Dillon (The New York Times), Mexico delays report it ‘lost’ drug suspect, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A13. 476 Robert Collier, Unsolved scandals mount in Mexico; coverups feared in high-profile assassinations, drug cases, San Francisco Chronicle, 8 April 1997, 133(70), p. A6. 477 Mindy Cameron, Recent turbulence won’t throw drug czar off course, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. B6. 478 Op. cit. 479 Op. cit. 480 Op. cit. 481 Op. cit. 482 Los Angeles Times & Knight-Ridder Newspapers, Drug lords got key info; pot rolls north as drug fight staggers in Mexico, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A1. 483 Sam Dillon (The New York Times), Mexico delays report it ‘lost’ drug suspect, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A13.

42 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Gutierrez Rebollo’s detention, American officials have acknowledged that the institute has been thoroughly compromised by traffickers, who by one U.S. estimate spend $6 billion annually to bribe public officials.484 Molina was forced from his job in December after his boss, then-Attorney General Antonio Lozano Gracia, was fired in a dispute over investigations into political assassinations. He turned over volumes of intelligence information and files to his replacement, Gen. Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo, now accused of taking payoffs from a powerful drug lord.485 “If certain information was passed into the hands of the enemy, drug traffickers may begin to exterminate our agents,” [Molina] said.486 The attorney general’s office in Mexico has admitted that the nation’s justice system has all but collapsed. Meanwhile, the country is awash in reports of drug corruption involving current and former government officials. 487 “These traffickers have gained ground in their penetration of law enforcement, and they don’t want to give it up,” Molina said.488 Humberto Garcia Abrego, the younger brother of the trafficker who controlled the narcotics organization that dominated northeastern Mexico and southern Texas, known as the Gulf Cartel, was arrested in July, accused of overseeing the cartel’s billion-dollar money-laundering operations.489 Garcia Abrego has never been charged with active participation in drug smuggling, but is accused of overseeing his brother’s efforts to channel drug profits into real estate and legitimate businesses, according to Mexican prosecutors and an FBI report on the Gulf Cartel. “Humberto has no direct connections to the Juan Garcia Abrego drug operations, but is fully aware of all the aspects of them, including the landings of drug-laden airplanes,” the report says. “Humberto kept this separation so that if Juan Garcia Abrego ever got arrested, Humberto would be in charge of the businesses and they wouldn’t be lost.” 490 The [Mexican] government says that the [Arellano Felix gang 491] are at war with the anti-drug police, carrying out a terror and intimidation campaign, a lesser version of the killing spree that Colombia witnessed in the 1980s.492 Efforts to push aside the Arellanos would make Mexico something similar to Colombia of the early 1990s. Authorities there dismantled the ruthless Medellin drug gang and, as some former U.S. drug agents see it, let the more low-key Cali cartel take charge.493 Eventually, the Cali drug lords had such great influence and political connections that in 1994 they were able to funnel millions of dollars in campaign contributions to the presidential candidate of their choice: Ernesto Samper. The danger of dealing with drug traffickers, as Colombia knows now, is that it allows the gangs to further penetrate a country’s institutions. And some officials in Washington are worried Mexico may fall into that trap. 494 [Some analysts] contend that while the government crackdown has undoubtedly played a role in the rash of slayings, corrupt officials in the attorney general’s office are also killing, turning in or setting up their enemies – including law-enforcement colleagues – to try to keep a hand in Tijuana’s lucrative narcotics trade. 495 [William Olson, staff director of the U.S. Senate Caucus on International Narcotics Control in Washington said,] “The government is now an accomplice in the…illegal activities. That’s the deal. It’s a deal with the devil.” 496 “These guys could eat Mexico alive,” a U.S. congressional source said.497 More than half the U.S.-bound cocaine smuggled out of South America passes through Mexico, and Tijuana is a key gateway.498 Mario Ruiz Massieu, once Mexico’s top drug prosecutor,…[has been] named in allegations that top Mexican officials were paid to protect drug cartels. Prosecutors said [March 10] that Ruiz routinely got “suitcases full of money” from drug traffickers in exchange for unfettered routes carrying drugs into the U.S. and sending their profits back into Mexico. 499 One shipment of cash was flown to Mexico City on a plane belonging to the Attorney General’s Office, U.S. Assistant District Attorney Susan Kempner said in opening arguments [March 10].

484 Op. cit. 485 Los Angeles Times & Knight-Ridder Newspapers, Drug lords got key info; pot rolls north as drug fight staggers in Mexico, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A1. 486 Ibidem, p. A2. 487 Op. cit. 488 Op. cit. 489 Sam Dillon (The New York Times), Mexico delays report it ‘lost’ drug suspect, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A13. 490 Op. cit. 491 Tracey Eaton (Dallas Morning News), Mexican drug lords, police in lethal war officials say Tijuana’s lucrative narcotics trade at stake, The Seattle Times, 6 Oct 1996, p. A20. 492 Op. cit. 493 Op. cit. 494 Op. cit. 495 Op. cit. 496 Op. cit. 497 Op. cit. 498 Op. cit. 499 Terri Langford (The Associated Press), U.S. wants former drug fighter’s stash in Texas bank case involving Mexican ex-prosecutor tied to assassinations, The Seattle Times, 11 March 1997, p. A3.

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That shipment, she said, “was delivered to Mario Ruiz Massieu . . . to insure the transportation and safety of drugs.” 500

“The foes are wealthy, sophisticated drug lords aided and abetted by foreign governments.” 501

Accompanied by former customs inspector Mike Horner [(See “A Whistle-Blower’s Ordeal,” Reader’s Digest, June 1994 502), Trevor Armbrister] watched trucks known to be owned by suspected drug traffickers whisk across the [Otay Mesa, California,503] border. “That one belongs to a notorious family of drug smugglers,” Horner said, pointing out a trailer with a telltale stripe. A 1993 customs intelligence report obtained by Reader’s Digest stated that this family – based in Mexico and the San Diego area – has been “directly involved in the trafficking of commercial quantities of narcotics for decades.” “That brown and white rig behind it is also bad news,” added Horner. A customs computerized “lookout” message on this company was blunt: “Intensive exam a must.” Despite this information, neither rig was inspected. Evidence amassed during a month-long Reader’s Digest investigation shows that the U.S. Customs Service is failing in one of its most important missions: interdicting narcotics at 24 major ports of entry along the more than 2000-mile U.S.-Mexican border. Resources to interdict drugs have dried up, corruption among inspectors is a serious problem, and turf wars have halted promising criminal investigations. 504 In November 1989 in Nogales, Ariz., a DEA staffer came into posession of tapes recording a conversation between two drug traffickers who were discussing payoffs one had made to customs inspectors for letting their cargo through.505 Dates, sizes of drug shipments, amounts of the payoffs – this was more than enough to justify a full-fledged investigation, thought John Juhasz, who was then special agent in charge of internal affairs for customs in Arizona. But when Juhasz called the DEA for cooperation on the case, he got nowhere. According to a Congressional subcommittee report, Gerard Murphy, DEA chief in Tucson, was furious.506 Juhasz was not permitted to speak to the DEA agent’s source who had provided the tape. And without the DEA’s prompt assistance, Juhasz told Reader’s Digest, the probe ground to a halt; the suspect inspectors kept their jobs. 507 In a confidential memo obtained by Reader’s Digest, Associate Customs Commissioner Deborah Spero lambasted customs’ failure to prosecute wrongdong in Arizona. “Over the last few years, I have been struck by our general inability to address corruption,” she wrote. But it’s not just Arizona. Corruption has infected offices all along the Mexican border. 508 “The agency is letting up,” says John Juhasz, a recently retired customs official. “And we’re drowning in drugs.” 509 Stand on any port of entry on the U.S. side and you’ll see bands of teen-agers with cellular phones, digital pagers and portable scanners that monitor UHF and VHF radio frequencies. Are customs inspectors about to examine every car in a certain lane? Are the drug-sniffing dogs out? The “spotters” get on the phone to drug traffickers in Mexico. Some smuggler techniques are less sophisticated – and more brutal. In Laredo, bomb threats forced inspectors to shut down operations 72 times last year [(1995)]. Recently customs inspectors have been facing a new threat: cars and trucks that don’t stop but instead accelerate and try to blast their way through. There were 879 such “port runner” incidents along the Mexican border in 1994, some involving gunfire. Last February [(1995),] as part of Operation Hardline, customs began using “stop-sticks” – wooden strips embedded with nails that inspectors can kick under the tires of a port-runner’s car, stopping it within 20 seconds. Some stations employ steel “bollards,” pneumatic posts that rise from the pavement to block speeding cars, or concrete mazes called K Rails to slow traffic.510 Still, almost 400 vehicles have rammed through.511 In 1993 some six tons of heroin, 200 tons of cocaine and 3900 tons of marijuana crossed the Mexican border into the United States, according to estimates by the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy. Yet that year customs confiscated – from trucks, tankers and vans – less than nine tons of marijuana, four tons of cocaine

500 Op. cit. 501 Editorials, An ally’s nasty habit, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, p. B6. 502 Trevor Armbrister, Our drug-plagued Mexican border, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 53. 503 Op. cit. 504 Ibidem, pp. 53-54. 505 Ibidem, p. 56. 506 Op. cit. 507 Ibidem, pp. 56-57. 508 Ibidem, p. 57. 509 Ibidem, p. 54. 510 Ibidem, p. 57. 511 Ibidem, p. 58.

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and no heroin.512 While the [U.S. Custom Service’s] marijuana seizures have increased substantially, its cocaine seizures plummeted from 210,000 pounds in 1992 to 137,743 in 1995.513 It was a crisp January afternoon in 1992 when Carlos Enrique Cervantes de Gortari, a second cousin of Mexico’s then-president, dined for three hours at an airport hotel restaurant here discussing shrimp farming, comparing wines and conspiring to smuggle millions of dollars of Colombian cocaine through Mexico into the United States. An old friend, a Mexican journalist, drew a map and then regaled an undercover U.S. drug agent on how Cervantes de Gortari – a nuclear engineer and Mexican army officer – and his associates used DC-6 aircraft, mini-submarines and widespread Mexican police corruption in Baja California to import vast quantities of cocaine destined for the United States, court documents here show. “Mr. De Gortari told us that he guaranteed 100 percent any cocaine that came through. He guaranteed its protection,” U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration agent Frank Ferndandez, working undercover with a major Colombian cocaine trafficker at the Jan. 29 dinner, would recall from the witness stand. 514 U.S. law-enforcement officials say the Cervantes de Gortari case, which attracted no public attention at the time, offered just one of many signs that U.S. policy-makers could have heeded about the pervasiveness of drug corruption in Mexico – warnings also carried in many court trials and voluminous intelligence reports on file in Washington. “There’s just no audience (for such information) in Washington,” a senior law-enforcement official said.515 Thousands of pages of case documents show how two U.S. administrations apparently turned a blind eye to mounting evidence of that corruption as, year after year under a congressionally required certification process, they formally declared that Mexico cooperates in the war on drugs. 516 [Meanwhile,] two civilian employees have been charged with conspiracy to manufacture methamphetamine at the Bangor [Nuclear] Submarine Base in Kitsap County, [Washington State]. William Ferro Jr., 44, and Anthony Perez, 30, were charged with one count each…in U.S. District Court. 517 The men, arrested…at the Hazardous Materials Facility at the base, 518…[operated a] drug lab…capable of making 4 ounces of methamphetamine every 48 hours, authorities said. The arrests are thought to be the first tied to a meth-manufacturing operation on a naval base. 519 According to a December 13, 1994, customs report, stop-and-search decisions at the border are in “need of improvement, given the huge number of examinations without success.” 520 Insiders say the agency is more concerned with making border trade convenient than with interdicting drugs. 521 “Drug interdiction, not expedited commerce, should be the top priority of the Customs Service’s efforts at the border,” Sen. Dianne Feinstein (D., Calif.) wrote Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin. “Increased commerce is not worth increased drug trafficking.” 522 As the Treasury Department’s assistant inspector general for investigations, James M. Cottos, told U.S. Customs Commissioner George Weise, “While facilitating international commerce, customs procedures may also be facilitating the entry of contraband.” 523 Weise insists that he will not tolerate corruption in his ranks, and no one doubts his sincerity. Yet employees have heard this message before, and the problem hasn’t disappeared. Customs must take steps to ensure that whistle-blowers can tell their stories without fear of retaliation. 524 In 1994, inspectors on the city’s three bridges processed 15.7 million passenger vehicles but subjected only one in ten drivers to questioning or vehicular inspection.525 “If I were a doper,” says Travis Kuykendall, who recently retired as special agent in charge at El Paso for the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), “those are the best odds in the world.” 526 The heady days when Tijuana was a big-time sex mill and booze mecca, with real bad guys and one of the seediest reputations in the Americas, are long gone.

512 Ibidem, p. 54. 513 The Associated Press, Administration quietly cuts Customs agents, Journal American, 1996. 514 Mark Fineman (Los Angeles Times), On trial: Mexican drug trade; conviction of president’s cousin unheeded in U.S., The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A3. 515 Op. cit. 516 Op. cit. 517 Pacific Northwest, 2 charged in base drug case, The Seattle Times, 12 Feb 1996, p. B2. 518 Op. cit. 519 Op. cit. 520 Trevor Armbrister, Our drug-plagued Mexican border, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 54. 521 Op. cit. 522 Ibidem, p. 58. 523 Ibidem, p. 54. 524 Op. cit. 525 Ibidem, pp. 55-56. 526 Ibidem, p. 56.

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This is not to suggest that Tijuana has become a temple of virtue, because there are still plenty of rough edges to reach out and bite the unwary. But there is, naturally, a lot more going on in Tijuana than tourism. The city – Mexico’s fourth largest – is growing like a weed and the relaxation of trade barriers as a result of the North American Free Trade Agreement has resulted in a spate of new industries springing up in the Tijuana/Mexicali area of northern Baja California. 527 It is no problem getting into Mexico through the San Ysidro crossin; coming out is a nightmare. To help alleviate the jams, another Tijuana-area customs crossing has been opened near the city’s airport. It’s called the Otay Mesa border crossing, and it links with Highway 117 in California, which runs west to Interstate 805 east of San Ysidro. • For Mexico tourism information, phone (800) 446-3942.528 Security may soon grow worse. In 1994 the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) began planning Dedicated Commuter Lanes. Except for an occasional random check, cars in these lanes with their prescreened passengers – identified by special decals on the front windshield and emitting a special radio signal – will be able to sail into the United States without stopping. When customs officials found out about the INS plan, they were appalled. How long, they wondered, would it take drug dealers in Tijuana to spot one of those decals and make the car’s owner an offer he couldn’t refuse? Customs Commissioner Weise took these concerns to Lloyd Bentsen, then Secretary of the Treasury, which is in charge of the Customs Service. Bentsen, too, thought the plan was dangerous. He and Weise met with Attorney General Janet Reno, top boss of the INS, but they failed to change her mind.529

• • •

Mexicans of every political persuasion…[have] yet more reason to suspect nefarious plots, coverups and lies by authorities in Mexico and the United States. As with the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy, even the most paranoid explanations are given credence.530 Paranoia runs deep. Nearly half the [American] population believes the CIA was involved in the assassination of President Kennedy.531 “There are a lot of vested interests involved in these crimes, but it’s very complicated,” said a Mexican government official who asked not to be identified. “There is a struggle for power – economic power, political power, drug power. The really difficult problem is to figure out . . . who is who.” 532 “The Clinton administration is so focused on protecting the economic and political status quo that getting the truth takes a back seat,” [said a drug policy expert at the University of New Mexico, Peter Lupsha]. 533 “Three years of investigations, and we know just as little as we did at the start, if not less,” Francisco Cardenas Cruz, an influencial columnist for the Mexico City daily El Universal, wrote recently. “The only result is increasing cynicism and total disbelief among all Mexicans.” 534

• • •

Indeed, people seem to want to believe the worst. They don’t trust the networks, the newspapers, the government. They’re ready to believe the Clinton haters.535 [Even] PLO officials and protesters are warning that the United States is fast losing credibility among Arabs as an honest broker of the peace process. 536

527 Zeke Wigglesworth (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), How to get the most from frenzied Tijuana, The Seattle Times, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. K6. 528 Ibidem, p. K7. 529 Trevor Armbrister, Our drug-plagued Mexican border, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 56. 530 Robert Collier, Unsolved scandals mount in Mexico; coverups feared in high-profile assassinations, drug cases, San Francisco Chronicle, 8 April 1997, 133(70), p. A1, A6. 531 Philip Weiss, Clinton’s “crazies”; no other president has become such a well-worn target while in office, The Seattle Times: Seattle Post-Intelligencer Focus, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. C1. 532 Robert Collier, Unsolved scandals mount in Mexico; coverups feared in high-profile assassinations, drug cases, San Francisco Chronicle, 8 April 1997, 133(70), p. A1, A6. 533 Ibidem, p. A6. 534 Op. cit. 535 Philip Weiss, Clinton’s “crazies”; no other president has become such a well-worn target while in office, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer Focus, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. C1. 536 Storer H. Rowley (Chicago Tribune), Palestinians doubt U.S. clout; growing violence, criticism over inaction on stalled negotions, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A3.

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“Politics is broken.” 537

George Washington left office to this commentary from the Philadelphia Aurora: “This day ought to be a jubilee in the United States . . . for the man who is the source of all the misfortunes of our country, is this day reduced to a level with his fellow citizens.” 538 The first president of the United States, George Washington, used the office of the presidency to enhance his personal fortune. A precedent was established that one way or another has characterized every administration since. During the administration of Ulysses Grant, the officers of the Union Pacific Railway were caught pocketing money from government bonds, and the vice president was implicated in the plot. During Grant’s second term of office, frauds totaling some seventy-five million dollars were unveiled, and Grant’s secretary of war (who was forced to resign) and his personal secretary were implicated in the fraud. In the 1840s Martin Van Buren was so corrupt that popular songs eulogized his willingness to sell anything he controlled for a price. As president his control extended to the Department of Justice. Warren Harding was perhaps less fortunate than his predecessors, since his administration’s scandal (“Teapot Dome”) has become a pseudonym for political corruption. The scandal involved the leasing of government land at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, to the oil magnate H. F. Sinclair. In the end, Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall was proven to have personally benefited substantially from this and other land leases. Fall was eventually tried, convicted, and sentenced to jail (for one year) for having accepted a bribe. The Teapot Dome Scandal was only one of many during Harding’s administration, and he was spared much of the torture of the scandal by his conveniently-timed death. President Roosevelt’s administration was relatively free from scandal, although this is probably more a result of crises (Depression and World War II) acting as a smoke screen that kept ordinary graft and corruption from being terribly significant. Harry Truman’s administration saw a White House military general, Harry H. Vaughn, accepting a deep freeze in return for using his influence. Donald Dawson, a close Truman aide, was implicated in a scandal involving the misuse of public funds and influence by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. The Internal Revenue Service was involved in yet another Truman-era scandal which culminated in a conspiracy trial against Truman’s former appointments secretary. Sherman Adams, one of President Eisenhower’s closest associates, accepted numerous gifts from an industrialist, Bernard Goldfine, who was at the time trying to influence decisions made by the Federal Trade Commission. Sherman Adams was forced to resign as Eisenhower’s special assistant. Lyndon Johnson began his political career by staffing the ballot counters in rural Texas with people who counted nonexistent votes for Johnson. His career as a senator, vice president and president was sprinkled with close associations with organized crime figures like Ed Levinson and Meyer Lansky as well as blatant shakedown rackets conducted by his closest associates such as Bobby Baker (…). [(Booth Mooney, LBJ: An Irreverent Chronicle (New York: Crowell, 1976)) 539] Richard Nixon’s presidency represented a high-water mark in the exposure of public corruption and misuse of office for personal gain.540

Watergate

Early on June 17, 1972, burglars tied to Richard Nixon’s re-election campaign broke into Democratic headquarters at the Watergate office building in Washington.541 It began, in the dead of night.542 There was a taped door lock, an observant security guard, a radioed warning that went unheard because a receiver had been switched off, and, finally, a scruffy plainclothes cop blinking in surprise as his flashlight beam trained on a group of well-tailored burglars.543

537 Bill Bradley [said,]…August [1995,] when he announced he would not seek reelection to the U.S. Senate. — Condensed from Washington Post (27 Aug 1995), In Paul Taylor, New whine, old babble, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 61. 538 Donald M. Rothberg, Clinton a target fo columnists of all stripes, The Seattle Times/Seattle-Post Intelligencer: Focus, 18 May 1997, 15(20), p. E1. 539 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 228. 540 Ibidem, pp. 201-202. 541 Calvin Woodward (The Associated Press), Do you remember Watergate? Well, the details escape us, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 542 Ken Fireman (), Watergate’s legacy: a ‘culture of scandal’, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 543 Op. cit.

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The four-pound brass lock picked at the infamous Watergate break-in fetched a high bid of $13,000 at an auction, less than half the suggested bid.544 Watergate officials had the lock removed the day after the break-in. A locksmith kept it for a few years until [retired Watergate superintendent 545 Jim] Herraly asked for it as a souvenir.546 They were trying to replace a faulty telephone-bugging device installed during an earlier break-in. They got caught.547 Nixon tried to cover up the growing scandal,548…[and on Nov. 7 549 he was] re-elected.550 [E. Howard Hunt, Bernard Barker, Frank Sturgis, Eugenio Martinez, and Virgilio Gonzales pleaded guilty to conspiracy, burglary and violating wiretapping laws on Jan. 8, 1973.551 Gordon Liddy and James McCord were found guilty of conspiracy, burglary, and wiretapping on Jan. 30.552] [On April 30,553] Nixon announce[d the] resignations of [H. R.] Haldeman, domestic adviser John Ehrlichman and Attorney General Richard Kleindienst. Counsel John Dean [wa]s fired. 554 [On May 17 555 the] Senate Watergate Committee open[ed their] hearings,556…[and the following day 557] Archiblad Cox [was] named special prosecutor.558 When [the recently appointed Attorney General Elliot Richardson 559] and deputy attorney general [William Ruckelshaus 560 later] refused Nixon’s order to fire Watergate special prosecutor Archibald Cox, [Solicitor General 561 Robert] Bork – then the third ranking official at the Justice Department – did the dirty work.562 [Homophobic] Bork…implemented President Nixon’s infamous “Saturday Night Massacre” 563…[Oct. 20.564] [One month later, on Nov. 17,565] Nixon t[old his] TV audience, “I am not a crook,” 566…[but on Nov. 26 567 the] White House turn[ed] over [the] existing subpoenaed tapes. Secretary Rose Mary Woods s[aid] she “accidentally” caused [an 18 1/2 minute 568] gap 569…on [the] key tape.570 [On Jan. 15, 1974,571] experts sa[id the] gap [was] caused by erasures, re-recordings.572 [On Jan. 30,573] Nixon t[old the] U.S. he wo[uld]n’t resign.574 [On March 1 575] John Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Charles Colson, Robert Mardian, Kenneth Parkinson and Gordon Strachan [were] indicted for

544 Across the Nation, Lock picked in 1972 break-in at Watergate brings $13,000, The Seattle Times, 27 May 1997, 120(126), p. A6. 545 Op. cit. 546 Op. cit. 547 Calvin Woodward (The Associated Press), Do you remember Watergate? Well, the details escape us, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 548 Op. cit. 549 Newspapers, June 17, 1972: the beginning of Nixon’s downfall, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 550 Op. cit. 551 Op. cit. 552 Op. cit. 553 Op. cit. 554 Op. cit. 555 Op. cit. 556 Op. cit. 557 Op. cit. 558 Op. cit. 559 Op. cit. 560 Op. cit. 561 Op. cit. 562 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Grim views of future justice (4 Sep 1984), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 40. 563 Op. cit. 564 Gannett Newspapers, June 17, 1972: the beginning of Nixon’s downfall, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 565 Op. cit. 566 Op. cit. 567 Op. cit. 568 Op. cit. 569 Op. cit. 570 Op. cit. 571 Op. cit. 572 Op. cit. 573 Op. cit. 574 Op. cit. 575 Op. cit.

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conspiring to hinder [the] investigation; 576 [on May 9,577 the] House Judiciary Committee open[ed] impeachment hearings; 578…[and on Jan. 1, 1974,579] Mitchell, Haldemann, Ehrlichman and Mardian [were] convicted in [the] cover-up.580 When it reached a climax,…an entire presidential administration was in disgrace, scores of people who served or supported it were convicted or confessed felons.581 On Aug. 9, 1974, under threat of impeachment, [Nixon] resigned,582…[and] Gerald Ford succeed[ed] him.583 [On Sept. 8,584] President Ford unconditionally pardon[ed] Nixon for all federal crimes he [had] “committed or may have committed or taken part in.” 585 [(And there’s more.)] A week before Richard Nixon resigned, a defiant speech was prepared for him declaring he had done nothing “that justifies removing an elected president from office” and pledging to fight to keep his presidency. The speech was never delivered. Instead, Nixon put out a written statement revealing the existence of the famous “smoking gun” tape – showing his complicity in the Watergate cover-up – and waited to judge how the nation reacted. In the ensuing national rage, Nixon saw that his presidency was doomed and gave up the fight. The refusal-to-resign draft, a footnote to one of the most dramatic weeks of America’s history, has come to light among the 40 million pages of Nixon documents at the National Archives. Raymond Price, Nixon’s chief speechwriter, prepared two drafts on Aug. 3 and 4, 1974 – the undelivered text and a resignation speech, marked “Option B.” “Option B” became the basis of the speech Nixon delivered on Thursday, Aug. 8, in which he told the nation he was resigning because “I no longer have a strong enough political base in Congress.” 586 Alexander Haig, who was Nixon’s chief of staff, said [Friday 13, 1996,] that he ordered the drafts prepared at an “agonizing and wrenching” time. “One day he was going to resign, the next day he wasn’t,” Haig said. “That weekend was about the third time as I recall that he was going to and he wasn’t going to.” The refusal-to-sign speech has Nixon conceding that he made “serious mistake” in withholding knowledge of the damaging Watergate tape after listening to it the previous May. He gave it up only when the Supreme Court ordered him to.587 The undelivered speech has Nixon say that, whatever his mistakes, “I firmly believe that I have not committed any act of commission or omission that justifies removing a duly elected president from office. “If I did believe that I had committed such an act, I would have resigned long ago.” 588 By that time, the term “Watergate” had come to represent far more than the burglary at that downtown Washington complex.589 It encompassed a grotesque panoply of misdeeds and abuses of power. They ranged from burglaries to wiretaps to political sabotage of Nixon’s critics and opponents, all financed by a flood of illegal campaign cash and then covered up with hush money and more misuses of authority. Today, as the veterans of Watergate look back across 25 years of history and then forward to the scandal-scorched landscape of contemporary Washington, many are uneasy about what they see.590 “I think even the ‘scandal’ trivializes what Watergate was about,” [Carl] Bernstein said. “It was about what was revealed to be a criminal presidency unique in our history, a series of decisions by the president . . . And this whole series of illegal activities was conducted to further the president’s policies.” 591

Iranscam

During the Reagan administration, over a hundred and fifty Reagan appointees were forced to resign for alleged or proven criminal acts. The criminality of Reagan appointees extended to his closest friends and continued after

576 Op. cit. 577 Op. cit. 578 Op. cit. 579 Op. cit. 580 Op. cit. 581 Ken Fireman (Newsday), Watergate’s legacy: a ‘culture of scandal’, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 582 Calvin Woodward (The Associated Press), Do you remember Watergate? Well, the details escape us, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 583 Gannett Newspapers, June 17, 1972: the beginning of Nixon’s downfall, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 584 Op. cit. 585 Op. cit. 586 Mike Feinsilber (The Associated Press), The speech Nixon didn’t give; draft prepared near the end was defiant and refusing to resign, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 16 Dec 1996, 133(301), p. A6. 587 Op. cit. 588 Op. cit. 589 Ken Fireman (Newsday), Watergate’s legacy: a ‘culture of scandal’, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A2. 590 Op. cit. 591 Op. cit.

49 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

they were out of office as well as while they were active in government. Some went to prison, some were fined, and others were let go with only a slap on the wrist.592 No single Cabinet appointment can assure that scandals will not recur, but an independent attorney general can play an important role in keeping a president and his administration within the bounds of the law. 593 Most Americans probably believed that presidents who were elected after the disgraced President Nixon would have learned at least one important lesson from Watergate: do not follow the tradition of appointing cronies, political operatives, or close relatives as attorney general. The tradition, of course, has a venerable lineage. 594 Watergate devastatingly showed the dangers of an attorney general who placed personal loyalty to the individual in the Oval Office above his [or her] obligation as chief law enforcement officer. Nixons’s attorney general, John Mitchell, was – to put it bluntly – a crook. He was eventually convicted of obstructing justice, rather than furthering it, and he went off to prison along with other White House lawyers. 595 Ronald Reagan…ma[de] two of the worst appointments imaginable. First he picked his own personal lawyer, William French Smith, a somewhat somnambulistic socialite who seemed to spend most of his time at Washington parties, leaving the running of the department to young, ambitious professionals. 596 President Reagan [later] nominated one of his closest political cronies, Edwin Meese III, who had already demonstrated an insensitivity to the ethics of government employment by accepting “loans” from people who were seeking appointments from the administration. Following his confirmation, things got worse. The whole story of his involvement in the selling of arms to Iran and the diverting of the profits to the Contras – at best legally questionable, at worst in direct violation of law – has yet to be told. Oliver North’s testimony…certainly provides cause for believing that Meese did not behave in the highest traditions of law enforcement.597 In 1985, Reagan tried to win release of seven American hostages by authorizing sales through Israel of antitank missiles to Iran. This transaction violated an existing arms embargo. Reagan also failed to notify Congress that Israel was reselling the U.S. weapons, as the law required. When CIA officials realized they had no authorization for their agency’s involvement, they asked for and got the President’s signature on a backdated document. They later lied when testifying to Congress that they thought the shipments contained not weapons, but oil equipment. Reagan also authorized direct sales of weapons to Iran. National Security Adviser John M. Poindexter and his aide, Lieutenant Colonel Oliver L. North, set up a system that included private arms dealers, tax-exempt foundations, retired CIA officers, and Liberian-registered ocean freighters. North got weapons at cost, then marked them up threefold with the profits going to the Contras, who were waging a civil war in Nicaragua. North ran the Contra operation out of the White House, despite a congressional ban against funding their operation. All this mischief was revealed in the fall of 1986, when a Lebanese journal wrote about the sales to Iran and when a plane carryng weapons to the Contras was shot down in Nicaragua. The scandal put the entire country on edge. The President [(Reagan)] was at risk of impeachment for failing to notify Congress of the weapons sales and for violating the Contra-funding ban. Worse, [Lawrence E.] Walsh suspects that the hostage negotiations with Iran were deliberately dragged out because each missile sale produced profits for the Contras. But as Walsh reveals, the gravest danger to democracy was the organized cover-up by the White House and the national-security community. One of the worst moments, according to Walsh, was when then-Attorney General Edwin Meese, put in charge of an internal investigation, instead turned a blind eye as North destroyed enough documents to break his shredder. 598 His “investigation” was a Keystone Kop parody of Dragnet. (“Just give us the facts, sir – in a couple of days, unless you need more time to destroy the evidence.”) The image of Oliver North shredding documents while Justice Department officials sat nearby reading other documents is one that will remain frozen in the American mind for years to come. With all of the ongoing investigations of his conduct, he hardly ha[d] any time to do the work of attorney general. But maybe that’s a blessing in disguise, considering what he did when he did have time on his hands. 599

592 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 203. 593 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Attorney General must be free of political ties (10 Aug 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 297. 594 Ibidem, p. 295. 595 Op. cit. 596 Ibidem, p. 296. 597 Op. cit. 598 Paula Dwyer (Senior Correspondent covering Iran-Contra), Pointing a finger at Reagan, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 22. 599 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Attorney General must be free of political ties (10 Aug 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), pp. 296-297.

50 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

But six years of work came unglued when President Bush issued his Christmas, 1992, pardon of ex-Defense Secretary Caspar W. Weinberger, former National Security Advisor Robert C. McFarlane, Assistant Secretary of State Elliott Abrams, and three CIA officials. Bush by then had lost his reelection to Bill Clinton and blamed Walsh, whose election-eve indictment of Weinberger included a footnote implying Bush knew more than he let on. Some of the most surprising revalations concern the attempts to prosecute Weinberger for lying about the existence of notes he had taken at White House meetings. By the summer of 1992, Walsh’s probe had become the subject of frequent Republican attacks – often led by then-Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole. Walsh was aghast when Reagan friend and former National Security Adviser William Clark approached him with what he describes as a quid pro quo: Accept a no-contest plea from Weinberger, and not only would the politcal attacks cease but GOP heavyweights would also heap praise on him. To be sure, Walsh made mistakes. His investigation took too long, but Walsh had to contend with uncooperative foreign governments and witnesses. He underestimated the impact of the footnote implying Bush’s culpability.600 He failed to go after CIA documents, naively relying on agency compliance.601

Billygate

The Democrats cannot investigate corruption in…[cities] where…Republicans control the crime networks, because they do not control the Department of Justice.602 [Recently,] Democrats have been embarrassed,…but an aide to a top Democrat released documents [March 10] that he said showed that Republicans used some of the same practices in recent years.603

• • •

Former White House chief of staff Leon Panetta acknowledged [March 9] that the 1996 Clinton re-election committee played a role in the spending of $35 million to $40 million in “soft-money” contributions on campaign commercials.604 “Soft money” refers to contributions to political parties that are not subject to federal limits and cannot be used for a specific election campaign.605 When asked whether it was illegal “for the Clinton campaign to use soft money,” Panetta replied it was not because the money was spent as part of an overall “Democratic strategy in confronting the Republican Congress.” 606 White House documents show[] the president, vice president and top aides [are] extensively involved in controversial fund-raising practices such as rewarding big donors with White House overnight visits. 607 The White House [also] provided trips on Air Force One or presidential helicopters to 56 campaign donors and fund-raisers in 1995 and ‘96, administration officials said [April 14]. In addition, leading campaign fund-raisers appeared on a “must consider” list for positions in the newly elected Clinton administration in 1992, according to newly released Democratic National Committee documents. Some later became ambassadors and other high-level appointees.608 John Huang, a key figure in the Democratic fund-raising scandal, won’t testify to congressional committees unless he’s granted immunity from prosecution, House panel lawyer John Rowley said. He said Huang’s lawyer said news reports quoting Huang as saying he would testify if subpoenaed were wrong.609

• • •

600 Paula Dwyer (Senior Correspondent covering Iran-Contra), Pointing a finger at Reagan, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 22. 601 Op. cit. 602 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Attorney General must be free of political ties (10 Aug 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 206. 603 David Stout, Democrats try to turn tables in finance war, The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 728), p. A12A. 604 Robert Suro (Washington Post), Campaign helped direct the spending of ‘soft money,’ The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A2. 605 Op. cit. 606 Op. cit. 607 Robert Suro (Washington Post), Reno rejects GOP on special probe of fund raising; question of credible evidence, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A3. 608 Alan Miller (The Los Angeles Times), Who received trips on Air Force One; White House list of donors, fund-raisers, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A5. 609 Washington, Finance probe, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 7A.

51 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Foreign-service officers dreaming of landing the Big Ben of diplomatic posts, or becoming the top envoy with an Eiffel Tower view, had better think twice. U.S. ambassadors to London and Paris are almost always big-bucks political donors or buddies of the president, while professional diplomats head to trouble spots where experience is more important than contacts. 610 “Most political appointments wouldn’t particularly like to go to Rwanda,” [said former Malta Ambassador Bruce] Laingen, who was the highest-ranking U.S. diplomat held hostage by Iran and knows about hardship posts.611

• • •

[Stephen] Smith, an aide to [then-Gov. Bill] Clinton in 1979-80, pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor count of conspiring to misapply a loan from David Hale’s Capital Management Services, Inc.612 Smith, now a communications professor at the University of Arkansas, said Whitewater prosecutors initially told him in 1994 that he wasn’t a target of the investigation.613 Pleading guilty to a lesser charge was a cheaper way out, [Smith] testified. [Gov. Jim Guy] Tucker and the [co-defendents James and Susan] McDougals, who were partners with the Clintons in the Whitewater land-development venture, are accused of defrauding the McDougals’ savings and load and Hale’s loan company for $3 million in loans.614 [Whitewater independent counsel Kenneth] Starr has also accused Susan McDougal…of seeking a “license to lie,” by refusing to testify to a grand jury unless she is granted immunity from perjury charges. 615

• • •

Kenneth Starr told a federal court [April 23] that he had amassed “extensive evidence” of obstruction of justice, including witness tampering, perjury and concealment and destruction of evidence. The evidence, now under consideration by a grand jury, suggests that the investigation is gathering steam and poses potential serious politcal and criminal risk to those involved, including the president and first lady, who have testified under oath. 616 A Whitewater prosecutor told an appeals court that first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton could be indicted, ABC News reported [May 17].617 During a closed-door session in a federal appeals court in St. Louis, a Starr deputy said an indictment was possible, according to an audio tape of the purported discussion obtained by ABC News. “We certainly are investigatin individuals, and those individuals – including Mrs. Clinton – could be indicted,” deputy independent counsel John Bates told the court.618 ABC did not say how it obtained the tape recording.619 Overruling Clinton’s claim that the conversations are protected by attorney-client privilege, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 8th Circuit in St. Louis ruled that the notes must be turned over to a federal grand jury. The White House has appealed the ruling to the Supreme Court. The notes in question involve Clinton’s conversations with White House lawyers concerning her actions after the death of Vincent Foster, former deputy White House counsel, and the mysterious reappearance of her law-firm-billing records – two key focuses of the Whitewater investigation.620 President and Mrs. Clinton’s private attorney [June 3] accused Whitewater prosecutor Kenneth Starr’s office of violating grand jury secrecy rules to inflict “leak-and-smear damage” on his clients.621

610 Laura Myers (The Associated Press), Career diplomats saying ‘c’est la vie’ on choice locations; top ambassadors usually big donors or well-connected, The Seattle Times, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. A3. 611 Op. cit. 612 Kelly P. Kissel (The Associated Press), Ex-Clinton aide had loan with defendants in Whitewater case, The Seattle Times, 119(92), 16 April 1996, p. A5. 613 Op. cit. 614 Op. cit. 615 John F. Harris (Washington Post), War of words escalades between Clinton, Starr; barbs become personal as prosecutor spars with president on Whitewater, The Seattle Times, 11 May 1997, 15(9), p. A3. 616 Editorials, Whitewater resurfaces, Eastside Journal, 24 April 1997, 21(249), p. A10. 617 Laura Meckler (The Associated Press), Report: prosecutor told court first lady could be indicted, The Seattle Times, 18 May 1997, 15(20), p. A3. 618 Op. cit. 619 Op. cit. 620 Op. cit. 621 John Solomon (The Associated Press), Starr accused of violating grand jury secrecy, The Seattle Times, 3 June 1997, 120(132), p. A8.

52 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

[An] article in The New York Times Magazine quoted unnamed prosecutors as saying that former Whitewater partner James McDougal’s cooperation led to new documents about Mrs. Clinton’s legal work for McDougal’s failed savings and loan and “the truthfulness of her statements to federal investigators.” The story also quoted the unnamed prosecutors as saying that Starr’s recent court declaration that a grand jury had heard “extensive evidence of possible obstruction” referred to the two-year disappearance of Mrs. Clinton’s law firm billing records.622 It also reports that “lawyers in Starr’s office make no attempt to squelch speculation that they have weighed the possibility of indicting” the first lady.623

• • •

President Clinton lost part of a fight in a Washington federal appeals court where he is claiming presidential privilege to withhold 84 documents subpoenaed by a grand jury investigating former Agriculture secretary Mike Espy. The court said prosecutors “demonstrated a sufficient need to obtain certain information in some of the documents,” and ordered those released. But the judges sent the case back to a lower court to determine, in the case of other documents, if the grand jury’s need for relevant information outweighs the president’s interest in preserving the confidentiality of advice he receives. Espy quit in 1994 amid accusations he took gifts from businesses he regulated. He has denied wrongdoing.624

• • •

Walsh gave a dense, though well-documented, counterpoint to the notion that he was biased against Reagan Administration officials – or just plain nutty. The book [(Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-up, Norton, $29.95)] is especially useful now, as another independent counsel, Kenneth Starr, relives many of Walsh’s nightmares. Starr, too, is being portrayed as a partisan out to get a President. And we are told that his probe has [also] taken too long, is too costly, and is mired in issues no one cares about anymore. Funny thing, Starr’s work centers not on the original wrongdoing – the Whitewater land deal – but on what he suspects is a cover-up. This time around it’s a Democratic Administration. Don’t they ever learn? 625

622 Op. cit. 623 Op. cit. 624 Washington, Espy probe, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 7A. 625 Paula Dwyer (Senior Correspondent covering Iran-Contra), Pointing a finger at Reagan, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 22.

53 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Attorney General Is Not Required To Be “Learned at Law”

The federal government is usually represented in the Supreme Court by the soliciter general, the only official required to be “learned at law.” A solicitor general’s boss, the attorney general, is bound by no such law. Still, many try arguing before the nation’s highest court.626

• • •

Attorney General Janet Reno assigned the Justice Department’s inspector general [February 27] to investigate whether the FBI covered up allegations that one of its crime-lab agents testified falsely during the ouster of a federal judge 627…after Republican Sens. Charles Grassley of Iowa and Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania said 628…they would not be content with the internal investigation…by FBI Director Louis Freeh. 629 [Janet Reno also said that] she sees no reason for an independent counsel to investigate the Democratic fund-raising controversy involving President Clinton.630 In a decision that seems certain to anger [the chairmen of both the Senate and House judiciary committees, 631] Attorney General Janet Reno has approved the draft of a letter rejecting their call for 632…a Whitewater-type outside counsel to look into alleged political fund-raising abuses.633 “The quality of evidence of criminal wrongdoing may be in dispute,” [Sen. John] McCain, [R-Ariz.,] said in a statement. “But the fact that abundant information has come to light about possible violations of the law by senior officials is not.” 634

• • •

Last year, the FBI breifed at least six members of Congress…after receiving evidence that China had targeted them to receive laundered campaign money through Asian donors.635 Six months before the election, the FBI briefed midlevel National Security Council aides at the White House about intelligence reports out of China 636…of an alleged Chinese plot to influence the election with illegal donations. 637 According to the report, staff members at the National Security Council, which [Mr.] Lake headed, were informed by the Justice Department of an FBI investigation into the allegations concerning China, but President Clinton and other senior White House officials were not briefed.638 “The FBI knew that China and other Asian countries were trying to exert influence in our society,” [Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Orrin] Hatch said on Fox News [March 9].639 If top officials were alerted in advance, “that makes this a problem and these allegations even more serious than before,” he said. 640 [And] it is “amazing” if no warning of the FBI’s suspicions were passed on to the top levels of the White House. 641

626 Tony Mauro, Upholding a tradition, USA Today, 12 Dec 1996, 15(63), p. 3A. 627 The Associated Press, Justice Dept. to probe possible FBI cover-up, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A4. 628 Op. cit. 629 Op. cit. 630 James Vicini (Reuters), Reno says no need yet for special funds probe, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A5. 631 Robert L. Jackson (The Los Angeles Times), Reno set to refust independent counsel in funds probe, San Francisco Chronicle, 14 April 1997, 133(75), p. A3. 632 Op. cit. 633 Op. cit. 634 James Vicini (Reuters), Reno says no need yet for special funds probe, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A5. 635 The Los Angeles Times & The Associated Press, Clinton says FBI should have warned him on China money; Republican leaders say mystery widens fund-raising controversy, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A2. 636 Ibidem, p. A1. 637 Robert Suro (Washington Post), Reno rejects GOP on special probe of fund raising; question of credible evidence, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A3. 638 James Risen (The Los Angeles Times), White House, GOP Congress about to butt heads over CIA; Anthony Lake’s confirmation as head of the CIA has turned into a test of wills between two men backed by powerful partisan forces. The newest twist: Lake knew about China’s attempts to funnel money to U.S. lawmakers – but he did not tell the president, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A3. 639 The Los Angeles Times & The Associated Press, Clinton says FBI should have warned him on China money; Republican leaders say mystery widens fund-raising controversy, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A2. 640 Op. cit. 641 Op. cit.

54 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Other Republican leaders suggested the White House may have been kept in the dark because it had already come under suspicion.642 House Speaker Newt Ginrich, who described White House fund-raising practices as “the most systematic large-scale effort to get around the law . . . since Watergate,” 643…[is putting] increasing pressure [on Janet Reno] to name an independent counsel to investigate.644 Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott sa[id] he’ll press for an independent councel either by way of a nonbinding Sentate resolution or a vote of the Judiciary committee. Lott also said the Senate Government Affairs Committee investigation into White House and congressional fund-raising practices will be narrowed to focus on activities by President Clinton and Vice President Gore. • Sen. John Glenn, D-Ohio, wrote to Committee Chairman Fred Thompson, R-Tenn., listing organizations Democrats want subpoenaed about contributions they got from the Republican National Committee or because they are nonprofit groups that might have illegally engaged in political activity. Included: the Christian Coalition and National Right to Life Committee. • Thompson returned $3,000 contributed by Kansas businessman Farhad Azima and his relatives. Thompson said Azima, whose $90,000 donation to the Democratic National Committee is being returned, might be a witness. • The House committee investigating campaign finance abuses issued subpoenas to the White House and Justice Department to find out about alleged Chinese government involvement in funneling money to the presidental election.645 House Speaker…Gingrich, R-Ga., said on “Fox News Sunday” that he hoped Reno would ask a panel of federal judges to appoint an independent counsel. If she does not, Gingrich said, Congress might launch an investigation to determine whether Reno herself had a role in the fund-raising. “If she can look at this mound of evidence . . . look at the day-after-day revelations, and not conclude it is time for an independent counsel, how can any serious citizen have any faith in her?” Gingrich asked. If she decides not to seek an independent counsel, Gingrich said, Reno needs to explain her decision. “She needs to answer in public. She needs to answer, I think, under oath,” he said. The ranking Democrat on the House Government Reform Committee, Representative Henry Waxman of California, reacted on CNN’s “Late Edition” by saying Gingrich and the Republicans are seeking to cover up “a partisan witch hunt.” 646 Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman…Hatch, R-Utah, said [April 13] on ABC-TV’s “This Week” that Reno, as a leading member of the Clinton administration, has a “conflict of interest, both apparent and real,” if her own department investigates the case.647 She dismissed suggestions that she suffers a conflict of interest in trying to investigate the president who appointed her 648…[and] said the 5-month-old [(as of April 15)] inquiry by the Justice Department task force will go forward.649 Senate Majority Leader…Lott, R-Miss., called Reno’s decision “inexcusable,” asserting she faces a “clear conflict of interest.” 650 “Tonight, the American people have a crisis of confidence in the Clinton administration,” he said in a statement that decried the “politicization of the Clinton Justice Department.” 651 [The] Attorney General must be free of political ties.652

Super(computing) Power

[On May 26,] House Judiciary Committee Chairman Henry Hyde, R-Ill.,…called on Attorney General Janet Reno to investigate whether illegal Asian donations to President Clinton’s campaign caused the administration to allow the export of sensitive U.S. technology to China.

642 Op. cit. 643 Washington, Gingrich joins call for probe, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 6A. 644 Op. cit. 645 Op. cit. 646 Robert L. Jackson (The Los Angeles Times), Reno set to refust independent counsel in funds probe, San Francisco Chronicle, 14 April 1997, 133(75), p. A3. 647 Op. cit. 648 Robert Suro (Washington Post), Reno rejects GOP on special probe of fund raising; question of credible evidence, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A3. 649 Op. cit. 650 Op. cit. 651 Op. cit. 652 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Attorney General must be free of political ties (10 Aug 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 295.

55 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

In a letter to Reno, Hyde and Rep. Tillie Fowler, R-Fla., said Justice Department officials currently probing the donations scandal should also look into “the possible link” with several recent examples of technology transfer to China.653 The letter also cited several sensitive technology transfer cases, including the administration’s controversial decision to permit the Chinese to acquire machinery from a McDonnell Douglass missile and strategic bomber factory in Ohio.654 [Additionally,] the administration has allowed the sale of 46 supercomputers to China in the last 15 months [(as of May 28),] giving the Chinese what Pentagon officials believe to be more supercomputing capacity than the U.S. Defense Department. 655

Co-belligerents

Journalists, politicians, and average people often use exaggerated comparisons to express strong opinions. We often hear conservatives described as “fascists” or “McCarthyites,” liberals as “communists,” opponents of affirmative-action quotas as “racists,” and critics of school prayer as persons “intolerant of religion.” 656 The courtroom can’t become a substitute for the editing desk. It isn’t the proper function of government to determine the nature of the rhetoric to be used in debating important public issues. As Justice John Harlan – who had a diehard conservative lifestyle – once said in striking down the conviction of a draft opponent who came into court wearing a jacket emblazoned with a four letter description of what he thought of the draft: “Surely the state has no right to cleanse public debate to the point where it is grammatically palatable to the most squeamish among us.” 657 When Ralph Nadar…leveled a serious charge against the Justice Department’s antitrust policies, Attorney General Mitchell responded by declaring that Nadar was having “hallucinations.” [ 658] This followed on the heels of a similar Justice Department retort to charges leveled against J. Edgar Hoover by Congressman Hale Boggs. Boggs, according to the Deputy Attorney General, was “either sick or not in possession of his faculties.” 659 This kind of psychiatric name-calling is not limited to national politics.660 Declaring one’s political opponents insane has a long and unfortunate history. The Soviet Union’s use of “insanity” as a euphemism for political deviance is well known. (Witness the…case of the Jewish Red Army General who, after returning his medals in protest of his country’s treatment of his coreligionists, was committed to a mental hospital on the ground that no sane man would do such a thing.) Our own government 661…ha[s] a tradition of attempting to explain extreme political behavior in psychiatric terms. We find it comfortable to believe, for example, that assassins like Oswald and Sirhan were crazy. Indeed, a…report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence concluded that “All those who have assassinated or attempted to assassinate presidents of the United States (with the possible exception of the Puerto Rican nationalist attempt upon President Truman) have been mentally disturbed persons who did not kill to advance any rational political plan.” 662 We are far more willing to accept a nonpolitical (and nonconspiratorial) explanation for an attempt on the life of a popular leader…than to lend any degree of legitimacy to the crime by ascribing rational motives. 663 The undue emphasis we have placed on mental illness as a cause of assassinations may help to explain why almost half – eighty-five out of 179 – of the people who demanded to see President Nixon without a prior appointment…[in 1970 664] were immediately shipped off to the local mental hospital.665 We should…be alert to any spread of this childish – but potentially dangerous – phenomenon. It is far too easy to become the kind of society that Emily Dickinson once wrote about.

653 Sara Fritz (The Los Angeles Times), Lawmakers want to know if Asian donors won favors, The Seattle Times, 28 May 1997, 120(127), p. A13. 654 Op. cit. 655 Op. cit. 656 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Common-sense verdict on “name-calling” (18 Sep 1984), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 43. 657 Ibidem, pp. 43-44. 658 Mitchell was later to become a convicted criminal. 659 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), The childish political name-callers (27 June 1971), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), pp. 44- 45. 660 Ibidem, p. 45. 661 Op. cit. 662 Op. cit. 663 Op. cit. 664 Ibidem, p. 46. 665 Ibidem, p. 45.

56 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Assent, and you are sane; Demur – you’re straightaway dangerous And handled with a chain.666

• • •

The use of organized crime figures to plot assassinations, coordinate the smuggling of drugs and arms for the CIA, and generally stand in readiness to “serve their government” is a longstanding tradition. 667 The day before the election last November, Larry Nichols met [Philip Weiss].668 “They might kill me,” [Nichols] said. “You’ll read one day that I got drunk and ran into a moving bridge. Or Larry Nichols got depressed over everything and blew his head off.” 669 “They” in Nichols’ universe are shadowy Arkansas characters who have one way or another been connected politically to Clinton.670 Nichols himself was once a Clinton man. As governor, Clinton hired him to be the marketing director for the Arkansas Development Finance Authority. Clinton later fired Nichols, charging that he had made unauthorized phone calls to Central America. Nichols, for his part, became convinced that Clinton himself had some vague but sinister Central American connection during the time he was governor. It’s a connection that in Nichols’ view involved cocaine shipments, money-laundering and gun-running, all in and around the Mena airport in western Arkansas while Clinton was governor. Nichols sued Clinton to contest his firing. He charged not only that Clinton was remiss in not investigating Mena but also that he had misused state funds to romance five women. The suit was dropped, but later, after Clinton became president, it would grow in significance. In January the White House counsel’s office released a report called the “Communication Stream of Conspiracy Commerce,” which castigates Nichols, among others, for spreading vicious reports about Clinton that place him and some of those closest to him in criminal conspiracies. No sitting president has been so vilified. Kennedy was dead before the stories about Judith Exner and mob ties were circulated. Clinton can read the scandalous stories about himself in countless pamphlets, books and on numerous Web sites. There are claims that Clinton’s cronies smuggled drugs through Mena. There are any number of women he is said to have had sexual relations with. There are murders, 671…as many as 57,672…that his political “machine” is said to have ordered or acquiesced to or covered up. Oh, and there is the claim that his mother was involved in two killings at the hospital where she worked as a nurse.673 And there is, most prominently, the July 20, 1993 death of White House Deputy Counsel Vincent W. Foster Jr. – which no full-blooded Clinton crazy believes was a simple suicide. The Clinton crazies – [Weiss had] first heard the term used, with tongue only slightly in cheek, by Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, a British journalist who is one of them – are of different types. There are haters such as Nichols and Pat Matrisciana, a filmmaker, who have developed a…view of Clinton as Satan’s nephew.674 Martyrs are in another class.675 Finally there are the free-lance obsessives, the people for whom the Internet was invented, cerebral hobbyists who have glimpsed in the Clinton scandals a high moral drama that might shake society to its roots.676 Electronic communication has been a key factor in popular uprisings around the world during recent years (the role of the fax machine in publicizing China’s Tiananmen demonstrations being perhaps the most notable instance).677 [But] most of the world’s poor don’t have access to the web. [sic] It’s a good day when they are able to find food, shelter, water, medical care and work in sufficient quantity and quality for their families to survive. Many of them don’t.678

666 Ibidem, p. 46. 667 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 204. 668 Philip Weiss, Clinton’s “crazies”; no other president has become such a well-worn target while in office, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. C1. 669 Op. cit. 670 Op. cit. 671 Op. cit. 672 Op. cit. 673 Op. cit. 674 Op. cit. 675 Op. cit. 676 Op. cit. 677 Ben Davis, The culture machine: science and art on the Web, Scientific American, Aug 1996, 275(2), p. 107.

57 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

There are 857 active ‘patriot’ groups in the USA, up from 809 a year earlier, says the Southern Poverty Law Center. The groups are defined as militias, common-law courts, churches, radio broadcasters, publishers and others who identify themselves as anti-government or as opposed to the ‘New World Order.’ 679 [(Washington State ha[d] 30; Oregon, 18; California, 36; Arizona, 45; Colorado, 37; and Texas, ha[d] 48.680)] In part because of his willingness to credit views such as a belief in “death squads” in Arkansas, Evans-Pritchard has become a hero in the anti-Clinton underground.681 “One doesn’t have to believe in black helicopters to see that the post-Cold-War era in this country is a gold mine for journalists.” 682 Another such hero is Hugh Sprunt, 57, an accountant with a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree from MIT and a law degree from Stanford. His report,683…“Citizen’s Independent Report,” 684…on “omissions and curiosa” in the Foster death has a true cult following among anti-Clinton zealots.685 He told [Weiss] he had been trailed by people he believes to be government agents on two occasions – once on a plane when a man came and sat beside him and had a long discussion about who he was (“I think he was in soft clothes from Air Force intelligence”), another time when a man walked behind him for several blocks in Washington. “Basically I’m a wimp,” Sprunt offered. “If someone came to me and said, ‘We’re going to burn your house down and kill your wife and kids unless you desist,’ I’d say, ‘We’ve got a deal.’ ” [What a wimp!] After several hours of listening to Sprunt, [Weiss] suggested he was a conspiracy theorist. But Sprunt said, in part: “I’m not sure that’s a useful term. In the progression of ideas, some kooks always turn out to be right.686 Some turn out to be a source of progress. Abolitionists were probably called kooks.” 687 Federick Douglass, the great American abolitionist, once said that, “The life of the nation is secure only while the nation is honest, truthful, and virtuous.” With the dawn of each day’s new campaign finance scandal, most Americans are outraged by the lack of honesty, truthfulness and virtue they see exhibited by our nation’s elected leaders. Across the country, there is widespread sentiment that the president is blowing a smoke screen over the money laundering schemes that have been exposed at the White House. Many look at the president’s belated call for campaign finance reform as a calculated gesture to divert attention away from apparent White House fund-raising illegalities. But the need for laws to clean up the corrupted campaign finance system should be separated from the fact that the president, the vice president and the White House staff have appeared to sell polictical influence. The president’s supporters may have even jeopardized our national security by soliciting money from foreign countries. Foreign countries give campaign money to U.S. political leaders to obtain U.S. policy benefits – such as most-favored-nation trading status. The ongoing revelations merit two responses. First, the president should stop talking and direct Attorney General Janet Reno to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate. If there is no illegal activity, he should encourage this action to clear his administration’s name and to restore the confidence of the American people in their elected leaders. Already, the Senate has appropriately taken the lead in investigating illegal and improper practices of both political parties in the 1996 federal elections. Second, we must stop the pernicious money-laundering system. “Soft money” is at the root of most all the money-laundering schemes being revealed day after day. Soft money – money contributed in unlimited amounts to national party organizations for the ostensible purpose of “party building” – is the biggest corrupter in national campaigns today. The American public has a right to know where candidates get their campaign funds. They are disgusted when they find that big money, whether corporate or union, can be laundered through political parties. When we blow away the smoke, we can see that the president used the legal soft money system as a train to carry the illegal cargo of foreign money.

678 Robert A. Seiple, U.S. must take lead in helping world’s poor, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E2. 679 Southern Poverty Law Center, Number of ‘patriot’ groups rises, In Genevieve Lynn, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 4A. 680 Op. cit. 681 Philip Weiss, Clinton’s “crazies”; no other president has become such a well-worn target while in office, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. C3. 682 Op. cit. 683 Op. cit. 684 Op. cit. 685 Op. cit. 686 Op. cit. 687 Op. cit.

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We can blow away the smoke. We must demand that: 1) Congress and the pesident pass a bill making money laundering illegal; and 2) elected leaders must change their own behavior. All elected leaders must raise the standard.688 The White House calls these various [kooky] people…participants in “conspiracy commerce.” Sprunt has his own name for this loose alliance: the “co-belligerents.” [Weiss] mentioned that term to Chris Ruddy, a ferociously dogged reporter for the Tribune-Review, a right-wing Pittsburgh paper.689 But he promptly disagreed. “I don’t see myself as being involved in a war,” Ruddy said. Somehow, that seemed the craziest statement of all. 690

“Surrender, instead of settling for a “cease-fire.” ” 691

Bring on the Rockets! 692 NRA members say they would rather not be in Seattle.693 The crime…make[s] many of them nervous. It’s not the run-of-the-mill, avoidable crime that lurks in the dark alleys, but crime that’s brazen enough to jump you on the street in the middle of the day.694

• • •

The fact that organized crime networks are ubiquitous and that law enforcement agencies as well as individual politicians work hand in glove with them underscores two of the main conclusions to be drawn from [William J. Chambliss’s] research. First is that what [he] found in Seattle is not unique to that Northwestern city but is characteristic of America’s large cities and has been since at least the turn of the century. Second, is that the exposure of corruption is a political event and must be understood as such. This latter point warrants elaboration. Given the ubiquitous nature of corruption and institutionalized criminal practices in America, when it is exposed the question to be asked is not “how did it happen?” Rather, the question that must be asked is “why is it being exposed?” 695 Corruption is exposed when those who control the law enforcement agencies will benefit from its exposure. In 1969, the crime network in Seattle was exposed as a way of serving the interest of the Republicans when they gained control of the White House and key political offices in Washington State. That scenario is repeated every time there is a change of political parties. 696 Corrupt officials, wealthy drug traffickers and poverty pose the greatest threats to democracy 697…[in Latin America 698 and elsewhere]. It is imperative that we are aware of what is going on. It is even more important, however, that we understand why. Throughout this book as we have moved from a description of the crime networks in Seattle to those of the United States government, we have discovered facts and uncovered relationships that indicate how the political, economic, and social relations of America create inevitable tendencies toward corruption and the institutionalization of crime by government officials, racketeers, lawyers, and ordinary business people.699 Crime bosses enrich themselves at the expense of their victims and the public in general. Drugs, violence, prostitution, and economic exploitation enslave millions.700 “Someone is murdered in the United States every 22

688 Rep. Linda Smith (3rd Congressional District), End ‘soft money’ way of laundering money; President’s call for campaign finance reform diverts attention, Eastside Journal, 31 March 1997, 21(225), p. A9. 689 Philip Weiss, Clinton’s “crazies”; no other president has become such a well-worn target while in office, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. C3. 690 Op. cit. 691 …with a government he didn’t believe in. — Mark Babineck (The Associated Press), Standoff ends in Texas, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A1. 692 [(Pointer to sports article located immediately to the right of the following NRA article and above the previous standoff article.)] — The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A1. 693 Chris Solomon, NRA convention: it’s where guys just wanna have fun, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A1. 694 Op. cit. 695 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), pp. 204-205. 696 Ibidem, p. 205. 697 World, Latin summit, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 9A. 698 Op. cit. 699 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 207. 700 Greed – what is it doing to us?, Awake! greed; how does it affect us?, 8 Jan 1997, p. 5.

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minutes, robbed every 47 seconds and seriously assaulted every 28 seconds,” reports Staying Alive – Your Crime Prevention Guide.701 Staying Alive warns us: “Beware of the wolf in sheep’s clothing.” 702 “Anyone inexperienced puts faith in every word, but the shrewd one considers his steps.” (Proverbs 14:15; 27:12) 703 “Wisdom…is for a protection the same as money is for a protection; but the advantage of knowledge is that wisdom itself preserves alive its owners.” — Ecclesiastes 7:12.704 Avoid[] the traps of money-grubbing…preachers and power-hungry politicians.705

• • •

By now, most Americans have stopped expecting their politicians to be saintly. The official treacheries of the 1960s and ‘70s – from the FBI’s hounding of civil-rights leaders to the deceit surrounding Vietnam to the corruption at the heart of Watergate – could hardly leave us anything but cynical. 706 Nobody but members of the the opposition party pretends to be shocked – shocked – to learn the president is selling his soul, not to mention his influence, to wealthy campaign contributors.707 Don’t they all do it? Well, only if we let them. You don’t have to be naive to believe the current system is corrupt. The president, the vice president and, yes, high-ranking Republicans – who had their own shakedowns going – sold off large pieces…to those with enough money to make a purchace. That is a fundamental violation of our system of politics, which has one of its abiding principles the notion that each voter should have an equal voice, whether rich or poor, black, white or brown, native-born or naturalized.708 American democracy cannot withstand…the wholesale buying and selling of power and influence and access, so that only the wealthy are represented in Washington. That lands us right back at the reign of King George, from which a fledgling nation rebelled.709 [In fact, June 17,710] 1775, the Battle of Bunker Hill took place near Boson.711 If you believe there is nothing you can do to keep the wealthy and powerful from owning politicians, you are wrong. It is America’s fatalistic acceptance of the system that has allowed it to persist. 712 Corruption is probably the best explanation of what happened election day. Clinton has more sorts of alleged and apparent scandal under investigation – problematic real-estate finance (Whitewater), sexual harassment, misuse of the FBI, corrupt campaign finance – than any other president, including Warren G. Harding, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Nixon.713 Perversion and corruption masqerade as ambiguity.714 “Do we have a nation of kings or a nation where there are truly public servants?” [Joseph] Cammarata asked. “Or do we have a nation where people are accountable for their own personal, private conduct, or where some, because of their positions of power, aren’t accountable?” [Gilbert] Davis argues that temporary immunity would give every president a reprieve for potentially eight years against charges such as not having paid personal debts, met a contract or otherwise injured someone. “To create a blanket rule protecting a president from litigation relating to his unofficial acts would cross a line that this court has never crossed and that the framers (or the Constitution) never contemplated would be crossed,” Davis asserts in Clinton v. Jones.715 The Constitution does not shield the president from having to face lawsuits over acts unrelated to his official duties, the [Supreme Court] justices ruled unanimously.716 The Supreme Court [also] said the district judge’s

701 Ibidem, Surviving in a greedy world, p. 6. 702 Ibidem, p. 7. 703 Op. cit. 704 Ibidem, pp. 7-8. 705 Ibidem, p. 8. 706 Cynthia Tucker (Chronicle Features), Buy your own politician, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, p. B4. 707 Op. cit. 708 Op. cit. 709 Op. cit. 710 Daily Briefing, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. A5. 711 Op. cit. 712 Cynthia Tucker (Chronicle Features), Buy your own politician, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, p. B4. 713 Kevin Phillips (Special to The Los Angeles Times), Why the election results do not reflect contentment, The Seattle Times, 21 Nov 1996, p. B7. 714 John Wayne, quoted by Randy Roberts & James S. Olson, John Wayne: American (Free Press), In Quotable Quotes®, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 15. 715 Washington Post & The New York Times, Court to weigh presidential immunity; Clinton pushing to delay harassment suit, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A4. 716 Laurie Asseo (The Associated Press), Supreme Court denies Clinton protection from Paula Jones suit; but trial judge could still delay case out of ‘high respect’ for office, The Seattle Times, 27 May 1997, 120(126), p. A1.

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decision to delay the [Paula Jones] trial [ 717] until after Clinton leaves office was an abuse of discretion.718 Clinton – already enmeshed in Whitewater and fund-raising investigations – argued that dealing with Jones’ lawsuit would take time away from his presidential duties. His lawyers also said that giving a trial judge control over when Clinton must be in court would violate the constitutional separation of powers between the executive and the judiciary.719 Arrogant and murderous leaders need a lesson in civility, and if they persist in being outlaws and renegades, they must be isolated from the world community.720 [Even Newt] Gingrich said on Fox News Sunday that “the evidence mounts every day of lawbreaking in this [Clinton] administration.” 721

717 Jones has accused Clinton of seeking sex with her and…[after she attempted to leave,] exposing himself to her on May 8, 1991, in an Arkansas hotel room while he was governor and she was a low-level state employee. — Washington Post & The New York Times, Court to weigh presidential immunity; Clinton pushing to delay harassment suit, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A4. 718 Laurie Asseo (The Associated Press), Supreme Court denies Clinton protection from Paula Jones suit; but trial judge could still delay case out of ‘high respect’ for office, The Seattle Times, 27 May 1997, 120(126), p. A12. 719 Ibidem, p. A1. 720 Editorials (from The Blade, Toledo, Ohio), Lesson needed, Eastside Journal, 24 April 1997, 21(249), p. A10. 721 Susan Page, Reno decides today on fund-rasing, USA Today, 14 April 1997, 15(148), p. A1.

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After All, It’s A Small World

I witnessed Janet Reno, the Attorney General, committing sex crimes against children at Disney Land in Anaheim, California. On April 2, 1996, I mailed a copy of my sworn statement to the Federal Bureau of Investigation as requested, and later I filed another copy with Child Protective Services. More than one in three girls and one in six boys have been victimized by sexual predation. 722

• • •

The very people that parents have traditionally taught their children to trust have been abusing them in suprising numbers. “Now Susie,” a parent might say, “if a stranger bothers you on the way home from school, tell the first police officer you see.” The problem, in some cases is that it’s the police officer who might victimize Susie. 723 Among those few deviants in uniform, the children have no way of telling the good from the bad. “You just don’t know whom to trust today,” said a mother who recently heard a rumor about a school janitor [ 724] in New Jersey who had developed “friendships” with several boys approximately 7 to 10 years old. 725 “I loved teaching, but it wasn’t worth leaving my children. I’d heard so many stories about what goes on in some schools, I decided to quit my job and raise my kids until they’re able to fend for themselves,” [a concerned mother] said.726 “It’s getting so bad, there’s hardly a person you can trust with your youngsters,” said [a concerned father]. 727

• • •

Child abuse is a catchall term referring to nonaccidental physical attack on or injury to children (including emotional and social injury) by individuals caring for them. Child abuse is found among famili[y units] from all social, religious, economic, educational, and racial backgrounds.728 Child sexual abuse first became an issue when Freud theorized that most cases of hysteria in women have been caused by ‘premature sexual experiences’. Studies on child molestation began in the 1920s while the first national estimate of cases came out in 1948. The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act was enforced in 1974 along with the creation of the National Center for Child Abuse and Neglect. The National Child Abuse Coalition was formed in 1979 to pressure the congress to pass and implement laws. 729 The ongoing concern about this problem has led to new legislation and regulation requiring criminal background checks for certain inndividuals working with children. Unfortunately, these laws vary by state, and sometimes the structure for getting the information back on a timely basis is lacking. For example, some states required day camps and child care centers to check the criminal background of employees, but resident camps do not have to do this. In other states, both day and resident camps are required to investigate staff. Several other

722 Jim Hopper (Ph.D. candidate), [Child Abuse Statistics], http://www.jimhopper.com/abstats. 723 Claude Lewis, Parents teach their children not to trust priest, police, teachers any longer, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 6 Oct 1993. 724 The parents of a 9-year-old girl are suing a janitorial service that employed a convicted who subsequently raped their daughter while cleaning a day-care center.… Bert Golla, operator of the Red Carpet Janitorial Service, this morning denied being negligent because he says he did not know the criminal background of Ben Querido, the janitor. Golla is also a senior auditor for the Metropolitan King County Council.… The lawsuit says Querido raped the girl repeatedly between August 1993 and March 1995, when she was between 6 and 8. The family and the attorney are considering adding other defendants to the suit, including the day-care center; the city of Seattle, which owned the building and contracted for cleaning, and even the state of Washington because Querido was released on community supervision. — Janitorial service sued in girl’s rape, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. B5. 725 Claude Lewis, Parents teach their children not to trust priest, police, teachers any longer, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 6 Oct 1993. 726 Op. cit. 727 Op. cit. 728 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, 1981), p. 267. 729 Freud’s legacy; work on “premature sexual experience” led to the study of child sexual abuse, CQ Researcher, 15 Jan 1993, 3(2), p. 34(2).

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states do not required that camps do any criminal background checks. While the movement is definitely toward requiring more businesses to check criminal backgrounds, there is no consistent approach at the state level. 730 Kansas, Washington State and California have recently enacted laws that allow state officials to keep “sexual predators” locked up after they have served their prison terms if they are deemed to still be dangerous. A Kansas court called this approach unfair and unconstitutional, but a Supreme Court ruling upholding these laws could make it the rule in all 50 states.731

“Trust no one.” 732

A former state social worker charged with 40 felony counts of possessing child pornography told his boss he had intimate relationships with young men in his care at the Department of Social and Health Services [(DSHS),] the head of the department said [June 12, 1996]. Said to be in his 50s,733…Harold “Harry” Pitcock,734…with DSHS’s Child Protective Services [(CPS)] for nearly eight years,735…is accused by a 22-year-old man of abusing him and one other youth while they were minors under Pitcock’s supervision, according to court papers.736 The case against him began May 28 when his supervisor in the Tacoma DSHS office received a written statement from a 22-year-old man who had been in state foster care. Pitcock had been his social worker, in charge of finding the boy a foster home and arranging counseling and other services for him. The man said that when he was 17, he had “engaged in sexually explicit conduct” with Pitcock, then his DSHS caseworker, according to the charges. The man also said Pitcock photographed and videotaped him and other boys, and had shown him a collection of pornographic pictures and tapes. The man also said he knew of at least one other victim who had been a foster child under Pitcock’s supervision, [DSHS secretary Lyle] Quasim said.737 Pitcock was arrested June 5 after the State Patrol searched his Pierce County home and found several homemade videotapes 738…– one labeled “Friends” – 739…and 350 photographs showing young boys engaged in sexual activity, according to papers filed by the Pierce County prosecutor.740 The tapes and photographs were reviewed by an expert in sexual assault, who told presecutors the boys in the pictures were under 18. One videotape also shows Pitcock was manning the camera, according to the charges. 741 Pitcock’s supervisor, John George, visited him in jail.742 [The following day,743] after Pitcock admitted to having relationships with young men he was once charged with protecting, he was fired. 744 The case is the most recent of a number of scandals and embarrassments of DSHS. The department has been under fire for poor supervision of children in foster care; for failing to protect 3-year-old Louria Grace, who was killed by repeated abuse from her mother; and for failing to address physical and sexual abuse at the O.K. Boys Ranch, an Olympia group home for…youths.745 “There’s no darker institution in the history of the state than the O.K. Boys Ranch,” said attorney Richard Kelley.746 In court papers, former residents described the [O.K.] Boys Ranch as “a jungle,” where older boys beat and molested younger residents 747…[and] were subjected to physical and sexual abuse from…some staff members. 748

730 Ed Schirick, Sexual abuse and molestation concern, Camping Magazine, Sep-Oct 1996, 69(1). 731 David G. Savage (The Los Angeles Times), Sex predators on high court’s agenda; internet porn, assisted-suicide laws among potential precedent-setters in Supreme Court’s busy season, The Seattle Times, 27 May 1997, 120(126), p. A5. 732 The X-Files program, drama. 733 David Postman, Firing at DSHS over sex charges; man is arrested on 40 counts of child pornography, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 13 June 1996. 734 Op. cit. 735 Op. cit. 736 Op. cit. 737 Op. cit. 738 Op. cit. 739 Op. cit. 740 Op. cit. 741 Op. cit. 742 Op. cit. 743 Op. cit. 744 Op. cit. 745 Op. cit. 746 Kery Murakami, Boys Ranch officials say they’ve become scapegoats for state, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 1 July 1996. 747 Kery Murakami, DSHS retains reprimanded boss; woman played role in Boys Ranch scandal, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 16 Aug 1996.

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Some were coerced into having sex, and several boys were found having an orgy at the [O.K. Boys Ranch] in July 1992.749 In a deposition filed in the first of two civil suits against the state, the [O.K. Boys Ranch,] and the Kiwanis Club, which oversaw the operation, one abused boy said he asked [the director of the O.K. Boys Ranch] for help. He said he was told to learn how to fight.750 They were forced to fight older boys, with staff members cheering them on and shouting instructions, according to the charging papers. In an initiation rite, described as “night terrorism,” new residents were beaten in their beds.751 According to the attorney general’s charging papers, 10-year-old David was initiated to the [O.K. Boys Ranch] by being thrust into a circle with another boy, and forced to fight until one was knocked out or cried for mercy. Twelve-year-old Chris was welcomed to the [O.K.] Boys Ranch by being thrown in a pit where rocks were thrown at him. Ryan, 11, was subjected to nightly sexual assaults, accompanied by severe beatings. Human feces were thrown at one resident, according to the attorney general’s investigation. Young boys were routinely beaten by staff and denied basic medical care. If they complained, they were told to take care of themselves. They were forced to stand with their noses against a wall for as many as four hours; if they blinked, their time started over. 752 A number of incidents – like the 1994 orgy and beatings – are not in question. They were recorded in a behavioral log kept by staff at the [O.K. Boys Ranch]. One series of entries, for example, noted attacks on a 13-year-old boy, including “Soap in a sock in the shower” and “Night terrorism.” 753 “[Former director of the O.K. Boys Ranch, Van Woerden, 55,754 former O.K. Boys Ranch assistant director and one-time interim director Colette Queener,755 and former O.K. Boys Ranch caseworker, Laura Russell, 39,756] were the guardians of these boys who were raped for [more than] 15 years,” said attorney David Paul. 757 They have denied any wrongdoing.758 They acknowledge there were some incidents. Some boys got into fights, experimented sexually and, in rare cases, were molested, they said.759 “I think there would be a lot of parents with behavioral logs like ours,” Russell said.760 The state took no serious action until the [O.K. Boys Ranch] was shut down in 1994. 761 In 1988, [Art] Cantrell, the DSHS auditor, found financial problems and indications of sexual abuse at the [O.K. Boys Ranch]. The following year, [DSHS’s Steven] Ennett approved its relicensing; however, he never looked at behavioral logs kept by [O.K. Boys R]anch staff, where Cantrell found notations about sexual activity between the boys.762 Several co-workers and a supervisor had recommended to [DSHS’s Mark] Redal that Ennett be removed because of shoddy work. But Redal brushed aside the complaints – a move that bars the state from taking stronger action now.763 Past State Patrol and DSHS investigations of the [O.K. Boys R]anch found inadequate CPS investigations helped cause the state to keep the [O.K. Boys Ranch] open for more than a decade. 764

748 David Postman, O.K. Boys Ranch case in doubt; decision undermines state’s charges, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 14 Nov 1996. 749 Kery Murakami, Boys Ranch officials say they’ve become scapegoats for state, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 1 July 1996. 750 Op. cit. 751 Op. cit. 752 Op. cit. 753 Op. cit. 754 Op. cit. 755 David Postman, O.K. Boys Ranch case in doubt; decision undermines state’s charges, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 14 Nov 1996. 756 Kery Murakami, Boys Ranch officials say they’ve become scapegoats for state, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 1 July 1996. 757 Op. cit. 758 David Postman, O.K. Boys Ranch case in doubt; decision undermines state’s charges, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 14 Nov 1996. 759 Kery Murakami, Boys Ranch officials say they’ve become scapegoats for state, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 1 July 1996. 760 Op. cit. 761 Kery Murakami, DSHS retains reprimanded boss; woman played role in Boys Ranch scandal, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 16 Aug 1996. 762 Op. cit. 763 Op. cit. 764 Op. cit.

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[Kristy] Galt, Olympia-area manager for the Division of Children and Family Services, was described in the State Patrol report…as “oblivious to situations.” 765 [And Cantrell] described her office as “the worst-managed” office in the state.766 “No one in Galt’s office would go to her because they knew Galt would not give them any service or help,” said Diane Cote-Smith, who worked for Galt in 1991.767 Galt was reprimanded for not ensuring that investigations be done of child-abuse complaints, and for not completing required annual performance evaluations of workers. 768 [She] retains her [supervising 769] position inside Department of Social and Health Services.770 The other two employees reprimanded…were Mark Redal and Steven Ennett. 771 The one worker fired was George Hartwell, a 26-year CPS veteran, who was accused of giving [O.K.] Boys Ranch staff a confidential police report of orgies that occurred at the [O.K. Boys Ranch] in 1992.772 Because some of those directly responnsible for the OK Boys Ranch conditions had already been demoted or reprimanded, further action, including dismissal, appears impossible. The state looks as if it is bundled so tight by its own regulations, responsible officials are smothered in bureaucracy. That’s clearly unacceptable. “These were the maximum sanctions that we could legally use,” Gov. Mike Lowry told a news conference. But what about the system itself? What about a process where one person is fired but others directly responsible keep their jobs? 773 Closing the OK Boys Ranch took seven years after the first report of abuse and two years after police concluded boys were being raped. What took so long? 774 Instead of acceptance of bureaucracy as its own reward, Lowry should be explaining what a sweeping restructuring of DSHS could accomplish.775 Instead, it appears the governor will stroll to the end of his term leaving behind one of the nastiest blemishes on state governance in recent memory.776

• • •

National experts are split on whether the benefit of recording…statements outweighs potential problems. Kenneth Lanning, the FBI’s child-abuse specialist, has advised against taping, saying it creates a “highly subjective piece of evidence.” 777

• • •

The combat was shockingly brutal, brother against sister in a bloody battle scripted blow-by-blow and recorded on videotape, police say, by their parents. When authorities saw the tale of the tape, they could hardly believe their eyes – 6-year-old twins, crying and bleeding.778 The parents, Gary and Tealisa Downs, have been charged with two counts of first-degree child abuse and with extorting their children into the fight.779 If convicted, both Gary, 28, and Tealisa, 24,…could face up to 15 years on each child abuse charge, and up to 20 years on the extortion charge. 780 Two other children, 10 and 12, were at home during the fight, but were not involved, police said.781 “If it were not for the videotape, this would be a case that would not have been charged,” [Macomb County Prosecutor Carl Marlinga] said.782

765 Op. cit. 766 Op. cit. 767 Op. cit. 768 Op. cit. 769 Op. cit. 770 Editorials, Boys Ranch demonstrations should not close the file, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 19 Aug 1996. 771 Kery Murakami, DSHS retains reprimanded boss; woman played role in Boys Ranch scandal, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 16 Aug 1996. 772 Op. cit. 773 Editorials, Boys Ranch demonstrations should not close the file, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 19 Aug 1996. 774 Op. cit. 775 Op. cit. 776 Op. cit. 777 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 778 Bobby C. Calvan, Police arrest parent of 6-year-old-twins who forced children to fight while being videotaped, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 25 June 1996. 779 Op. cit. 780 Op. cit. 781 Op. cit. 782 Op. cit.

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The grandmother accidently came across the disturbing fight scenes while scanning through a tape borrowed from her daughter.783 Several times the children beseech their parents to stop the fight, only to be sternly reprimanded and threatened with violence, according to police.784

• • •

Of all things Canadian, none is more culturally distinctive from the U.S. sensibility than hockey, particularly that played in the National Hockey League.785 [Some] games came from Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto, considered a Canadian shrine by some who regard the national sport a secular religion. Perhaps that is why…news from “the Gardens” left hockey fans on both sides of the border with such a sad, sickened feeling. For it was alleged that sexual predators – men molesting boys – operated out of Maple Leaf Gardens during the…1970s and…1980s. They were arena employees, enticing victims with gifts like free hockey sticks and abusing them in back rooms during games. The charge, brought by one of the alleged victims, comes just weeks after an NHL player went public with his history of sexual abuse by his junior coach when he was a teenage player in the Western League. Similar cases…have been revealed.786 Toronto police have arrested a former Gardens employee, Gordon Stuckless, 47, on charges that he befriended a Toronto youth in the 1970s with the promise of free admission to hockey games and concerts, then sexually abused him hundreds of times over the next seven years. Stuckless…made no comment since his arrest. 787 The abuse is alleged to have taken place in empty offices and maintenance rooms throughout the Gardens, as well as at movie theaters and other spots near the downtown arena, officials said. The arrest was made after Stuckless’ accuser…described years of sexual encounters with Stuckless and another Gardens employee, George Hannah, an arean equipment manager who…[has since] died. 788 [Boston Bruins player Sheldon] Kennedy said Graham James, a former Swift Current Broncos coach who was sentenced last month to 3 1/2 years in prison, abused him more than 300 times. In…[another] case, a former Victoria, B.C.-area minor-league hockey coach has been charged with sexually abusing a 13-year-old player.789

“No more teachers’ dirty looks”

A veteran elementary-school teacher in the Highline School District…has been accused of having sexual contact with a 14-year-old former student. The allegation against the well-respected 35-year-old teacher has been a jolt to the district, where she was held in high regard by administrators and co-workers. “Shock, total shock,” has been the reaction within the district and the Shorewood Elementary School where the teacher as been a combination fifth- and sixth-grade teacher for eight years, said Nick Latham, district spokesman. “Her history as a teacher has been very good. She has excellent reviews in her teaching file,” and no record of any misconduct, Latham said.790 The allegation came to light…when an acquaintance of the teacher’s family brought the information to the school officials, Latham said.791

• • •

[A New York] teacher Jamel Sharif, 28, was charged with sexually abusing a 12-year-old girl in his class. He threatened to harm her if she told anyone, prosecutors said. 792

• • • 783 Op. cit. 784 Op. cit. 785 Joe LaPointe (The New York Times), Sex-abuse cases shock hockey world, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A8. 786 Op. cit. 787 Op. cit. 788 Op. cit. 789 Op. cit. 790 Dave Birkland, Highline District teacher accused of sexual contact with ex-student, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. B2. 791 Op. cit. 792 New York, Across the USA: news from every state, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 9A.

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A former teacher says his relationship with a young female student dated to their past lives in Tibet more than 1,000 years ago, when she saved his life by taking an arrow meant for him and he had to repay the debt of love. A judge didn’t buy it, and sentenced Roger Katz to 1 1/2 years in prison. “Frankly, Mr. Katz, a wolf in sheep’s clothing is still a wolf. You sir, are a wolf. You preyed on a 14-year-old and violated all the laws as far as I am concerned,” state District Judge Steve Herrera said at [May 9’s] sentencing. Herrera also prohibited the 50-year-old Katz from writing to the girl, now 16, and from receiving visits from her while he is in prison. Katz said he is in love with the girl, who had been a student in his social studies class at DeVargas Junior High School. He said he did not begin his affair with her until after she no longer was in his class. Katz’s attorney, Aaron Wolf, said: “I hope my daughters find men who love them as much as he loves her.” 793 A Santa Fe County sheriff’s deputy said he arrested Kats after finding a 14-year-old girl naked in a sleeping bag in the back of Katz’s van.794 “[Katz has] got it in his head that he’s going to marry her. He asked me whether he could come to our house and meet her,” the father said. “We would like to seem him go away and not bother us again.” 795

• • •

Mark Blilie, once voted one of the two best teachers at…[a] Junior High, was convicted of child rape yesterday for having sex with a former student.796 Blilie, 42, admitted to having a romantic relationship with the girl, who was 15 at the time.797 They would meet on park benches the hour before Blilie would attend a regular book discussion group. 798 Their meetings became more and more intimate, the girl testified, and sometimes included oral sex. She said they had intercourse in…[a] restroom twice, on Feb. 9 and Feb 14 after school. The girl testified that they also had sex the night of Feb. 11 at the old…reservoir. But he denied they ever had sex. He said they simply exchanged letters, kissed and embraced. Jurors found Blilie guilty of two counts of third-degree child molestation, one of four counts of third-degree child rape and one count of communicating with a minor for immoral purposes.799 Blilie could receive a maximum of five years in prison when he is sentenced, probably in four to six weeks. He showed little reaction as the verdicts on each charge were announced late yesterday morning. Afterward, he drank a few cups of water, held his hands behind his back and occasionally rocked on his tiptoes. 800

• • •

A lawsuit filed on behalf of a 7-year-old [California] boy…claims he was sexually molested by several classmates during recess…and later blamed by the school principal for the attack. The suit, filed…in San Mateo County Superior Court against the Belmont School District and…Principal Cherrie Ho, seeks unspecified damages for the boy’s injuries and emotional distress. The suit alleges that on April 6, several students wrestled the boy to the ground, pulled his pants down and digitally penetrated him. Ho and the school district knew or should have known that the boy’s attackers engaged in such behavior, the suit said. When the boy complained about the incident, Ho “further engaged in extreme and outrageous conduct” by blaming him for the assault, the suit said. Ho told the boy, according to the suit, that “if he had gotten along better with the other students, the assault would not have happened.” 801

• • •

793 The Associated Press, Ex-teacher says his affair with girl, 14, dated to past lives, The Seattle Times, 11 May 1997, 15(9), p. A6. 794 Op. cit. 795 Op. cit. 796 Kevin Ebi, Blilie guilty of child rape, Journal American, 28 Sep 1996, p. A1+. 797 Op. cit. 798 Op. cit. 799 Op. cit. 800 Op. cit. 801 John Woolfolk, California school district sued by boy who says classmates molested him, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 25 Nov 1994.

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“I had the impression from the Inter-High Board that each school had their one or two teachers that kids have been trying to get rid of for a number of years,” [a high school student representative] said. 802

• • •

One in seven Los Angeles high-school students says he has carried a weapon to school for protection, according to a detailed new study.803 The survey depicts the schools in the nation’s second-largest district as relatively safe compared to their surrounding communities, where violence is pervasive. About 49 percent of the students said they could “easily” get a gun and 25 percent said they would have to pay less than $50 for it. 804

• • •

Whispering over a jail telephone so other inmates wouldn’t hear, Vincent Biviano hired a hit man to kill the witness whose testimony could send him to jail for life, police said Monday. His target: a 5-year-old Pompano Beach girl he was charged with molesting. “I want her dead. . . . If the girl is not dead, she could come back and testify,” a gravelly voiced Biviano told a hit man.805 A former deputy town marshal and pizza-shop owner in Mooresville, Ind., Biviano was convicted twice there for molesting children.806 Though he had only been in Pompano Beach a few months, he appeared to follow the same pattern with children. Unemployed, Biviano lived for a time during the summer in a weekly rental apartment motel where he befriended the neighbors’ children by the pool, [Pompano Beach Detective Craig] Arney said. 807 He lured at least one little girl into his apartm1ent,…according to police reports. She didn’t tell her mother about the abuse until Oct. 22 because Biviano had said “he could get into big trouble if she told anyone about what happened.” 808 Since his arrest, the families of two little boys in the same complex have also come forward. 809

• • •

Fear kept victims of sex abuse…from coming forward.810

• • •

The medical literature suggests that during a “career” of abuse some victimizers may have as many as 200 or even 300 victims. Others may have fewer victims.811 The prevention of sexual abuse…is the responsibility of a society that sees the children as its future.812 “A million kids are born every week on the planet,” said Gregory Pence, a medical ethicist at the University of Alabama in Birmingham.813

802 Dick Lilly, Students want role in grading teachers: high-school board proposes evaluations for Seattle district, The Seattle Times, 119(92), 16 April 1996, p. A1. 803 The Los Angeles Times, One in 7 L.A. high-schoolers has carried a weapon, survey finds, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A5. 804 Op. cit. 805 Karen Rafinski & Amy Driscoll, Jailed suspect hires hit man to kill 5-year-old victim of molestation, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 19 Dec 1994. 806 Op. cit. 807 Op. cit. 808 Op. cit. 809 Op. cit. 810 Steven Komarow, Army expands sex abuse investigation (army: fear silenced victims), USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 3A. 811 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 812 Ed Schirick, Sexual abuse and molestation concern, Camping Magazine, Sep-Oct 1996, 69(1). 813 Shankar Vedantam (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), A few rise to support the cloning of humans, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A1.

68 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Thou Shalt Not . . .

Priest sexual misconduct is a bigger problem than church leaders like to admit. Approximately 3,000 priests, or one in 15 nationwide, are probably guilty of misconduct. Neither clerical celibacy nor gay priests are major causes of the problem;814…most abusers of boys and young men are in fact married men.815 The Catholic Church in recent years has paid millions to settle many of at least 400 reported cases of alleged abuse by priests. Pope John Paul II said in Denver in August [1993] that he shared the concerns of U.S. bishops for the “pain and suffering” caused by the sexual sins of some priests. 816, [ 817] [But the Vatican 818] has refused the U.S. bishops permission to dismiss victimizers from the priesthood – apparently figuring that the problem is just one more manifestation of American degeneracy.819

• • •

A…lawsuit that takes aim at the moral foundation of the Catholic Diocese of Camden was filed…in a New Jersey state court, contending the diocese and American bishops conspired for half a century to cover up sexual abuse of children by 30 priests. The 275-page compilation of abuse allegations, filed in Superior Court in Atlantic City, portrays the Camden diocese as a criminal racketeering enterprise and a haven for pedophile priests. 820 The suit, the first to make such sweeping accusations, contends that priests, former priests, a nun and a church volunteer were involved in incidents of child sexual abuse as early as the founding of the diocese in 1937. 821

814 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 815 Op. cit. 816 Claude Lewis, Parents teach their children not to trust priest, police, teachers any longer, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 6 Oct 1993. 817Father [Ronald] Fontenot was ordained as a priest by…bishop and vicar general, Bishop Frey and Monsignor Larroque (collectively referred to as the Diocese) [of Lafayette, Louisiana,]…on December 6, 1975. On January 18, 1984, the Diocese suspended [Father Fontenot]…from his priestly duties after he admitted to sexual misconduct with minors.… Father Fontenot made arrangements to come to Spokane, [Washington,] arriving on January 19. The Diocese paid his transportation expenses and made arrangements with the Jesuit House to pay for his room and board while he resided there. The Diocese continued paying Father Fontenot’s salary for 3 months; thereafter it paid him a subsidy for incidental and other living expenses.… There is some dispute as to whether the money paid to Father Fontenot was a salary or subsidy. There is also evidence in record to suggest that it may have been a salary.… After he arrived at the Jesuit House, Father Fontenot told the rector about his suspension and the reason for it. The Jesuit House then contacted Monsignor Larroque to confirm the acceptance of Father Fontenot and during that conversation Father Fontenot’s sexual problems were discussed. Father Fontenot went to Dr. McAllister, a Spokane psychiatrist, for treatment. Monsignor Larroque made arrangements for the Diocese to pay for this treatment.… He was under Dr. McAllister’s care until May when he entered the House of Affirmation. Father Fontenot was a patient at the House of Affirmation from May until November 27, 1984. Shortly before his discharge, the Monsignor wrote him a letter indicating his options for a position in any ministry were “severely limited if not nil.”… In that letter, the Monsignor told Father Fontenot that additional instances of his sexual misconduct had been brought to light.… The Diocese received a copy of Father Fontenot’s discharge summary from the House of Affirmation which stated in part: Because of a long pattern of secrecy and denial concerning his sexual behavior, it is important that he discuss this problem with those in authority and that for the protection of himself and adolescents that he refrain from ministry that would involve work with adolescent boys. Following his discharge, Father Fontenot briefly returned to Louisiana and discussed his situation with the Monsignor. He returned to the Jesuit House in January 1985. The Diocese continued to pay his subsidy/salary, Dr. McAllister for continued treatment, and the Jesuit House for his living expenses.… In March the rector of the Jesuit House…where he had stayed while studying for his master’s degree at Gonzaga University…was told the Diocese wanted to wait until some of the other liability cases in Louisiana were settled before giving Father Fontenot a further assignment. During a telephone conversation with Father Fontenot that spring, the Monsignor indicated that once he became self-supporting, the subsidy would eventually be discontinued. In May Father Fontenot was employed by Deaconess Medical Center, first as a guest lecturer and later as a technician in its adolescent care unit.… Father Fontenot remained employed in the adolescent care unit until September when he began working with CompCare in its adult unit as an alcohol/drug counselor. He remained there until January 28, 1986, when he was terminated because of complaints of sexual abuse by former patients of the Deaconess and CompCare. … This action was brought by eight adolescent males and one adult male alleging sexual abuse by Father Ronald Fontenot while he was employed by Deaconess Hospital and CompCare, Inc., in Spokane.… Criminal charges were brought against him,…and the Diocese paid a portion of his criminal defense costs. The Monsignor helped him contact a religious community in California, where he resided until his arraignment and sentence. Subsequently, plaintiffs commenced this action. … — J. Green, John Does v. CompCare, Inc., 52 Wn. App. 1237 P.2d 688 (1988). 818 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 819 Op. cit. 820 Maureen Graham & Larry Lewis, Lawsuit charges Camden, N.J., diocese conspired to cover up pedophilia, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 31 Oct 1994. 821 Op. cit.

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“As was the custom, perpetrators would arrange their living quarters with other perpetrators in order to trade victims or to maintain the secrecy of their criminal behavior,” the suit said. 822 “In order to accomplish the goals of the criminal conspiracy, which included providing a continuous source of children and teenagers as alter boys and rectory workers, certain perpetrators and co-conspirators needed to be ensconced in the hierarchy. . . .” 823 “By 1953…the groundwork [had been laid] . . . to continue and foster its silent tolerance for the sexual exploitation of children,” the suit said of the hierarchy.824

• • •

By conservative estimates, at least 200 Catholic priests have been accused of child sexual abuse over the last two decades.825 More than 400 Catholic priest have been accused of child molestation since 1982. 826 Instead of going to jail, most priests are sent to one of three church-run treatment centers in the country.827 Father Andrew Greeley estimates that the church across the U.S. spends $50 million a year on therapy for priests and damage judgments to victims – and 2,000 to 4,000 priests may have abused 100,000 underage victims. Some Catholics wonder whether the scandals point to under lying problems in the priesthood.828 Pedophile priests…get more mercy from the courts than Protestant clergy and much more than lay people. In a 1988 study of 190 pedophile cases tried that year, Protestant clerics received, on average, 11.5 years, while Catholic clergy received just 3.6 years.829 In 1989, a judge in Phoenix sentenced a Catholic priest to one year in prison for molesting three children (he confessed to abusing 12 children). But a lay person, sentenced the year before, received a 12-year sentence with no chance for early parole. And in another case in Arizona, tried just two weeks after the priest was sentenced to one year in prison, a layman, accused of molesting a single child, was sentenced to 120 years. 830 The incidence of sexual abuse of children by Catholic priests [has] increased 831…[is due, in part, to] the willingness of parents and survivors to come forward with allegations of sexual misconduct and in the willingness of the media to become the court of last resort for survivors and families who have been stonewalled by the church.832 [Unfortunately,] newspapers and television news reporters [have] shied away from stories because they were afraid of the repercussions from angry parishioners, priests and bishops. 833 There is a vast backlog of…cases. Even where every attempt has been made to remove guilty priests, more cases…surface.834

• • •

More priests worldwide, more countries with Vatican ties, more potential theologians. The Vatican delivered its new handbook on church matters to Pope John Paul II [February 22] and made public some of its statistics.

822 Op. cit. 823 Op. cit. 824 Op. cit. 825 David Crumm, [300] Bishops rally around colleague in sex case, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 15 Nov 1993. 826 Aric Press, Priests and abuse, Newsweek, 16 Aug 1993, 122(7), p. 42(3). 827 Venise Wagner (Orange County Register), Abuse by priests: How best to heal?, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 20 Aug 1993. 828 Richard N. Ostling, The secrets of St. Lawrence; investigation into child molestation by priests at St. Lawrence Seminary, Mount Calvary, Wisconsin underscores major problem of sexual misconduct in the priesthood, Time, 7 June 1993, 141(23), p. 44(1). 829 Clark Morphew, New book illustrates how many forces outside the church protected pedophile priests, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 21 Oct 1993. 830 Op. cit. 831 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 832 Op. cit. 833 Clark Morphew, New book illustrates how many forces outside the church protected pedophile priests, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 21 Oct 1993. 834 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5).

70 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

• The number of Roman Catholic bishops reached 4,224, with 161 new ones named in 1996. • There were 289 more priests last year, bringing the total to 404,750. • The Vatican now has full diplomatic ties with 163 countries, with Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Sierra Leone joining the ranks in 1996. • The number of seminarians studying philosophy and theology rose 1.2 percent, to 106,307. 835

• • •

The pastor of [the] small [Protestant Templo Bethel Apostolico 836] church has been charged with sexually molesting a 13-year-old who attended his church.837 Prosecutors said the girl was cleaning the church’s nursery room when [Michael V.] Miranda, [51,838] exposed himself and reached under her skirt. The girl then hit Miranda and ran out of the room. Prosecutors said Miranda kissed and fondled the girl on several other occasions.839

• • •

A former rabbi was sentenced [April 8] in a Santa Rosa courtroom to three years in state prison for fondling a 12-year-old girl during religious studies.840 Sidney Goldenberg, 58, showed little remorse for touching the girl’s breasts.841

Fighting Back

On a sultry June afternoon, a group of children played hide-and-seek in their…playground while the adults worked…nearby.842 An 8-year-old girl, blindfolded for for the game, stumbled over a stranger. When the woman tried to pick her up, the other children screamed – afraid their friend was about to be kidnapped. Men abandoned their work and a…mob pounced on the 45-year-old stranger, beating her and the man with her.843 Both died…on their way to the hospital.844 Eighteen people have been beaten to death in less than a month, police say, and 50 more have been injured in similar incidents nationwide. Most were women.845 The fear of child-snatching flourishes…where…a woman’s rights group…says as many as 400 women and children are smuggled out of the country and sold into prostitution or labor. Police have no centralized record of how many women and children have become victims, and have blamed the media for fueling panic. A general distrust of police has prompted parents to keep their own vigil, escorting their children to and from schools. Some parents have stopped sending their chidlren to school; several citites report a sharp decline in attendance since fresh kidnap reports began circulating. The government has urged people not to panic. “It has been noticed that mob beatings are taking place in…parts of the country of…child abductors,” the [governement] said in a statement. “The public must know it is illegal to take the law in their own hands.” Police, however, have had trouble making arrests for mob beatings. “It’s not easy to take action when almost every one in an area is involved in such attacks,” said [a] police officer.846 [The Bangladesh] police officers have circulated leaflets meant to keep travelers safe: “If you happen to be a stranger in an unknown neighborhood, please don’t talk to children or offer them candy.” 847

835 The Associated Press, More priests for Catholics, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(8), p. A9. 836 The Associated Press, Pasco pastor charged with molesting girl, 13, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 17 Jan 1997, 134(15), p. C11. 837 Op. cit. 838 Op. cit. 839 Op. cit. 840 Ex-Rabbi gets 3 years for fondling girl, 12, San Francisco Chronicle, 9 April 1997, 133(71), p. A16. 841 Op. cit. 842 The Associated Press, Kidnapping fears set off attacks in Bangladesh, The Seattle Times, 29 June 1997, 15(26), p. A9. 843 Op. cit. 844 Op. cit. 845 Op. cit. 846 Op. cit. 847 Op. cit.

71 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

• • •

As South Africa tries to make the transition from a totalitarian police state ruled by a white minority to democracy, it has gotten caught in a cycle of violence in which women and girls are notable among the [rape] victims. South Africa has the highest incidence of reported [(emphasis added)] rape in the world, 10 rapes per 1,000 population per year, according to a recent report and a U.N. official. By comparison, Interpol reported, neighboring Namibia has about 4.4 per 1,000, while the United States…records about 3.9 cases per 1,000. 848 Young children are attacked by relatives or people known to the family. Teenage girls are attacked by gangs of teenage boys. The problem is compounded by shoddy police work, which allows the vast majority of these crimes to go unpunished. In a number of cases, policemen have been accused of rape. 849 Some anti-rape organizations have resorted to conducting citizens arrests, followed by the physical thrashing of suspects, before handing them over to police.850

“Attaboy” 851

[May 11:] Some questioned why police were considering an assault charge against [a] 25-year-old [man] who fractured burglary suspect David Booth’s skull after finding the man breaking into his home. 852 The case touched a nerve in Petaluma, home town of kidnap-murder victim Polly Klaas. “Most of the people around here are saying, ‘Attaboy,’ ” said Jon Snyder of KSRO-AM, where calls were running heavily in favor of [the homeowner].853 Booth, 41, was paroled [May 7] from state prison, where he had been serving time for burglary.854

848 Dele Olojede (Newsday), Rape epidemic grows in South Africa; South Africa has gotten caught in a cycle of violence in which women and girls are notable among the victims. The country now has the highest incidence of reported rate in the world, The Seattle Times, 2 Feb 1997, 15(5), p. A17. 849 Op. cit. 850 Op. cit. 851 Michelle Locke (The Associated Press), Man who beat suspect with bat may be charged, The Seattle Times, 11 May 1997, 15(19), p. A7. 852 Op. cit. 853 Op. cit. 854 Op. cit.

72 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

The Circle

There is right, and there is wrong. In Cherie Town’s book, it was wrong for her husband to be messing around with other women. So when he started bragging, she picked up the phone and called the Rape Crisis Center. 855 So began the painful unraveling of a monstrous secret. That secret allegedly was shared by at least two dozen adults and some 50 children said to be members of “The Circle.” A loosely organized circle of friends consisted of two extended families and a pastor, his wife and a church bus driver – their lives intersecting by chance on the walk to school, at the welfare office, at church and in local taverns.856 Following is the status of those accused in the Wenatchee child-abuse case [as of September 22, 1995]. CONVICTED OR PLEADED GUILTY Meredith “Gene” Town – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to child rape (own children) – 20 years Cherie Town, IQ 77 – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to child rape (own children) – 10 years, 10 months Laura Holt – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to child rape (own children) – 40 years Selig Holt – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to child rape (own children) – Doris Green – member, Church of God: Convicted of molesting Holt kids – 23 years, 3 months Michael Rose – Convicted of molesting Green kids Idela Everett, illeterate, IQ 68 – recanted confession – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to molesting own children – 4 years, 8 months Harold Everett, illiterate – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to child rape –23 years 4 months Gary Filbeck – disabled by brain tumor – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to molesting Everett kids – sentence pending Sharlan Filbeck – member, Church of God: Pleaded guilty to molesting – sentence pending Abel Fonseca Lopez: Convicted of molesting Everett child Manual Hidalgo Rodriquez: Convicted of molesting Everett child Linda Miller – member, Church of God – recanted: Convicted of molesting own kids – sentence pending Alan Hughes: Pleaded guilty to molesting Miller child Sara Hughes (Alan’s wife) : Pleaded guilty to molesting Miller child Bob Duquette: Pleaded guilty to molesting two kids Randall Reed – liver and brain damage: Pleaded guilty to molesting several children Jeannie Bendt: Pleaded guilty Tim Durst: Pleaded guilty Connie Cunningham: Convicted of molesting own kids Henry Cunningham: Convicted of molesting own kids Mark Doggett: Convicted of molesting own daughter Carol Doggett: Convicted of molesting own daughter Lawrence “Leo” Catcheway: Pleaded guilty to molesting three kids TRIALS PENDING Pastor Robert Roberson Connie Roberson Susan Everett – Donna Everett’s cousin Karen Lopez William Davis – bus driver, Church of God Ralph Gausvik – Member, Church of God Barabara Garaas (Ralph’s wife) – Member, Church ofo God Donna Hidalgo Kerri Knowles Larry Steinborn – member, Church of God DISMISSED OR ACQUITTED Hona Simms – Sunday school teacher, Church of God: Acuitted of molesting kids at church Bob Deveraux: Dismissed – pleaded guilty to one count of spanking a foster child Kathryn Lancaster: Dismissed Norberto Macias: Dismissed Tracy Hockett: Acquitted of molesting foster sister Jerome Buckley: Dismissed Donna Rodriquez – Kim Allbee’s mother: Dismissed Ed Knowles Jr.: Dismissed Ed Knowles Sr.: Dismissed Pam Kimble – Donna Everett’s aunt: Dismissed ACCUSED, NOT CHARGED Paul Glassen – moved to Canada Grampa Spoonmore – Donna Everett’s grandfather Grandma Spoonmore – Donna’s grandmother Donna Everett’s uncle Manuel Reyna

855 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 856 Op. cit.

73 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Jon Campbell Bob Deveraux’s son Anna Noles (possibly Anna Nielson) UNIDENTIFIED/NOT LOCATED “Duke” A black lady – Duke’s wife A guy in mid 30s Tigger (age 19-20) David (15-16) Anna’s sister (possibly Tabitha Nielson) – no charges filed David’s aunt 857 [As of June 28, 1996,] all but one of the trials was over in what has been described as the largest-ever child-sex-ring prosecution. Of 28 adults charged with rape and molestation, 14 pleaded guilty, five were convicted, three were acquitted and five had their cases dismissed. Nineteen are serving prison sentences. 858

And So The Story Goes . . .

On a quiet street in the Columbia River valley, 150 miles east of Seattle, Pastor Robert (Roby) Roberson’s East Wenatchee Pentecostal Church of God House of Prayer sits back from the road, its yard cluttered with old buses and vans. At one end of the low-slung building stands a food bank for the poor; makeshift slides and swings are out back. It seems to be just what it looks like: a hardscrabble church doing God’s work. And it looked just this way on the recent spring afternoon when police raided the church to arrest Roberson and his wife, “Sister Connie,” on 22 counts of allegedly raping and molesting children – both at the pastor’s house and during Friday-night Bible classes. If police and prosecutors are right, Wenatchee, an apple-growing valley of 55,000, is home to dozens of incestuous pedophiles tangled up in a kid-swapping, adult-led sex ring.859 They were [pedophilic] families, police say, in which adults treated children as commodities, “trading them like party favors” – not for financial gain, but for sexual gratification and illusions of power and control 860…for nearly a decade.861 A kid-swapping, adult-led sex ring such as that alleged in Wenatchee would be “rare indeed,” said Dr. Fred Berlin, founder of the Johns Hopkins Sexual Disorders Clinic in Baltimore. But it wouldn’t be impossible. “Clearly, there is risk of embellishment,” Berlin said. “But I believe there is a possibility that people who share such common, aberrant needs could be drawn together because the mainstream of their existence centers on the frequent need to be sexual. “The difficulty in such situations is teasing out the truth.” 862 But if you believe the accused, charges against Pastor Roby – a 50-year-old mechanic who found Jesus 12 (read: 14) years ago – cap a renegade cop’s conspiracy to frame innocent people on horrific sex charges. “At this point,” says Rufus Woods, editor of The Wenatchee World newpaper, “the only thing that surprises me is that ‘Hard Copy’ hasn’t opened a bureau out here.” 863 The idea that the same 50 children could be routinely sodomized by the same two dozen adults year after year is so horrific it gives rise to disbelief.864 Of course, it’s not unheard of for a brutal crime or spectacular scandal to unfold in a small town. But what authorities say is happening in Wenatchee breaks just about every sexual and social taboo you can think of. Is this depressingly long streak of civic bad luck a coincidence, or is there a reason so many bad things seem to be going on here? 865 More than 400,000 reports of verifiable child abuse are filed nationwide with authorities each year. 866 For critics to be right that law-enforcement officers are manufacturing charges means believing there is collusion between police, prosecutors and social-service workers in the Wenatchee area’s two counties. But it is also difficult to believe that a score of adults and children could have rowdy, frequent sex together for so long without being noticed. “None of it is true – nothing they have said about us,” Roberson, sitting in jail, told

857 Armin Brott, Status of those accused in the Wenatchee child-abuse case, Knight-Ridder/Tribune Service, 22 Sep 1995. 858 Alex Tizon, Wenatchee braces for sex-ring lawsuits, The Seattle Times, 28 June 1996, p. A1. 859 John Meacham, Trials and troubles in Happy Valley, Newsweek, 8 May 1995, 125(19), p. 58(3). 860 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 861 Op. cit. 862 Op. cit. 863 John Meacham, Trials and troubles in Happy Valley, Newsweek, 8 May 1995, 125(19), p. 58(3). 864 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 865 John Meacham, Trials and troubles in Happy Valley, Newsweek, 8 May 1995, 125(19), p. 58(3). 866 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1.

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Newsweek. “And I know the Lord is going to allow us to be his instruments in getting to the root of this.” Such talk heartens Roberson partisans like Marv Sparks, who’s certain the police have overreached. “There are a lot of very nice people here whose lives are being destroyed by this,” says Sparks, an unemployed truckdriver who attends Roberson’s 40-member church. Sparks had his two little girls examined once the story broke; they were unharmed.867 [The detectives] had no idea, of course, of the difficulties that lay ahead; no hint of conspiracy; no clue that an incestuous ring of pedophiles, the likes of which has never been proved in this country, might be operating in Wenatchee.868 Investigations into cases of incest blossomed into lurid tales of overlapping rings of sexual abuse. People’s lives and fortunes and the character of a community were caught up in a jumble of plea-bargained cases, jury convictions, prosecution retreats from spectacular charges and jury acquittals in the most notorious cases. 869 Meredith Town admitted to 62 counts of child rape and four counts of indecent liberties. By the time he stopped talking, police were pretty sure Cherie Town knew more than she had led on.870 She reportedly began to have sex with her younger son when he was 9.871 Cherie and her husband were rarely intimate – although, on occasion they would have sex together with the boys. Along with drinking, sex was the family’s primary diversion. But never one, Cherie Town said, did she “keep the boys home from school to have sex.” 872 (According to court doocuments, Cherie Town has an IQ of 77; 90 to 110 is considered normal.) 873 Eventually, both Charie and Meredith Town bowed to punishment. They entered Alford pleas, the process by which defendants maintain innocence but acknowledge they would be found guilty at trial. 874 Talking with the children made [the detective] believe Laura Hold – also known as Becky – had molested not only her children but countless others.875 A half-hour after she was arrested, Laura Holt stopped arguing her innocence and began to confess.876 Laura Holt later recanted her confession, claiming she had been “browbeat.” 877 [Randall] Reed, 43 at the time, pleaded guilty to two counts of child molestation. In a signed statement to the court, he wrote: “Because of liver damage that has affected my brain and memory, I have no recollection (of the crime). I want to make sure it doesn’t happen again, and I believe the state could convict me at a trial.” He was sentenced to 80 months.878 [Michael] Rose, then 26, maintained his innocence. Defense attorneys questioned the foundation of the charges, citing the physician diagnoses that revealed “the alleged victims suffered from various forms of psychological problems including attention-deficit disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, psychotic disorders and other impairments.” 879 Rose was sentenced to 23 years.880 In what seemed at first to be a wholly unrelated incident, Robert Devereaux lost his license to operate a foster home 881…shar[ing] their home with up to six school-age children, prefereably ages 6 to 12,882…after he became the subject of sexual-abuse allegations.883 CPS records indicate allegations of sexual abuse were leveled at Devereaux at least seven times over four years. Most were investigated, some were not – the information lost in a shuffle of supervisors. 884 Offering lurid recollections of the abuse, [a victim] described how, at one home, grown-ups would take children, six at a time, to a room with six single beds. “We had to undress and lay down on the bed, a kid on each bed,” she said. “The adults undressed and got in line and took turns with everybody. It was the touching thing, the ‘wild thing.’ ” 885

867 John Meacham, Trials and troubles in Happy Valley, Newsweek, 8 May 1995, 125(19), p. 58(3). 868 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 869 Editorial, Shoddy police practices will cost Wenatchee, The Seattle Times, 7 Feb 1996, p. B4. 870 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 871 Op. cit. 872 Op. cit. 873 Op. cit. 874 Op. cit. 875 Op. cit. 876 Op. cit. 877 Op. cit. 878 Op. cit. 879 Op. cit. 880 Op. cit. 881 Op. cit. 882 Op. cit. 883 Op. cit. 884 Op. cit. 885 Op. cit.

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[Another victim] claimed that on one occasion, “Pastor Roby” asked the girl into his shag-carpeted office off the sanctuary. There, the pastor and three other adults allegedly raped her.

• • •

Aware of growing unease in the community – and knowing this case could be huge – Douglas County officials proceeded with caution. The sheriff’s office obtained search warrents and sought physical evidence. 886 “It’s a witch hunt, pure and simple,” said Bob Kinkade, self-appointed leader of the local chapter of Victims of Child Abuse Laws. VOCAL, as the group is more commonly known, is a national organization established to “protect the falsely accused.” 887 The speedy acquittal of an East Wenatchee pastor and his wife by yet another highly skeptical jury reinforces the need for independent review of that unhappy valley’s 18-month-old child sex-abuse scandal.888 The U.S. Justice Department often steps in at times of a community dispute to determine if a violation of federal civil-rights law has occurred.889 The Holts’ daughter even told officers where the videos were kept, but [the officers] did not find any tapes. [Officers] said the tapes were probably taken by a suspect, Leo Catcheway, who fled Wenatchee and remains at large.890 “You know, we need to think of them and say that no matter which way it went, Jesus died on the cross for all of us,” [substitute preacher, Roy] Selby exhorted. “So let’s remember everybody involved and pray that God will touch their hearts.” 891

O.K., but “the circle grows.” 892

“This is not a typical case of child sexual abuse,” Kitsap County Superior Court Judge James Roper said…as he sentenced Debbie L. Runyan to 162 months – 12 1/2 years – in prison for sexually abusing five girls she cared for in her Bainbridge Island day-care center. Runyan was found guilty Jan. 17, [1986,] of sexually abusing her two young daughters and three other girls, all of whom she cared for at Debbie’s Day Care.893 The standard range of sentencing for all of Runyan’s crimes is 77 to 102 months, but Roper went above that, citing several aggravating factors. Among them was the age of the children – the youngest of whom was 3 – the fact that they were repeatedly sexually assaulted, and the fact that Runyan violated what the judge termed her position of trust as their caretaker. 894

• • •

“When I arrived at the game, I felt drugged and dizzy,” the cheerleader wrote in a statement for police, “but I felt it was from the Sudafed that my boyfriend had given me earlier for a head cold.” 895 Some Bainbridge High School cheerleaders [had] tried to disable a squad member by spiking her drink with a vomit-inducing potion just before the first home game of the football season.896 “The cheerleader mentality,” [the victim’s mother said].897

886 Op. cit. 887 Op. cit. 888 Editorial, Sex-ring verdict renews need for outside review, The Seattle Times, 13 Dec 1995, p. B8. 889 Op. cit. 890 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 891 John Meacham, Trials and troubles in Happy Valley, Newsweek, 8 May 1995, 125(19), p. 58(3). 892 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1. 893 Elizabeth Rhodes, 13 1/2-year term for child-abuser, The Seattle Times, 12 Mar 1986, p. A1. 894 Op. cit. 895 Duff Wilson, Cheerleaders spike drink to sicken teammate; two on Bainbridge High squad benched for season, The Seattle Times, 5 Nov 1996, 119 (266), p. A16. 896 Ibidem, p. A1. 897 Ibidem, p. A16.

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When the syrup of ipecac [ 898] didn’t put her out of action, her teammates – who didn’t think she was a good enough cheerleader – laid plans to try again, with an increased dosage.899 The head cheerleader exposed the plot.900 The head cheerleader was given a one-game suspension from the squad.901 No one on the eight-member squad was suspended from school.902 The episode was handled quietly to avoid embarrassing the cheerleaders. 903

• • •

Seventy-three Kitsap County government officials had just returned from a drill at the National Emergency Training Center in Maryland when theory almost became reality. [June 23] they found themselves near the epicenter of a 4.9 earthquake that jolted Puget Sound residents from their lunches.904 At 4.9, [June 23’s] quake apparently had little effect on the Puget Sound-area infrastructure.905 The 12:13 p.m. earthquake emanated from under Point White, a quiet beach on the southwest tip of Bainbridge Island, about 3 1/2 miles east of Bremerton.906 In Issiquah, Burien, Everett, and even Poulsbo, many people reported feeling no quake at all.907

898 [(An overdose of ipecac can be fatal.)] Ipecac is used in emergencies to induce vomiting in someone who has ingested certain types of poison, and the girls knew that it is also used by bulimics. Sold over the counter in small bottles, it carries a warning that it should be given only on the advice of a doctor or poison-control center. — Op. cit. 899 Ibidem, p. A1. 900 Ibidem, p. A16. 901 Op. cit. 902 Op. cit. 903 Op. cit. 904 Steven Goldsmith & John Iwasaki, Earthquake jolts region – and people; damage slight, but one drill is given urgency, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 24 June 1997, 134(150), p. A1. 905 Ibidem, p. A3. 906 Ibidem, p. A1. 907 Ibidem, p. A3.

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Jimi

Apparently Monika Danneman felt it was all right to go to the store for cigarettes when she awoke at 10:00 A.M.908 When Monika returns 909…she rushes over to Jimi and tries to wake him again. The vomit she had seen before she went to the store had dried, but now there is more.910 The effects of the sleeping pill she had taken earlier quickly wear off as she realizes Jimi is in trouble. As Alvenia Bridges recalls: she awoke to the phone ringing. Eric Burdon picked it up.911 It was Monika Danneman on the phone. She was saying that Jimi would not wake up. Eric shouted into the telephone, “CALL THE F---ING AMBULANCE.” Alvenia grabbed the phone. Monika was frantic, she did not know if she should, she was worried that Jimi might get mad.912 Alvenia said, “I’ll be right over. Hang up and call the ambulance.” Alvenia hung up and began dressing hurriedly. Clothes on, she dialed Monika back. 913 Monika had not called the ambulance yet. Alvenia was astounded. “CALL THE AMBULANCE.” 914 Monika did not know if she should.915 Alvenia,…her voice on an emotional par with Monika’s, “There’s no time to lose. You have to call an ambulance.” Then he sees his own body on the bed. The door is wide open and Monika tearfully admits several men in white coats. They roll him onto a stretcher. He feels himself being carried through the door into the outside air. Its briskness shocks him. They carry him up the winding stairs with great difficulty. As they reach the top of the stairs he begins to feel sick to his stomach again. They carry him into the ambulance. Instead of laying him down, they sit him in a chair and strap him upright. He tries to bend over so he can vomit but one of the attendants quicly pushes his head back and straps him even tighter. Jimi’s head lolls back as the ambulance takes off, the knell-like wail of its siren clearing the busy streets. The speeding ambulance presses his body back in the chair and makes it even more difficult for him to get his head down. He feels bile and vomit near his Adam’s apple. He tries frantically to get his head forward, but one of the attendants is making sure it does not tip forward. Jimi is unable to speak. Even if he could, the ball of vomit in his throat would prevent him. More vomit wells up from his stomach. He cannot breathe.916 Jimi’s lungs become congested. His heart begins to pump harder and harder, the right ventricle dilates. Fluid begins to seep into his lungs. He is rushed from the ambulance into St. Mary’s Abbot Hospital. 917 Hendrix managed to hold on to life until he got to the hospital. But there his heart swelled up and the meninges in his spinal column congested. His heart was too slowed by the barbiturates and alcohol in his blood to meet the emergency in his system.918

At 11:25 A.M., September 18, 1970, Jimi Hendrix was pronounced dead at St. Mary’s Abbot Hospital in the Kensington/Chelsea section of London. Immediately the London offices of the major wire services reported worldwide that Hendrix died of a drug overdose. Later, the inquest returned an “open verdict,” which, according to the New York Times, “meant that the court was unable to decide the exact reason for Mr. Hendrix’s death. . . .” Jimi Hendrix did not die of a drug overdose. The death certificate listed as “cause of death”: Inhalation of vomit Barbiturate intoxication (quinalbarbitone) Insufficient evidence of circumstances open verdict While Gavin L. B. Thurston, coroner for Inner West London, is listed as informant, he did not sign the death certificate.919 Further analysis of the pathologist’s report indicated that Hendrix had a very high level of alcohol in his blood. Much more than the bottle of wine he and Monika drank with their meal. It would seem, according to Danneman’s

908 David Henderson, ‘Scuse Me While I Kiss the Sky: The Life of Jimi Hendrix (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1983(1978)), p. 399. 909 Ibidem, p. 389. 910 Op. cit. 911 Op. cit. 912 Op. cit. 913 Op. cit. 914 Op. cit. 915 Op. cit. 916 Ibidem, pp. 389-390. 917 Ibidem, p. 390. 918 Ibidem, pp. 399-400. 919 Ibidem, p. 396.

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testimony, that he had nothing to drink after their meal and after the dinner party, yet the alcohol blood level remained unusally high.920 [An]other version[] of Hendrix’s death w[as] to surface. [It] had to do with the “Cointelpro” program of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which sought to neutralize an array of black leaders who were considered to be potential messiahs. (There are documents of FBI activity around Hendrix.) 921 The two persons closest to him on a personal and a business level, Devon Wilson and Michael Jeffery, both died strange and violent deaths soon after he left this world, Devon in an ambiguous plunge from the upper stories of the Chelsea Hotel in New York City and Jeffery in an exploding commercial airliner. Other close associates died, got strung out, or went mad soon after his death.922

• • •

“The first officially recorded death was, I think, in December of 1889, and they concluded that the guy died of an overdose of bad whiskey in the county jail. That was the first reported death in this county,” [says King County’s Chief Medical Investigator, Jerry Webster].923 [In fact,] the most common type of non-traffic accidental death in King County is drug overdose – in 1995 there were 142 of them; that’s 41 percent of non-traffic accidents. In ‘91 there were 48, in ‘93 there were 98, in ‘94 there were 109. 924

• • •

A King County police sergeant facing murder charges was named in two lawsuits in the 1980s that cost the county $165,000, including one in which he allegedly struck a man in the face with his nightstick and slammed him onto the trunk of a car. [The sergeant] wan’t disciplined as a result of the cases.925

• • •

Four rogue…policemen were sentenced…for robbing drug dealers and falsifying police reports. Another was sentenced for roughing up a college student in an incident that led to the discovery of the thefts and cover-up.926 The admitted ringleader, received a 13-year federal prison sentence. 927

• • •

Systems of illegal payoffs and bribery in various forms have existed in the Seattle Police Department for many years.928

920 Ibidem, p. 399. 921 Ibidem, p. 398. 922 Ibidem, pp. 403-404. 923 Scot Auguston, A guided tour: death in Seattle, The Stranger, 14 Aug 1996, 6(8), p. 11. 924 Ibidem, p. 13b. 925 Steve Miletich, Bachmeier named in other incidents, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 27 Nov 1996, p. B1. 926 5 Philly officers sentenced on drug and rights violations, The Seattle Times, 16 April 1996, 119(92), p. A4. 927 Op. cit. 928 William J. Chambliss (Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Sociology Dept. at the Geroge Wash. U., and President of the Am. Society of Criminology (1988)), On the Take: From Petty Crooks to Presidents (Indiana: University Press, 1988), p. 270.

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“The Empire never ended.” 929

When most people think of Belgium, they consider its hearty beer and delicious chocolate, 930…but since the summer [of 1996,] it has been rocked by a series of lurid revelations. They include tales of an exceptionally repellent child-sex torture-murder ring, the arrest of a former minister for the Mafia-style political assassination of a rival, official corruption and bribery, all topped off by law-enforcement bungling on a grand scale. Public anger and disgust are so high that when citizens’ groups last month organized a demonstration to demand a government clean-up, silent, white-clad protesters numbering…fully 3% of the country’s population…thronged the streets of Brussels. The White March was a cathartic moment for a badly troubled society, but the respite from dismaying news ended.931 This time a popular and telegenic Deputy Prime Minister,…Elio Di Rupo, 45, was accused by local prosecutors – who petitioned Parliament to lift his official immunity so he could be formally charged – of having sex with underage boys. At the same time, similar charges were leveled against Jean-Pierre Graffe, 64, a regional minister.932 Both men denied the accusations. The case of Di Rupo, a key insider, could lead to the breakup of the coalition government.933 Di Rupo claims to be the victim of “a witch-hunt, a McCarthyism of the worst sort.” Following intense political haggling, Parliament last week voted against stripping Di Rupo of his immunity. 934 But the reprieve was only temporary; the country’s highest court was ordered to continue investigating the minister, and lawmakers will again consider lifting his immunity.935 “The problem is, he’s an official, and there are allegations of pedophilia. Those are the two most sensitive topics…right now,” says political scientist Kris Deschouwer. Sensitive scarcely begins to describe it. The country is still shaken by the discovery…of a child-kidnapping ring that preyed on young girls. A 12-year-old and a 14-year-old who had been abducted and raped were freed from a macabre underground dungeon in a home of the accused ringleader, Marc Dutroux, near the southern city of Charleroi. Police dug up the bodies of four other girls, ages 8 to 19, missing for more than a year.936 Shock then turned to outrage when it was disclosed that Dutroux was a convicted kidnapper-rapist, released…from prison.937 Worse, vital information about the original abductions was withheld by competing investigators, and Dutroux allegedly had high-level protection. In that atmosphere of revulsion and suspicion, a few weeks later, the former Minister of Pensions, Alain Van der Biest, was charged with hiring hit men to kill another powerful politican, Andre Cools. 938 Long-held suspicions resurfaced of a political cover-up in the murder probe.939 “We eat well, we know how to enjoy ourselves. We always knew things were wrong here, but as long as we didn’t really feel it, that was O.K.,” said Deschouwer. 940 The inquiry is painful and the taste bitter.941

O.K., . . .

A number of Americans…have worked themselves into high dudgeon over credible allegations that Chinese orphanages systematically kill unwanted children.

929 Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), pp. 48, 60, 72, 93, 97, 112, 121, 134, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 238, 239. [The Empire is a corrupt government.] A Black Iron Prison. This is what the dream referred to as “the Empire.” [Fat] knew it because, upon seeing the Black Iron Prison, he had recognized it. Everyone dwelt in it without realizing it. The Black Iron Prison was their world. Who had built the prison – and why – he could not say. But he could discern one good thing: the prison lay under attack. An organization of Christians, not regular Christians such as those who attended church every Sunday and prayed, but secret Christians wearing light gray-colored robes, had started an assault on the prison, and with success [(Ibidem, p. 48)]. Everyone who had ever lived was literally surrounded by the iron walls of the prison; they were all inside it and none of them knew it – except for the gray-robed secret Christians [(Ibidem, p. 47)]. 930 Jay Branegan, The nightmare goes on: a fresh scandal further shakes up the Belgians, Time, 2 Dec 1996, 148(25), p. 50(1). 931 Op. cit. 932 Op. cit. 933 Op. cit. 934 Op. cit. 935 Op. cit. 936 Op. cit. 937 Op. cit. 938 Op. cit. 939 Op. cit. 940 Op. cit. 941 Op. cit.

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Now comes a counterpunch in the official People’s Daily in Beijing asserting that American youngsters are worse off.942 It is difficult to dismiss the contention. The article presents children in the United States as victims of violence, neglect, sexual and drug abuse, teen pregnancy, AIDS, homelessness and divorce. It concludes that the United States “is the world’s only superpower (where) the social tragedies of ill-treating and cruelly injuring children, as well as hurting them physically and psychologically in various ways, take place every day.” 943

• • •

There were two friends studying under a teacher, and their teacher said that the essence of his teaching was spontaneous wisdom; even if a person were to indulge himself in extreme actions, they would become like clouds in the sky and be freed by fundamental spontaneity. The two disciples understood it entirely differently. One of them went away and began to work on the spontaneous way of relating to his own characteristics, positive and negative, and became able to free them spontaneously without forcing anything, neither encouraging nor suppressing them. The other one went and built a brothel, and organised a big gang of his friends who all acted in a spontaneous way, making raids on the nearby villages, killing the men and carrying off the women. After some time they met again, and both were shocked by each other’s kind of spontaneity, so they decided to go and see their teacher. They both presented their experience to him, and he told the first that his was the right way, and the second that his was the wrong way. But the second friend could not bear to see that all his effort and energy had been condemned, so he drew a sword and killed the teacher on the spot. 944

942 Philadelphia Daily News, China correct that U.S. doesn’t treat children well either, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 5 March 1996. 943 Op. cit. 944 Ibidem, pp. 24-25.

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“Some child victims show the symptoms of posttraumatic stress.” 945

[Child victims] demonstrated diminished responsiveness to their environment, hyperalertness, and jumpiness ([Burgess, A. W., Hartman, C. R., McCausland, M. P., Powers, P. (1984). Response pattern in children and adolescents exploited through sex rings and pornography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 656-662 946]).947 [Symptoms also] include dissociation, partial amnesia, numbing of affect, flashbacks (which may sometimes present as panic attacks), nightmares,[ 948] and phobic or avoidance behavior.949 Victims may experience psychological distress, phobic reactions, and sexual dysfunction.950 Masters and Johnson found…patients sufferning from dyspareunia [(painful intercourse)] due to…rape. 951 In some cases vaginismus [(painful, spastic vaginal contraction)] is a result of prior episodes of painful intercourse, which may itself be caused by organic factors; in such cases, vaginismus may be considered to be caused indirectly by the same physical factors that cause dyspareunia.952 Fears…were [also] selective and involved things such as darkness and enclosed places – conditions likely to be associated with the rape ([Calhoun, K. S., Atkeson, B. M., & Resick, P. A. (1982). A longitudinal examination of fear reactions in victims of rape. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 655-661 953]). Attacks in circumstances that the [victim] had defined as “safe” had a greater emotional impact than attacks in places that [they] felt were dangerous. 954 Flashbacks were reported by 50 percent of the sexually active victims. These included fleeting memories that could not be repressed, reliving the experience, and associating the present sex partner with the rapist. 955 People… [also] may withdraw emotionally and may avoid anything that might remind them of the events. 956 Needless to say, rape [(even under the influence of memory repressing drugs)] is highly traumatic. 957

• • •

A year to the day after the state filed criminal charges against the former top staff member of the O.K. Boys Ranch, a ruling…by a Thurston County judge has put the case in jeopardy.958 Superior Court Judge Daniel Berschauer said that post-traumatic-stress disorder – which the state claims former [O.K. Boys R]anch residents suffer from – did not constitute bodily harm under the criminal-mistreatment law the three staff members had been charged with. 959 [Washington State] Attorney General Christine Gregoire said if Berschauer’s decision stands, the three staff members could not be prosecuted for their part in the alleged abuses that took place at the now-closed Olympia [O.K. Boys Ranch]. She said the state will appeal the ruling.960 Gregoire said that if the state loses its appeal, she will ask the Legislature to change the law so that it covers post-traumatic-stress disorder. “I think the average person would conclude that the system has failed if alleged conduct as egregious as this can’t be prosecuted,” Gregorie said in a prepared statement. 961

• • •

945 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 329. 946 Ibidem, p. A-26. 947 Ibidem, p. 329. 948 Ibidem, p. 190. 949 Arthur J. Felitti, Ami Laws, & Edward A. Walker, Women abused as children, Patient Care, 15 Nov 1993, 27(18), p. 169(9). 950 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 335. 951 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 525. 952 Op. cit. 953 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-27. 954 Ibidem, p. 335. 955 Ibidem, p. 335. 956 Ibidem, p. 190. 957 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 335. 958 David Postman, O.K. Boys Ranch case in doubt; decision undermines state’s charges, The Seattle Times WEB ARCHIVE, 14 Nov 1996. 959 Op. cit. 960 Op. cit. 961 Op. cit.

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According to statistics for 1993 from U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, there were nearly 8,000 reports [(emphasis added)] of child abuse and neglect each day. That’s 2.9 million reports during the year. Of these, more than 1 million were substantiated and/or indicated as victims of maltreatment. Of the total number of reported incidents, 24 percent were physically abused, 14 percent were sexually abused, 45 percent were neglected, 7 percent were emotionally maltreated, and 15 percent were victims of other types of abuse. 962 Children 4 years old or younger were 40 times more likely to suffer child abuse in families with a stepparent than in families with both genetic parents present! 963 Violence in America has hit children hard: In 1995, a child died of neglect or abuse every seven hours. 964 According to the 1995 Report of The United States Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect, at least 2,000 children each year, more than five per day, die at the hands of parents or caretakers. And of those who do not die from abuse and neglect each year, 18,000 children are left permanently disabled and 142,000 are seriously injured.965 A Gallup poll taken last year [(1995),] and based on parents’ own responses, estimated that three million American children are physically abused every year, and that 1.3 million are sexually abused. 966 It’s likely that abuse was underreported and that some of the parents were not entirely truthful. 967 What the law regards as child abuse, some parents consider discipline. “They bring me the Bible and quote the passage, ‘Beat the devil out of the child,’ ” says Dr. Carolyn Wright, coordinator of early childhood education at the Miami-Dade Community College North Campus, Miami, 968…[but] “children will rise against parents and have them put to death.” 969 Jesus was a realist.970 There are some instances in which blindly honoring one’s parents is inappropriate behavior. 971 A parent who is outright evil or destructive – one who molests or physically abuses a child or engages in other activities harmful to the child’s welfare – has breached his or her side of the parental covenant, and thus can justly be regarded as an exception to the commandment.972 “Whoever causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin, it would be better for him to have a great millstone fastened round his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea.” 973, 974

Who Abuses?

Badly troubled men [and women] with powerful and sometimes irresistible compulsions. 975 Unfortunately, there is much sexual abuse, such as that committed by older brothers, uncles, and neighbors. 976 In order for sexual abuse to occur, a potential offender not only needs to be motivated to commit abuse, but the offender must overcome internal inhibitions against acting on those motives.977 Emotional congruence, sexual arousal, and blockage are sources for the motivation to sexually abuse. Disinhibition is not in itself a source of motivation, but the reason the motivation is unleashed. It is not sufficient in itself to create abuse. A person who has no inhibitions against sexual abuse, but also no inclination to do so, will not abuse. 978 Mothers appear to be especially crucial in protecting children from abuse. 979 [Unfortunately,] mothers may be unable to protect children because they themselves are abused and intimidated by tyrannical and domineering men.980 It has been estimated that the incidence of battered wives ranges from 4% to 40% of all wives ([Resick, P. A.

962 Jan Collins Stucker & Jan L. Warner, Child-abuse statistics are astounding, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 28 Aug 1995. 963 John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 5th ed. (Mass: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993), p. 568. 964 [According to Marian Wright Edelman and the Children’s Defense Fund, which she heads]. — Michael Ryan, How to stand for children, The Seattle Times & Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade, 9 Feb 1997, p. 8. 965 Jan Collins Stucker & Jan L. Warner, Child-abuse statistics are astounding, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 28 Aug 1995. 966 Juliet Wittman, Children are everyone’s business, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 5 April 1996. 967 Op. cit. 968 John Barry, Some parents may not recognize child abuse; here are some examples, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 11 July 1995. 969 Matthew 10.21-22 & Mark 13.12-13, The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 970 Jesus, the realist; U.S. Catholic Church confronts sexual abuse scandal, Commonweal, 17 Dec 1993, 120(22). 971 Laura Schlessinger, Mother and daughter: not equals, The Seattle Times, 2 Feb 1997, 15(5), p. M2. 972 Op. cit. 973 Matthew 18.6, Mark 9.42, & Luke 17.2, The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 974 Jesus, the realist; U.S. Catholic Church confronts sexual abuse scandal, Commonweal, 17 Dec 1993, 120(22). 975 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 976 David Finkelhor, Sexual Interactions (Free Press, 1988), p. 53. 977 Ibidem, p. 55. 978 Ibidem, pp. 57-58. 979 Ibidem, p. 58. 980 Ibidem, p. 59.

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(1983). Sex-role stereotypes and violence against women. In V. Franks, & E. Rothblum (Eds.), The stereotyping of women: Its effects on mental health (pp. 230-256). New York: Springer 981]). It is difficult to get precise estimates of the number of women affected because most cases are not reported to the police.982 Even large power imbalances that may stem from differences in education may undercut a woman’s ability to be an ally for her children. Just what are all the forms of protection that a mother provides is not entirely clear. Supervision does not mean simply being present with a child at all times. It also includes knowing what is going on for a child, knowing when a child is troubled, and being someone to whom the child can readily turn to for help. It can be seen how a potential offender might well be inhibited from abusing a child if he realized that the mother would quickly suspect or know what was going on. Judith Herman (1981) has found that the main difference between families where father and [child 983] have a “seductive” relationship and families where that relationship becomes actual incest is that in the incestuous families, the mother is incapacitated in some way. In the seductive relationship situation, mothers seem to exert some inhibiting force. Other people besides mothers act as deterrents to sexual abuse. To the degree that neighbors, siblings, friends, [would-be criminal masterminds,] and teachers interact closely with a child and are familiar with his or her activities, they also inhibit abuse. This idea would appear to be supported by findings that children who live in isolated settings or who have few friends and few social contacts are at greater risk to abuse (…Henderson, 1972). The absense of general public scrutiny of family and children may be one of the factors that accounts for the reportedly high level of abuse in the stereotypical “backwoods” family environments (Summit & Kryso, 1978). One other form that external inhibition may take is simply the absence of physical opportunity for abuser and child to be alone together. In situations where such opportunities are more available, abuse is more likely to occur. The literature on sexual abuse has, for example, mentioned household conditions as factors which may facilitate abuse. When family members are required to sleep together in the same bed or in the same room, abuse may be facilitated. Similarly, one of the reasons why a father’s unemployment may precipitate abuse is that, in addition to lowering his internal inhibitions because of emotional stress, it leaves him at home alone with a child for extended periods. When a potential abuser and a child are left alone in the absence of supervising persons, it may help to overcome the external inhibitions that often exist against sexual abuse.984 Children’s ability to resist or avoid abuse may be undercut because they are [drugged, are] young, are naive, or lack information. It may also be undercut because they have a special relationship to the potential offender. A child who might object to a sexual game when proposed by a stranger may comply because the proposal comes from a [peer or] family member, a person the child trusts. Because the adult knows the child, the adult may frame the proposal in such a way that the child will agree. That same familiarity may allow the adult to formulate a threat which will thwart any resistance by the child.985 One of the most persistent criticisms of explanations of sexual abuse is that they tend to take responsibility for the abuse off the offenders and displace it onto either victims, third parties, or society as a whole (Armstrong, 1978, 1983; Conte, 1982). For example, the family-systems model, which finds that mothers are unsupportive and unprotective of daughters in many incestuous families, is frequently criticized for blaming the mother (McIntyre, 1981; Nelson, 1982). Similarly, research that has found that emotionally deprived children are more vulnerable to abuse has been criticized for putting unnecessary blame on the victims. 986

Four Traumagenic Dynamics

Traumatic sexualization refers to a process in which a child’s sexuality (including both sexual feelings and sexual attitudes) is shaped in a developmentally inappropriate and interpersonally dysfunctional fashion as a result of the sexual abuse. This can happen in a variety of ways in the course of the abuse. Traumatic sexualization can occur when a child is repeatedly rewarded by an offender for sexual behavior that is inappropriate to his or her level of development. It occurs through the exchange of affection, attention, privileges, and gifts for sexual behavior, so that a child learns sexual behavior as a strategy for manipulating others to get his or her other developmentally appropriate needs met. It occurs when certain parts of of a child’s anatomy are fetishized and given distorted importance and meaning. It occurs through the misconceptions and confusions about sexual behavior and sexual morality that are transmitted to the child from the offender. And it occurs when very frightening memories and events become associated in the child’s mind with sexual activity. 987

981 Susan A. Basow, Gender Stereotypes: Traditions and Alternatives, 2nd ed. (CA: Brooks/Cole Publ. Co., 1986), p. 365. 982 Ibidem, p. 281. 983 Some men focus on children regardless of gender. — Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 984 David Finkelhor, Sexual Interactions (Free Press, 1988), pp. 59-60. 985 Ibidem, p. 61. 986 Ibidem, pp. 63-64. 987 David Finkelhor & Angela Browne, Initial and long-term effects: a conceptual framework, A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, ed. David Finkelhor, 1986, p. 181.

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Betrayal refers to the dynamic in which children discover that someone on whom they are vitally dependent has caused them harm. This may occur in a variety of ways in a molestation experience. For example, in the course of abuse or its aftermath, children may come to the realization that a trusted person has manipulated them through lies or misrepresentations about moral standards. They may also come to realize that someone whom they loved or whose affection was important to them treated them with callous disregard. Children can experience betrayal not only at the hands of offenders, but also with family members who were not abusing them. A family member whom they trusted but who was unable or unwilling to protect or believe them – or who has a changed attitude toward them after disclosure of the abuse – may also contribute to the dynamics of betrayal. 988 Powerlessness – or what might also be called “disempowerment,” the dynamic of rendering the victim powerless – refers to the process in which the child’s will, desires, and sense of efficacy are continually contravened. Many aspects of the sexual abuse experience contribute to this dynamic.989 A basic kind of powerlessness occurs in sexual abuse when a child’s territory and body space are repeatedly invaded against the child’s will. This is exacerbated by whatever coercion and manipulation the offender may impose as part of the abuse process. Powerlessness is then reinforced when a child sees his or her attempts to halt the abuse frustrated. It is increased when the child feels fear, when he or she is unable to make adults understand or believe what is happening, or when he or she realizes how conditions of dependency have him or her trapped in the situation. 990 Stigmazation, the final dynamic, refers to the negative connotations – for example, badness, shame, and guilt – that are communicated to the child about the experiences and that then become incorporated into the child’s self-image. These negative meanings are communicated in many ways. They can come directly form the abuser, who may blame the victim for the activity, denigrate the victim, or, simply through his furtiveness, convey a sense of shame about the behavior. When there is pressure for secrecy from the offender, this can also convey powerful messages of shame and guilt. But stigmatization is also reinforced by attitudes that the victim infers or hears from other persons in the family or community. Stigmatization may thus grow out of the child’s prior knowledge or sense that the activity after disclosure, people react with shock or hysteria, or blame the child for what has transpired. The child may be additionally stigmatized by people in his or her environment who now impute other negative characteristics to the victim (loose morals, spoiled goods) as a result of the molestation. 991 These four traumagenic dynamics, then, account in our view for the main sources of trauma in child sexual abuse. They are not in any way distinct, separate factors, or narrowly defined. 992 They are best thought of as broad categories useful for organizing and categorizing our understanding of the effect of sexual abuse. 993 Although the sexual abuse itself is assumed to be the main traumatic agent in victims, it is important to emphasize that any assessment approach to understanding trauma must take into account the child’s experiences prior to and subsequent to the abuse. Abuse will have different effects on children depending on their prior adjustment. And abuse will have different effects depending on how others respond to it. 994 The four traumagenic dynamics we have been discussing are not dynamics that apply soley to the abuse event. They are ongoing processes that have a history prior to and a future subsequent to the abuse. They can be assessed in each phase. In the preabuse phase, the traumagenic dynamics need to be understood particularly in relation to a child’s family life and personality characteristics prior to the abuse. For example, if the child was a previous victim of physical or emotional abuse, he or she may already have been suffering from a disempowering dynamic before the abuse occurred.995

988 Ibidem, p. 182. 989 Ibidem, p. 183. 990 Op. cit. 991 Ibidem, p. 184. 992 David Finkelhor & Angela Browne, Initial and long-term effects: a conceptual framework, A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, ed. David Finkelhor, 1986, p. 184. 993 Ibidem, p. 185. 994 Ibidem, pp. 195-196. 995 Ibidem, p. 196.

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The operation of of the traumagenic dynamics can also be assessed in the events subsequent to the sexual abuse. Two main categories of subsequent events have particular importance: (1) the family reaction to disclosure, if and when it occurs, and (2) the social and institutional response to the disclosure. For example, much of the stigmatization accompanying abuse may occur after the experience itself, as a child encounters family and societal reactions. A child who was relatively unstigmatized by the molestation itself may undergo serious stigmatization if friends…reject her, if her family blames her, or if the fact of her being abused remains a focus in her life for a long time.996 If, for instance,…authorities become involved in the experience, the child is forced to testify, forced to leave home, forced to tell the story on repeated occasions, and subjected to a great deal of unwanted attention, this can also greatly increase the…sense of powerlessness. If the [individual,] on the other hand, has a sense of having been able to end the abuse and obtain support and protection, this may greatly mitigate any sense of powerlessness that resulted from the experience itself.997

• • •

Researchers have identified a host of medical and psychological symptoms that are associated with a history of childhood sexual abuse in women. One of the best predictors of this history is somatization or a high number of medically unexplained symptoms.998 Adolescents who are abused have a higher risk of unwanted pregnancy, emotional problems, eating disorders, substance abuse and delinquent behavior. 999 Many patients who have been abused have problems such as obesity, chronic depression or anxiety, and multiple symptoms with psychosomatic potential – for example, headaches and chronic abdominal, pelvic, and low-back pain.1000 Women who reported contact sexual abuse…had voluntary sexual intercourse 15.4 months earlier than women with noncontact…or no abuse. Likewise, women with contact abuse engaged in necking and petting behaviors at earlier ages, and had more sexual partners during adolescence and briefer sexual relationships than women with noncontact or no abuse.1001

996 Ibidem, pp. 196-197. 997 Ibidem, p. 197. 998 Arthur J. Felitti, Ami Laws, & Edward A. Walker, Women abused as children, Patient Care, 15 Nov 1993, 27(18), p. 169(9). 999 Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association, Adolescents as victims of family violence, Journal of the American Medical Association, 20 Oct 1993, 270(15), p. 1850(7). 1000 Arthur J. Felitti, Ami Laws, & Edward A. Walker, Women abused as children, Patient Care, 15 Nov 1993, 27(18), p. 169(9). 1001 G. E. Wyatt, The relationship between child sexual abuse and adolescent sexual functioning in Afro-American and white American women, Annual of New York Academy Science, 528, 1988.

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“Soft people become hard criminals.” 1002

Throughout his years as a child molester, [Westley Allan] Dodd showed a gift for rebuking the justice system. With each arrest, he passed like a cold breeze through the court system and mental health institutions and wound up back where he had started: hunting children in public parks and devising new schemes to kidnap, mutilate, drown, strangle or suffocate them. Time and again, the courts reduced the charges, suspended the sentence, offered therapy over incarceration. “Each time I entered treatment, I continued to molest children,” he told the court. “I liked molesting children and did what I had to do to avoid jail so I could continue molesting.” 1003

• • •

Chronic antisocial behavioral patterns such as irresponsibility, lying, using other people, and aggressive sexual behavior indicate antisocial personality disorder.1004 Their relationships with others are superficial and fleeting, and little loyalty is involved. Antisocial personality disorder…is far more prevalent among men than among women.1005 The medical literature is not hopeful about recovery for…victimizers, especially those whose focus is children.1006 [And] parents who abuse adolescent children often have different characteristics than those who mistreat younger children. They are more likely to be educated and from a higher socioeconomic class.1007

1002 Seen in my dreams amid addendums from a Dead aficionado. 1003 Nancy Gibbs, The devil’s diciple, Time, 11 Jan 1993, 141(2), p. 40(1). 1004 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 261. 1005 Op. cit. 1006 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 1007 Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association, Adolescents as victims of family violence, Journal of the American Medical Association, 20 Oct 1993, 270(15).

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On psychological tests such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), child molesters tend to have profiles indicating passive-dependent personality,[ 1008] discomfort in social situations,[ 1009] impulsiveness, [ 1010] and alcoholism [(Burgess, A. W., Hartman, C. R., McCaulsand, M. P., Powers, P. (1984). Response pattern in children and adolscents exploited through sex rings and pornography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 656-662) 1011].1012 More than 50 percent of one sample of child molesters reported using “hard cord” pornography to exite themselves in preparing to commit an offense [(Marshall, W. L (1988), Behavioral indices of habituation and sensitization during exposure to phobic stimulit. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 67-77 1013)]. 1014 They also display a significantly higher fear of negative evaluation [(Overholser, J. C., & Beck, S. (1986). Multimethod assessment of rapists, child molesters, and three control groups in behavioral and psychological measures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 682-687) 1015].1016, [ 1017] And, contrary to the popular view of the pedophile (or child molester) as a stranger, most pedophiles were relatives, friends, or casual acquaintances of their victims [(Alter-Reid, K., Gibbs, M. S., Lachenmeyer, J. R., Sigal J., & Massoth, N. A. (1986). Sexual abuse of children: a reivew of the empirical findings, Clinical Psychology Review, 6, 249-266 1018)].1019 Often they were victimized themselves in childhood.1020 [Some] take pleasure in humiliating the victim rather than in the sexual pleasure itself.1021

• • •

A distinction should be made between the behavior patterns associated with antisocial personality disorder and behaviors involving social protest or criminal lifestyles. People who engage in civil disobedience or violate the conventions of society or its laws as a form of protest are not as a rule persons with antisocial personalities. 1022 They may perceive their violations of rules and norms as acts performed for the greater good. Similarly, engaging in delinquent or adult criminal behavior is not a necessary or sufficient condition for diagnosing antisocial personality. Although many convicted criminals have been found to have antisocial characteristics, many others do not. They may come from a subculture that encourages and reinforces criminal activity; hence, in perpetrating such acts they are adhering to group mores and codes of conduct.1023 Some theorists believe that relationships within the family – the primary agent of socialization – are paramount in the development of antisocial patterns ([McCord, W., & McCord, J. (1964). The psychopath: An essay on the criminal mind. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand 1024]). Loeber (1990) found that socioeconomic status of the family was a weak

1008 People who are unwilling to assume responsibity because of an inability to function and to make decisions independently show dependent personality disorder. These people lack self-confidence, and they subordinate their needs to those of the people on whom they depend. Nevertheless, their dependency and inability to make decisions may go unrecognized or may be misinterpreted by casual observers. For example, a dependent personality may allow his or her spouse to be dominant or abusive for fear that the spouse will otherwise leave. — David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), pp. 263-264. 1009 A social phobia is an intense, excessive fear of being scrutinized in one or more social situations. There is no fear when the person engages in any of these activities in private. — Ibidem, p. 173. 1010 Impulse control disorders share three characteristics. First, such people fail to resist an impulse or temptation to perform some act. People with the disorder know that the act is considered wrong by society or is harmful to them. The impulse may or may not be consciously resisted, and its performance may or may not be premeditated. Second, tension or arousal is experienced before the act. Third, after committing the act, a sense of excitement, gratification, or release is felt. — Ibidem, p. 277. 1011 Ibidem, p. A-26. 1012 Ibidem, p. 329. 1013 Ibidem, p. A-57. 1014 Ibidem, p. 330. 1015 Ibidem, p. A-64. 1016 Ibidem, p. 328 1017 The essential feature of avoidant personality disorder is a hypersensitivity to potential rejection, humiliation, and shame. Persons with avoidant personality disorder tend to have low self-esteem and are reluctant to enter social relationships without a guarantee of uncritical acceptance by others. — Ibidem, p. 263. 1018 Ibidem, p. A-18. 1019 Ibidem, p. 329. 1020 Andrew M. Greenley, How serious is the problem of sexual abuse by clergy?, America, 20 March 1993, 168(10), p. 6(5). 1021 Op. cit. 1022 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 267. 1023 Op. cit. 1024 Ibidem, p. A-58.

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predictor whereas family factors such as poor parental supervision and involvement were good predictors. Rejection or deprivation by one or both parents may provide little opportunity to learn socially appropriate behaviors or may diminish the value of people as socially reinforcing agents. Parental separation has been correlated with antisocial personality. Children may have been traumatized or subjected to a hostile environment during the parental separation ([Vaillant, G. E., & Perry, J. C. (1985). Personality disorders. In H. I. Kaplan & B. J. Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (4th ed., pp. 958-986). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins 1025]). Millon and Everly (1985) believe that hostility in such families may result in interpersonal hostility among the children. Hence [socio]paths may find little satisfaction in close or meaningful relationships with others. 1026 A distinction is also made between primary and secondary [socio]paths. A primary [socio]path lacks anxiety or guilt over antisocial behavior but a secondary [socio]path reports guilt over such behaviors.1027 Lykken (1982) argued that heroes and [socio]paths are two sides of the same coin. For example, Chuck Yeager, a heroic test pilot, once concealed broken ribs that he had suffered in a wild midnight horseback ride so that he could go aloft in the belly of a B-29, wedge himself in a tiny cockpit of the X-1 rocket plane, and let himself be jettisoned at an altitude of 26,000 feet to become the first person to travel faster than the speed of sound. And Ted Bundy was a charming, intelligent, and articulate [socio]path who left a coast-to-coast trail of brutal and sadistic murders of young women. Lykken believes that heroes and [socio]paths share one characteristic – namely, fearlessness.1028 Although very fearless children are difficult to bring up, circumstances and family environment may play crucial roles. Those who have the opportunity to channel their fearlessness into socially approved activities (such as being a test pilot) and who are socialized in families that emphasize warm and loving relationships rather than punishment techniques may be less likely to become [socio]paths.1029 People who are relatively fearless, such as heroes and [socio]paths, may [also] have a greater tendency to choose the frightening or embarrassing alternative than do fearful people.1030

Monkey See, Monkey Do

JoAnn Loukaitis testified that in mid-January, [1996, that]…she and her husband filed for divorce and she confided to their son that she was considering suicide. Mrs. Loukaitis said she was convinced her husband was having an affair. She planned to drive to their Ellensburg restaurant and tie him and his girlfriend to chairs. “They destroyed my life, and I was going to shoot myself and make them watch,” said Mrs. Loukaitis, 47. “I told Barry all that.” 1031 Barry Loukaitis [then] began having emotional problems,…and his condition worsened in the weeks before he shot to death a teacher and two classmates, his parents testified [September 26]. 1032 He was 14 when the shootings occurred.1033 Prosecutors want him tried as an adult.1034

• • •

According to [Oregon Social Learning Center’s Marion S.] Forgatch, two experiments in Eugene, Ore., showed that teaching parents better monitoring and more consistent, less coercive discipline techniques reduces their kids’ misbehavior. “We should make parenting skills classes compulsory for high school students,” argues [psychologist Adrian] Raine of the University of Southern California.1035

• • •

1025 Ibidem, p. A-81. 1026 Ibidem, p. 268. 1027 Ibidem, p. 267. 1028 Ibidem, p. 272. 1029 Op. cit. 1030 Op. cit. 1031 The Associated Press, Parents say Loukaitis was troubled long before killings at school, Journal American, 27 Sep 1996, p. A7. 1032 Op. cit. 1033 Op. cit. 1034 The Associated Press, Parents say Loukaitis was troubled long before killings at school, Journal American, 27 Sep 1996, p. A7. 1035 W. Wayt Gibbs, Seeking the criminal element, Scientific American: Mysteries of the Mind, Special Edition/1997, 7(1), pp. 104-105.

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Many parents verbalize one set of values and exhibit quite another. A “do as I say, not as I do” approach to socialization is ineffective. If the child sees a church-going, platitude-spouting, moralizing parent lie about his golf score, cheat on his income tax, bully his children, and pay substandard wages to his help, the child may emulate his parent’s behavior rather than his hypocritical words ([Hetherington, E. M., & Morris, W. N. (1978). The family and primary groups. In W. H. Holtzman (Ed.), Introductory psychology in depth: Developmental topics. New York: Harper & Row,1036] p. 2).1037 Children play a relatively passive role in their own developement. Just as the computer can do only as much as the programmer directs it to do, so children do only what the environment directs them to do.1038 Children learn not only through…conditioning but also by observing and imitating others ([Bandura, A. (1989). Cognitive social learning theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of Child Development (Vol. 6). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1039]). In a series of classic studies, Bandura showed that children’s aggressive behavior could be increased by exposing them to another person behaving aggressively. Nursery school children watched an adult punch, kick, and pummel a large inflated Bobo doll. In contrast to children who had not seen the model, the children who watched the adult assault the doll were more aggressive when given the chance to play with the inflated toy. Moreover, many of the bizarre and novel responses that the adult model had exhibited were accurately reproduced by the child observers. 1040 [A woman] heard another young female shopper tell her child, “Get your a-- over here!” 1041– two common mistakes – parents getting too emotional and/or mistakingly assuming their children will respond to rational arguments because they’re just little adults. 1042 Many children will take yelling, nagging and arguing as a challenge,1043…mix[ing it] up with the rest of a parent’s “verbal garbage.” 1044 The parent who speaks crudely to her child, regardless of how annoyed she may be, is in for a rude awakening, because in a few years her child will be responding to her in the same manner.1045 If parents use methods of discipline such as physical punishment, threats, or humiliation that are heavily reliant on the superior power of the parent or are demeaning to the child, children may come to view themselves as helpless or unworthy. Furthermore, although power-assertive techniques may be effective in gaining immediate control of the child’s behavior, in the long run they are likely to be deleterious. When power-assertive methods such as physical punishment are used to control aggression, the hostile parent is also in the anomalous situation both of frustrating the child, which may lead to arousal of anger, and of offering an aggressive model to the child. In addition, the child may attempt to avoid contact with the punishing parent, which gives the parent less opportunity to socialize the child. As might be expected under such circumstances, the child often exhibits little overt aggression in the home toward the threatening parents, but displaces it to others outside the home where the child is less fearful of retaliation.1046 Child abusers frequently were raised in the same authoritarian style that they later recreate with their own children. They possess an intense fear of spoiling their children, of showing them gentleness, tenderness, and kindness. All of this suggests that the pattern of abuse is unwittingly transmitted from parent to child, generation after generation ([Steele, B. G., and Pollock, C. B. 1968. A psychiatric study of parents who abuse infants and small children. In Helfer, R. E., and Kempe, C. H. (eds.), The Battered Child. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1047]).1048

• • •

1036 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. R-29. 1037 Ibidem, p. 427. 1038 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 9. 1039 Ibidem, p. R-3. 1040 Ibidem, pp. 9, 12. 1041 Abigail van Buren, Dear Abby, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. E7. 1042 Deborah white (The (Memphis) Commercial Appeal), Discipline problems go poof with 1-2-3 Magic, many parents find, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 24 June 1997, 134(150), p. D4. 1043 Ibidem, p. D1. 1044 Op. cit. 1045 Abigail van Buren, Dear Abby, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. E7. 1046 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 429. 1047 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), p. 475. 1048 Ibidem, p. 267.

90 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

[Sigmund] Freud made a solid contribution to conventional neuropathology. His first book was Aphasia, published in 1891. It…presented a synthetic view of the condition. Freud refuted the view, prevalent among German-speaking neurologists, that the losses of function in aphasia were due to lesions in anatomically circumscribed centers corresponding to the various functions involved in language. He demonstrated that the anatomical postulates would not fit with specific case studies and that it was necessary to assume that the cerebral areas involved in language were less circumscribed. Freud also incorporated into his synthesis the view that function could be reduced in an area, not simply canceled.1049

• • •

“The great pleasure of a dog is that you may make a fool of yourself with him and not only will he not scold you, but he will make a fool of himself too.” — Samuel Butler 1050

1049 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 5, p. 173. 1050 Continuum, Omni, Dec 1991, 14(3), p. 36.

91 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Pharmacological Lobotomy

Americans would be horrified to learn that 2 million children across the nation are being given cocaine by their parents and doctors to make them behave better in school,1051…[but] about 2 million American school children and zooming numbers of adults are taking the cocaine-like medication to control their thoughts.1052

“It’s a lucrative market for pharmaceutical companies.” 1053

Competition and efforts to cap health care costs mean the [drug] industry will face a profitability cliff after 2000, as Jürgen Drews, head of global research at Hoffman-La Roche [(manufacturers of Rohypnol),] recently opined. To maintain a 10% annual growth rate, the industry’s top 50 companies must more than triple their output of novel drugs.1054 A large [these] number of medications are being prescribed to treat childhood disorders. They include tranquilizers, stimulants, and antipsychotic medication. 1055 Like halitosis in the 1960s, impotence in the ‘70s and herpes in the ‘80s, 1056…ADHD is one of the fastest growing disorders being diagnosed today.1057, [ 1058] And it is, according to believers as well as skeptics, possibly the most misdiagnosed disorder.1059 [So, just] how does a hyperactive child differ from other children? 1060 Most children with ADHD have been treated with drug therapy 1061…[although] opponents describe the use of medication as a “Band Aid” approach or a “chemical straightjacket” to ensure ease of management ([Hutchens, A. L., & Hynd, G. W. (1987). Medications and the school-age child and adolescent: A review. School Psychology Bulletin, 16, 527-542 1062]).1063 The medical and education establishments insist the disorder is real, 1064…[but] none can point to a part of the brain and say there’s the problem. As the Food and Drug Administration wrote to a concerned doctor, “We acknowledge . . . that as yet no distinct pathophysiology for disorder has been delineated.” 1065 [Though,] it can mean big money for school systems that claim disabled students, and for some parents who claim disabled kids.1066 Educators disagree they are pushing the drug,1067…[although the U.S. Department of Education 1068] publishes a directory of support groups, doctors who specialize in this field, and where to get information on drug treatment. 1069

1051 Ibidem, p. A1. 1052 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1053 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A1. 1054 David Stipp, The business of genetics, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 67. 1055 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 512. 1056 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1057 Op. cit. 1058 ADHD, often refered to as hyperactivity, is a confusing term.… Two major types…exist. One is characterized primarily by attentional problems [(often referred to as ADD)] and the other involves hyperactivity [(now called ADHD)]. Both of these problems may occur in the same individual. It is not clear if these types are different degrees of the same disorder or if they are unrelated disorders that should be listed separately. — David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 509. 1059 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1060 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 627. 1061 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 511. 1062 Ibidem, p. A-45. 1063 Ibidem, p. 512. 1064 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D3. 1065 Op. cit. 1066 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A1. 1067 Ibdem, p. A8. 1068 Op. cit. 1069 Op. cit.

92 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

What’s going on here? 1070 Child psychologist[s]…believe[] the drug is being over-prescribed by doctors with limited experience…who feel pressured by insurance companies.1071 Specialists insist the real problem is that the disorder isn’t diagnosed enough, and that maybe only half the people who need treatment are getting it. 1072 Few parents will resist such pressure to do something, say critics. The frequent result is methylphenidate 1073…– or Ritalin by its most popular brand name.1074

“A shock to many parents.” 1075

Prescriptions for…methylphenidate…are estimated to be up 600 percent, 1076…[and] some authorities worry it is being given to children for the wrong reasons.1077 “Diagnosis has gotten looser and looser. Diagnoses are being made over the telephone,” reports [a doctor, 1078] a community medicine specialist.1079 “ADD has gotten so much attention that parents are coming in and saying, ‘My kid needs Ritalin.’ Parents shop around for a prescribing doctor.” 1080 His concern is with liberal dosing of methylphenidate, which he calls “the pharmacological equivalent of cocaine.” 1081 The United Nations International Narcotics Control Board has twice voiced warnings about this country’s dependence on methylphenidate.1082 The United States consumes five times more of this drug than all the rest of the world combined.1083 If the current rate of increase for prescription use continues, by 2000 some 8 million American school children will be on the drug. They are Generation Rx. Nearly all are white, from middle and upper-class families, typically with two working parents. School bells ring, and long lines of pupils form at the nurses’ stations or principals’ offices for pills to slow them down and block out distractions.1084 [And] young men and women across the country are discovering that the Ritalin…is stopping them now from serving their country in the armed forces.1085

“Non-prescription abuse is soaring.” 1086

Popular as it is with teachers, doctors and parents, it happens that cocaine addicts love it, too. Tests show they can hardly tell the difference. The molecular makeup is different but studies cited by the DEA show Ritalin and cocaine cause nearly identical reactions in the same brain cells.

1070 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D3. 1071 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; why does usage vary?, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D3. 1072 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D3. 1073 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A8. 1074 Ibidem, p. A1. 1075 Denise Zoldan (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin teens can forget about the military, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1076 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1077 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; why does usage vary?, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1078 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D3. 1079 Op. cit. 1080 Op. cit. 1081 Op. cit. 1082 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A8. 1083 Op. cit. 1084 Op. cit. 1085 Denise Zoldan (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin teens can forget about the military, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1086 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A8.

93 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

This comparison outrages proponents of the drug. One of the foremost is Dr. Russell Barkley who runs a clinic…at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center. 1087 “Ritalin is not addictive – when taken orally,” says Barkley. “For this drug to be potentially addictive, it has to be crushed and inhaled nasally, or injected, and that has to be done repeatedly.” 1088

• • •

Albert Einstein, Beethoven, Mozart, Leonardo Da Vinci, Winston Churchill, George Bernard Shaw, Thomas Edison and Galieo had something wrong with their brains. You believe that? And how about Cher, Tom Cruise, Robin Williams, Whoopi Goldberg and Prince Charles? What? Attention deficit disorders.1089 That’s the unsubstantiated claim, anyway, by Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorders (CHADD), the foremost support group for this relatively new malady. If CHADD the drug companies and some top scientists are correct, as much as 7 percent of the Earth’s population has this neurological malfunction. That would be 399 million people [(almost 400 million potential drug users),] more than the combined populations of the United States, Mexico and Canada. 1090 Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorders (CHADD), has lobbied to make the drug more available, arguing the potential for abuse is slim. Not so, says the DEA, citing the following warning signs: • Methylphenidate now ranks in the top 10 controlled drugs stolen from doctors and pharmacies. • Organized drug traffickers are selling it illegally, and “large quantities have been obtained . . . through cooperationg physicians or pharmacists.” • “Students are selling their medication to classmates who are crushing and snorting the powder like cocaine.” In 1995, two deaths were blamed on this kind of abuse. 1091 A nurse practitioner in…schools, believes Ritalin can be a gateway to other drugs. “They go looking for drugs to replace it so they’ll feel good.” Yet she sees parents and teachers looking desperately for ways to control…children: “We’re a pill-oriented society. The pill is a quick fix. We’re very anxious to get to feeling better.” 1092 A[nother] child psychiatrist,…worries that we are creating an entire generation with a sweet-tooth for cocaine.1093 Early exposure to a stimulant makes the brain more receptive to other drugs, [the child psychiatrist 1094] says, and the young user feels comfortable, even better, when taking the substance. “Why would we want to be initiating all these brains into more efficient responsiveness to this whole class of licit and illicit stimulants?” [the child psychiatrist] asks. “And our country claims to have a war on drugs.” 1095

We’ve Been . . . H+ADD

ADHD is relatively common,1096…[but] most hyperactive children…go undiagnosed until they enter school or some similar, highly structured environment. However, this is not because their hyperactive behavior first appears around the ages of 6, 7, and 8.1097 Many children who are later diagnosed as hyperactive have a history of being

1087 Op. cit. 1088 Op. cit. 1089 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1090 Op. cit. 1091 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A8. 1092 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; why does usage vary?, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1093 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A8. 1094 Op. cit. 1095 Op. cit. 1096 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 510. 1097 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), pp. 627-628.

94 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

active infants whose biological functions such as sleeping and eating were irregular and who progressed to become tireless and fearless preschoolers ([Ross, D. M., & Ross, S. A. (1982). Hyperactivity. New York: Wiley 1098]).1099 A confusing aspect of attention deficit hyperactive disorders is their inconsistency. Attentional deficit or excessive motor activity are not necessarily always evident, nor are they displayed in all situations. In one study, ADHD boys showed greater motor activity during academic tasks but didn’t differ from control boys during lunch, recess, and physical eductiaon activities ([Porrino, L. J., Rapoport, J. L., Behar, D., Screery, W., Ismond, D. R., & Bunney, W. E. (1983). A naturalistic assessment of the motor activity of hyperactive boys. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 681-687 1100]). Thus a child might be identified as hyperactive in one situation but not in others. 1101 However, although hyperactive children do have higher levels of…activity than their…peers, the difference between the two groups is not a simple one.1102 Researchers have been especially concerned regarding the use of stimulants for attention deficit hyperactvity disorder.1103 A number of researchers report that amphetamines and a related stimulant, Ritalin, increase self-control in hyperactive children, increase their attention span, decrease fidgeting, and lead to academic gains ([Barkley, R. A., Karlsson, J., Strzelecki, E., & Murphy, J. V., (1984). Effects of age and Ritalin dosage on the mother-child interactions of hyperactive children. Journal of Consuling and Clinical Psychology, 52, 750-758; 1104 Kavale, K. (1982). (1982). The efficacy of stimulant drug treatment for hyperactivity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 468-472; 1105 Mattes, J. A., & Gittelman, R. (1983). Growth of hyperactive children on maintenance regimen of methylphenidate. Archives of General Phychiatry, 40, 317-321; 1106 O’Leary, K. D. (1980). Pills or skills for hyperactive children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 191-204; 1107 Rapport, M. D. (1984). Hyperactiviy and stimulant treatment: Abusus not tollit usum. The Behavior therapist, 7, 133-134 1108]).1109 Stimulants in particular increase attention span and improve academic performance ([Fischer, M., & Newby, R. F. (1991). Assessment of stimulant response in in ADHD children using a refined multimethod clinical protocol. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 232-244; 1110 Gadow, K. D. (1991). Clinical issues in child and adolescent psychopharmacology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 842-852 1111]). However, only 70 percent of the children with ADHD respond positively to stimulant medication; 30 percent do not show any response or become worse when taking medication. The drugs seem to treat the symptoms of ADHD rather than the causes, so that drug therapy alone does not produce any long-term benefits. Changes tend to be short-lived or only persist as long as medication continues, and only a subset of major problems is affected ([Whalen, C. K., & Henker, B. (1991). Therapies for hyperactive children: Comparisons, combinations, and compromises. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 126-137 1112]).1113 [Both the symptoms to be treated and the withdrawal symptoms include] mental depression (severe); unusual behavior; unusual tiredness or weakness.1114 When the manufacturer first came out with Ritalin in the 1960s, it advertised that it was the answer for everything from chronic fatigue and mild depression to menopause and senility. It did voice a caution: “Should not be used to increase mental or physical capacities beyond normal limits.” 1115

1098 Ibidem, p. R-52. 1099 Ibidem, p. 628. 1100 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-66. 1101 Ibidem, p. 509. 1102 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 628. 1103 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 512. 1104 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), pp. R2-R3. 1105 Ibidem, p. R-20. 1106 Ibidem, p. R-24. 1107 Ibidem, p. R-28. 1108 Ibidem, p. R-31. 1109 Ibidem, p. 186. 1110 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-35. 1111 Ibidem, p. A-37. 1112 Ibidem, p. A-84. 1113 Ibidem, p. 511. 1114 United States Pharmacopeia, Complete Drug Reference, 1997 ed. (NY: Consumers Union, 1997), p. 1091. 1115 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin Nation: two million little kids use a ‘smart pill’ that’s chemically similar to cocaine, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. A8.

95 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“Take two and call me in the morning”

Since the 1950s drug therapy has been a major factor in allowing the early discharge of…patients. 1116 Drug treatment is now widely used throughout the United States: more…patients receive medication than receive all other forms of therapy combined ([Kovel, J. (1976). A complete guide to therapy. New York: Crown 1117]), and it is estimated that we spend more than $500 million annually on antianxiety drugs alone ([Baldessarini, R. J., & Cole, J. O. (1988). Chemotherapy. In A. M. Nicholi, Jr. (Ed.), The new Harvard guide to psychiatry. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1118]).1119 Psychiatrists and other M.D.’s are increasingly prescribing medication rather than “talk therapy” – a term that embraces…all…psychotherapies – for such common ailments as depression and anxiety. Sales of the antidepressant fluoxetine hydrochloride, whose brand name is Prozac, have more than doubled in the past two years [(1996),] and more than 20 million people worldwide are now taking the drug, according to its manufacturer, Eli Lilly.1120 Claims about the “wonder drug” Prozac notwithstanding, numerous independent studies have found that drugs are not significantly more effective than “talking cures” at treating the most common ailments for which people seek treatment, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and panic attacks.1121 Many ostensibly controlled, double-blind studies of antidepressants are actually biased in favor of showing positive effects. Such studes usually provide the control group with an inert placebo. But because all antidepressants usually cause side effects – such as dry mouth, sweating, constipation and sexual dysfunction – both patients and physicians can often determine who has received the drug, thus triggering an expectation of improvement that becomes self-fulfilling.1122 Two vociferous critics of the growing use of antidepressants are Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenbberg, both psychologists at the State University of New York Health Science Center at Syracuse.1123 In an overview of their findings in the September/October 1995 issue of Psychology Today, Fisher and Greenburg concluded that “most past studies of the efficacy of psychotropic drugs are, to unknown degrees, scientifically untrustworty.” The findings of Fisher and Greenberg have been roundly faulted by psychiatrists, who contend that as psychologists – who cannot prescribe drugs – they are biased in favor of [“talking cures”] and against medication. But the assertion that the placebo effect might explain much of the effectiveness of medications for emotional disorders has been supported by Walter A. Brown, a psychiatrist at Brown University and an authority on the placebo effect.1124

Medicaton Causes Delinquency

Medication has also been found to reduce prosocial behaviors in ADHD boys and did not markedly reduce aversive behaviors ([Buhrmester, D., Whalen, C. K., Henker, B., McDonald, V., & Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Prosocial behavior in hyperactive boys: Effects of stimulant medication and comparison with normal boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 103-121 1125]). In fact, Satterfield, Hooppe, and Schell (1982) believe that using medication alone may be harmful because problems such as antisocial behevior, poor peer relationships, and learning difficulties are not addressed. Drug therapy may tend to conceal a need for other types of therapies. 1126 Clinicians have suggested that both physicians and therapists should pay more attention to family dynamics and child management problems ([Prior, M., Leonard, A., & Wood, G. (1983). A comparison study of preschool children diagnosed as hyperactive. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 8, 191-207 1127]).1128 A school counselor…reports, “It seems to be an easy drug to get and there’s not the follow-up with counseling and a behavior management plan that’s supposed to go along with it.” 1129

1116 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 540. 1117 Ibidem, p. A-51. 1118 Ibidem, p. A-19. 1119 Ibidem, p. 540. 1120 John Horgan (Senior writer), Why Freud isn’t dead, Dec 1996, 275(6), p. 106. 1121 Op. cit. 1122 Op. cit. 1123 Op. cit. 1124 Op. cit. 1125 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-26. 1126 Ibidem, p. 511. 1127 Ibidem, p. A-67. 1128 Ibidem, p. 511. 1129 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; why does usage vary?, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1.

96 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

In Georgia, a mother with an ADHD child filed suit against the Gwinnett County School District. 1130 She charged that the school had insisted that her son be given Ritalin and that the medication made him suicidal and violent.1131 In another case, involving a fifteen-year-old boy convicted of killing a classmate with a baseball bat, the defense attorney claimed that Ritalin contributed to the boy’s act. In addition, five other suits involving medical malpractice for prescribing Ritalin were filed in Massachusetts ([Coward, V. S. (1988). The ritalin controversy: What made this drug’s opponents hyperactive. Journal of the American Medical Association, 259, 2521-2523 1132]).1133 “Ritalin tends to excuse a lot of behaviors. It’s scary,” says 1134 [the school counselor.1135]

• • •

[Another] psychologist…feels many doctors are overlooking…factors.1136 [For example,] “If 10 to 15 percent have an alcoholic parent, that can produce depression. And children often show depression through acting-out behavior.” Parents, he believes, sometimes press for an ADD diagnosis.1137 “They’re feeling guilty.… Six-year-olds, 7-year-olds.…” 1138 As a Pentagon spokesman explains it, “Hyperactivity should be corrected by age 12. If they’re using Ritalin after that, there’s probably some underlying problems.” 1139

1130 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 512. 1131 Op. cit. 1132 Ibidem, p. A-31. 1133 Ibidem, p. 512. 1134 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; why does usage vary?, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1. 1135 Op. cit. 1136 John Lang (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin: the debate speeds on; ADD: the diagnosis of the decade, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D3. 1137 Op. cit. 1138 Op. cit. 1139 Denise Zoldan (Scripps Howard News Service), Ritalin teens can forget about the military, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D1.

97 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Superpredator

Studies show the teen criminals of tomorrow are “literally being manufactured, programmed, hardwired to behave in a certain way.” 1140 The 7-year-old boy that [a parental unit] wanted to adopt from the state was “a handful,” Department of Social and Health Service workers told the family. He’d been neglected. His mother drank while pregnant. He’d been cruel to animals. He’d been hard to toilet-train. But the social workers said in April 1980 that the boy would be a good match for the… family, from whom he could get the love and security he needed. What the social workers didn’t say was that two years earlier a psychiatrist had described the boy as “a potentially budding sociopath” whose deviancy was likely irreversible. That report lay undisclosed in DSHS files. What they also didn’t say was that one of the boy’s former foster mothers had said the boy was “seriously disturbed” and obsessed with sex and that she had demanded DSHS remove him from her house. The [adoptive family] didn’t learn what was in the state’s files until 1985 – after the boy molested the daughter of a family friend and was sent to a group home. And it wasn’t until 1990 that they learned the true cost of what [the adoptive father] said was the state’s deception: The boy had repeatedly raped their daughter, beginning when she was 4 and continuing until the boy left home five years later.1141 At least 14 Washington families say DSHS failed to report, and in some cases covered up, their adopted children’s deep psychological damage, serious medical conditions and disabilities. 1142 Young lawbreakers are at high risk of turning into what conservatives like to call the “superpredators” of tomorrow.1143 An estimated 110,000 children under 13 [were] arrested in 1994 for acts considered felonies… including 39 murders, federal statistics show.1144 During the past decade the number of murders committed by teenagers has leaped from roughly 1,000 a year to nearly 4,000.1145 By getting arrested at 6 or 7, some say, these kids are sounding an alarm on the teen thugs they may become. 1146 New research shows that children arrested before the age of 12 are likely to have had histories of abuse and neglect and are more likely to go on to commit more numerous and more serious crimes than children first arrested as teen-agers.1147 Juveniles who commit sex crimes on other children are often victims themselves. 1148 Physical abuse is indeed a risk factor for later aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known.1149 Abused children tend[] to acquire deviant patterns of processing social information, and these may mediate the development of aggressive behavior.1150 Experts say children who have been sexually abused for years accept it as “normal,” and often will repeat the behavior in situations other than the home.1151 In her 1992 work, “The Cycle of Violence,” Cathy Spatz Widom compared children born in the same hospitals and living in the same communities and found that those who were abused or neglected were signficantly more likely to be arrested for violent crimes than their better-raised peers. “The new data is so hard to ignore,” said Widom, a professor of criminal justice and psychology at the University of Albany in New York. “We now know that abused and neglected kids are at demonstrably increased risk for these problems. And we need to intervene.” 1152

1140 Lori Montgomery, Young lawbreakers likely to become older criminals, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 10 April 1996. 1141 David Postman, Sins of silence; one after another, adopted children were causing turmoil in their new families. The parents frantically sought answers, only to learn, too late in some cases, that state social workers had known what was wrong from the beginning, The Seattle Times, 14 Jan 1996, p. A1. 1142 Op. cit. 1143 Lori Montgomery, Young lawbreakers likely to become older criminals, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 10 April 1996. 1144 Op. cit. 1145 Maria Eftimiades, Susan Christian Goulding, Anthony Duigan-Cabrera, Don Campbell, & Jane Sims Podesta, Why are kids killing?, People Weekly, 23 June 1997, 47(24), p. 46. 1146 Lori Montgomery, Young lawbreakers likely to become older criminals, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 10 April 1996. 1147 Op. cit. 1148 Craig Horowitz, Kids who prey on kids; juveniles who commit sex crimes, Good Housekeeping, Oct 1996, 223(4), p. 94(4). 1149 K. A. Dodge, J. E. Bates, & G. S. Pettit, Mechanisms in the cycle of violence, Science, 1990, 250(4988), 21. 1150 Op. cit. 1151 Marla Williams & Dee Norton, The unraveling of a monstrous secret; sex-abuse scandal has Wenatchee reeling, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 8 June 1995, p. A1.

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• [A 7-year-old boy 1153] set fire to a neighbor’s garage.1154 Since then, [he] has tangled twice with police, once for burglarizing a neighbor’s home and most recently for stealing a $150 CD player from a store shelf.1155 4- and 5-year-olds were most often reported for arson: a disturbing finding given that fire-setting is common among sexual abuse victims.1156 • [A 7-year-old boy 1157] threatened classmates with a table knife [and] investigators later learned [he] had been sexually abused and was, in turn, sexually abusing his little sister. 1158 • “We’ve got 9-year-olds who hold knives to the throat of the little ones while they sexually assault them,” said Nan Beaman, a Hennepin [County, Minnisota,] social worker. 1159 • “We had a 9-year-old homicide suspect,” [John] Benbow [of the Sacramento County sherriff’s office] said. “And it wasn’t an accident.” 1160 • A boy, 10, chared with sexually assaulting four playmates, has been found incompetent to participate in his prosecution, the New Hampshire Sunday News reported.1161 • When they brought the [10-year-old 1162] girl home,…“All hell broke loose,” [the adoptive father] said. The girl beat up other children, hurt herself with pins and needles, and became so obsessed with knives that the [adoptive parents] kept their kitchen knives in a locked safe.1163 The girl had [also] sexually assaulted and tortured her adopted baby sister.1164 • Two boys, ages 10 and 11, dropped a 5-year-old to his death from the 14th floor of a public housing high-rise in 1994. The younger boy is reportedly the youngest child in America in the custody of a state prison system.1165 • [An 11-year-old boy 1166 was] accused of shooting to death a 14-year-old girl during a gang initiation. A few days later, the gang killed him.1167 • A 12-year-old boy accused of setting fire to a homeless man…will be tried as a juvenile, not as an adult.1168 The boy and a 13-year-old were accused of setting fire to [the victim] as he slept on a downtown bus bench.1169 [The victim] suffered third-degree burns.1170 • A boy, 6, says a teenager sexually assaulted him when Northwest Airlines put them in the same hotel room after they missed connecting flights, authorities said [February 26].1171 The 14-year-old boy denied any wrongdoing, police said.1172 Northwest put them up at the Hilton Hotel here, with a security guard outside the door. They were among several stranded children sent to the hotel that night. 1173

1152 Lori Montgomery, Young lawbreakers likely to become older criminals, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 10 April 1996. 1153 Op. cit. 1154 Op. cit. 1155 Op. cit. 1156 Op. cit. 1157 Op. cit. 1158 Op. cit. 1159 Op. cit. 1160 Op. cit. 1161 New Hampshire, Across the USA: news from every states, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 8A. 1162 David Postman, Sins of silence; one after another, adopted children were causing turmoil in their new families. The parents frantically sought answers, only to learn, too late in some cases, that state social workers had known what was wrong from the beginning, The Seattle Times, 14 Jan 1996, p. A1. 1163 Op. cit. 1164 Op. cit. 1165 Lori Montgomery, Young lawbreakers likely to become older criminals, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 10 April 1996. 1166 Op. cit. 1167 Op. cit. 1168 Around the Sound, Burn suspect won’t be tried as an adult, The Seattle Times, 17 June 1997, 120(144), p. B2. 1169 Op. cit. 1170 Op. cit. 1171 Across the Nation, Boy, 6, says teen assaulted him during hotel stay, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, 120(50), p. A7. 1172 Op. cit. 1173 Op. cit.

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• Anthony Clemente, 48, and his 22-year-old son, Damian, were sentenced to mandatory life terms after 1174…the 1995 lunchtime massacre of four family enemies in a crowded restaurant. 1175 Clemente family members said [the feud 1176] stemmed from a perceived lack of respect by the victims.1177 In Sacramento County, half of the 132 arrested kids ages 9 through 12 had been the subject of reports of abuse or neglect. In Minneapolis, where the children studied were younger, child welfare workers had investigated families of 81 percent of the children.1178 [But] many of the children who are brutalized and battered in this country never come to the attention of protection agencies at all.1179 Many people are reluctant to report maltreatment of adolescents to child protective services. Adolescents are also frequently perceived as being responsible for their own abuse. Reported abuse is more likely to involve adolescent girls than adolescent boys, especially cases of sexual abuse. 1180

• • •

Horrific crimes like the kidnap and murder of Polly Klaas in California by a sexual predator in 1993 and protective measures like New Jersey’s “Megan’s Law,” which informs neighborhoods of convicted sexual offenders, increase the sense that pedophiles lurk by every schoolyard fence and under every open window. 1181 A man slipped into the house through a window and snatched the girl from her bed. Hours later, a motorist found the child, wearing nothing but a nightgown, standing along a busy…street. Police later determined that she had been sexually assaulted. A registered sex offender, Raymond Robert Meier, 34, of Nisqually has been arrested in the case. He has pleaded not guilty in Pierce County Superior Court to charges of child rape, kidnapping and burglary. 1182 Laura McCollum, 39, was committed in January to the Special Commitment Center (SCC) in Monroe. 1183 She is the first woman in the state and only the second in the nation to be classified as a sexual preadator. 1184 During her civil-commitment trial, McCollum admitted molesting dozens of young children, both male and female. She has told the state she wants to be confined for treatment because she fears she might harm children again. 1185 Fifty men and one woman are confined under Washington’s law. Of those, 46 are at Monroe, three are in county jails and two are at home under electronic monitoring.1186 The U.S. Supreme Court left [those] 51 sexual predators behind bars in Washington [June 23] when it ruled that states may keep dangerous sex offenders locked up even after they have served their sentences. The long-awaited decision brought expressions of relief from state lawmakers and public officials, who were ready to call an emergency legislative session if the Washington law had been thrown out. 1187 “The thought of all those people being set loose on the streets make me sick to my stomach,” state Rep. Ida Ballasiotes, R-Mercer Island, said.1188 The case also was watched closely by Arizona, California, Minnesota and Wisconsin, which have similar laws.1189 A Special Commitment Center inmate, speaking on condition of anonymity, said few offenders there are taking part in treatment. But in the face of the Supreme Court ruling, they may do some rethinking.

1174 Across the Nation, Father and son convicted of killing 4 family enemies, The Seattle Times, 11 May 1997, 15(19), p. A9. 1175 Op. cit. 1176 Op. cit. 1177 Op. cit. 1178 Lori Montgomery, Young lawbreakers likely to become older criminals, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 10 April 1996. 1179 Juliet Wittman, Children are everyone’s business, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 5 April 1996. 1180 Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association, Adolescents as victims of family violence, Journal of the American Medical Association, 20 Oct 1993, 270(15), p. 1850(7). 1181 Karen De Witt (The New York Times), Murder case offers a glimpse of girls’ beauty pageants, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A3. 1182 The Associated Press, Sense of security has vanished for a 7-year-old girl, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, p. B5. 1183 The Associated Press, Sex predator’s placement criticized, The Seattle Times, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. B10. 1184 Op. cit. 1185 Op. cit. 1186 Neil Modie, Sexual predators can stay locked up; Supreme Court ruling relieves state lawmakers, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 24 June 1997, 134(150), p. A6. 1187 Ibidem, p. A1. 1188 Hal Spencer (The Associated Press), Washington plans for the worst as sex-predator ruling awaited, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. B2. 1189 Neil Modie, Sexual predators can stay locked up; Supreme Court ruling relieves state lawmakers, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 24 June 1997, 134(150), p. A6.

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“What they’re talking about here is that the only way to get out of here is going into therapy,” he said. Asked the inmates’ reaction, the man replied, “Everyone is stunned.” 1190

“A naive Bellevue citizen…” 1191

In Bellevue, Wash., a comfortable Seattle suburb, it’s easy to miss the pockets of despair amid the prosperity.1192 Despite [18-year-old Alex Baranyi’s 1193] antisocial appearance,…[he and a friend, David Anderson, 18,1194 allegedly killed a family] “for the sheer experience of killing,” [said King County prosecutor Norm Maleng].1195 To Kevin Wulff, the principal at Bellevue High, the local outcry over the slayings is a case of too little too late. “We ignore “[”these kids“]” and hope they go away,” says Wulff, “and then we are horrified when they commit these crimes.” 1196

• • •

Teenagers who kill are often social outcasts who believe murder will give them the superiority they haven’t achieved at home or in school, a noted criminologist said [January 16].1197 “A lot of the kids who are the most dangerous are marginal youngsters, not doing well with their families and not doing well in school,” [Jack] Levin, [director of the Program for the Study of Violence at Northeastern University in Boston, 1198] said.1199 In 1992, five teenagers in Clifton, N.J., were charged with carrying out a plot to kill a former friend in what has become known as the “Hail Mary Murder” – named after the prayer the 17-year-old victim reportedly recited just before he was garroted in his car. Investigators said the teens planned the murder during weekly prayer meetings. In that case, Levin said, teenagers apparently were hiding behind Catholicism to commit a murder. “You wouldn’t blame this on the Catholic church. Instead of looking at Satanism or vampirism, you’ve got to look at these youngsters.” 1200 “Really, [though,] the problem here is adults have to get back into the business of raising teenagers, of caring about teens,” Levin said. “We need to find some healthy alternatives for our children.” 1201

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

SIDS, or crib death, is the diagnosis for a baby who stops breathing without any medically detectable cause. It is the leading cause of death of infants.1202 While the incidence of SIDS and infant mortality among the general population is declining, the rate rose among children on CPS rolls.1203 Children who were supposed to be kept safe by Washington’s child-protective

1190 Hal Spencer (The Associated Press), Washington plans for the worst as sex-predator ruling awaited, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A1. 1191 Steve Johnston, Just Ask Johnston; an answer columnist knows what’s really on Eastsider’s minds, The Seattle Times: Pacific Magazine, 16 Feb 1997, p. 28. 1192 Maria Eftimiades, Susan Christian Goulding, Anthony Duigan-Cabrera, Don Campbell, & Jane Sims Podesta, Why are kids killing?, People Weekly, 23 June 1997, 47(24), p. 51. 1193 Op. cit. 1194 Op. cit. 1195 Ibidem, pp. 51-52. 1196 Maria Eftimiades, Susan Christian Goulding, Anthony Duigan-Cabrera, Don Campbell, & Jane Sims Podesta, Why are kids killing?, People Weekly, 23 June 1997, 47(24), p. 52. 1197 Nancy Roberts Trott, Youths who kill may need to feel superior, says top criminologist, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 17 Jan 1997, 134(15), p. A12. 1198 Op. cit. 1199 Op. cit. 1200 Op. cit. 1201 Op. cit. 1202 Duff Wilson, More cases of crib death occur under state watch; 14 babies died in ’95 while on rolls, The Seattle Times, 5 Aug 1996, p. A1. 1203 Op. cit.

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programs died at a record rate.1204 The 1995 rate was four times higher for children with open cases at Child Protective Services than other children in Washington State. 1205 In 1991 there were 44 deaths among Washington State children with open or recently closed cases in Child Protective Services, Child Welfare Services or Family Reconciliation Services, or living in foster care or group care; in 1992, 40 deaths; 1993, 58 deaths; 1994, 98 deaths; and in 1995, there were 122 deaths among these children.1206 In most cases, parents or guardians had been reported to the state for dangerous acts of neglect and abuse – some as many as 18 times, over as long as a decade, and one as recently as an hour and a half before the child was found dead.1207 King County Chief Medical Examiner Dr. Donald Reay observe[d] that “separating a SIDS death from a bona fide smothering death can be difficult if not impossible. “I don’t think in all the years I’ve been here we’ve identified a death we say is the result of smothering,” Reay continues. “We’ve had some suspicions sometimes, sure. But we simply have to recognize the trade-off here. “Do you put all these parents who’ve had a SIDS death in their family under a cloud of suspicion in the hope of uncovering one homicide?” 1208 [A] Missouri study found that many child deaths attributed to other causes, such as sudden infant death syndrome, actually were the result of abuse or neglect.1209 Bernard Ewigman, a family physician and associate professor at the University of Missouri who was the principal researcher of the study.1210 “There are some real problems with the way our children are being raised,” [Ewigman said]. 1211

• • •

A 2-year-old boy died Sunday morning [(March 9)] after being run over as his father backed out of the garage.1212

Teen Suicide

“We’re very protective of the family. We work closely with the police and the courts and the media, but they all take second place to the family,” [states King County’s Chief Medical Investigator, Jerry Webster]. 1213

1204 Duff Wilson, Kids dying under state watch; last year, over 100 died while being monitored by DSHS, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 4 Aug 1996, p. A1. 1205 Duff Wilson, Kids dying under state watch; last year, over 100 died while being monitored by DSHS, (Part 2 of 2), The Seattle Times, 4 Aug 1996, p. A1. 1206 Ibidem, Source: Department of Social and Health Services, Seattle Times research, p. A1. 1207 Duff Wilson, Kids dying under state watch; last year, over 100 died while being monitored by DSHS, (Part 1 of 2), The Seattle Times, 4 Aug 1996, p. A1. 1208 Elizabeth Rhodes, Killing her own; the case of Marybeth Tinning may focus more attention of a taboo subject: infanticide, The Seattle Times, 25 April 1989, p. B1. 1209 Clint Williams, Phoenix is ranked deadliest large city for child-abuse cases, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 14 Jan 1994. 1210 Op. cit. 1211 Op. cit. 1212 Pacific Northwest, Boy, 2, killed by father’s car, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. B2. 1213 Scot Auguston, A guided tour: death in Seattle, The Stranger, 14 Aug 1996, 6(8), p. 12.

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Munchausen

“I’m four,” she said and showed me three fingers.1214 “Shut up,” she said. “Shut up, shut up, shut up.” 1215 The little girl turned to her brother and gave him a shove. “Shut up, you stupid whore,” she said. “Get me a beer.” 1216 Minor physical anomalies appear to be strongly related to hyperactivity and later criminal involvement, but only if the offender was reared in an unstable, nonintact family.1217 It has recently been found that children with…hyperactivity…have deficiencies in rule-governed behavior. Rules are constructed by the individual or by others such as parents or teachers to describe relationships among behavior, antecedents, and consequences. For example, “When your little brother takes one of your toys, don’t hit him, or you will be sent to your room.” In responding to such rules which describe contingencies – that is, what will happen if certain things occur – hyperactive children have special problems in tracking. Although these children may be able initially to inhibit undesirable behaivor in response to a rule, they are unable to use rules to track or maintain their behavior over time ([Barkley, R. A., (1990). Attention deficit disorders. In M. Lewis & S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology. New York: Plenum 1218]). Probably as a result of their difficulties…children suffer academically.1219 Child abuse, child neglect. For a doctor one of the most difficult parts of treating abused children is simply making the diagnosis. In the ER this can be even more difficult because a diagnosis must often be made after only a minute or two of observation. One rule of thumb, I’ve learned, is to be suspicious of any parent who arrives in an ER with an injured child and wants to leave too quickly. One hot summer night it happened just that way. A mother had her son by the arm – he was about five – and she dragged him up to me. “How much longer is this going to be?” she demanded. It should have been obvious that we were all working as fast as we could. I had just intubated someone who had taken an overdose of antidepressants, and was rushing off to see a woman with heart failure. From where I was standing I could see into the room where the woman lay on her bed struggling to breath while a burly-looking man sat next to her, holding her hand. “Ma’,am,” I said, “It’s going to be a little while.” “Well, I don’t have a little while. My son is hurt.” Something in her tone made me pause for a moment and look at her. “Dear,” I said, “everyone here is very sick tonight.” “Don’t you ‘dear’ me. I’m going to another ER. I’ve waited over two hours. I want some service.” Ed, the charge nurse, came hustling over. “I put you in that room exactly ten minutes ago.” He pointed emphatically at his watch. “So don’t tell her you’ve been waiting for hours.” He stopped next to me and whispered in my ear, “I’m worried about this kid.” I knelt down to look at the whimpering child. He had obviously broken his forearm – the radius. There was swelling at the midshaft of the radius, and the arm beyond canted away at an angle. This was odd. When people fall, they generally fracture the forearm near the wrist. A fracture in the middle of the bone is much rarer and usually occurs from a direct blow. They’re called nightstick fractures because people have gotten them from defending themselves against blows from a police officer’s nightstick. This kid had such a fracture. “How did this happen?” I asked the boy. He looked up at his mother and then at me and silently drew away. “I’m leaving,” the mother said, giving the child’s other arm a tug. He just stood there, rooted to the floor. “Wait,” I said. “I need to know.” “Don’t you ‘wait’ me. I’m taking my son and I’m leaving.” I looked at her. I had seen a thousand women who were fine mothers and who looked just like her, but looks mean nothing. As I gazed up at her from where I knelt, I was sure – well, pretty sure – that she had hurt her child. I squatted there for a moment, debating this. After all, what proof did I have? Besides, she was going to another ER. She said so. But I was angry. I was angry at her for yanking her child around and for being so damn unreasonable. “I’m sorry,” I said, standing up. I was conscous that I was standing between this woman and the exit. “You can’t go anywhere with that child.” 1214 Pamela Grim, Taking a stand; an ER rule of thumb: be suspicious of parents with an injured child who want leave quickly, Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 36. 1215 Op. cit. 1216 Op. cit. 1217 S. A. Mednick & E. S. Kandel (UCLA), Congenital determinants of violence, Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 1988, 16(2). 1218 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. R-3. 1219 Ibidem, p. 629.

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She glared at me. “What do you mean?” “You can’t leave,” I said. Any parent, child abuser or saint, would be angry with this order, but this wasn’t the time for second thoughts. I had taken my stand. “You mean I can’t leave?” “You can, but the child can’t.” “Your’re crazy.” She shook her finger in my face and yanked the boy’s arm.1220 The boy was wailing and trying to back away from her. She yanked at his arm again. 1221 “Police!” she shouted.1222

• • •

The disorder, named after an 18th-century Austrian [ 1223] mercenary known for telling [tall tales 1224] and lies, involves an adult, usually a parent, inducing illness in a child to gain attention for themselves. 1225 First identified in 1977,1226…10 percent of the children involved died,1227…[and] it apparently has no medical or psychological solution.1228 Dr. Jaqueline Farwell, a pediatric neurologist at [Seattle’s Children’s Hospital and Medical Center,] said no one is sure how common the disorder is but acknowledged it is much harder to detect than standard child-abuse cases. “In most cases of physical abuse the parent will usually admit it when confronted and say, ‘I feel bad, and this is what happened.’ But the psychopathology of Munchausen cases is that the parent will continue to maintain she didn’t do it even if she has been filmed in the act.” Many Munchausen by proxy cases involve only exaggerations and lies about the child’s condition and do not involve actual assaults.1229 Dr. Kenneth Feldman, a child-abuse expert who has analyzed about 50 Munchausen cases, said people with the syndrome frequently attack their victims again.1230

• • •

The woman had an FUO (a fever of unknown origin) and nothing seemed to help. 1231 Doctors tried a healthy dose of skepticism. She was whisked off for x-rays and her belongings were searched, and in her purse was found the source of her baffling sickness: three used syringes and a cup with traces of spittle. She had been injecting herself with traces of spittle. ([Adler, J., & Gosness, M. (1979, December 31). A question of fraudulent fever. Newsweek, p. 65 1232]) 1233

• • •

1220 Pamela Grim, Taking a stand; an ER rule of thumb: be suspicious of parents with an injured child who want leave quickly, Discover, July 1997, 18(7), pp. 36, 38. 1221 Ibidem, p. 38. 1222 Op. cit. 1223 German mercenary — Richard Seven, Mother sentenced for child assault has rare disordor, The Seattle Times, 16 Dec 1995, p. A13. 1224 Op. cit. 1225 Richard Seven, Court restricts visits with son; mentally ill mother poisoned him, The Seattle Times, 23 May 1992, p. A14. 1226 Op. cit. 1227 Op. cit. 1228 Op. cit. 1229 Richard Seven, Mother sentenced for child assault has rare disordor, The Seattle Times, 16 Dec 1995, p. A13. 1230 Richard Seven, Court restricts visits with son; mentally ill mother poisoned him, The Seattle Times, 23 May 1992, p. A14. 1231 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 213. 1232 Ibidem, p. A-17. 1233 Ibidem, p. 213.

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A Seattle Pacific University student was charged with assault in 1992 when it was discovered that she was giving her three-year-old son near-fatal doses of ipecac (a drug used to induce vomiting). No motive was found other than the attention she received from hospital staff for the “illness” of her child. ([Seattle Post-Intelligencer (1992, January 17), p. C2 1234]) 1235

• • •

Bradley Wood was 4 years old and had overdosed for the second time in a week on Tylenol when he was airlifted from Montana to Seattle’s Children’s Hospital and Medical Center. His mother, Neshele Wood, was never far from his side and told doctors that the boy may have tried to commit suicide. In fact, this was the latest in a string of close calls for the boy, having overdosed on NyQuil cold medicine when he was 2. The case got more perplexing. Despite a week of treatment and infusion of strong antibiotics, the boy was getting sicker and inching toward death. Urine sample showed he was carrying the E. coli bacteria. 1236 His mother had been injecting his IV tube with feces collected from toilet water. 1237 Wood, 25, still denies hurting her child, although she pleaded guilty.1238 “He was so perfect,” Wood said.1239 Although doctors at Children’s were initially suspicious of Wood’s story about her son overdosing on his own, she wasn’t caught until Bradley told doctors his mother had been injecting “medicine” into his IV line. Doctors called police, who arrested Wood and found her to be carrying a syringe containing trace amounts of feces. 1240

• • •

Jennifer Bush, the Coral Springs, Fla., girl who spent much of her 8 years beneath surgeon’s knives, tethered to tubes and pumped full of medicine, will remain in state care until a judge decides whether the child’s mother intentionally made her ill.1241 Prosecutors and social workers believe Kathy Bush lied about her daughter’s symptoms, which led to unnecessary removal of her gall bladder, appendix and part of her intestines. 1242 Catheters have been implanted into her stomach, intestines and chest.1243 The child has had more than 200 hospital stays and 40 surgeries. 1244 Her 25,000 pages of medical records fill three file cabinets. 1245 On April 14, 1995, police state investigators from the Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services started looking into Jennifer’s background.1246 Judge Birken heard testimony…[one year later] from Eli Newberger, a physician at Children’s Hospital in Boston and expert in Munchausen Syndrome. Newberger said he “had no doubt” the case conforms to Munchausen. “No place is good enough for Jen but her home,” her father said, pulling a picture of Jennifer, dressed in a… baseball outfit, from his wallet. Newberger – who received four cartons of the child’s medical records, including sworn statements from 25 nurses and 10 physicians – characterized the case as classic, extreme and severe. “This child is in danger in her home,” Newberger said. Kathy Bush told doctors her daughter suffers from seizures, balance problems, constant vomiting and bladder problems. Although no medical professional ever obseved a seizure, doctors prescribed anti-seizure drugs and performed invasive diagnostic tests, Newberger said.

1234 Ibidem, p. A-73. 1235 Ibidem, p. 213. 1236 Richard Seven, Mother sentenced for child assault has rare disordor, The Seattle Times, 16 Dec 1995, p. A13. 1237 Op. cit. 1238 Op. cit. 1239 Op. cit. 1240 Op. cit. 1241 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1242 Op. cit. 1243 Donna Leinwand, Sick girl’s mother arrested, charged with deliberately causing illnesses, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1244 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1245 Donna Leinwand, Sick girl’s mother arrested, charged with deliberately causing illnesses, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1246 Op. cit.

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Lab tests revealed evidence of anti-seizure medicine even after doctors had stopped giving it to the child. Nurses often noted the child became acutely ill shortly after the mother’s visits, Newberger said. 1247 Craig Bush testified…that he believes the nurses are retaliating against him and his wife because the couple sued Coral Springs Medical Center of malpractice in 1991.1248 “We’ve got probable cause beyond reason,” Broward County Circuit Judge Arthur Birken said Tuesday as he ordered the state social-service agency to keep the child in protective custody.1249 In addition to abuse allegations from [Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS),] Jennifer’s mother, Kathy Bush, 38, faces criminal charges of aggravated child abuse and attempting to defraud health-care providers 1250…and charities of more than $50,000 on behalf of her daughter.1251 No criminal charges ha[d] been filed against Craig Bush, Jennifer’s father, but prosecutors say they ha[d] not ruled that out. 1252 Bush has vehemently denied she has harmed her daughter. A 40-page warrant accuses Bush of a form of severe child abuse called 1253…Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy, a psychological condition in which a parent, usually a mother, purposely makes a child ill to get attention. 1254 Experts outline a host of Munchausen characteristics that they say Kathy Bush exhibits. In general, fathers are univolved in the child’s care but tend to protect the mother. Munchausen mothers often misrepresent the children’s medical history, push physicians to conduct diagnostic procedures, report symptoms that cannot be corroborated, stay close to the child’s bedside, have better than average knowledge of medical terminology and hanker for media attention.1255 Often the mother has worked in the medical field.1256 Often, the child’s illnesses do not make scientific sense.1257 “It’s probably one of the most definitive cases I’ve ever seen,” said psychiatrist Herbert Schreier, a national expert in the syndrome and chief of psychiatry at Children’s Hospital in Oakland, Calif. The Bush family attorney, Charles Jamieson, discounted Schreier’s opinion. “Jennifer is repeatedly ill in ways that don’t make sense,” said Schreier, the psychiatrist. “There are an overwhelming number of references with this child coming into the hospital looking well until a visit by the mother.” 1258 Doctors believe that Bush, a clerical worker at a home-health agency, may have poisoned Jennifer with medications and contaminated her feeding tubes with feces.1259 On three occasions, Jennifer was hospitalized with a sepsis infection caused by bacteria in the blood. Doctors found the bacteria matched organisms commonly found in feces. They also found evidence of feces at the entrance to the child’s feeding tubes.1260 HRS witnesses did not recount any suspicious incidents since the investigation began in April 1995, Jamieson said.1261 “It’s been a witch hunt.” “The pattern is incredibly clear,” said [HRS representative Assistant Attorney General Bob] Julian, who called the mother a “media maven.” 1262

• • •

1247 Op. cit. 1248 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1249 Op. cit. 1250 Op. cit. 1251 Donna Leinwand, Sick girl’s mother arrested, charged with deliberately causing illnesses, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1252 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1253 Donna Leinwand, Sick girl’s mother arrested, charged with deliberately causing illnesses, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1254 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1255 Op. cit. 1256 Donna Leinwand, Sick girl’s mother arrested, charged with deliberately causing illnesses, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1257 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1258 Op. cit. 1259 Donna Leinwand, Sick girl’s mother arrested, charged with deliberately causing illnesses, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996. 1260 Op. cit. 1261 Op. cit. 1262 TRIMS, Chronically ill girl’s mother charged with deliberately making her sick, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 16 April 1996.

106 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Although Marybeth Tinning is suspected of killing all her children except Jennifer, whose death was a confirmed cases of meningitis, she has been found guilty only of murdering the last, Tami Lynne. All lived in Schenectady, N.Y. Here’s how medical personnel ruled Marybeth Tinning’s children officially died. Autopsies were conducted on some, but not all. JENNIFER – January 1972, age 9 days: menigitis, with multiple brain abscesses. JOSEPH – January 1972, age 2: Reye’s syndrome. BARBARA – March 1972, age 4: Reye’s syndrome. TIMOTHY – December 1973, age 3 weeks, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). MARY FRANCES – February 1979, age 3 1/2 months: SIDS. JONATHAN – March 1980, age 4 months: cardiopulmonary arrest, cause unknown. MICHAEL (adopted) – March 1981, age 2 1/2: viral pneumonia (later disputed by physicians who said his pneumonia was too mild to be fatal). TAMI LYNNE – December 1985, age 4 months: suffocation. “A few hours before she killed her infant daughter Tami Lynne, Marybeth Tinning bought her a quantity of Christmas presents” [(Joyce Egginton, From Cradle to Grave, William Morrow and Co., $18.95 1263)].1264 Marybeth Tinning, who bought one child Christmas presents before smothering her with a pillow, who as she watched another baby die a tortured death on life-support machines announed she’d decided to become a funeral director, ultimately had nine children. New York police suspect her of smothering eight of them.1265 Just as Faith McNulty’s “The Burning Bed” raised national consciousness about wife battering, so Egginton’s work may raise awareness of a little-understood, seldom-admitted taboo: infanticide, or the killing of infants by their mothers.1266 Snapshots from her life: Marybeth Tinning, perhaps an abused child, grows up in Schenectady, N.Y., under the thumb of a stern, disapproving father. Marybeth marries a shadow of a man, an enigma named Joe who sometimes bowls, sometimes drinks beer, rarely talks, defers to his wife and works for General Electric. She spends his money wildly and tries to poison him with an overdose of prescription medicine. He stands by her, as he does even today while she serves a 20-years-to-life sentence in the New York State Prison for Women. Marybeth and Joe have three children. The third, Jennifer, dies shortly after birth of brain abscesses and menigitis. Within two months, the other two youngsters are dead, too. They have more children. All are well cared for, beautifully clotherd, healthy and thriving. Nobody ever says Marybeth mistreates her kids. But as each baby dies, people start to talk. Somebody asks her why she keeps having children. “Because I’m a woman, and that’s what women are supposed to do,” she tells a waitress at the suburban mall restaurant where they both work.1267 Joyce Egginton believes our laws must change.1268 “There’s no place in the legal system for a woman who commits infanticide. It’s such a motiveless crime to produce a child only to kill it – if she’s in a normal state of mind [(except, of course, for the life insurance)].” Egginton would like to see states adopt something akin to Great Britain’s infanticide law. It says that for a year after birth, a woman may not be wholly rational in her attitude toward her baby. Those found guilty receive strict probation and psychiatric care. Washington has no infanticide statute; most people who kill their children are charged with second-degree murder. After her conviction, after turning down all press interviews, Marybeth Tinning agreed to meet Joyce Egginton. “She said, ‘You know, I watched you in court, and I really liked you.’ ” 1269 “She was very likable.” 1270 “Then she looked me straight in the eye and said, ‘You know I didn’t do it.’ ” 1271

• • •

1263 Elizabeth Rhodes, Killing her own; the case of Marybeth Tinning may focus more attention of a taboo subject: infanticide, The Seattle Times, 25 April 1989, p. B1. 1264 Op. cit. 1265 Op. cit. 1266 Op. cit. 1267 Op. cit. 1268 Op. cit. 1269 Op. cit. 1270 Op. cit. 1271 Op. cit.

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A suburban housewife who claimed an intruder stabbed her two sons to death before slashing her throat was convicted [February 1] of killing one of the boys. Darlie Routier, 27, sobbed before the verdict and continued crying afterward, insisting, “I did not kill my babies.” Her husband and other relatives, many wearing shirts with pictures of the boys, also wept. 1272 [Prosecutors] said she slashed herself in an attempt to fool police.1273

• • •

A British nurse was sentenced to life imprisonment [May 28, 1993,] for a series of child murders and maimings that made her Britain’s worst female seriel killer this century. Beverley Allitt, 24, was convicted…of murdering four infants in her care and attempting to kill nine others. 1274 In Britain, a “life sentence” need not mean life in prison if the person is recommended for parole. was abolished in the 1960s.1275

• • •

A Bronx woman was charged with murder [March 30] after taking her 5-year-old son – his small, bruised boy already lifeless from weeks of starvation and abuse – to Union Hospital, city officials said. The woman, Joycelyn Bennett, 27, is accused of killing her son, Daytwon, who with five siblings had been in and out of foster care for years.1276

“Saving a life is more important than following a work rule, the state Supreme Court ruled.” 1277

An American couple bringing their newly adopted Russian children back to the United States were charged with hitting, choking and screaming at the two 4-year-old girls during the 10-hour flight from Moscow. 1278 “We love these children,” [the adoptive father,] looking dazed and unshaven, said after being freed. He said he and his wife waited two years to adopt the girls.1279 The [adoptive parental unit] face[d] a…court date on charges of assault, harassment and endangering the welfare of a child – all punishable by up to a year in jail. 1280 “Apparently, the flight attendants and passengers tried to intervene but were rebuffed by the defendents,” [Mary DeBourbon of the Queens District Attorney’s Office said]. Some outraged witnesses missed connecting flights while waiting to make sure the couple were arrested and the children safe, she said.1281

• • •

Stephen H. Vorce, 39, of Bingen, Wash., is charged with 16 counts of conspiracy to sexually abuse children. A mistrial was declared after his first trial in January. Clatsop County District Attorney Josh Marquis said in opening statements…that Vorce met an undercover San Diego police officer on April 1, 1994, in a Seaside motel, intending to abuse the officer’s three children. But the children, two girls 12 and 7, and a 9-year-old boy, were simply names made up for the Oregon State Police sting operation. The case hinges on whether Vorce was entrapped by police or whether the state prevented child abuse. Vorce responded to a personal ad placed in the October 1993 edition of “Slightly Kinky,” a sexual fetish magazine.

1272 Across the nation, Texas housewife convicted of killing 5-year-old son, The Seattle Times, 2 Feb 1997, 15(5), p. A5. 1273 Op. cit. 1274 World/News in Brief, Nurse gets life sentence for killing child patients, The Seattle Times, 28 May 1993, p. A10. 1275 Op. cit. 1276 Nation & World, New York woman charged in son’s death, Eastside Journal, 31 March 1997, 21(225), p. A7. 1277 The Associated Press, Driver’s actions upheld: rescue more pressing than rules, court says, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 5 April 1996, p. C1. 1278 Tom Hays (The Associated Press), Couple flying adopted kids to U.S. are jailed for abuse, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 31 May 1997, 134(130), p. A2. 1279 Op. cit. 1280 Op. cit. 1281 Op. cit.

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The ad said: “Society does not understand my needs or those of my children. Looking for a man who does. Please be discreet.” Vorce wrote 13 explicit letters, including detailed descriptions of what he wanted to do with the children, during six months of correspondence with the undercover officer. Vorce’s lawyer, John Henry Hingson III of Oregon City, said the sting operation was entrapment.1282 [Hingson] said Vorce, who was convicted of murder in 1984 and served six years in prison, has no prior record of sex crimes.1283

• • •

Abuse may…occur[] at such an early age that the memory is largely sensory and precognitive. 1284 “The youngest homicide I ever had was only 54 days old. That little guy was sexually assaulted and murdered by his father,” [stated King County’s Chief Medical Investigator, Jerry Webster]. 1285

Insured?

Prosecutors [in Williamsport, PA,] say David Crist pushed his deaf daughter into traffic, handed his 4-year-old a high-voltage wire and hired hit men to kill his brother.1286 [David Crist,]…an “abusive drinker” 1287…[according to his wife’s mother,1288] collected $133,000 from a life insurance policy in his brother’s 1982 death and stood to gain $200,000 if his two daughters hadn’t survived. 1289 “He had several policies from several companies on all of his kids from practically the day they were born,” [someone close to the case] said.1290 Authorities also reopened investigations into the deaths of Crist’s father in 1986, his mother’s fiance in 1976 and his mother in 1981, although no charges have resulted.1291

1282 The Associated Press, Trial begins for man accused of abusing fictitious children, Journal American, 1996. 1283 Op. cit. 1284 Arthur J. Felitti, Ami Laws, & Edward A. Walker, Women abused as children, Patient Care, 15 Nov 1993, 27(18), p. 169(9). 1285 Scot Auguston, A guided tour: death in Seattle, The Stranger, 14 Aug 1996, 6(8), p. 12a. 1286 Dave Ivey (The Associated Press), Prosecutors say Pa. man tried to profit from death: greed is cited in attempts on lives of his daughters, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 11A. 1287 Op. cit. 1288 Op. cit. 1289 Op. cit. 1290 Op. cit. 1291 Op. cit.

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Patient’s Bill of Rights

Most hospitals give new arrivals a copy of the Patient’s Bill of Rights. It sets forth guidelines to the relationship you should have with your doctor and the hospital. But that’s the theory. In practice, you have to assert yourself to protect yourself.1292 Don’t let doctors harm if you can help it.1293 • Find out who is in charge of your stay – family doctor, surgeon, intern, whoever – and get his or her phone numbers and pager numbers. Just in case. • Make sure everyone understands that you want to know immediately about any changes in your condition, your treatment or your prospects. • Find out when your doctor and surgeon plan to visit, so you’re not napping when they arrive. • Don’t be a “good patient” who accepts pain and unexpected medicines or procedures without complaint. Drugs to relieve pain are your right. Refusing surprise treatments is your right. It is your right to demand that doctors and health-care workers wash their hands before touching you. (According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, infections kill 19,000 hospital patients a year.) It is your right to fire your doctor and hire a new one.1294 One out of 10 Americans will become a hospital patient this year. More than ever, patients need to know what to expect and how to cope with it. The health-care industry is in a period of transition, and soaring costs have forced many hospitals to lay off nurses and other aides. Meanwhile, insurance companies are calling for fewer medical tests and shorter hospital stays.1295 Get over the awe in which most people hold the medical profession and become a smart consumer. 1296 “It is more and more important for patients to become their own health managers – partners with their doctors,” says Dr. Jack Lord, a senior adviser to the American Hospital Association. “You must not be just a potato in a bed that people are doing things to.” 1297 Before you go into the hospital: 1298 • Get a second opinion.[ 1299] • Meet your surgeon ahead of time: Take notes. • Find out your hospital’s success rate with the procedure. • Give your anesthesiologist your medical history. • Discuss allergic reactions you’ve had – in advance. • Know who will be in charge of your stay at every stage. • Don’t sign advanced directives until you absolutely understand your treatment options. • Pack a list of phone numbers you’ll want in an emergency. • Keep accurate records, starting with your diagnosis, in case of a problem with your billing or insurance. • Plan for your recovery before you go in.1300 •[Request a significant other to be present at every stage.]

• • •

1292 Caryl Stern, Before you go into the hospital, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade Magazine, 4 May 1997, p. 8. 1293 Info Chips, First, do no harm, The Seattle Times, 16 Feb 1997, 15(7), p. F1. 1294 Caryl Stern, Before you go into the hospital, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade Magazine, 4 May 1997, p. 8. 1295 Ibidem, p. 6. 1296 Op. cit. 1297 Op. cit. 1298 Op. cit. 1299 About 13 percent of the time when surgeons remove a person’s appendix for presumed appendicitis, the organ appears normal, according to a recent article in Annals of Surgery. — Stuart G. Marcus (special for The Associated Press), CT scan can avoid unneeded surgery, Eastside Journal, 23 June 1997, 21(309), p. D6. 1300 Caryl Stern, Before you go into the hospital, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade Magazine, 4 May 1997, p. 6.

110 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Injury is the No. 1 killer of American children aged 14 and younger. Each year, in fact, 6900 children in this country are killed and 50,000 are permanently disabled as a result of motor vehicle and bike crashes, drownings, fires, poisonings, falls and other mishaps.1301 To increase awareness of what you can do to prevent injuries to your child and all children, the National Safe Kids Campaign named May 10 to 18 “National Safe Kids Week.” 1302

• • •

The death rate tripled at a hospital’s intensive care unit when a particular nurse was on duty, and police are using a detailed computer analysis to determine if that’s more than a coincidence.1303 Orville Lynn Majors was suspended last year after the hopital found that the death rate in the unit tripled when he was on duty. 1304 “I have to allege a patient was killed by a particular person on a particular date and can’t just say ‘Hey, look, this person was present in 99.9 percent of the deaths’ and prosecute him, [Vermillion County Prosecutor Mark Greenwell] said.1305

• • •

An anesthesiologist accused of dozing during an ill-fated surgery on an 8-year-old boy was convicted of negligence…[October 22] but a mistrial was declared on the more serious charge of reckless manslaughter. 1306 The Colorado Board of Medical Examiners revoked [Dr. Joseph] Vebrugge’s license in 1994 after an administrative law judge ruled the doctor fell asleep and failed to notice the boy’s distress. The operating room nurses testified during the trial that Verbrugge nodded off. Verbrugge admitted he was confronted about sleeping during other surgeries, but said he was awake during the boy’s operation.1307

• • •

The state Supreme Court today threw out a recall effort against Spokane County Coronor Dexter Amend, who had been accused of violating medical confidentially by publicaly discussing autopsy results. 1308 The charges stemmed from Amend’s discussions with reporters in August 1995 about results of an autopsy on Rachel Carver, who was beaten to death by an uncle.1309 The mother of Rachel Carver, a 9-year-old girl who was found murdered at a park in June [1995,] said she was humiliated when Amend talked publically about her daughter’s autopsy report.1310 Amend disclosed that the girl previously had been sodomized 1311…for a long period of time,1312…although sexual abuse was not a factor in her…death.1313 Her uncle, who has been charged with the murder,…pleaded not guilty.1314 The high court agreed with Amend’s contention that he had permission from the girl’s natural father to discuss the autopsy results, including sexual abuse.1315

1301 Michael O’Shea, Parade’s guide to better fitness, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade Magazine, 4 May 1997, p. 11. 1302 Op. cit. 1303 The Associated Press, Nurse faces probe over hospital’s high death rate, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Dec 1996, 133(303), p. A23. 1304 Op. cit. 1305 Op. cit. 1306 The Associated Press, Jury convicts dozing doctor of a misdemeanor in fatal surgery, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 23 Oct 1996, 133(255), p. A4. 1307 Op. cit. 1308 The Associated Press, Court kills coroner recall effort; Spokane doctor broke no laws, ruling says, The Seattle Times, 14 March 1996, p. B7. 1309 Op. cit. 1310 Carol M. Ostrom, Coroner stirs up controversy in Spokane County; anti-gay focus draws suits, recall try, The Seattle Times, 11 March 1996, p. A1. 1311 The Associated Press, Court kills coroner recall effort; Spokane doctor broke no laws, ruling says, The Seattle Times, 14 March 1996, p. B7. 1312 Carol M. Ostrom, Coroner stirs up controversy in Spokane County; anti-gay focus draws suits, recall try, The Seattle Times, 11 March 1996, p. A1. 1313 The Associated Press, Court kills coroner recall effort; Spokane doctor broke no laws, ruling says, The Seattle Times, 14 March 1996, p. B7. 1314 Carol M. Ostrom, Coroner stirs up controversy in Spokane County; anti-gay focus draws suits, recall try, The Seattle Times, 11 March 1996, p. A1.

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“If Dexter Amend is anything, he’s a person who is working his butt off to do things right, but he talks too much. He wears his heart on his sleeve,” [Commissioner Phil] Harris says.1316 “The only thing that man wants to do is save lives – his Hippocratic oath meant more to him than any other things. (He wants) to save lives, especially little children,” [retired Catholic-school teacher Jim] Mertens says.1317 But some local observers say the trouble with [homophobic] Amend goes beyond an apparent problem with homosexuality to include his professionalism. Critics say Amend leaps to conclusions about deaths, based on prejudices. A recent two-month investigation by the Spokesman-Review newspaper concluded he too often doesn’t order autopsies when he should, diagnosing some deaths as “alcoholic fatty liver” even though experts say such a diagnosis requires an autopsy. Some say he also orders inappropriate autopsies.1318

1315 The Associated Press, Court kills coroner recall effort; Spokane doctor broke no laws, ruling says, The Seattle Times, 14 March 1996, p. B7. 1316 Carol M. Ostrom, Coroner stirs up controversy in Spokane County; anti-gay focus draws suits, recall try, The Seattle Times, 11 March 1996, p. A1. 1317 Op. cit. 1318 Op. cit.

112 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Prison Sucks

What to do with an old pair of sneakers? Just toss them out . . . or tie the laces together and toss them over a telephone wire? As the millennium approaches and many Americans remain preoccupied with world peace, the integrity of political leaders and the high cost of education, others are looking skyward, into the worn soles of high-tops, low-cuts and cross-trainers that have been hung out to die. And they are wondering why. In small towns and cities all across the United States, used shoes dangle over highways, streets and country roads like footnotes to personal histories, both testament and tribute to the wear and tear in life. In some areas, a phone or power line that has not been festooned with at least one pair of old sneakers is an open invitation. 1319 The practice of stringing shoes from overhead utility wires is a pop culture phenomenon that has been noted for years around the country but remains little understood. Sure, theories have been advanced. According to references in various newspapers and magazines, draping overhead wires with worn sneakers is a way gangs mark territories, memorialize a fallen comrade or simply torment someone. Maybe. And maybe shoe-tossing has deep social significance across all social strata. And maybe the practitioners obey an informal code that governs whose shoes get tossed, where they are strung up, even how one shoe is knotted to its mate. And there may be preferred slinging techniques, attendant rituals and even a subcultural vernnacular associated with the activity.1320 The fact is, when it comes to slinging shoes over wires, no one seems to know how it started, what it means or where it is headed. Try to explore shoe-tossing, by surveying some of the nation’s leading cultural anthropologists and folklorists, and the mystery only deepens.1321 [(I left mine for friends.)]

Discarded People

In an experiment by Philip G. Zimbardo and his associates ([Zimbardo, P. G., Haney, C., and Banks, W. C. 1973. A Pirandellian prison. The New York Times Magazine, April 8, 1973; 1322 Haney, C., Banks, C., and Zimbardo, P. G. 1973. Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. International Journal of Crime and Penology, 1:69-97 1323]) 1324…to investigate the consequences of being a prisoner or a prison guard, the researchers converted the basement of the Stanford University psychology building into a mock prison. Some seventy-five male student volunteers were given intensive clinical interviews and personality tests, and twenty-one were selected for their maturity and stability. About half of these were assigned at random to serve as “guards,” half to serve as “inmates.” To enhance the realism of the experiment, the prisoners were unexpectedly picked up at their homes by city police in a squad car. Each subject was charged with a felony, told of his Constitutional rights, [ 1325] spread-eagled against the car, and searched, handcuffed, and delivered to the station for fingerprinting and preparation of an information file. At the mock prison the men were stripped naked, skin-searched, sprayed for lice, issued a uniform, bedding, soap, and towel, and placed in a 6- by 9-foot barred cell with two other “convicts.” The prisoners were required to obtain permission from the guards to perform routine activities such as writing letters, smoking a cigarette, or using the toilet. “Guards” worked on three eight-hour shifts and went home when they were not on duty. They were instructed not to use physical violence, although they were given considerable latitude to improvise and develop strategies for maintaining “law and order” in the prison. They wore khaki uniforms and carried billy clubs, whistles, and handcuffs as symbols of power. Over a six-day period, a “perverted” symbiotic relationship developed. As the guards became more aggressive, the prisoners became more passive. The guards’ assertion led to the prisoners’ dependency, the guards’ self-aggrandizement to the prisoners’ self-depreciation, and the guards’ authority to the prisoners’ helplessness.

1319 Mile Clary (special to the Los Angeles Times), Sneakers on telephone lines: footnotes to somebody’s life, The Seattle Times, 16 Feb 1997, 15(7), p. L6. 1320 Op. cit. 1321 Op. cit. 1322 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), p. 479. 1323 Ibidem, p. 460. 1324 Ibidem, p. 273. 1325 The court’s 1966 ruling in Miranda vs. Arizona [(Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966))] and later decisions require police questioning to stop when criminal suspects invoke their right to have a lawyer’s help, and bar the police from initiating any subsequent interrogation. — Laurie Asseo (The Associated Press), Murder-case ruling refines meaning of Miranda decision, The Seattle Times, 24 June 1994, p. A7.

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The guards’ sense of mastery and control was inversely related to the hopelessness and depression among the prisoners. As the guards fell into their roles, they became increasingly authoritarian. They made the prisoners obey petty, meaningless, and even inconsistent rules. They forced the prisoners to undertake tedious and useless work. 1326 They made the prisoners sing songs, laugh, or refrain from smiling on command. They regularly called prisoners out of their cells and counted them, and they encouraged the prisoners to curse and vilify one another publicly during some of the counts. One guard said later: I was surprised at myself. . . . I made them call each other names and clean the toilets out with their bare hands. I practically considered the prisoners cattle, and I kept thinking: I have to watch out for them in case they try something. ([Zimbardo, P. G., Haney, C., and Banks, W. C. 1973. A Pirandellian prison. the New York Times Magazine, April 8, 1973 1327]: 42) 1328 [The prisoners] became resigned to their fate and behaved in ways that helped justify their dehumanizing treatment. Tape-recorded private conversations among them revealed that 85 percent of the evaluative statements prisoners made about one another were uncomplimentary. Although the experiment had been organized to run for two weeks, it had to be discontinued after only six days in order to prevent permanent psychic damage to the subjects. Four of the ten prisoners had to be released within the first five days as a result of fits of rage, crying, acute anxiety, and symptoms of severe depression. A fifth had to be released when he developed a psychosomatic rash all over his body. Although the prisoners were pleased when the experiment was terminated, the guards were reluctant to give up their positions of power. The study revealed that normal, healthy, educated college men can be radically transformed under the institutional pressures of a prison environment. Had psychiatrists diagnosed the guards after observing their behavior, the men would undoubtedly have been labeled “psychopathic,” while the prisoners would have been diagnosed as suffering from character defects and personality maladjustment. Yet the bizarre social and personal reactions of the subjects cannot be attributed to preexisting personality differences or pathologies, since such factors were eliminated by the careful selection processes and the random assignment. 1329 What would otherwise have been termed “pathological” behavior became “appropriate” behavior in the prison. 1330

• • •

Behavioral programs that concentrate[] on teaching job skills and rewarding prosocial attitudes cut rearrest rates to about 35 percent.1331 A teacher at Thurgood Marshall Elementary School has been placed on paid leave while the Seattle School District investigates allegations that he punished two fourth-grade boys by locking them in a chain-link enclosure.1332 “Scared straight” and boot camp programs, on the other hand, tended to increase recidivism slightly. 1333

• • •

Handcuffs left bruises on [an individual’s] wrists. A body search made her feel violated. When police tossed her in jail with suspected murderers, drug users and sex criminals, she trembled in fear. Her crime? Walking away from an outdoor beach bar with a cocktail in her hand. Police hauled [her] and dozens of others to jail for the same offense during Jacksonville Beach’s annual beach-opening celebration earlier this month. [The individuals] snared in the beach’s “zero-tolerance” policy toward public drinking spent a night in jail and were fined $100 each. “The prisoners were the most humane people in this whole ordeal,” [the individual] says.

1326 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), pp. 273-274. 1327 Ibidem, p. 479. 1328 Ibidem, p. 274. 1329 Op. cit. 1330 Op. cit. 1331 W. Wayt Gibbs, Seeking the criminal element, Scientific American: Mysteries of the Mind, Special Edition/1997, 7(1), p. 104. 1332 Briefs, Teacher put on leave over alleged lock-up of two boys, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 31 May 1997, 134(130), p. A3. 1333 W. Wayt Gibbs, Seeking the criminal element, Scientific American: Mysteries of the Mind, Special Edition/1997, 7(1), p. 104.

114 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

In the past, police used warnings and tickets,…but their efforts were mostly unsuccessful. So this year, they’re busting people. “We want people to come to Jacksonville Beach and have a good time,”…says [the Jacksonville Beach, Florida, police chief 1334]. [The individual,] a financial-services and tax expert, was enjoying the end of a long tax season May 3 when she and her boyfriend went to [a bar]. “[The bar] was loud and crowded, so we stepped off the patio,” she said. They walked over to a nearby bench and werre talking quietly when police came over and asked them if the drinks…belonged to them. When they said yes, they were arrested, handcuffed and taken to the Jacksonville Beach Police Department and later transported to the Duval County Jail. A jail matron with rubber gloves examine [her] breasts and reached into her pants to make sure she wasn’t carrying weapons or drugs. “They said I couldn’t keep my bra because it was a potential weapon,” she says. She was froced to dress in prison underwear and put on prison clothes. She was photographed and fingerprinted. After the processing, she was thrown in with the general prison population. “I was scared and terrified,” [she] says.1335 “We spent nearly 18 horrifying, humiliating hours through this ordeal,” she says. “Once the handcuffs were on us, we wnt from being human beings to hardened criminals.” 1336 [Another woman] was winding up her Florida vacation when she was arrested outside the same bar. “It was extremely loud, so we moved a few feet away,” the 29-year-old…woman said. That’s when police arrested her and a friend. Her jail experiences were similar to [the other’s,] but as a result of her arrest, [she] missed her plane and was forced to pay for her rental car and…room for an extra day. “It’s a bad experience. I am never coming back here,” she says. “It was like we were common criminals.” 1337

“Sheriff Warns Off Tourists” 1338

A Florida sheriff’s warnings on national TV against vacationing in the state created a public relations headache for tourism officials.1339 Many visitors usually come from Britain – where headlines screamed: “See Florida at Your Peril (says) Police Boss.” 1340 About 300 rapists, robbers and other [violent 1341] felons were freed…because of a U.S. Supreme Court decision that restored “gain time” – time off that the state granted to prisoners to relieve overcrowding. Two hundred more prisoners will probably be released [March 17, 1997,] and an additional 2,200 will go free early in the coming months and years.1342 [Governor Lawton] Chiles said,…“We release 20,000 prisoners each year.” 1343

• • •

Contending that Arizona and Michigan failed to protect female inmates from rape and sexual assault by prison guards and staff members, the Justice Department filed lawsuits…in the Federal District Courts in Phoenix and Detroit against the states.1344 “No one should be exposed to the risk of sexual assault under any circumstances,” said Isabelle Katz Pinzler, acting assistant attorney general for civil rights. 1345 Michigan refused to allow Justice Department investigators access to its prisons and would not negotiate to resolve the complaints, the department said.

1334 Ron Word (The Associated Press), Woman spends fearful night in jail for walking off with a drink, The Seattle Times, 29 June 1997, 15(26), p. A5. 1335 Op. cit. 1336 Op. cit. 1337 Op. cit. 1338 The Associated Press, Florida sheriff warns off tourists, The Seattle Times, 15 March 1997, p. A2. 1339 Newsday, Sheriff’s warning creates a Florida tourism snafu, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. K13. 1340 Op. cit. 1341 Op. cit. 1342 Op. cit. 1343 Op. cit. 1344 The Associated Press, Federal lawsuit says two states failed to protect female inmates, The New York Times, 11 March 1997, CXLVI (50, 728), p. A10. 1345 Op. cit.

115 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Arizona refused to allow department lawyers to interview prison staff members and prisoners about the complaints, and extensive negotiations between the two parties failed to produce a resolutions, the department said.1346

• • •

A former FBI headquarters manager was accused [October 22] of obstructing justice by destroying all traces of an internal critique of the bureau’s deadly 1992 siege at Ruby Ridge, Idaho. The apparent plea bargain with Michael Kahoe might lead to cover-up charges against some of the four other suspended FBI officials who remain under investigation for their role in the shootings.1347 These include former Deputy Director Larry Potts, who supervised the case from headquarters. 1348 During the FBI’s August 1992 standoff with [Randy] Weaver, a bureau sniper shot and killed Weaver’s wife, Vicki, and wounded Weaver and a friend, Kevin Harris. The FBI got involved after Weaver’s son, Samuel, and a deputy U.S. marshal, William Degan, were killed in gunfire Aug. 21 as marshals scouted for a way to arrest the elder Weaver for failing to appear in court on gun-sale charges.1349 At Ruby Ridge, there was one guy in a cabin on top of the mountain. Was it necessary to for federal agents to go up there, shoot a 14-year old in the back and shoot a woman with a child in her arms? What kind of mentality does that? When will the agents of the FBI say, “Wait a second! I don’t want to shoot people – we can wait them out, because eventually they’re going to have to go to the market?” 1350 The government charged that between January and April 1993, Kahoe destroyed a written FBI “after action critique” so that it would not be available to prosecutors when Weaver and Harris were tried on charges of killing Degan. They were later acquitted. The Constitution requires prosecutors to give the defense any government information that might help clear defendants – in this case, Weaver and Harris. The government charged that Kahoe not only destroyed his copies of the report but ordered an unidentified subordinate at FBI headquarters “to destroy all copies of the Ruby Ridge after action critique and to make it appear as if the Ruby Ridge after action critique never existed.” A key issue is who approved the “shoot on sight” policy for snipers at the siege. 1351

“It’s a hard knock life, for us. It’s a hard knock life, for US!” 1352

If money-hungry states are willing to routinely send 15-year-olds to adult court and entertain the possibility of doing the same to 13-year-olds, Congress will divvy up a big pot of cash. Financial incentives are fundamental to getting states to go along with the Juvenile Crime Control Act of 1997, which has passed the House and is now in the Senate. This is mean-spirited legislation that essentially says to hell with rehabilitation and crime prevention, and just comes down hard on youthful offenders. Unthinkable fear is the primary motivator. Lawmakers see a demographic bulge of teens coming in the next six years – 52 million sons and daughters of the baby boom generation – and they translate into a crime wave gaining strength on the horizon. Instead of investing in prevention and early intervention to help kids who have a brush with the law, the legislation takes away judicial discretion on court jurisdiction, sentencing, and in some cases, housing of young criminals with adults. States that crack down would share $1.5 billion in block grants that could be spent on jails and prisons, hiring prosecutors, and establishing information networks to track young criminals. A nasty impatience is redifining and narrowing the official view of childhood. Advocates for spending money to keep teens in school, monitor and supervise the troublemakers…are being ignored. 1353

1346 Op. cit. 1347 Michael J. Sniffen (The Associated Press), Cover-up accusations in Ruby Ridge case, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 23 Oct 1996, 133(255), p. A3. 1348 Op. cit. 1349 Op. cit. 1350 Clint Eastwood, Absolute power, The Seattle Times & Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade, 12 Jan 1997, p. 5. 1351 Michael J. Sniffen (The Associated Press), Cover-up accusations in Ruby Ridge case, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 23 Oct 1996, 133(255), p. A3. 1352 Oliver 1353 Editorials, Congress tries bribery to change social policy, The Seattle Times, 18 May 1997, 15(20), p. B6.

116 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Adults convicted of aggravated first-degree murder face only two penalties: execution or life in prison without possibility of parole.1354 Congress is trying to make a brutish, one-size-doesn’t-fit-anyone legislation more attractive with money. It’s lousy public policy.1355

• • •

[In 1969,] President Nixon ha[d] recommended tougher-than-ever penalties and a controversial new “no-knock” law under which narcotics agents can obtain a search warrant and then burst into a suspect’s apartment without warning, through “outer or inner door or window.” 1356 [And in 1972 a Des Moines judge predicted,1357] “I can see a day in the not-too-distant future when, as judges pass sentences, there will be private vendors there, bidding for prisoners.” 1358

1354 The Associated Press, Parents say Loukaitis was troubled long before killings at school, Journal American, 27 Sep 1996, p. A7. 1355 Op. cit. 1356 Forum Newsfront, Playboy, Dec 1969, 16(12), p. 72. 1357 Gary Fields, Privatized prisons pose problems: not a panacea, states discover, despite savings, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 3A. 1358 Op. cit.

117 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Privatized Prisons

Privately run prisons are one of the nation’s newest growth industries. 1359 “Profit motive is going to guide privatization,” says Thomas Blomberg, a criminologist at Florida State University. 1360 Corrections Corporation of America, for instance, not only provides such private prisons, it provides a subsidiary – TransCor America Inc. – with 100 vehicles that will transport inmates. Last year, TransCor earned $10.6 million.1361 [Fugitive One Transport Co.1362] had one van and a four-door car and were doing “great,” [Joseph A.] Jackson said, earning, in his estimation, close to a million dollars over a three-year period. But in 1995 a female inmate [Arnold H. Faulhaber and Jackson] were transporting from Connecticut to Dallas accused both men of sexually assaulting her.1363 The company has since folded and both men are now awaiting trial in Monmouth County, N.J., on multiple counts of sexual assault.1364 “The best carrier we’ve used is the U.S. Marshal’s Service,” said Perrin Damon, spokesman for the Oregon Department of Corrections.1365 The number of inmates in U.S. prisons [ 1366] has grown from 500,000 in 1980 to 1.6 million today.1367 Between 1991 and 1995 the number of inmates in State and Federal prison increased 36%, from 792,535 to 1,078,545 prisoners.1368 Relative to the number of adults in the U.S. population, the prison population rose from 419 per 100,000 adult residents in 1991 to 550 per 100,000 in 1995.1369 If the annual 8% annual growth trend continues, there will be 3.1 million inmates by 2006.1370 An estimated 5.1% of all persons in the United States will be confined in a State or Federal prison during their lifetime.1371 At current levels of incarceration a black male in the United States today has greater than a 1 in 4 chance of going to prison during his lifetime, while a Hispanic male has a 1 in 6 chance and a white male has a 1 in 23 chance of serving time.1372 Inmates sentenced for a drug offense have accounted for increasing percentages of the state and federal prison populations.1373 States have their own sentencing laws for drug crimes prosecuted in state courts, but prosecutors are taking ever-increasing numbers of drug cases to federal court because stiffer sentences are available. 1374 Offenders in federal prisons are almost three times as likely as state prisoners to be incarcerated for a drug offense, according to a Department of Justice study released [October 2, 1994].1375

1359 Op. cit. 1360 Op. cit. 1361 Joseph T. Hallinan (Newhouse News Service), Moving convicts: costly, dangerous and common; ‘mom-and-pop’ firms provide some inmate transport, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A15. 1362 Op. cit. 1363 Op. cit. 1364 Op. cit. 1365 Op. cit. 1366 Why lifetime estimates exclude admissions to local jails[:] Jails are locally operated correctional facilities that confine persons before and after adjudication. Unlike prisons, jails admit persons with sentences of a year or less. Jails also hold a wide variety of categories of inmates – including those persons awaiting arraignment or trial; those with sentences of more than a year and awaiting transfer to State or Federal facilities; and those temporarily detained, under protective custody, or awaiting transfer to appropriate health facilities.… • In 1993, when the most recent Census of Local Jails was conducted, the annual number of new admissions to local jails totaled 9.8 million – nearly 30 times the number of new court commitments to State and Federal prison during that year. (See Jails and Jail Inmates 1993-94, NCJ-151651, April 1995.) The census did not collect any data on the number of persons admitted to jail for the first time. — U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special report: lifetime likelihood of going to state or federal prison (March 1997), 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/llgsfp.txt. 1367 Gary Fields, Privatized prisons pose problems: not a panacea, states discover, despite savings, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 3A. 1368 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special report: lifetime likelihood of going to state or federal prison (March 1997), 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/llgsfp.txt. 1369 Op. cit. 1370 Op. cit. 1371 Op. cit. 1372 Op. cit. 1373 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr. 1374 The Associated Press, Supreme Court won’t review cocaine sentencing, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A2. 1375 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr.

118 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Most [(60.18% 1376 (April 30))] federal prisoners are drug offenders.1377 Two-thirds of all federal prisoners and one-fifth of state inmates are incarcerated on drug-related crimes.1378 Bureau of Prisons data for 1994 indicate drug offenders [were] about 62 percent of all sentenced federal inmates; 1379…[increasing from] 61%…in 1993,1380… [58% in 1991,1381] 38% in 1986 and 25% in 1980.1382 Drug offenders made up almost a third of the 872,200 felons convicted in state courts during 1994, the Justice Department announced [January 12]. Property crimes accounted for another third and violent crimes for about a fifth.1383 Drug offenders comprised a third of all persons convicted of a felony in State courts in 1990. Drug traffickers accounted for 20% of all convicted felons; drug possessors also accounted for 13% of all convicted felons.1384 Drug offenders were…9 percent of state offenders in 1986, compared to…21 percent [(8% were sentenced for drug possession and 13% were sentenced for drug trafficking) 1385, 1386] in 1387…1991.1388 Of State prisoners in 1991,…women were more likely to be incarcerated for a drug offense than men (33% versus 21%).1389 People in their twenties comprised about 20 percent of the adult population in the United States [in 1994] but 43 percent of the state convicted felons. Half of the convicted state felons were 29 years old or older.1390 Federal inmates in general were older, better educated and from a more stable family background than were state inmates.1391

• • •

“Invariably we see the worst of the worst of other states’ inmates being dumped into private facilities with no knowledge on the part of our state government,” [said Allan Polunsky (Texas Board of Criminal Justice)]. 1392 A soon-to-be published study for the National Institute of Justice and another released last fall by the Campaign for an Effective Crime Policy found that mandatory 25-year-to-life sentences for three-time felons 1393…rounded up lots of crooks,1394…[but] of the 2,750 felons sent away for 25 to life through December, 85% were for non-violent

1376 U.S. Department of Justice/Federal Bureau of Prisons/Office of Research and Evaluation, 30 April 1997, http://www.bop.gov/facts.html#Offense. 1377 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr. 1378 Mindy Cameron, Recent turbulence won’t throw drug czar off course, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. B6. 1379 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr. 1380 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Drugs and Crime Facts 1994 (June 1995), 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/dcfacts.txt. 1381 Op. cit. 1382 Op. cit. 1383 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Felony Sentences in State Courts, 1994, 1/12/97: Almost a third of all convicted State felons were sentenced for drug trafficking or possession, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/fssc94.pr. 1384 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Drugs and Crime Facts 1994 (June 1995), 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/dcfacts.txt. 1385 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr. 1386 Op. cit. 1387 Op. cit. 1388 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Drugs and Crime Facts 1994 (June 1995), 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/dcfacts.txt. 1389 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr. 1390 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Felony Sentences in State Courts, 1994, 1/12/97: Almost a third of all convicted State felons were sentenced for drug trafficking or possession, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/fssc94.pr. 1391 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Comparing Federal and State prison inmates, 1991, 10/2/94: Most federal prisoners are drug offenders, but almost half of state prisoners are serving time for violent crimes, 30 April 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/press/cfaspi91.pr. 1392 Gary Fields, Privatized prisons pose problems: not a panacea, states discover, despite savings, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 3A. 1393 David Mazzarela (Editor), Violent crime down, no thanks to three strikes, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 10A. 1394 Op. cit.

119 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

crimes.1395 The load is so heavy that judges needing room on their dockets and in prison and jail are handing out minimum sentences to other felons who’ve committed worse crimes than three strikers, according to researchers at the Rand Institute, which also is investigating three-strikes laws. 1396 States with three-strikes laws…[include] Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin and Washington.1397 Marijuana possession was four times as likely to lead to a third strike as murder, rape and kidnapping combined.1398 And the price tag is huge. Three strikes will add 25,000 additional prisoners by 2001 at a cost of $1 billion a year. Three-strikes cases also are adding $300 million annually in court and other costs.1399

• • •

The Supreme Court steered clear [April 14, 1996,] of the national debate over the diverse sentencing laws for crack and powdered cocaine, an issue with racial and class overtones. 1400 The court, without comment, rejected an appeal that challenged as racially discriminatory federal sentencing laws that punish crack cocaine offenders more harshly than people caught with powdered cocaine.1401 Crime statistics indicate that crack is an inner-city drug and cocaine powder is used more often in the suburbs.1402 The appeal noted that it takes 100 times more cocaine powder than crack to draw the same 10-year minimum sentence for drug trafficking.1403 Every federal appeals court that has studied such a challenge has rejected it, but the U.S. Sentencing Commission favors making the penalties the same for both kinds of cocaine. Attorney General Janet Reno opposes such a move, saying that prison sentences must reflect the “harsh and terrible impact” of crack on U.S. communities.1404

“Off with her head!” 1405

The Supreme Court seems to be relying these days more on Alice in Wonderland than on the Bill of Rights as precedent for criminal justice decisions. In its most recent trashing of constitutional protections, a majority of the high court ruled that an arrested defendant – even one without a record of violence – can be sent to jail before he is even tried. This reversal of our presumption of innocence is reminiscent of a dialog between Lewis Carroll’s Alice and the Queen: “There’s the King’s Messenger, he’s in prison now, being punished; and the trial doesn’t even begin till next Wednesday; and of course the crime comes last of all.” “Suppose he never commits the crime?” asked Alice. “That would be all the better, wouldn’t it? the Queen responded. . . . Alice felt there was no denying that. “Of course it would be all the better,” she said; “but it wouldn’t be all the better his being punished.” “You’re wrong . . .” said the Queen. “Were you ever punished?” “Only for faults,” said Alice. “And you were all the better for it, I know!” the Queen said triumphantly. “Yes, but then I had done the things I was punished for,” said Alice. “That makes all the difference.” “But if you hadn’t done them,” the Queen said, “that would have been better still; better, and better, and better!” Her voice went higher with each “better,” till it got quite to a squeak. . . . Alice thought, “There’s a mistake here somewhere. . . .”

1395 Op. cit. 1396 David Mazzarela (Editor), Violent crime down, no thanks to three strikes, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 10A. 1397 Campaign for an Effective Crime Policy, A look at the states, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 10A. 1398 David Mazzarela (Editor), Violent crime down, no thanks to three strikes, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 10A. 1399 Op. cit. 1400 The Associated Press, Supreme Court won’t review cocaine sentencing, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A2. 1401 Op. cit. 1402 Op. cit. 1403 Op. cit. 1404 Op. cit. 1405 Lewis Caroll, Alice in Wonderland.

120 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

There are several mistakes in the Queen’s logic and in the Supreme Court’s decision. The first lies in the belief that judges are capable of predicting which arrested suspects are likely to commit future crimes. 1406 If…[the high court] is correct in assuring us that judges can predict who will be dangerous, then what is to prevent the enactment of legislation authorizing preventative detention of “dangerous” people who have not yet been accused of any crime. I can hear the law-and-order demagogues invoking the old proberbs about “A stitch in time” and “An ounce of prevention.” Years ago cartoonist Walt Kelly had a hound dog sheriff who would shout “Quick, put ‘em in jail before they do something!” 1407 Despite its Alice in Wonderland quality, the Supreme Court’s decision will probably prove quite popular with a public that is frightened of crime and impatient with constitutional safeguards. The public identifies far more closely with the potential victims of crime than with potential victims of injustice. 1408 No single Supreme Court decision can create a police state in America. But if the current trend continues, we will have taken a dangerous step in the direction of Alice in Wonderland justice, where the sentence comes first and trial – if it is held at all – is an afterthought.1409

• • •

Both President [Ronald] Reagan and Vice President [George] Bush have claimed partisan credit for the welcome reduction in crime that the United States ha[d] experienced.1410 [An] FBI report documents an overall reduction of 7 percent in serious crimes and 5 percent in violent crimes in 1983. These statistics reflect only crimes actually reported [(emphasis added)] to the police, and are subject – as are most statistics – to a degree of political manipulation. Another government report has shown an increase in the same year the FBI report shows a decrease.1411 [Former actor and] President Reagan enjoyed his role as raconteur.1412, [ 1413] Americans [also] experienced significantly fewer [reported] violent crimes in 1995 than in 1994, with [reported] rates for such acts as rape, robbery and assault down by 12.4 percent, the Justice Department said [April 13]. The broadest decline happened in the suburbs, where crime rates dropped in all areas of personal victimization except rape and sexual assault.1414 Attorney General Janet Reno said the figures continued a downward trend in violent crime that has been reflected in every year of the Clinton administration. 1415 Preliminary figures were released in September, and Clinton boasted them during his presidential re-election campaign. 1416 The president and the rest of the federal government has little to do with such crimes as murder, robbery, rape and the other stats the FBI tracks.1417 If there are more police on the street, it isn’t due to bold talk from President Clinton or Janet Reno.1418 Republicans said crime figures remain much too high. And some experts said the administration is reaping the benefit of a baby boomer generation mellowing with age.1419 Various academic criminologists have peered at the statistics, stirred the numbers and sent down these explanations: • After a period of turbulence and disarray in the dope trade, the street gangs have killed or frightened off their competitors, the drug trades and territories have been stabilized, and there is less need for mayhem. In other words, the free-market system and competition has brought about a social good.1420

1406 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Alice in Wonderland replaces constitution (2 June 1987), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), pp. 268-269. 1407 Ibidem, pp. 269-270. 1408 Ibidem, p. 270. 1409 Op. cit. 1410 Alan Dershowitz (Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (1988)), Who gets credit for reducing crime? (23 Oct 1984), Taking Liberties: A Decade of Hard Cases, Bad Laws, and Bum Raps (Illinois: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1988), p. 49. 1411 Op. cit. 1412 Peter Funk, It pays to enrich your Word Power®, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 20. 1413 Ronald Reagan was characterized as a storyteller in a sociology class, Introduction to Deviance, at the University of Washington. 1414 Cassandra Burrell (The Associated Press), Violent crime drops sharply across the U.S.; rates for rape, robbery, assault down 12.4 percent, San Francisco Chronicle, 14 April 1997, 133(75), p. A2. 1415 Op. cit. 1416 Op. cit. 1417 Mike Royko (The Chicago Tribune), Prisons are unpopular, especially to criminals, The Seattle Times, 10 Jan 1997, p. B5. 1418 Op. cit. 1419 Op. cit. 1420 Op. cit.

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• Because of a past drop in the birth rate, there are fewer young males roaming the streets, which translates into fewer criminals and fewer victims.1421 • Allegedly stricter gun laws have taken many weapons off the streets, so we’re less likely to be shot. Of course,…where the law permits…honest citizens to carry concealed weapons, some will argue that the crime rate has dropped there because criminals fear that potential victims might blow them away. 1422

When It Is Not Right To Bear Arms

[A congressional law passed in September 1423] bars anyone ever convicted of misdemeanor domestic abuse from legally owning or carrying firearms.1424 The domestic abuse gun ban was initiated by Sen. Frank Lautenberg, D-N.J., as a way to close a loophole in the Gun Control Act of 1968. While the 1968 law automatically barred convicted felons from legally owning firearms, most states considered domestic abuse offenses involving physical violence or the threatened use of a deadly weapon less-serious misdemeanors.1425 Cops convicted of abuse even before they became police officers would be forced to give up their weapons. 1426 “We do receive a lot of calls from spouses of law enforcement officers and they are very reluctant to get help,” says Gail Jones, executive director of the California-based advocacy group Women Escaping a Violent Environment. Jones says getting those women to come forward is difficult because they fear a spouse’s co-workers are going to protect a fellow officer and make the case even more difficult to prosecute. “These women are being threatened by the very fact that these men are violent,” says Jones. “They have bad tempers and they have weapons and they know how to use the weapons.” 1427 The National Association of Police Chiefs says th[e] number [of affected officers] could reach 60,000. 1428 Jim Pasco, executive director of the Fraternal Order of Police, says the real issue is not the behavior of officers today, but whether it is fair to punish officers for their past. “We don’t want to leave anybody with the impression that there are significant numbers of police officers out there who have habitually committed crimes of domestic violence,” says Pasco. “The screening process is so stringent at this point, a police officer who was guilty of habitual domestic violence would probably not get hired or not be retained.” 1429 Some cops have even worked their way around the law by simply having their records wiped clean. In Minnesota, for example, a state court granted a request by four Minneapolis police officers to have misdemeanor domestic abuse convictions erased from their records. A fifth officer is in the process of doing so. Minnesota Assistant Attorney General Jeff Lebowski says the officers argued that at the time they made their guilty pleas, they had no way of knowing the action would one day endanger their jobs. “Clearly this is not what Congress had in mind when it passed the law, that people would be looking for loopholes,” says [David] Beatty, [president 1430] of the National Victim Center. “To go back and expunge records is pretty reprehensible.” 1431

• • •

A new congressional study based on data from the federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms shows that four Southern states with weak gun control laws are responsible for supplying a large percentage of the guns used in crimes in other states.1432 [Representative Charles Schumer, D-N.Y.,1433] said the report was “the first study that

1421 Op. cit. 1422 Op. cit. 1423 Gary Fields, Domestic abuse gun law is disarming cops, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 10A. 1424 Op. cit. 1425 Op. cit. 1426 Op. cit. 1427 Op. cit. 1428 Op. cit. 1429 Op. cit. 1430 Op. cit. 1431 Op. cit. 1432 The New York Times, Crime link to 4 states in the South; weak gun controls cited in report, San Francisco Chronicle, 9 April 1997, 133(71), p. A5. 1433 Op. cit.

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shows conclusively that gun control works for the simple reason that states with weak gun control laws are exporting guns to states with tough gun control laws.” 1434 The number of licensed gun dealers has dropped 56 percent in the past three years, the result of tougher licensing requirements, higher applications fees and more inspections, the Treasury Department says. 1435 The new policies weeded out many people who were able to obtain licenses even though they didn’t operate legitimate gun stores. Some of these dealers would resell the guns to organized crime groups and other criminals, said [Treasury undersecretary for enforcement Raymond] Kelly. “From their kitchens or garages or whatever, they would receive parcel-post shipments of guns directly from arms manufacturers and then resell the guns often in complete disregard for local laws and ordinances,” Kelly said.1436

• • •

Under the 1437…federal Brady Act, which impose[s] five-day waiting periods on prospective gun buyers and require[s] the nation’s local law-enforcement officers to run background checks on them, 1438…local officials…are required to make a “reasonable effort” to determine if the buyer is prohibited from getting a gun. Those barred include felons, illegal immigrants, people who are dishonorably discharged from the military and the mentally ill.1439

• • •

A…[1969] court decision gives Texans with unfaithful wives…reason to polish up their marksmanship. Under state law, it is not murder to kill another man if you catch him in bed with your wife – but it is murder to kill your wife also. In a case decided by the Court of Criminal Appeals, the defendant – who shot both his wife and the other man – claimed he was innocent of murder since he had been shooting only at the male offender and had hit his wife by accident. In upholding his conviction, the court ruled – in effect – that an avenging husband had to…place his shot with extreme care.1440

1434 Op. cit. 1435 Karen Gullo (The Associated Press), Tough rules mean fewer gun dealers, The Seattle Times, 30 Jan 1997, p. A4. 1436 Op. cit. 1437 Jan Crawford Greenburg (Chicago Tribune), Justices to hear challenge to gun law; Supreme Court will decide if bill illegally forces Federal oblications on local agencies, The Seattle Times, 2 Dec 1996, p. A3. 1438 Op. cit, 1439 Op. cit, 1440 Forum Newsfront, Playboy, Dec 1969, 16(12), p. 72.

123 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Chivalrous?

Knights in the days of yore would embark on dangerous adventures simply to impress their intended ladies, and it’s a fair bet that much modern machismo still stems from the same motivation. The idea that male animals perform risky stunts or evolve encumbering decorations simply to show off their cool has divided biologists. 1441 Jean-Guy J. Godin of Mount Allison University in New Brunswick and Lee Alan Dugatkin of the University of Louisville studied first how male Trinidadian guppies that vary in the amount of orange coloration on their bellies respond to predator fish, both when possible mates were present and when they were absent. The researchers then looked at what kind of male behavior tempted the females to get acquainted later. The results, reported in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences…have an uncomfortably familiar ring to anyone who has gone through puberty. Flashily colored males were far more likely to make close approaches to inspect a…predator than were drab males 1442…[but] were also more quick to turn and flee.1443 Many theorists now agree that evolution can in principle produce handicaps, as biologists call displays that impress because they are dangerous to their owner. 1444 More intriguing was that the flashy males maintained their bravado when females were around, thus apparently losing out on the chance to strike up a relationship. Drab males, in contrast, would keep their distance from a predator in order to stay close to an appealing female.1445 Females that had watched displays of derring-do preferred to spend time subsequently with studs that fearlessly approached the predator than with milquestoasts. 1446 A show-off male really must be healthy to survive, and so the impressed females demonstrate their interest. 1447 In what is probably the first meticulous study of sexual harassment in fish, researchers have found that female guppies are so plagued by unwanted male sexual advances – approximately one “sneaky mating attempt” per minute – that their feeding is seriously inhibited. Behavioral ecologist Anne Magurran of the University of St. Andrews in Fife, Scotland, and her colleague Benoni Seghers of Oxford have been studying wild guppies for several years. “It’s quite obvious that females are not interested in sex most of the time,” says Magurran. Female guppies usually respond to male overtures only if they are virgins or if they have just given birth.1448 A male, on the other hand, spends approximately half its time attempting to mate, either politely, by performing a ritual display, or rudely, by thrusting its gonopodium – a modified anal fin analogous to the mammalian penis – toward a female’s genital pore.1449 With males present, the amount of time the female [Poecilia reticulata 1450] spent feeding dropped by one-fourth – primarily because they had to stop eating and swim away in order to evade a barrage of mating attempts. No females were seen responding to a male’s advances. Why do males adopt this strategy in the face of such hostility? Female guppies are choosy about their mates, and a lot of males are the sort who never get chosen. “So obviously it’s to their advantage if they can find a female who’s busy doing something else, and sort of sneak up behind her,” Magurran says.1451 As to why females never respond aggressively, she says, “I don’t know the answer to that. They are bigger than males, so it wouldn’t be surprising if they did occasionally bite back. But they don’t. Perhaps it’s more efficient in the long term just to move somewhere else.” 1452

• • •

In many species, males fight for high social status. If social competition for high rank is indeed the product of sexual selection, then there should be a positive correlation between being a “top dog” in a dominance hierarchy and copulatory success.1453 The evolutionary view on personality focuses closely on mating.1454 From this viewpoint, mating is what life’s all about (although other issues do arise when you think about the complexities that are involved in mating).1455 1441 Tim Beardsley in Washington, D.C., Fear and fecundity: death-defying guppy stunts – just to dazzle the females, Scientific American, Dec 1996, 275(6), p. 36. 1442 Op. cit. 1443 Op. cit. 1444 Op. cit. 1445 Op. cit. 1446 Op. cit. 1447 Op. cit. 1448 Breakthroughs, Guppies that don’t get it, Discover, July 1995, 16(7), p. 24. 1449 Op. cit. 1450 Op. cit. 1451 Op. cit. 1452 Op. cit. 1453 John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 5th ed. (Mass: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993), p. 407. 1454 Charles S. Carver & Michael F. Scheier, Perspectives on Personality, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996), p. 150. 1455 Op. cit.

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Most males are socialized early into believing that actions are more important than feelings and that they must compete in everything they do to “win” or come out on top. This intense male competition may pervade nearly every area of encounter among men, including sports, work, sex, and conversation. It makes intimate relationships among men most unlikely ([Fasteau, M. F. (1974). The male machine. New York: Random House; 1456 Komarovsky, M. (1974). Patterns of self-disclosure in male undergraduates. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 36, 677-687; 1457 Lweis, R. A. (1978). Emotional intimacy among men. Journal of Social Issues, 34(1), 108-121; 1458 O’Neil, J. M. (1982). Gender role conflict and strain in men’s lives: Implications for psychiatrists, psychologists, and other human service providers. In K. Solomon & N. B. Levy (Eds.), Men in transition: Changing male roles, theory, and therapy (pp. 5-44). New York: Plenum; 1459 Pleck, J. H. (1976a). My male sex role and ours. In D. David & R. Brannon (Eds.), The forty-nine percent majority (pp. 253-264). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley; 1460 Townsend, R. C. (1977). The competitive male as loser. In A. Sargent (Ed.), Beyond sex roles (p. 228-242). St. Paul: West 1461]).1462 An even more important factor than competitiveness in inhibiting male friendships is the strong message most boys recive to supress feelings and, particularly, to suppress the disclosure of feelings. Thus, maxims such as “Big boys don’t cry,” “Keep a stiff upper lip,” and “Take it like a man” all pressure boys to keep their feelings hidden. If boys do not hide their emotions, they are likely to suffer marked loss of prestige (such as when Edmund Muskie’s public opinion ratings dropped after he shed a few tears during the 1972 Presidential primary), to be liked less, and to have difficulty assuming the competitive role society has set out for them.1463 Mating involves competition. Males compete with one another, as do females, but what’s being competed for differs betwen the sexes.1464 What do men and women actually do to compete for mates? 1465 Men brag about their accomplishments and earning potential, display expensive possessions, and flex their muscles. Women enhance their beauty through makeup, jewelry, and hairstyles. Women also play hard to get. This strategy seems intended to incite widespread interest among many males, permitting the women to be choosy once candidates have been identified [(Buss, D. M. (1988). The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 616-628; 1466 see also Kenrick, d. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G., & Trost, M. R. (1990). Evolution, traits, and the stages of human courtship: Qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality, 58, 97-116 1467)].1468 “Burn ‘The Rules,’ ” [Susan Bradley, R.N.,] said. “I’ve met so many people who wouldn’t be in relationships if the woman hadn’t given a guy an indication she was interested.” 1469

“Hey, is everybody ready to flirt?” 1470

To test the expectation that men will exhibit strong mate choice when it comes to selecting a wife, Douglas Kenrick and his colleagues questioned college students about what their absolute minimum requirement would be with respect to the intelligence of persons with whom they would have different kinds of sexual relationships. Both men and women had similar standards with respect to a potential date, but whereas women had higher standards for a one-night sexual relationship (which carried no other commitment) than for a date, men lowered their requirements for such an interaction. When it came to selecting potential spouses, once again men and women had similar preferences, and ones that were higher than for any other category of sexual relationship, as they both desired marriage partners of well-above-average intelligence [(Kenrick, D. T., E. K. Sadalla, G. Groth, and M. R. Trost. 1990. Evolution, traits, and the stages of human courtship: qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality 58:97-116 1471)].1472 In baboons there are several paths to sexual success in addition to securing high male status. Males can and do develop “friendships” with particular females, relationships that do not depend on physical dominance but rather on the willingness of a male to protect a given female’s offspring – even if the youngster is not his own. Once a male has demonstrated that he is willing and able to provide protection for a female and her infant, that female may seek him out when she enters into estrus again, even if he is not the top male in the social hierarcy of her troop [(Strum,

1456 Susan A. Basow, Gender Stereotypes: Traditions and Alternatives, 2nd ed. (CA: Brooks/Cole Publ. Co., 1986), p. 335. 1457 Ibidem, p. 350. 1458 Ibidem, p. 353. 1459 Ibidem, p. 360. 1460 Ibidem, p. 363. 1461 Ibidem, p. 375. 1462 Ibidem, p. 204. 1463 Op. cit. 1464 Charles S. Carver & Michael F. Scheier, Perspectives on Personality, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996), p. 151. 1465 Op. cit. 1466 Ibidem, p. 559. 1467 Ibidem, p. 577. 1468 Ibidem, p. 151. 1469 Siona Carpenter (Newhouse News Service), Burn the rules when it comes to flirting, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. M3. 1470 Op. cit. 1471 John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 5th ed. (Mass: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993), p. 595. 1472 Ibidem, p. 562.

125 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

S. C. 1987. Almost Human, W. W. Norton, New York 1473)].1474 Male baboons also form “friendships” with other males. Through these alliances, they can sometimes collectively confront a stronger rival that has acquired a partner, forcing him to give up the female, even though he is socially dominant in one-on-one encounters.1475 Another alternative mating tactic is the “satellite” behavior of some male toads (…), frogs, and crickets, which wait silently [(thus avoiding predators)] and nonaggressively by a loudly calling territory owner, ready to intercept females heading for the caller [(Cade, W. 1980. Alternative male reproductive strategies. Florida Entomologist 63:30-45; 1476 Perrill, S. A., H. C. Gerhardt, and R. Daniel. 1978. Sexual parasitism in the green tree frog (Hyla cinerea). Science 200:1179-1180; 1477 Wells, K. D. 1977. Territoriality and male mating success in the green frog (Rana clamitans). Ecology 58:750-762 1478)]. Satellites also exist in bighorn sheep, whose dominant males try to control groups of females in certain traditional mating areas [(Hogg, J. T. 1984. Mating in bighorn sheep: multiple creative male strategies. Science 225:526-529 1479)]. Other males gather in these same areas to lurk near dominant males and their females. From time to time these satellites try to rush past a dominant male and onto a female.1480 Still another mating system exhibited by polygynous males is called lek polygyny.1481 Females visit these “symbolic” territories (which are often clustered in a traditional display area, or lek), just to select a mate. 1482 The arrival of a female at the lek encourages many males to display simultaneously, producing an uproar that can be heard far away. If the female is receptive and chooses a partner, she will fly to his perch for a series of mutual displays, followed by copulation. Afterwards, she leaves to begin nesting, and the male remains behind to court newcomers.1483 When females are widely dispersed, or when large numbers of receptive females become available simultaneously, or when very large numbers of males must compete for females in a limited area, the benefit-to-cost ratio associated with mating territoriality falls. Under these conditions, males of many animals compete by trying to outrace rivals to receptive females; frequent winners will be participants in what can be labeled scramble competition polygyny.1484 The most dramatic form of scramble competition polygyny, the explosive breeding assemblage, is associated with breeding seasons that are…highly compressed.1485 Males gather…in large numbers and search for incoming females (…). When a male finds an unaccompanied female, he grasps her with special claws and goes with her. 1486 A paired male probably has an advantage…because his grasping apparatus makes him very difficult to dislodge [(Brockmann, H. J. 1990. Mating behavior of horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus. Behaviour 12:493-501 1487)].1488

• • •

When it comes to selecting a marriage partner, women in Western societies consistently give high marks to “good earning power” in a potential mate, whereas men attach much greater value to “physical attractiveness” [(Buss, D. M. 1987. Sex differences in human mate selection criteria: an evolutionary perspective. In Sociobiology and Psychology: Ideas, Issues, and Applications, C. Crawford, C. Smith, and D. Krebs (eds.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ 1489)].1490 [But] the higher the social status attained by a male, the greater the number of offspring he produced, the more illegitimate children he sired, and the more likely he was to marry more than once, all results suggesting that women [do] f[i]nd wealthy individuals especially acceptable mating partners. 1491 [And] in modern Western societies, richer couples have the same number of surviving children as poorer ones – or they have fewer children than their less wealthy counterparts [(Vining, D. R. Jr. 1986. Social vs. reproductive success: the central theoretical problem of human sociobiology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:167-186 1492)].1493

1473 Ibidem, p. 608. 1474 Ibidem, p. 411. 1475 Op. cit. 1476 Ibidem, p. 584. 1477 Ibidem, p. 603. 1478 Ibidem, p. 610. 1479 Ibidem, p. 594. 1480 Ibidem, pp. 412-414. 1481 Ibidem, p. 470. 1482 Op. cit. 1483 Ibidem, p. 471. 1484 Ibidem, p. 468. 1485 Op. cit. 1486 Op. cit. 1487 Ibidem, p. 583. 1488 Ibidem, pp. 468-469. 1489 John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 5th ed. (Mass: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993), p. 584. 1490 Ibidem, pp. 558-559. 1491 Ibidem, p. 559. 1492 Ibidem, p. 609. 1493 Ibidem, pp. 559-560.

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Sociobiologists have predicted that married men will be especially careful about the allocation of their paternal investment, providing it freely only to progeny likely to be their genetic offspring. In keeping with this prediction, men in Western society that suspect or know that their wives have committed adultery often cite this factor as the reason for divorce, with its consequent reduction or elimination of male paternal care, whereas women that initiate divorce are much less likely to identify adultery by their partner as the reason for their action [(Symons, D. 1979. The Evolution of Human Sexuality. Oxford University Press, New York 1494)]. Concern about paternity is so obsessive in many cultures that husbands of rape victims may divorce their unfortunate wives, an action accepted or even encouraged by a diversity of religous groups and legal codes [(Brownmiller, S. 1975. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. Simon & Schuster, New York 1495)].1496 The[] feelings of confusion, anger and guilt are painful, but are often endured in silence. Says rape counselor [Helen] Hurewitz: “Many men need help as much as the women victims.” 1497 In the past, the counseling of married couples was usually performed by the clergy or social workers in churches, public welfare agencies, and family-service organizations. Counseling and clinical psychologists may also work with couples and families. A specialty in marriage and family counseling has recently emerged, however, with its own professional organizations, journals, and state licensing requirements. Marriage and family counselors have varied professional backgrounds.1498

“Me Tarzan, you Jane.”

Family values proponents have begun a new offensive to stigmatize and restrict divorce. They continue to oppose proven sex education programs for teenagers. And they’ve renewed attacks on mothers who “selfishly” choose to work.1499 Maggie Gallagher of the Institute for the American Values has even attacked the Boy Scouts for being soft on single parenthood,1500…instead [of] denounc[ing] the “crimes” of parents who subject children to divorce or remarriage.1501 But it’s time to stop letting the family values crowd make us feel bad about how much we’ve changed.1502 Surely our kids are no less important than federal meat inspection or airline safety regulations.1503 Changing old marital expectations and habits may be hard, but failing to change them is downright dangerous, because behaviors that stabilized families in the 1950s and 1960s often backfire today, [and many of them are even illegal now]. Thus one of the leading causes of strife in modern families is the backsliding of couples into traditional gender roles after the birth of a child. Women raised to expect more equal public roles often become depressed when they quit work; men who have to take on increased [responsibilities] can’t understand why their wives aren’t more grateful.1504 Men with old-fashioned ideas about masculinity tend to see divorce as a conflict that must be settled by winning or disengaging. They are also more likely to break off contact with their children after a new marriage. Women with traditional values tend to view their ex-husbands only as a support payment rather than someone who should continue to be involved in child-rearing from outside the household.1505 The right wing opposes all…initatives, claiming it would be government interference to mandate family-friendly policies for employers or set national standards for child care centers. They argue we should appeal to the [capitalist] corporate conscience instead. But if a few hard-hearted companies [(monolithic juggernauts)] refuse to implement such measures, all the rest that might like to are placed at a competitive disadvantage. 1506 Workers need paid parental leaves, days off for caregiving responsibilities and reforms like Sweden’s law allowing parents to cut their work and pay to three-quarters time without losing medical insurance or seniority. At the same time, we need investment in high-quality child care and after-school programs.1507

1494 Ibidem, p. 608. 1495 Ibidem, p. 584. 1496 Ibidem, p. 565. 1497 David Behrens, Rape’s other victims, in Human Sexuality, Annual Editions 87/88, ed. O. Pocs (Diskin Publishing Group, 1987), p. 210. 1498 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 18. 1499 Stephanie Coontz, The absence of debate won’t help change outdated attitudes and institutions, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E1. 1500 Op. cit. 1501 Op. cit. 1502 Op. cit. 1503 Op. cit. 1504 Op. cit. 1505 Op. cit. 1506 Op. cit. 1507 Op. cit.

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Upping the barriers to divorce is most likely to aggravate the adversarial maneuvering, trumped-up charges and counter-charges by parents, and high levels of conflict that are associated with the worst outcomes of divorce for kids. Of course it’s easier to raise kids when you have two involved parents who are respectful of each other. That’s why it’s hypocritical [(piacular)] for politicians to preach the advantages of two-parent families for heterosexual couples and ignore the evidence that children of gay or lesbian [or homosexual or bisexual or queer or polygamous or whatever] parents also tend to do better when their parents are in a stable, loving relationship. But a stable, loving relationship with quality parenting is not always what you get [(especially with gender stereotypical parents),] and children who end up in single-parent households are not doomed. Kids will do better if we regulate and normalize divorce rather than restricting or stigmatizing it. There is solid research showing how people can make single-parent and stepfamily households work well for children. The right wing says we should stay silent about this research because it might encourage couples to take divorce too lightly. But silence only condemns parents to keep making the same old mistakes. We need to make divorce less adversarial, reduce its economic trauma for children and foster a culture of commitment to children that doesn’t make parental obligations part of a package deal, dependent on marriage and co-residence. This is important because unwed parenting, like it or not, is also here to stay. The age at which women marry today is at an all-time historical high. Women who marry are more likely to have economic, emotional and educational advantages that benefit their children. But they also face a longer period when they are “at risk” for an unmarried birth. Combined with falling rates of marital childbearing, the rising age of marriage means that a significant percentage of children will continue to be born out of wedlock even if rates of childbearing by unwed women continue to decrease, as they have for the past three years. Contrary to conventional wisdom, most unmarried births are not to teens but to women in their 20s and 30s, and a quarter are to unmarried but cohabitating parents. Since the educational status of a mother has more impact on her child’s well-being than her marital status, it’s time to stop the hand-wringing about unwed motherhood in general and focus prevention efforts on the women whose kids are most at risk: young women with poor job and education prospects, who often end up with babies because their other choices are so limited. Everyone agrees that children shouldn’t have children, but even among teens, two-thirds of unwed births are to women 18 or 19 years old. These women may still have much to learn, but they aren’t kids and won’t respond to being treated that way. With three-fourths of the 18 to 24-year-old population in the country single, teaching young people to deal with sex responsibly has to involve more than chanting “wait until marriage.” We must help young people develop decision-making tools to set realistic goals for their personal lives, and we must combat conservative [(and allegedly liberal)] efforts to limit access to sex education and contraception. It’s time to confront the massive changes needed in our attitudes and institutions. Our work policies are 40 years out of date, constricted for a time when the majority of mothers did not work outside the home and the majority of fathers were happy to leave child-raising entirely in the hands of [anyone else]. Our school vacations are 100 years out of date, designed for a time when most families needed their children’s labor on farms during the summer and only a minority of students finished high school anyway. Our school hours are out of sync both with new medical research and new economic realities: School begins way to early for teenagers’ body clocks and gets out way too early for parents’ time clocks. Figuring out how to adjust outdated institutions and values to the new realities of family life and gender roles will involve controversial choices.1508 The longer we postpone discussion of those changes, the harder they will be.1509

• • •

Sex and guilt. For some of us, they go together like love and marriage, and for others they go together like Pat Buchanan and Courtney Love. But the Bremerton-based Born-Again Virgins of America (“Sexless in Seattle”) solves the dilemma of sex and guilt this way: Don’t have either.1510 Should fellow Northwesterners decide to give up sex in 1997, Thom [Schlessinger (“Dr. Laura’s” brother) 1511] has this advice for resisting tempation: “The best thing for someone to keep in mind is the implications not waiting has,” including sexual diseases, possible infidelity and the potential for pregnancy, he said.1512

• • •

1508 Op. cit. 1509 Op. cit. 1510 Elizabeth Aoki, The hard sell for celibacy, The Seattle Times: Pacific Magazine, 26 Jan 1997, p. 3. 1511 Op. cit. 1512 Op. cit.

128 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Susan Crain Bakos, an internationally recognized sex expert and author, makes people nervous, but that’s OK with her. “I like that,” she said. “I love to pop the balloon of hypocrisy that so many people have about sex.” She’s right about the hypocrisy. Corporate greed, politics, and abusers of children and animals ought to make us nervous – not sex.1513 “We grow up with it,” Bakos said. “There are societal taboos controlling sexual behavior, especially women’s sexual behavior. Also, many religious teachings are anti-sex and anti-pleasure.” 1514 “The attitudes people have about sex aren’t rational,” Bakos said. “Somehow, they have come to equate pleasure with promiscuity, as though there can be no pleasure in a committed relationship, or that women can’t take responsibility to have safe sex.” Many of the women Bakos has interviewed would not admit they couldn’t talk about sex. Interviewing these people was difficult.1515 In contrast, most men will talk openly about sex, she said.1516 Bakos has built a career on telling women that sex is good. Women, she says, should not use sex or fear sex, and they shouldn’t get their ideas about sex from their grandmothers. “We should enjoy sex,” she said. And she’s comfortable with that. 1517

• • •

A prominent Bay Area researcher [June 2] released the results of a groundbreaking 25-year study that adds further weight to a growing consensus about divorce: Children suffer far longer and more deeply than previously thought.1518 While other studies have shown that divorce can be emotionally damaging to children, [family expert Judith] Wallerstein’s and [San Francisco State University professor Julia] Lewis’ work is the first to document the long-range effects into adulthood, family experts said.1519 “We have to understand divorce through a child’s eyes,” said Wallerstein. “I’m reporting on the child’s experience.” 1520 The breakup of a family burderns children at each developmental stage – from childhood through adolescence and into early adulthood.1521 Men tended to have a harder time during elementary school years; women said they were most affected during their adolescent years.1522 “Some of them (the kids) didn’t even remember the initial breakup of their parents,” said Wallerstein. But as adults, many of them continue to say, “The divorce still affects me every day of my life.” 1523 Many simply awoke one day to discover a parent gone. Others said there were support groups for the mom or dad, but none for them. Still others reported the remarriage of their parents as a trauma that was often not discussed. 1524 Wallerstein said many of the children she studied reported that they felt less respected in general; felt greater guilt about leaving the custodial parent for college or marriage; had problems with long-term relationships; and had no role models for a good marriage. At least two children experienced one other serious problem: They witnessed violence in their homes, even though the abuse was not directed at them. Wallerstein cited one study subject who teased his 4-year-old son until the child cried and flew into a rage. Another was prone to relationships with violent men. 1525 Wallerstien’s study further illustrated how feelings of loneliness and abandonment last long into adulthood, resulting in relationship issues. The kids also had a harder time economically: Their parents were less likely to pay for their children’s college even though they were well-educated and financially stable.1526 The researcher also had harsh words for the legal system as well as parents: Both need to show more consideration for children in a divorce. Child advocates and family experts agree.

1513 Patricia Corrigan (St. Louis Post-Dispatch), Author promotes open and positive attitudes about sex, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 11 Nov 1996, p. C2. 1514 Op. cit. 1515 Op. cit. 1516 Op. cit. 1517 Op. cit. 1518 Donna Kato (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Study: divorce has long-term effect; even when, grown, some children say trauma ‘affects me every day,’ The Seattle Times, 3 June 1997, 120(132), p. A3. 1519 Op. cit. 1520 Op. cit. 1521 Op. cit. 1522 Op. cit. 1523 Op. cit. 1524 Op. cit. 1525 Op. cit. 1526 Op. cit.

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“In the wind tunnel of divorce, it’s the children who get blown right through,” said Ann Milne, executive director of the Association of Family and Conciliation Courts. 1527 “(The study) encourages us to take a good, hard look at the family court system and ways to provide more mediation and information to the parents to protect the child,” said Milne.1528 Half of America’s kids [are] living in single-parent households or stepfamilies.1529 The divorce rate doubled between 1960 and 1985, and it is now estimated that [49.6% 1530] percent of marriages will end in divorce and 60 percent of these divorces involve children. Furthermore, one-third of children will experience their parents’ remarriage and 62 percent of remarriages end in divorce. Thus more parents and children are undergoing multiple marital transitions and rearrangements in family relationships. 1531

• • •

The FBI estimates 100,000 child kidnapping attempts a year, most by parents without custody, and the National Center of Missing and Exploited children said the 1988 study indicated about 4,600 children were abducted that year.1532 Fears of child abduction have Eastside parents and school officials watching students more closely, asking students to pair up when walking and adding more bus stops.1533 “Every adult I know is getting more concerned” about children being kidnapped, said Issaquah assistant superintendent Rich Semlar. “It seems like it’s in the paper almost every other day or so.” 1534

“He told me he was wearing a condom.” 1535

It’s been estimated that all the genetic material in the sperm and egg cells that produced the present human population could fit in a space the size of an aspirin. 1536 A 1995 report on unintended pregnancy by the Institute of Medicine concluded that “the prevailing policy and program emphasis on women as the key figures in contraceptive decision-making unjustly and unwisely excludes boys and men.” 1537 A male’s single ejaculation contains in the neighborhood of 200 million sperm, and most men go on creating new sperm long after they start cashing Social Security Checks.1538 A human female embryo develops around 7 million proto-eggs, known as primordial oocytes. By the time she is ready to enter the world, no more than 2 million are left alive, the rest having fallen prey to a mysterious process of cellular suicide [(apoptosis),] one that will continue to claim ooocytes as the girl grows. By puberty there are at most only a quarter of a million oocytes left. In a woman’s lifetime perhaps 400 will become full-grown eggs capable of being fertilized by sperm.1539 In 1995, an estimated 513,000 teens in the U.S. gave birth. 1540 With public officials, clergy, teachers, parents and policy makers exploring this controversial question, PARADE – in a[]…survey conducted by Mark Clements Research, Inc. – asked 720 girls aged 12 to 19 what would prevent pregnancy among unwed teens. Among the key findings: • 97% of the teenage girls surveyed said “having parents they can talk to” could help prevent pregnancies among unmarried teens; 93% said “having loving parents” reduces the risk.

1527 Op. cit. 1528 Op. cit. 1529 Stephanie Coontz, The absence of debate won’t help change outdated attitudes and institutions, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E1. 1530 U.S. Department of Justice/Office of Justice Programs/Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special report: lifetime likelihood of going to state or federal prison (March 1997), June 1997, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/pub/bjs/ascii/llgsfp.txt. 1531 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 447. 1532 Adam Pertman (Boston Globe), Father of Polly Klaas now devoting his life to helping children, Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service, 18 Aug 1994. 1533 Molly O’Connor, Abductions, abuse are modern-day threats to children, Eastside Journal, 24 April 1997, 21(249), p. A1. 1534 Op. cit. 1535 Overheard while listening to…was it Oprah? 1536 Continuum, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 25. 1537 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Omni, April 1996, 17(4), p. 47. 1538 John Travis, Brave new egg; we may soon be able to grow unlimited numbers of perfectly healthy, fertilizable human eggs in the laboratory. Whether we should, of course, is an entirely different question, Discover, April 1997, 18(4), p. 78. 1539 Ibidem, p. 76. 1540 Sey Chassler (PARADE consulting editor and a member of the board of directors of the Child Care Action Campaign), What teenage girls say about pregnancy, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: PARADE Magazine, 2 Feb 1997, p. 4.

130 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

• 96% of the respondents said that “having self-respect” and “being informed about sex, pregnancy and birth control” are critical to preventing pregnancy. • 96% also said the most influential deterrent was “being aware of the responsibility of caring for a child.” 1541 • 52% of the girls, particularly those aged 12 to 15, said teens could reduce the risk of pregnancy by not going out with older men. “This is realistic, since the fathers of teenage girls’ babies are, in about 60% of cases, men in their 20s,” says Nancy Adler, a psychologist at the University of California at San Francisco.1542 In the survey, 85% of the girls identified drinking as a major factor leading to sex. More than four in five (83%) said girls engage in sex because boys pressure them or they think they will lose their boyfriends if they don’t have sex. Most (59%) don’t see these as good justifications to have sex, but 59% said “being in love” was a good reason. “Girls often trade sex for love, just as they always have,” maintains Deborah Tolman, director of the Adolescent Sexuality Project at the Center for Research on Women at Wellesley College. “Society teachers girls that love is what should matter to them, and we teach boys that what they should want most is sex. We end up shortchanging both genders.” 1543 Another risk factor is low self-esteem, notes Nancy Adler. “A girl who has never felt terrifically loved and valued may be so needy in a relationship that she has sex just to please her partner.” Parents are more influential than they might guess in their daughter’s decision to have sex: 91% of the girls rated their mothers and 76% rated their fathers as “very” or “somewhat influential.” Younger teens are much more likely to view parents as important influences than older ones. “If a parent instilled morals in a loving way and wasn’t too controlling, a teenager will remember that and not have sex,” one 15-year-old commented.1544 “Most girls sneak around to be with their boyfriends, and neither has any protection, because they’re too scared to buy condoms,” said a 16-year-old respondent. “They should make it easier for teenagers to get types of birth control, so no questions are asked when they go to buy them.” 1545 Emotional factors also come into play: 66% of the girls polled said having parents who didn’t give enough love and attention, or having parents who didn’t teach morals, increased the likelihood of teen pregnancy. “We’ve been dubbed Generation X because of our apathy, but our parents and teachers are apathetic too,” said one 18-year-old respondent.1546 “Having a baby is a lottery ticket for many teenagers,” says the sociologist Kristin Luker, author of Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy. “It brings with it at least the dream of something better. 1547 If America cares about its young people, it must make them feel that they have a rich array of choices, so that having a baby is not the only or most attractive one on the horizon.” 1548 Too many children are born without the prospect of sufficient love, food, health, education, or dignity in living and dying.1549 The U.S. infant mortality rate is higher than that of any other Western industrialized nation. The U.S. child poverty rate is the highest of 18 industrial nations. 10 million children have no health insurance. 1550 The typical American working woman is paid 71 cents for each $1 earned by a man. 1551 When people are born whose parents don’t want them…the United States suffers this problem in a big way: in 1987, of the 5.4 million pregnancies among American women, about 3.1 million (57 percent) were unintended at the time of conception. Of these, about 1.6 million were aborted; 1.5 million resulted in a live birth. Young and poor women were more likely than average to have unintended pregancies. In 1987, 82 percent of pregnancies among American teenagers 15 to 19 years old were unintended, as were 61 percent of pregnancies among women 20 to 24 years old. Women with family incomes below the poverty level in 1987 reported that 75 percent of their pregnancies were unintended. The trend is not good: among all U.S. women 15 to 44 years old, the fraction of all births that resulted from intended pregnancies shrank from 64 percent in 1982 to 61 percent in 1988 to 55 percent in 1990.1552

• • •

1541 Op. cit. 1542 Op. cit. 1543 Op. cit. 1544 Op. cit. 1545 Ibidem, p. 5. 1546 Op. cit. 1547 Op. cit. 1548 Op. cit. 1549 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Omni, April 1996, 17(4), p. 47. 1550 Children’s Defense Fund, The state of America’s children yearbook (1996), “A bad report card,” “Who will speak for the children?,” Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 212. 1551 The Associated Press, Women earn 29¢ less than men; senator says gap tops $400,000 over a lifetime, San Francisco Chronicle, 12 April 1997, 133(74), p. A4. 1552 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Omni, April 1996, 17(4), p. 46.

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UNICEF, the World Health Organization and the U.N. Population Fund called [April 9] for a global ban on female genital mutilation.1553 [And] Harborview Medical Center, besieged by outraged opponents of female circumcision, has decided not to offer a scaled-down procedure sought by immigrant Somali women for their daughters.1554

• • •

“Pregnant teenagers need to be looked at as individuals, not as statistics,” said an 18-year-old who participated in the PARADE survey and who speaks from personal experience. “More programs and measures definitely need to be taken to help. I’ll be the first to admit it: It’s hard being a teenage mom.” 1555

1553 World Report, U.N. agencies urge ban on female mutilation, San Francisco Chronicle, 10 April 1997, 133(72), p. A16. 1554 Peggy Andersen (The Associated Press), Harborview rejects female circumcisions, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 5 Dec 1996, 133(292), p. B1. 1555 Sey Chassler (PARADE consulting editor and a member of the board of directors of the Child Care Action Campaign), What teenage girls say about pregnancy, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: PARADE Magazine, 2 Feb 1997, p. 5.

132 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Pawns

Some of the factors that influence female vulnerability to male sexual coercion in different species may also help explain such variation among different groups in the same species. For example, in a group of chimpanzees in the Taï Forest in the Ivory Coast, females form closer bonds with one another than do females at Gombe. Taï females may consequently have more egalitarian relationships with males than their Gombe conterparts do. Such differences between groups especially characterize humans. Among the South American Yanomamö, for instance, men frequently abduct and rape women from neighboring villages and severely beat their wives for suspected adultery. However, among the Aka people of the Central African Republic, male aggression against women has never been observed. Most human societies, of course, fall between these two extremes. 1556 How are we to account for such variation? The same social factors that help explain how sexual coercion differes among nonhuman primates may deepen our understanding of how it varies across different groups of people. In most traditional human societies, a woman leaves her birth community when she marries and goes to live with her husband and his relatives. Without strong bonds to close female kin, she will probably be in danger of sexual coercion. The presence of close female kin, though, may protect her. For example, in a community in Belize, women live near their female relatives. A man will sometimes beat his wife if he becomes jealous or suspects her of infidelity, but when this happens, onlookers run to tell her female kin. Their arrival on the scene, combined with the presence of other glaring women, usually shames the man enough to stop his aggression. Even in societies in which women live away from their families, kin may provide protection against abusive husbands, though how much protection varies dramatically from one society to the next. In some societies a woman’s kin, including her father and brothers, consistently support her against an abusive husband, while in others they rarely help her. Why? The key may lie in patterns of male-male relationships. Alliances between males are much more highly developed in humans than in other primates, and men frequently rely on such alliances to compete successfully against other men. They often gain more by supporting their male allies than they do by supporting female kin. In addition, men often use their alliances to defeat rivals and abduct or rape their women, as painfully illustrated by recent events in Bosnia. When women live far from close kin, among men who value their alliances with other men more than their bonds with women, they may be even more vulnerable to sexual coercion than many nonhuman primate females. Like nonhuman primate females, many women form bonds with unrelated males who may protect them from other males. However, reliance on men exacts a cost – women and other primate females often must submit to control by their protectors. Such control is more elaborate in humans because allied men agree to honor one another’s proprietary rights over women. In most of the world’s cultures, marriage involves not only the exclusion of other men from sexual access to a man’s wife – which protects the woman against rape by other men – but also entails the husband’s right to complete control over his wife’s sexual life, including the right to punish her for real or suspected adultery, to have sex with her whenever he wants, and even to restrict her contact with other people, especially men. In modern industrial society, many men – perhaps most – maintain such traditional notions of marriage. 1557 Decreasing women’s vulnerability to sexual coercion, then, may require fundamental changes in social alliances. Women gave voice to this essential truth with the slogan SISTERHOOD IS POWERFUL – a reference to the importance of women’s ability to cooperate with unrelated women as if they were indeed sisters. However, among humans, the male-dominant social system derives support from political, economic, legal, and ideological institutions that other primates can’t even dream of. Freedom from male control – including male sexual coercion – therefore requires women to form alliances with one another (and with like-minded men) on a scale beyond that shown by nonhuman primates and humans in the past. Although knowledge of other primates can provide inspiration for this task, its achievement depends on the uniquely human ability to envision a future different from anything that has gone before.1558

• • •

Helen Hargrave quit a job she loved to care for her aged and ailing husband. Her last day at work, on May 1, she told colleagues he kept a handgun on a side table and threatened to shoot her and then himself. Please be careful, colleagues told her. But her attitude seemed almost resigned. 1559 On Memorial Day, Charles Hargrave, 83, argued with his wife of 54 years. He pushed her to the ground, followed her to the porch of their Spokane home and shot and killed her before shooting himself. 1556 Barbara Smuts, Apes of wrath, Discover, Aug 1995, 16(8), p. 37. 1557 Op. cit. 1558 Op. cit. 1559 Julie Sullivan (Spokane Spokesman-Review), When grandpa beats up grandma, few can help; violence among elderly couples often unreported, The Seattle Times, 29 June 1997, 15(26), p. B2.

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Prosecutors and domestic violence specialists aren’t surprised that signs of trouble never reached the police. 1560 “Women growing up in the early part of this century are very, very hesitant to come forward,” said Carolyn Morrison of Spokane’s Alternatives to Domestic Violence program. “It’s a very big, dark family secret. They just believe that it’s their cross to bear.” Older women who are threatened verbally or physically fall between the cracks nationwide. In the last two decades, the issue of elder abuse has focused almost solely on abuse and neglect by a stressed caregiver. The battered women’s movement has focused on physical violence against young women, often with children. “Thus, older battered women do not fit neatly within either field’s typical caseload or response system,” concluded a 1992 American Association of Retired Persons study. In Spokane, older women call the women’s shelter, Morrison said. But they almost never go further. “The elderly cry out for help but they’re the hardest community to crack,” she said. “They’ve lived this life 40 years and this is all they know,” said Jonathatn Love, a Spokane County prosecutor who leads the domestic violence team. “It makes it very difficult for a victim to extricate herself. They are so intertwined, financially and socially. It’s difficult to start a life over at 70 years old.” 1561 Medical conditions can…interfere with someone’s ability to control impulsiveness and emotions, said Marcia Riddle, Adult Protective Services surpervisor for Spokane County.1562 More common are chronic batterers who worsen with age as other problems like depression, impotence and alcohol abuse worsen. Battered older women are different from their younger counterparts, too, in that they suffer more. They bruise easier.1563 A punch in the ribs can break them. Verbal abuse that causes severe emotional damage is often dismissed as crankiness. Love said by the time cases reach his office, the abuse has often been going on for decades and resolution is complicated. Typical was a case this spring when a Spokane man was sentenced to 60 days in jail for beating his wife. In court, he told the judge his wife had done a poor job preparing dinner. For the next eight hours, he punched, slapped and shoved her, before passing out. When he woke up, he began beating her again, accusing her of having an affair. He was 70. She was 66. He was convicted of felony assault and sentenced to jail. While he was jailed, she was ironing his clothes and preparing meals for him when he’d get home. “There are still remnants of the old school where the male was the head of household and where whatever happened in the confines of that family was their own business,” said Riddle. Children of such marriages 1564…cope by changing what they can – namely, their own lives.1565 “It’s real hard for a child to approach a parent about that kind of behavior,” Riddle said. “Many people grew up believing that was what your folks did and to not chastise them.” 1566 Family members have declined to discuss Helen or Charles Hargrave.1567 But…where Helen Hargrave worked part-time preparing and delivering meals, she spoke openly of coming to work to get away from her spouse. Family told police Charles Hargrave was ill with heart trouble and increasingly mean. 1568 Colleagues and friends talked about grandchildren she doted on, particularly a granddaughter who was living with her and witnessed the shooting. The Hargraves had nine children, 23 grandchildren and 11 great-grandchildren. The day Hargrave left…to nurse her husband, she said she hoped to come back someday. “I have a lot of living left to do,” she said.1569

• • •

Born prematurely after his mother was shot by her ex-boyfriend, Jeffrey Pennington struggled to survive for a week and a half.1570 Jeffrey was delivered by Caesarean section after his mother,…23, was shot in the head. Her jealous ex-boyfriend, Bradley Roehl – who was Jeffrey’s father – shot her April 8 in a…convenience store. 1571 [She] had been granted a protection order after telling authorities Roehl had physically assaulted her on

1560 Op. cit. 1561 Op. cit. 1562 Op. cit. 1563 Op. cit. 1564 Op. cit. 1565 Op. cit. 1566 Op. cit. 1567 Op. cit. 1568 Op. cit. 1569 Op. cit. 1570 Leyla Kokmen, Baby born after mother was fatally shot, The Seattle Times, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. B1. 1571 Op. cit.

134 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

March 3. She also had told authorities that in the past five months Roehl had threatened to kill her and then himself.1572

• • •

As many New York City women are killed by their partner at home as by strangers in robberies, sexual assaults and random attacks combined. (Only 6 percent of men murdered die by their partner’s doing.) Health department researchers reexamined all murders of women aged 16 or older that occurred between 1990 and 1994 – one of the first such surveys of its kind. Among women killed by their spouse, one third were trying to end the relationship. And in a quarter of the murders attributed to boyfriends, children watched the crime or were killed or injured themselves. The review also revealed that whereas men are typically killed by guns, women are more often beaten and burned.1573

• • •

A man who coached his two children to set fire to their mother’s home was sentenced to 40 years in prison [March 1] for three attempted murders. Richard Taylor, 36, was convicted…of arson and the murder attempts after his 10-year-old son and 12-year-old daughter testified he showed them how to set fire to his ex-wive’s house.1574 His children pleaded guilty to arson and have been sentenced to 12 months probation and 100 hours of community service. 1575 Taylor’s two children by his ex-wife testified at his trial that he had shown them how to set the blaze. The boy said his father had him practice lighting fires in a can.1576 Prosecutors said Taylor tried to turn his children against their mother and her new husband, then coerced them into setting the blaze and keeping quiet about his involvement. One of his tactics was to quote Bible scripture that people who revealved secrets would die and that “The house of the wicked will be destroyed, but the tent of the upright will flourish.” 1577

• • •

Remember when Courtney Love was acquitted of a misdemeanor in Florida a couple of years ago? (Two guys had accused her of jumping from the stage and punching them.) 1578 Well now Courtney wants Orange County, Fla., to pay her legal bills. She claims she spent $27,000 in transcripts, photocopies and phone calls, and also wants the $2,500 she paid a psychiatrist to appear as an expert witness. 1579

• • •

Would you carry out orders that could result in the death of another human being if the orders were given by someone in authority? 1580 People of conscience do not behave that way; 1581…any other answer awakens gruesome visions of Hitler Germany.1582 Joe Clark, the tough-love, bat-weilding principal who inspired the movie “Lean on Me,”…put 12 teenagers, ages 17 and 18, in handcuffs and leg irons for two days.1583

1572 Op. cit. 1573 In Brief, Fatal attraction, Scientific American, 276(6), p. 22. 1574 The Associated Press, Man used his kids in plot to kill mother, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. 18. 1575 Op. cit. 1576 Op. cit. 1577 Op. cit. 1578 Seen, Heard, Said, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. E7. 1579 Op. cit. 1580 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), p. 182. 1581 Op. cit. 1582 Op. cit. 1583 ‘Tough love’ principal in trouble, Journal American, 1996.

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People – ordinary people – commit aggressive and even violent acts as part of “doing their job.” This is institutional aggression. It can be seen most clearly in the case of the military and the police (as well as in certain sports).1584 Most individuals will commit aggressive and violent acts in the name of obedience to authority. Within institutional settings people will come to see themselves as being absolved of personal responsibility for their acts. They view themselves as “pawns” rather than as “originators of behavior.” If they place any blame at all, they pin it on the institution, excusing themselves by the rationalization, “If I don’t do it, someone else will” ([De Charms, R. 1968. Personal Causation. New York: Academic Press; 1585 Kipnes, D. 1974. The powerholder. In Tedeschi, J. T. (ed.), Perspectives on Social Power. Chicago: Aldine 1586]).1587 The most blatant and notorious instances of this phenomenon on college campuses are group rapes, usually attributed to fraternity or athletic teams and popularly knows as “gang bangs” or “trains.” 1588 Senior [frat] members…assign[] a pledge the task of “finding a drunk woman for a gang bang.” 1589 Male sexual aggression seem[s] to be taken for granted by…both sexes. “What do you expect – a lot of guys are animals,” one man comment[ed] amiably. “Well you always try to to score – how far you push it depends on who you are,” sa[id] his roommate. “Or how drunk you are,” a third chime[d] in.1590 Date rape, often called acquaintance rape, is an issue that, like wife-battering and sexual harassment on the job, has emerged recently as a widespread phenomenon. And it has been difficult, just as it was with those other forms of sexual violence, to determine whether it is a new trend, pointing to an increased acceptance of violence in our society, or an experience that women have only lately gathered the courage to report. 1591 “It’s hard to make women understand that if they do get raped,…it’s more likely to be on a date than in a dark alley,” says Amy Levine, who directs the Rape Prevention Program at the University of California’s San Francisco campus.1592 Ellen Doherty, [coordinator for the Rape Intervention Program at New York’s St. Luke’s-Roosevelt Hospital Center,1593] believes that acquaintance rape is both the most unreported, and potentially the most psychologically damaging type of sexual assault: “It is the hardest for women to talk about, even to their closest friends, much less to the police. It’s easier for a woman to believe that there’s no way she could have brought it on herself when a strange man comes out of nowhere and attacks her.” However, when the rapist is a friend or a date, “not only has her body been violated, but her trust in another human being has been betrayed, and her faith in her own judgment has been shaken. She keeps saying, ‘I know him, and he’s not a bad person – so it must be something I said or did that got me into this.’ ” 1594 A Columbia student was moved by the concern of a male student who was worried about her walking home late at night from a group outing.1595 “Having preyed on her fear of rape by a stranger, he ushered her into his apartment, locked the door with a police lock, and preceeded to rape her himself.” For every student who approaches Doherty for medical attention and counseling in cases like this, many of whom do not press criminal charges, she says that she hears about two more who apparently don’t seek any kind of help. Rape counselors say that lack of peer support often hinders a woman’s ability to deal with having been raped or to seek legal recourse.1596 “If the people who know and care about her aren’t even behind her, what can she possibly expect from the police or a jury?” 1597 Because jurors often believe that rape victims are women who “change their minds afterward,” 1598… acquaintance rapes are among the most difficult to prosecute, second only to marital rapes. 1599 The police and the 1584 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), pp. 272-273. 1585 Ibidem, p. 455. 1586 Ibidem, p. 463. 1587 Ibidem, p. 273. 1588 Karen Barrett, Date rape: a campus epidemic?, In Human Sexuality, Annual Editions 87/88, ed. O. Pocs (Duskin Publishing Group, 1987), p. 201. 1589 Op. cit. 1590 Karen Barrett, Crossed signals and mixed messages: sex on a Saturday night, In Human Sexuality, Annual Editions 87/88, ed. O. Pocs (Duskin Publishing Group, 1987), p. 202. 1591 Karen Barrett, Date rape: a campus epidemic?, In Human Sexuality, Annual Editions 87/88, ed. O. Pocs (Duskin Publishing Group, 1987), p. 201. 1592 Op. cit. 1593 Op. cit. 1594 Op. cit. 1595 Karen Barrett, Date rape: a campus epidemic?, In Human Sexuality, Annual Editions 87/88, ed. O. Pocs (Duskin Publishing Group, 1987), p. 203. 1596 Op. cit. 1597 Op. cit. 1598 Op. cit. 1599 Op. cit.

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courts have a history of callous or even abusive treatment of rape victims. The woman may be offered little sympathy, and the police may adopt a cynical attitude.1600 The attitudes of the police are not too surprising, for the police officers grew up in a culture that abounds with stereotypes about women. 1601 The woman who has been socialized to be nurturant and who spends her days expressing her gentleness…can scarcely be expected to attempt to gouge out a man’s eyes with her finger[]s, as some self-defense experts advise.1602 Perhaps partly as a result of several excellent television programs dramatizing the plight of the woman who has been raped, many police departments have tried to change their handling of rape victims. Some even have special “rape squads” composed of women police officers who record the woman’s story and investigate the case; this spares the woman the embarrassment of describing the incident to a man.1603

• • •

Researchers have…identified a silent rape reaction, in which the woman not only fails to report the rape to the police, but also tells no one about it ([Burgess, Ann W., & Holmstrom, Lynda L. (1974a). Rape trauma syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 981-986 1604]). She, of course, experiences the same problems of adjustment that other rape victims do, but she has no way of expressing or venting her feelings. Counselors and psychotherapists need to be aware of this syndrome. For example, a she may come for counseling complaining of quite different problems – perhaps inability to have orgasms, or anxiety and depression – when her real problem is that she has been raped but is unable to talk about it.1605 Researchers have tried to identify what factors determine who will experience the severe reactions ([Resick, Patricia A. (1983). The rape reaction: Research findings and implications for intervention. The Behavior Therapist, 6, 129-132 1606]).1607 Social support from relatives and friends is important; women who receive poor support are more likely to have long-term problems with depression.1608

• • •

Some people actually seem to be fearful of intimacy – that is, of a deep emotional closeness to another person ([Kaplan, Helen Singer. (1979). Disorders of sexual desire. New York: Simon & Schuster 1609]). Indeed, some people appear to fear intimacy more than they do sex. They would prefer to watch TV or talk about the weather or have sex rather than engage in a truly intimate, emotionally vulnerable, and trusting conversation with another person. If such persons are single, they typically progress in a relationship to a certain degree of closeness and then lose interest. This pattern is repeated with many partners. This fear may be a result of negative or disappointing intimate relationships – particularly with the parents – in early childhood.1610

• • •

Brain researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have uncovered strong evidence of what everybody already knew. In some important respects, men and women don’t think alike. They literally use their brains differently. A study of brain-use patterns in 61 subjects reported in…[an] issue of Science found a biological basis for long-noted behavioral differences between the sexes – differences such as the fact that, for instance, men are far more prone to violence than women, or the fact that women tend to have a harder time with math. 1611

1600 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 478. 1601 Op. cit. 1602 Ibidem, p. 479. 1603 Ibidem, pp. 478-479. 1604 Ibidem, p. 665. 1605 Ibidem, p. 476. 1606 Ibidem, p. 684. 1607 Ibidem, p. 476. 1608 Op. cit. 1609 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 676. 1610 Ibidem, pp. 534-535. 1611 Mark Bowden (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Guess what? Men, women think differently; study tells us what we already knew, The Seattle Times, 27 Jan 1995, p. A3.

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“Our findings do not answer the question of whether the differences are genetic or cultural in origin,” said Ruben Gur, the Penn neuropsychologist who wrote the report. “After all, culture shapes the brain just as the brain shapes culture.” 1612 The evidence suggests that, on average, women are more inclined to exercise a portion of the lower brain that helps refine the way emotions are expressed, and are also more likely than men to flex the side of the brain associated with abstract thinking, verbal memory and flexible problem-solving. “If you peel off the outer cortex, you get to the part of the brain we share with reptiles and beasts of prey, the limbic system. It is made up of several structures, some older and more primitive than others. The most complex portion of the limbic system is the cingulate gyrus, which is thought to be involved in regulating emotion.” The study concludes that women tend to use the cingulate gyrus more than men do. In the case of aggression, this more recently evolved portion of the limbic system seems to afford a broader range of emotional options 1613…usually meaningless outside the context of the social factors and environment in which it occurs.1614 As we try to understand…our sociality, it is critical to remember the limits of the biology. Knowing the genome, the complete DNA sequence, of some suburban teenager is never going to tell us why that kid, in his after-school chess club, has developed a particularly aggressive style with his bishops. And it certainly isn’t going to tell us much about the teenager in some inner city hellhole who has taken to mugging people. 1615

1612 Op. cit. 1613 Op. cit. 1614 Robert Sapolsky, Testosterone rules; it takes more than just a hormone to make a fellow’s trigger finger itch, Discover, March 1997, 18(3), p. 50. 1615 Op. cit.

138 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Bystander Apathy

In 1964 America was shocked by the murder of twenty-eight-year-old Kittly Genovese in New York City. Murder was not unheard of in the “big apple,” but Kitty had screamed for help as her killer had repeatedly stabbed her. Nearly forty neighbors had heard the commotion. Many watched. Nobody helped. 1616 Highly masculine people might be expected to try to “take charge” of most situations, and thus be expected to be more likely to come to the aid of others in emergencies. However, Dianne Tice and Roy Baumeister (1985) found that highly masculine subjects…were less likely than others to help others in distress. The researchers suggest that highly masculine people may have a greater fear of potential embarrassment and loss of poise than most people – that is, they have a “tougher” image to protect. These fears then inhibit them from intervening in emergencies.1617 A sense of personal responsibility increases the likelihood of helping.1618 Bystanders who believe that others “get” what they deserve may rationalize not helping by thinking that a person would not be in trouble unless this outcome was just ([Lerner, M. J., Miller, D. T., & Holmes, J. G. (1975). Deserving versus justice: A contemporary dilemma. In L. Berkowitz & E. Walster (eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 12. New York: Academic Press 1619]).1620

No!

Animals have multiple ways of crying “Help!” that vary according to the type of threat, a top scientist says. 1621 Certain monkeys even know how to lie, and for the same reason that many humans lie – for sex, said researcher Peter Marler at a language conference…at the California Academy of Sciences in Golden Gate Park. In Africa, vervet monkeys utter one type of cry when threatened by a snake; another when attacked by a leopard; and yet another when assaulted by an eagle, said Marler, who works at UC-Davis. That way, Marler explained, their fellow vervets will know where to hide: say, in a tree, far above the snake; or in a bush, where the eagle can’t reach them. Also, field researchers in Africa have observed male vervet monkeys attracting females by uttering the vervet word for “food,” Marler said. Just as some human females discover that their blind date’s “BMW” is a rusting Chevy and his “high-powered job” is the night shift at…[a fast-food franchise,] the female vervet rushes up to the male and discovers the “food” is a twig or leaf.1622 In the field, researchers play tape recordings of vervet monkey cries to see how these affect real monkeys. For example, they’ll play a vervet monkey cry that, translated into human English, means “Look out! Snake!” Startled, the real-life monkeys stand on their hind feet and look around for snakes. And when the scientists play a cry that is monkey-speak for “Look out! Eagle!” the real-life monkeys hide in a bush where the eagle can’t reach them. Such experiments offer “great, compelling hints” that the monkeys’ cries aren’t simply dumb reflexes, Marler said. Rather, they’re the equivalent of human words that refer to specific objects in the environment, Marler says.1623 Tape recordings of certain bird calls show they contain intricate internal structure. That structure includes “a simple library of six (musical) note types” that the bird rearranges into a complex variety of songs, he said. In other words, he joked, animal “talk” isn’t totally explained by what a colleague scorns as “the GOP theory” – a theory that animal utterences are just “grunts of pain.” 1624

• • •

1616 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehard & Wilson, 1987), p. 667. 1617 Ibidem, p. 668. 1618 Ibidem, p. 668. 1619 Ibidem, p. R-22. 1620 Ibidem, p. 668. 1621 Keay Davidson, Animals chatting amongst themselves?; eavesdropping scientists at conference ponder questions of critter communication, San Francisco Examiner, 13 April 1997, 132(15), p. C-5. 1622 Op. cit. 1623 Op. cit. 1624 Op. cit.

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Men lie to women. Women lie to men. And most people agree that some lying is even necessary – to avoid petty squabbles and grease the wheels of a relationship.1625 But kind lies can be too much of a good thing if a man habitually says only what his partner wants to hear. It sets the woman up for rude awakenings. 1626 There are crucial differences in the lies women and men tell. A 1991 study by psychologist Bella M. DePaulo of the University of Virginia found that when women lie, they tend ot focus on making others feel better. 1627 At the heart of many men’s lies, however, is the male ego. Men lie to build themselves up or to conceal something, DePaulo says. According to psychologist Michael Lewis,…men are more likely to lie to enhance themselves than women are.1628 Men…need to develop the courage to drop the defense mechanisms that bolster their egos and pride, and search for true intimacy with their mates. 1629 David Nyberg, professor of education at State University of New York at Buffalo, states, “Occasionally there is a lot to lose by telling the truth, and something to be gained by not telling the truth.” 1630 Consistent lying – even about minor matters – can unglue a marriage [(domestic partnership)]. Women need to know what kind of lies to watch for.1631 Men have a hard time admitting failure.1632 A man who can’t be honest about his failures – at work or elsewhere – may end up blaming his wife when the going gets tough in their marriage. 1633 The lies to make a woman fall in love or stay in love account for many truth-stretchers. In a 1991 study, psychologist William Tooke and an assistant at the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh asked 110 students at the university to look at 88 deceptive tactics – such as inflating one’s accomplishments and wearing designer clothes to appear wealthy – and reveal how often they were used in their own relationships. Men were significantly more likely than women to use such deceptions. A man…told his girlfriend, “You’re a great cook – much better than my mother.” In fact, his mother is a chef at a well-know New York restaurant.1634 By the time his girlfirend discovered the truth – when they dined at his mother’s restaurant – she was so in love that she forgave his overzealous compliment. Women sometimes aren’t as cautious as they should be when flattered. If a man insists that his wife’s parents are wonderful, she should observe whether he actually wants to spend time with them. The same applies for her dog, her kids or anything else he says he’s crazy about. Ego-stroking statements that turn out to be total lies may be designed to cover up opposite feelings – for instance, when a man says he values his wife’s work but actually doesn’t consider it important. Such lies can signal serious problems ahead, whether it’s dealing with child care, vacation plans or career moves. 1635 One of the most lied-about subjects has to be sex. Perhaps that’s because it’s the area where we are most vulnerable. Here again men are likely to lie.1636 It’s important to remember that lies are at the heart of deceptions, and repeated deceptions destroy intimacy. Real intimacy is only possible to the degree that we can be honest about what we are doing and feeling. 1637 If a woman feels her man is holding back on his true sexual feelings, she needs to encourage him to be open. Talking about her own preferences is a good way to begin. Real intimacy depends on truth – lovingly told – especially in the bedroom.1638 Many men still feel paternalistic about the women they love, so they lie to spare them worry. But these lies can destroy the very sense of confidence that the man hoped to create. And they can make a woman feel she is not a respected partner in the relationship.1639 There are few things that trouble a man more than a woman’s anger – or nagging, as he calls it – so he lies to avoid a scene. It is in “hassle-prevention lying” that men can demonstrate their greatest versatility. 1640 If hassle-prevention lies are occasional, the woman can ignore them. But if they form a pattern, she needs to look at what the real problems are.1641

1625 Joyce Brothers, Lies men tell women, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 45. 1626 Ibidem, p. 49. 1627 Ibidem, p. 45. 1628 Ibidem, pp. 45-46. 1629 Ibidem, p. 50. 1630 Op. cit. 1631 Ibidem, p. 46. 1632 Op. cit. 1633 Op. cit. 1634 Op. cit. 1635 Op. cit. 1636 Ibidem, pp. 46, 48. 1637 Ibidem, p. 50. 1638 Ibidem, p. 48. 1639 Ibidem, p. 49. 1640 Ibidem, p. 50. 1641 Op. cit.

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The more quickly a woman seeks the truth behind…lies, the sooner she can remedy the relationship – or, if necessary, end it.1642 A woman may not be sure that what her husband is saying.1643 She should listen closely, not only to what he says, but also to how he says it. According to DePaulo, changes in voice can be significant. 1644 “Me? I graduated top of my class.” 1645 “Of course I like your friends!” 1646 “Honey, you’re the best.” 1647 “No, I can’t call you. I don’t even know where I’ll be.” 1648 “That dress isn’t too tight. It looks great!” 1649 “Sure, I’ll mow the lawn – as soon as this crick in my back goes away.” 1650 “I would have scrubbed the pots, but I couldn’t find the scouring pads.” 1651 “I’ll take the kids to the park –when the weather gets nicer.” 1652 “They’re downsizing at work. But don’t worry. They won’t get me.” 1653

“Yes, I believe in being honest.” “No, I didn’t forget.” “She’s only a friend.” “Trust me.”

Contrary to what many women believe, it’s easy to develop a long-term, intimate and mutually fulfilling relationship with a guy. Of course, the guy has to be a Labrador retriever. With human guys, it’s extremely difficult.1654 We’re not talking about different wavelengths here. We’re talking about different planets in completely different solar systems. Elaine cannot communicate meaningfully with Roger because the sum total of his thinking about relationships is Huh? He has a guy brain, basically an analytical, problem-solving organ. It’s not comfortable with nebulous concepts such as love, need and trust. If the guy brain has to form an opinion about another person, it prefers to base it on facts, such as his or her earned-run average. Women have trouble accepting this. They are convinced that guys must spend a certain amount of time thinking about the relationship. How could a guy see another human being day after day, night after night, and not be thinking about the relationship? 1655 A guy in a relationship is like an ant standing on top of a truck tire. The ant is aware that something large is there, but he cannot even dimly comprehend what it is. And if the truck starts to roll, the ant will sense that something important is happening, but right up until he rolls around to the bottom and is squashed, the only thought in his tiny brain will be Huh? Thus the No. 1 tip for women to remember is never assume that you and he have a relationship. 1656

• • •

Popular culture bombards us with examples of animals being humanized for all sorts of purposes, ranging from education to entertainment to satire to propaganda.1657 We must ask – What kind of risk we are willing to take – the risk of underestimating animal mental life or the risk of overestimating it? There is no simple answer. 1658 [For example,] when guests arrive at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in Georgia, where [Frans de Waal] work[s], they usually pay a visit to the chimpanzees. And often, when she sees them approaching the compound, an adult female chimpanzee named Georgia will hurry to the spigot to collect a mouthful of water. She’ll then casually mingle with the rest of the colony behind the mesh fence, and not even the sharpest observer

1642 Ibidem, p. 48. 1643 Op. cit. 1644 Op. cit. 1645 Ibidem, p. 46. 1646 Op. cit. 1647 Op. cit. 1648 Ibidem, p. 48. 1649 Ibidem, pp. 48-49. 1650 Ibidem, p. 50. 1651 Op. cit. 1652 Op. cit. 1653 Ibidem, p. 49. 1654 Condensed from “Dave Barry’s Complete Guide to Guys” (1995), Dave Barry, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 109. 1655 Ibidem, p. 111. 1656 Op. cit. 1657 Frans de Waal, Are we in antrhopo-denial? Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 52. 1658 Ibidem, p. 53.

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will notice anything unusual. If necessary, Georgia will wait minutes, with her lips closed, until the visitors come near. Then there will be shrieks, laughs, jumps – and sometimes falls – when she suddenly sprays them. 1659 [Some] would say that Georgia was not “up to” anything when she sprayed water on her victims. Far from planning and executing a naughty plot, Georgia merely fell for the irresistible reward of human suprise and annoyance.1660 If two closely related species act in the same manner, their underlying mental processes are probably the same, too.1661 Last summer, an ape saved a three-year-old boy. The child,1662…knocked unconscious by [a] 20-foot fall 1663…into the primate exhibit at Chicago’s Brookfield Zoo, was scooped up and carried to safety by Binti Jua, an eight-year-old western lowland female gorilla. The gorilla sat down on a log in a stream, cradling the boy in her lap and patting his back, and then carried him to one of the exhibit doorways 1664…where she was accustomed to seeing her keepers 1665…before laying him down and continuing on her way.1666 “We arrived about 20 seconds after the boy had fallen,” says chief keeper Craig Demitros. Demitros’s crew used fire hoses to direct Binti and the other gorillas out of the enclosure, after which paramedics tended to the boy.1667 Binti became a celebrity overnight, figuring in the speeches of leading politicians who held her up as an example of much-needed compassion. Some scientists were less lyrical, however. They cautioned that Binti’s motives might have been less noble than they appeared, pointing out that his gorilla had been raised by people and had been taught parental skills with a stuffed animal. The whole affair might have been one of a confused maternal instinct, they claimed. The intriguing thing about this flurry of alternative explanations was that nobody would think of raising similar doubts when a…[boy] saves a dog hit by a car. The rescuer might have grown up around a kennel, have been praised for being kind to animals, have a nurturing personality, yet we would still see his behavior as an act of caring. Why then, in Binti’s case, was her background held against her?… [We are] not saying that…[we] know what went through Binti’s head, but [Waal does] know that no one had prepared her for for this kind of emergency and that it is unlikely that, with her own 17-month-old infant on her back, she was “maternally confused.” How in the world could such a highly intelligent animal mistake a blond boy in sneakers and a red T-shirt for a juvenile gorilla? Actually, the biggest surprise was how surprised most people were. Students of ape behavior did not feel that Binti had done anything unusual. Jörg Hess, a Swiss gorilla expert, put it most bluntly, “The incident can be sensational only for people who don’t know a thing about gorillas.” 1668 Now, no doubt even a casual reader will have noticed that in describing…[animals’] actions,…[we have] implied human qualities such as intentions, the ability to interpret…[one’s] own awareness, and a tendency toward 1669…kindness 1670…[or] mischief. Yet scientific tradition says…[we] should avoid such language –…[we are] committing the sin of anthropomorphism, of turning nonhumans into humans. The word comes from the Greek, meaning “human form,” and it was the ancient Greeks who first gave the practice a bad reputation. 1671 The philosopher Xenophanes objected to Homer’s poetry because it treated Zeus and the other gods as if they were people. How could we be so arrogant, Xenophanes asked, as to think the gods should look like us? If horses could draw pictures, he suggested mockingly, they would no doubt make their gods look like horses. Nowadays the intellectual descendants of Xenophanes warn against perceiving animals to be like ourselves. There are, for example, the behaviorists, who follow psychologist B. F. Skinner in viewing the actions of animals as responses shaped by rewards and punishments rather than the result of internal decision making, emotions, or intentions.1672 [But] behaviorists are not the only scientists who have avoided thinking about the inner life of animals. Some sociobiologists – researchers who look for the roots of behavior in evolution – depict animals as “survival machines” and “preprogrammed robots” put on Earth to serve their “selfish” genes. There is a certain metaphorical value to these concepts, but it has been negated by the misunderstanding they’ve created. Such language can give the impression that only genes are entitled to an inner life. No more delusively anthropomorphizing idea has been put forward since the pet-rock craze of the 1970s. In fact, during evolution, genes – a mere batch of molecules – simply multiply at different rates, depending on the traits they produce in an individual. To say that genes are selfish is like saying a snowball growing in size as it rolls down a hill is greedy for snow.

1659 Ibidem, p. 50. 1660 Ibidem, pp. 50, 52. 1661 Ibidem, p. 53. 1662 Op. cit. 1663 Barbie Bischof, Gentle Binti, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 72. 1664 Frans de Waal, Are we in antrhopo-denial? Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 53. 1665 Barbie Bischof, Gentle Binti, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 72. 1666 Frans de Waal, Are we in antrhopo-denial? Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 53. 1667 Barbie Bischof, Gentle Binti, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 72. 1668 Frans de Waal, Are we in antrhopo-denial? Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 53. 1669 Ibidem, p. 50. 1670 Ibidem, p. 53. 1671 Ibidem, p. 50. 1672 Op. cit.

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Logically, these agnostic attitudes toward a mental life in animals can be valid only if they’re applied to our own species as well. Yet it’s uncommon to find researchers who try to study human behavior as purely a matter of reward and punishment. Describe a person as having intentions, feelings, and thoughts and you most likely won’t encounter much resistance. Our own familiarity with our inner lives overrules whatever some school of thought might claim about us. Yet despite this double standard toward behavior in humans and animals, modern biology leaves us no choice other than to conclude that we are animals. In terms of anatomy, physiology, and neurology we are really no more exceptional than, say, an elephant or a platypus in its own way. Even such presumed hallmarks of humanity as warfare, politics, culture, morality, and language may not be completely unprecedented. For example, different groups of wild chimpanzees employ different technologies – some fish for termites with sticks, others crack nuts with stones – that are transmitted from one generation to the next through a process reminiscent of human culture.1673 The use of tools was once thought to be a uniquely human skill. Over the past few decades, however, chimpanzees, sea otters, and even some birds have been seen using simple tools such as twigs or rocks. But perhaps the most sophisticated nonhuman tool user is found on the island of New Caledonia in the southwestern Pacific. This past year, Gavin Hunt of Massey University in New Zealand reported that crows on New Caledonia make and use two kinds of tools. Unlike the simple, mostly unmodified sticks or rocks favored by other animals, the crows’ tools are carefully selected and shaped. They make one – a hook-shaped stick – by first pulling a small branch off a plant. Next they strip the leaves and nibble at the stick’s end to form a hook, which they insert into knotholes in trees or beneath debris to fish for millipedes, insects, and other prey. The crows make another tool by shearing off leaves from the sawtooth-edged Pandanus plant (…), tearing the leaves in such a way as to create a sturdy, wedge-shaped strip, which is also used to probe for prey. “The wide end is held in the mouth with the barbs running away,” says Hunt. “It all seems very logical. These guys know what they’re doing.” 1674 Given these discoveries, we must be very careful not to exaggerate the uniqueness of our species. The ancients apparently never gave much thought to this practice, the opposite of anthropomorphism, and so we lack a word for it. [Waal] will call it anthropodenial: a blindness to the humanlike characteristics of other animals, or the animal-like characteristics of ourselves. Those who are in anthropodenial try to build a brick wall to separate humans from the rest of the animal kingdom. They carry on the tradition of René Descartes, who declared that while humans possessed souls, animals were mere automatons. This produced a serious dilemma when Charles [Robert] Darwin came along: If we descended from such automatons, were we not automatons ourselves? If not, how did we get to be so different? 1675 As soon as we admit that animals are far more like our relatives than like machines, then anthropodenial becomes impossible and anthropomorphism becomes inevitable – and scientifically acceptable. But not all forms of anthropomorphism, of course.1676

• • •

Although a Martian ethologist would surely appreciate the ingenuity of earthbound researchers in devising and testing alternative hypotheses on the helpful behavior exhibited by scrub jays, lions, and baboons, he or she would probably find being stung by a honeybee even more intriguing. Although the pain of a bee sting is attention-getting, a Martian aware of the theory of evolution by natural selection would be even more impressed by the discovery that the worker bee dies when her stinger catches in the victim’s skin [(Seeley, T. D. 1985. Honeybee Ecology: A Study of Adaptation in Social Life. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 1677)]. One does not have to be a Martian to appreciate that the evolution of sterility and a readiness for suicidal self-sacrifice by a worker caste poses a fascinating evolutionary problem. Extreme altruism occurs all the time in colonies of termites, ants, some bees, and some wasps, colonies that may contain hundreds or tens of thousands of workers that cannot reproduce but instead sacrifice themselves in many ways for the welfare of others in their group. For example, these social groups often contain specialists at repelling predators, a soldier caste whose members are generally larger than other workers and whose sole function is to protect the colony against dangerous invaders, such a predatory ant or raiding vertebrates. The reaction of soldiers to intruders varies among species: they may sting them, or chop their opponents in half with shearing mandibles (…), or snap them away with the peculiar “finger-snap” mandibles possessed by some termite species. Or they may spray them with an entangling resinous glue in the manner of nasute termites [(Wilson, E. O. 1971. The Insect Societies. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1678)]. Several species of ants have workers that practice a variant on this theme. When threatened,

1673 Ibidem, p. 52. 1674 Michael M. Abrams, Avis habilis, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 70. 1675 Frans de Waal, Are we in antrhopo-denial? Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 52. 1676 Op. cit. 1677 John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 5th ed. (Mass: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993), p. 606. 1678 Ibidem, p. 611.

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the workers rush at the enemy while constricting their abdominal muscles so violently that the body wall bursts and a large abdominal gland explodes. Glue released from the gland entraps the intruders and prevent them from harming the colony ([Maschwitz, U., and E. Maschwitz. 1974. Platzende Arbeiterinnen: Eine neue Art der Feindabwehr bei sozialen Hautflüglern. Oecologia 14:289-294 1679]). The self-sacrificing behavior of soldiers is only one of several kinds of helpful behavior that dominates the lives of eusocial (caste-containing) insects, as can be seen by contrasting the behavior of a solitary wasp with that of a eusocial wasp. A solitary wasp like Ammophilia novita captures a single large prey, digs a nest, deposits the prey in the nest, lays an egg on the victim, and closes the nest as she leaves. The solitary female has no contact with her progeny and receives no assistance in her reproductive efforts from any other individual. 1680

1679 Ibidem, p. 599. 1680 Ibidem, pp. 524-525.

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Pornography

In 1967 Congress established the Commission on Obscenity and Pornography; 1681…the commission issued its report in 1970 ([Commission on Obscenity and Pornography (1970). The report of the commission on obscenity and pornography. New York: Bantam Books 1682]). The basic conclusion of the report was that pornography did not have bad effects on people. Soon after, there appeared a report of the “Denmark Experiment”; Denmark completely legalized pornography, and the result seemed to be a reduction in sex crimes, notably child molestation ([Kutchinsky, Berl. (1973). The effect of easy bavailability of pornography on the incidence of sex crimes: the Danish experience. Journal of Social Issues, 29, 163-181 1683]).1684 Until relatively recently, the prevailing view among social scientists was that pornography does not foster aggressive or deviant behavior among adolescents or adults. This was also the conclusion of the Presidental Commission on Obscenity and Pornography (1971). However, more recent research has shown that erotic material can influence aggressive behavior in a variety of ways. Since human sexuality and aggression are both quite complex forms of behavior, it is hardly suprising that the interaction of the two should also be extraordinarily complex.1685 There is a great deal of research suggesting that aggressive images of women in pornography (the most prevalent kind) are strongly related to aggression against women in real life ([Donnerstein, E. (1980). Aggressive erotica and violence against women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 269-277; 1686 Donnerstein, E. (1982). Aggressive pornography: Can it influence aggression against women. Primary Prevention and Psychopathology, 7; 1687Donnerstein, E., Berkowitz, L. (1981). Victim reactions in aggressive erotic films as a factor in violence against women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 710-724; 1688 Silbert, M. H., & Pines, A. M. (1984). Pornography and sexual abuse of women. Sex Roles, 10, 857-868 1689]). For example, even nonangered male college students showed an increase in aggression using electric shock toward a female in a lab setting after viewing aggressive-erotic films. Such films increased levels of aggression toward men, too, but not as much. Furthermore, there is a strong relationship between exposure to aggressive pornography and arousability to rape scenes, acceptance of rape myths, and self-reported likelihood to commit rape ([Briere, J., Corne, S., Runta, M., & Malamuth, N. (1984, Aug.). The rape arousal inventory: Predicting actual and potential sexual aggression in a university population. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada; 1690 Donnerstein, E. (1982). Aggressive pornography: Can it influence aggression against women. Primary Prevention and Psychopathology, 7 1691]). Repeated exposure to violent pornography results in reduced negative reactions (such as anxiety and depression) to the material and to reduced sensitivity to female victims of violence in other contexts ([Linz, D., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1984). The effects oof multiple exposure to filmed violence against women. Journal of Communications, 34(3), 130-147 1692]).1693 It appears that as erotic stimuli become more arousing (especially as precoital and coital activity are depicted), aggressive behavior increases ([Meyer, T. P. 1972. The effects of sexually arousing and violent films on aggressive behavior. Journal of Sex Research, 8:324-333; 1694 Zillmann, D. Hoyt, J. L., and Day, K. D. 1974. Strength and duration of the effect of aggressive, violent, and erotic communications on subsequent aggressive behavior. Communication Research, 1:286-306; 1695 Donnerstein and Hallam, J. 1978. Facilitating effects of erotica on aggression against women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36:1270-1277 1696]). In contrast, at a low level of arousal (for instance, photographs of nudes), erotic stimuli act to lower the intensity of aggressive reactions ([Donnerstein, E., Donnerstein, M., and Evans, R. 1975. Erotic stimuli and aggression: Facilitation or inhibition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32:237-244; 1697 Baron, R. A. 1977. Human Aggression. New York: Plenum Press; 1698 Baron, R. A. and Bell, P. A. 1977. Sexual arousal and aggression by males: Effects of type of erotic stimuli prior to provocation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33:245-255 1699]). Apparently mild erotic materials are experienced by most people as hedonic and pleasing ([Zillmann, D. and Sapolsky, B. S. 1977. What

1681 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 511. 1682 Ibidem, p. 666. 1683 Ibidem, p. 677. 1684 Ibidem, p. 511. 1685 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), pp. 274-275. 1686 Susan A. Basow, Gender Stereotypes: Traditions and Alternatives, 2nd ed. (CA: Brooks/Cole Publ. Co., 1986), p. 333. 1687 Op. cit. 1688 Op. cit. 1689 Ibidem, p. 370. 1690 Ibidem, pp. 325-326. 1691 Ibidem, p. 333. 1692 Ibidem, p. 353. 1693 Ibidem, p. 278. 1694 James W. Vander Zanden, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: Random House, Inc., 1981), p. 468. 1695 Ibidem, p. 479. 1696 Ibidem, p. 455. 1697 Op. cit. 1698 Ibidem, p. 449. 1699 Op. cit.

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mediates the effect of mild erotica on annoyance and hostile behavior in males? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35:587-596 1700]).1701 Heightened arousal of any sort serves to exaggerate any behavior that is already prevalent at the time.1702 Seymour Feshbach and Neal Malamuth (1978) 1703…argue that the tie between erotic arousal and aggression derives from the cultural linkage Western societies make between the two behaviors. Common taboos affect sex and aggression and hence generalize from one to the other.1704 Depiction of violence in pornography can be harmful.1705 Violent porn increas[es] aggressive behavior as well as affect[s] attitudes and perceptions of violence toward women.1706 Exposure to aggressive pornography does increase males’ aggression toward women, as well as affecting males’ attitudes, making them more accepting of violence against women. 1707 During the Reagan administration, Attorney General Edwin Meese appointed a commission to reevaluate the issue of pornography, updating the 1970 presidential commission’s report. The Meese commission’s report was published in 1986 and attracted widespread media attention ([Attorney General’s Commission on Pornography. (1986). Final report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice 1708]). The commission heard testimony from many sources, including judges, activists, victims, and social scientists such as Edward Donnerstein, and reviewed many research studies.1709 The Meese commission’s recommendations for restriction of pornography ma[d]e no sense. They should have been concerned about violence in the media, not sex. 1710

• • •

Pornography, however, consists of the reduction of the identity to the generic consequences of desire. As counterintuitive as it may sound, pornography hypersocializes sex the way authoritarian regimes hypersocialize the community – into monotonous rituals unfolding along inexorable lines. There is, in fact, nothing secret about pornography. It is the public caricature of a private act.1711

• • •

Gunmen stormed a brothel…and killed seven people, including two prostitutes and their madame, police said.1712 [The d]eputy [p]olice [c]hief…said the attack was sparked by the “massage parlor” owner’s failure to pay a debt to an organization that supplied her with young prostitutes. 1713

Child Pornography

The profit motives are strong. An advertisement in the magazine Screw offered $200 for young girl-child models, and dozens of parents responded. A reporter covering the scene said: Some parents appeared in the movie with their children; others merely allowed their children to have sex. One little girl, age 11, who ran crying from the bedroom after being told to have sex with a man of 40 protested, “Mommy I can’t do it.” “You have to do it,” her mother answered. “We need the money.” And of course the little girl did. ([Anson, Robert S. (1977, October 25). The San Francisco Chronicle 1714]) Some major, well-known films could easily be classified as kiddie porn. Taxi Driver featured Jodie Foster as a 12-year-old prostitute. And Pretty Baby launched the career of Brooke Shields, playing the role of a 12-year-old brothel prostitute in New Orleans. Brooke herself was 12 years old when the film was made.

1700 Ibidem, p. 479. 1701 Ibidem, p. 275. 1702 Op. cit. 1703 Op. cit. 1704 Op. cit. 1705 Op. cit. 1706 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 512. 1707 Ibidem, p. 513. 1708 Ibidem, p. 662. 1709 Ibidem, p. 513. 1710 Op. cit. 1711 Lee Siegel, De Sade’s daughters; in the new erotic writing by women, sex is a cruel, even murderous business, and men, for the most part, are brutes, The Atlantic Monthly, Feb 1997, 279(2), p. 97. 1712 Around the World, Madame, prostitutes among 7 killed in shootout at brothel, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A13. 1713 Op. cit. 1714 Janet Shibley Hyde, Understanding Human Sexuality, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990), p. 662.

146 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

A major study of offenders (the people who produce child pornography) and victims profiled the offender as follows: all of the 69 offenders studied were male. They ranged in age from 20 to 70, with an average [(mean)] age of 43. And 38 percent had an already established relationship with the child before the illicit activity began – they were family friends or relatives, neighbors, teachers, or counselors ([Burgess, Ann W. (1984). Child pornography and sex rings. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books (D. C. Heath)1715]).1716

• • •

In the video-game parlors of Japan, players with 80 cents to spend can battle villains with karate chops, or they can strip the high-school uniform from a young teen until she is topless. “I wasn’t lucky,” says the computer-generated image of a girl of 14, as she bares herself to three boys who just won a round of video mah-jongg at a Tokyo game center. The Japanese high-school uniform – for girls it is a sailor top and short skirt – is a visible symbol of the nation’s commitment to education. But it also has become a tawdry prop used by a society that has a predilection for turning young girls into sex objects.1717 In every Japanese bookstand and convenience store, pornographic magazines feature lewd photos of girls in high-school sailor uniforms. On television, one of the most popular children’s cartoon characters is “Sailor Moon,” a high-school girl in uniform who fights crime and inexplicably appears naked in her bathtub during the ending credits. 1718 “The people who have the power are men, but their sexuality is pretty immature,” said Naohide Yamamoto, director of the Japan Institute for Research in Education and the Culture of Human Sexuality. Sex stories are popular everywhere in the world, of course, and nearly every society has pornography. But by Western standards, Japan appears unique for condoning public displays of raw sexual imagery and for blurring the lines between adult and child pornography. Clothing stores in Tokyo think nothing of displaying provocative photographs of topless preteen girls in seductive, adult poses, and residential mailboxes get stuffed with ads for sex services that are illustrated with graphic photos of high-school girls performing sex acts.1719 [(America routinely displays naked infants.)] It is open to theory why Japanese men find very young girls sexually attractive. Experts on sexuality and women’s rights say that as women have begun to assert themselves, the traditional lack of equality between the sexes has left men intimidated by strong women, and therefore more interested in young girls. 1720 [(A valid theory.)] The less analytical reason…men are fixated on young girls is that no one has stopped them. “Men don’t think about human rights or anything else related to women; they look at them as objects,” Yamamoto said.1721

• • •

Shortly before 4 a.m. on May 25, a security camera in a Primm, Nev., casino [(Primadonna Casino 1722)] captured 7-year-old Sherrice Iverson – on her own as her father gambled nearby [(Is a casino complex a reasonable place for children? 1723)] – playing hide-and-seek in a video arcade with Jeremy Strohmeyer, 18, a college-bound high school student senior from Long Beach, Calif. Moments later, when Sherrice dashed into the woman’s room, Strohmeyer followed. There, allegedly, he raped and stranged her. 1724

1715 Ibidem, p. 665. 1716 Ibidem, p. 509. 1717 Michael A. Lev (Chicago Tribune), Increasingly, young girls are sex objects in Japan, The Seattle Times, 15(8), p. A16. 1718 Op. cit. 1719 Op. cit. 1720 Op. cit. 1721 Op. cit. 1722 Christopherr Reynolds (Los Angeles Times), Casinos and children: no one need be a loser, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. K5. 1723 Op. cit. 1724 Maria Eftimiades, Susan Christian Goulding, Anthony Duigan-Cabrera, Don Campbell, & Jane Sims Podesta, Why are kids killing?, People Weekly, 23 June 1997, 47(24), p. 49.

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A friend…says that earlier this year, Strohmeyer had showed him an extensive collection of pornographic photos culled from the Internet. “What struck me most was the little children,” [the friend] says. “I thought it was gross, and he just laughed.” 1725

Cybersmut

Police departments are starting to use their own “cyber cops.” Police say they are seeing more online crime, forcing them to train detectives to catch criminals in cyberspace.1726 In the…offices of Project P, the Pornography Crime Unit,…operating [a] computer is [a detective,]…the words “COPS: The largest street gang in the world” emblazoned on his T-shirt. [He] has a formidable job: sifting through up to 30,000 computer files, about 1.3 gigabytes of…child pornography.1727 Federal authorities…say they have 1728…indicted 16 1729…members of a child-porn ring that staged a live “photo-shoot” on the Internet, during which a 10-year-old girl was photographed in sexually explicit poses that members requested. As two men fondled and photographed the girl,…authorities allege, five others submitted their requests via computer from around the United States and Finland.1730 Federal prosecutors…said it is the first case they have seen in which pictures were made on request and transmitted in almost “real time.” 1731 The indictment alleges the 16 men belonged to an electronic child-porn ring called “the Orchid Club.” In addition to the live session, the indictiment says, members of the ring used the Internet to exchange other homemade photos and video clips of other children engaged in sexually explicit acts. In one incident,…the indictment says, a club member in the Midwest videotaped another man engaging in sexually explicit conduct with a 5-year-old.1732 There are more than 150 video clips, some of them horrifying: in one, a child rapes another while the one being raped cries out in pain.1733 Calling it “a very serious and very tragic case,” Assistant U.S. Attorney Tony West said the indictment illustrates how new technology can be co-opted by those who would use it to abuse and exploit others.1734 “There will be those who try to exploit it and use it in the most base way.” 1735 “There are tremendous numbers of ways in which to you can hide yourself on the Internet,” says Jim Carroll, co-author of the Canadian Internet Handbook. “And the problem is only going to get worse. If the police think they have a challenge today, they haven’t seen anything yet.” 1736 Pedophiles find others who share their interests. 1737

• • •

1725 Maria Eftimiades, Susan Christian Goulding, Anthony Duigan-Cabrera, Don Campbell, & Jane Sims Podesta, Why are kids killing?, People Weekly, 23 June 1997, 47(24), p. 49. 1726 Across the USA: news from every state, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 9A. 1727 Peter Kuitenbrouwer, A mountain of smut: police make an arrest in a child porn ring on the Internet, MacClean’s, 18 Nov 1996, 109(47), p. 61(1). 1728 Brandon Bailey, Feds arrest 13 they say operated child-porn ring on the Internet, Knight-Ridder/Tribune Service, 17 July 1996. 1729 Peter Kuitenbrouwer, A mountain of smut: police make an arrest in a child porn ring on the Internet, MacClean’s, 18 Nov 1996, 109(47), p. 61(1). 1730 Brandon Bailey, Feds arrest 13 they say operated child-porn ring on the Internet, Knight-Ridder/Tribune Service, 17 July 1996. 1731 Op. cit. 1732 Op. cit. 1733 Peter Kuitenbrouwer, A mountain of smut: police make an arrest in a child porn ring on the Internet, MacClean’s, 18 Nov 1996, 109(47), p. 61(1). 1734 Brandon Bailey, Feds arrest 13 they say operated child-porn ring on the Internet, Knight-Ridder/Tribune Service, 17 July 1996. 1735 Op. cit. 1736 Peter Kuitenbrouwer, A mountain of smut: police make an arrest in a child porn ring on the Internet, MacClean’s, 18 Nov 1996, 109(47), p. 61(1). 1737 Op. cit.

148 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

[A] huge child pornography business run by Americans based in [Acapulco,1738] Mexico…was shut down by American and Mexican police in May 1996.1739

• • •

US and Mexican law-enforcement authorities announce the break-up of a computerized child-pornography business in Tijuana that distributed materials to at least 2,000 subscribers in the United States and Canada. The alleged mastermind of the computer bulletin board, 50-year-old Robert Copella of Chicago, has been arrested in Tijuana and deported to the United States, where he is being held in San Diego on federal charges of transportation of child pornography. Two more suspects are at large. Copella fled to the Mexican city in 1993 after a warrant was issued for his arrest in Chicago. Copella allegedly charged $250 per subscription, plus additional fees, for transmitting hard-core pornographic images via computer networks.1740

• • •

A former Microsoft Corp. employee was found guilty [January 15] of possessing child pornography that he copied from the Internet while at work. Michael Seaman, 38, was convicted of one count of possessing child pornography by King County Superior Court Judge Michael Spearman following a bench trial. 1741 Using his computer at Microsoft, Seaman collected more than 2,500 files of photographs of young children in sexual poses or being sexually abused, court papers said.1742 Another Microsoft employee, Ronald Rosul, 31, also is charged with one count of possessing child pornography.1743 Rosul allegedly used Microsoft equipment to manufacture a CD-Rom [sic] disk containing dozens of photographs and movies of child pornography, prosecutors said.1744 Seaman and Rosul, who were charged last August, were both fired by Microsoft in October 1995 after a company investigation.1745 [Seaman] faces up to a year in jail.1746 A former Microsoft engineer, convicted of using his company computer to access and copy photographs of young children in sexually explicit poses, was sentenced [January 24] to 60 days of detention in a King County work-release program. Michael Seaman, 37, may spend only 20 days in detention, however, since half of his 60-day sentence can be converted into community service. He may also receive another 10-day reduction for good behavior. Seaman was ordered to provide a total of 12 months of community service, to continue reciving counseling, to write a history of his experiences resulting from his criminal activity and his conviction, and to pay court costs and compensation to victims.1747 If convicted, Rosul also faces up to a year in jail.1748 In separate unrelated cases, William Powell, 52, of Renton, and Dwight Hunter, 48, also were charged last August with using home computers to gain access to and exchange child pornography. Neither was connected with Microsoft. Hunter, who prosecutors accuse of allegedly trading child porn wih Powell, also faces two counts of indecent exposure for allegedly exposing himself to children on school buses.

1738 Julia Preston, Acapulco’s smut ring: the children remember; Mexican boys who were allegedly involved in huge child pornography business run by Americans based in Mexico that was shut down by American and Mexican police in May 1996, The New York Times, 9 Aug 1996, 145, p. A1. 1739 Op. cit. 1740 Sebastian Rotella, Computerized child porno ring broken, Los Angeles Times, 24 Sep 1994, 113, p. A31. 1741 Darrell Glover, Former Microsoft employee convicted in Internet child pornography case, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 17 Jan 1997, p. C7. 1742 Op. cit. 1743 Op. cit. 1744 Op. cit. 1745 Op. cit. 1746 Op. cit. 1747 Pacific Magazine, Man sentenced in sex case, The Seattle Times, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. B3. 1748 Darrell Glover, Former Microsoft employee convicted in Internet child pornography case, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 17 Jan 1997, p. C7.

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Both Powell and Hunter failed to appear for their arraignments and $300,000 warrants have been issued for their arrests.1749

• • •

FBI agents conducted searches in 20 cities as part of a nationwide investigation into the use of computer on-line services and the Internet to lure children into illicit sex and to distribute child pornography. Agents in 51 of the 56 FBI’s 56 field offices have participated along with local or state police in Florida, Maryland, Virginia and Washington, D.C., said FBI spokesperson Larry Faust. Decisions on arrests will be made after prosecutors review the seized materials. In three years, the probe has resulted in 80 arrests and 66 felony convictions. 1750

• • •

A King County Superior Court judge [May 30] declined to release from jail a Kirkland plastic surgeon charged with various sex crimes against his patients. 1751 [Gregory Alan] Johnson is charged with second-degree rape and assault for allegedly giving anesthesia to a patient in order to have sex with her. He is also charged with two counts of indecent liberties and one count of possession of child pornography. He is accused of taking indecent liberties with two women who went to him for breast implants. 1752

Slavery

We live our lives in cubicles hidden within windowless mazes. Not so deep inside us, primeval creatures crouch, yearning for the warm hand of sunlight on our backs, the wave of wind in our hair, the breadth of vistas before our eyes. But maybe some plastic and a few fluorescent bulbs will suffice.1753

• • •

“Beauty pagents in particular blur the lines between what is cute and what is sensual,” said Laura Pappano, a visiting scholar at the Murray Research Center at Radcliff College. 1754 V.J. La Cour, publisher of Pageant Life magazine, said: “It’s glitz and glitter, a little bit of Hollywood. That’s what the little kids want.” But their wants pale beside the interests of parents and a multimillion-dollar industry of grooming and showcasing. “It’s the big kids – the mothers – wanting the little kids to get the glory,” said Ted Cohen, president of World Pageants, Inc., which publishes an international directory of pageants. American pageants, Cohen said, represent a billion-dollar-a-year business.1755 Some feminists say that sexism and commercialism mean that a country that searches for the bogeyman in its children’s closets fails to see the real ones. “The commodification of bodies is big business because society reinforces stereotypes of beauty to keep women in their place,” said Shalene Hesse-Biber, associate professor of sociology at Boston University. “These pageants mark a deep sexual disturbance in the society, a cannibalizing of youth by these vampiric adults,” said Camille Paglia, a feminist critic and author. Some characterize that disturbance in terms of a national illness, others as a blend of biblical entitlement and good old American upward mobility. Anthony Graziano, professor of sociology and co-director of the Research Center for Children and Youth, at the State University of New York said: “We want to be good parents and are quick to criticize those we see as not being good parents. But then

1749 Op. cit. 1750 John Bacon, Child porn crackdown, USA Today, 12 Dec 1996, 15(63), p. 3A. 1751 Briefs, Judge won’t free surgeon charged with sex crimes, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 31 May 1997, 134(130), p. A3. 1752 Op. cit. 1753 Elizabeth Kastor (Washington Post), Ah, such light on yonder window fakes! And they don’t mind, The Seattle Times, 16 Feb 1997, 15(7), p. L6. 1754 Karen De Witt (The New York Times), Murder case offers a glimpse of girls’ beauty pageants, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A3. 1755 Op. cit.

150 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

something creeps into this. It is, at its most extreme, a sense that we own these children. They are objects to mold and do with as we like.” 1756 On Dec. 26, she was found strangled [and beaten 1757] in the basement of her family’s Boulder home, forever changing the way some view child beauty pagents.1758

• • •

Ethiopian immigrant Aster Haile was delighted when her cousin arranged a marriage for her, so excited that she bought clothes for her first date and showed them off. But Haile called a friend the day after the date and said the man was too old, that she couldn’t go through with the marriage. A day later, her body was found along an Atlanta highway, dead from a gunshot to her head. In custody is the man who set up the daete, Arega Abraha, Haile’s cousin and a professional runner who has won more than 170 races, from the Atlantic Marathon to this month’s Atlana Track Club 10K run. Police said they believe the 35-year-old Abraha was going to receive money for the marriage, and he killed his 28-year-old cousin when she balked.1759

• • •

Gordon Thomas says,1760…“According to the Anti-Slavery Society, there are an estimated 200 million slaves in the world. Some 100 million of them are children.” 1761 The report explains: “The urge to enslave remains the dark side of human nature . . . “[”Slavery is“]” the product of lust, greed and the love of power.” 1762 The victims of greed are everywhere.1763

• • •

Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and Dutch Foreign Minister Hans van Mierlo pledged to intensify cooperation in fighting the trafficking in women from poorer countries to work in richer countries. Organized-crime groups in Russia and Central Europe are “running what in effect are prostitution rings” in Western Europe and parts of Asia, a U.S. official said. 1764

• • •

Iraq, North Korea, Cuba and Sudan were listed [December 17] as the most repressive countries in the world by [New York based 1765] Freedom House, a pro-democracy group.1766 Others among the 17 countries that received the lowest rating were Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burma, Burundi, China, Equatorial Guinea, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Vietnam.1767 The survey said 2.26 billion people – 39.2 percent of the global population – live in “not free” societies.

• • •

North Korea has nearly tripled the number of guards along its borders with China and Russia to stop escapees, according to the biggest group of defectors to flee the impoverished Stalinist nation. They also said at a news conference [December 17] that North Koreans had been advised to prepare for

1756 Op. cit. 1757 Across the Nation, Probe focused on parents in JonBenet Ramsey’s slaying, The Seattle Times, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. A6. 1758 Deborah Mendez (The Associated Press), The show must go on; tribute highlights pageant won by JonBenet in ‘96, Eastside Journal, 30 March 1997, 21(224), p. A14. 1759 Across the Nation, Man held in murder after trying to arrange marriage, The Seattle Times, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. A6. 1760 Greed – what is it doing to us?, Awake! greed; how does it affect us?, 8 Jan 1997, p. 5. 1761 Op. cit. 1762 Op. cit. 1763 Op. cit. 1764 The Associated Press and Reuters, Europe-U.S. accords: sex slavery, The Seattle Times, 28 May 1997, 120(127), p. A3. 1765 Freedom House says 40% of world’s people aren’t free, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 18 Dec 1996, 133(303), p. A2. 1766 Op. cit. 1767 Op. cit.

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possible chemical, biological and nuclear warefare by making and keeping at home clothes and devices to protect themselves.1768

• • •

Women forced to provide sex to Japanese soldiers in World War II received compensation from a private Japanese fund [January 11] officials said.1769 Historians estimate that between 100,000 and 200,000 women from Korea, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan and the Netherlands, as well as Japan, were forced to become sex slaves for the Japanese army. Tokyo faces demands from many victims for direct government compensation, but it maintains that the issue has already been settled by postwar treaties.1770 The Taiwanese government plans to compensate women forced into sexual slavery by Japan’s military during World War II, a newspaper reported [April 13].1771 The government will seek reimbursement from Japan in negotiations that have dragged on for more than two years. 1772

• • •

Children learn that few things can be more powerful or just than a simple apology. And in the touchy-feely decade of the ‘90s, that moral lesson is being translated into public policy as the U.S. government and others around the world have issued formal apologies for past behavior. President Clinton’s apologies this year to the black men who were unwitting subjects in the Tuskegee syphilis study and to seven black veterans denied the Medal of Honor in World War II appeared to move the nation. But the country seems thrown off stride by a new proposal under debate in Congress and the White House: an apology to African-Americans for the sufferings their ancestors endured during more than 200 years of slavery. To be sure, the idea of an apology has drawn strong support in Congress and in the contry. The gesture, they say, would be long overdue, bringing closure to a racial rift that sparked civil war. 1773 The Rev. Jesse Jackson, in an interview, called the proposal “a meaningless gesture with no meaningful commitment to deal with the impact of something so serious as slavery.” Even one member of Clinton’s newly named panel on race, former Mississippi governor William Winter, said [June 17] that an apology for slavery would be a distraction from real healing. “We have to go beyond mere words,” Winter told a meeting of the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. “We have to go beyond mere expressions. We have to understand we still have a legacy of discrimination from slavery.” Gwen Daye Richardson, editor of Headway magazine, a leading journal for black conservatives, said she thought such an apology could be “an important symbolic gesture.” “But I don’t think people should take it as more than that,” she said. 1774 “And it could be used as some sort of political smokescreen,” [said Phillip Leong, who is Asian].1775 University of Maryland political scientist Ronnald Walters, a leading African-American scholar, says he’s been thinking for days about why seemingly disconnected whites and blacks seem to share this wariness. The issue, he said, is “just too explosive. I don’t think anybody is eager to get into it.” 1776 “It doesn’t matter one way or another. Who cares? It’s just words,” said Leviticus Chase, 25, an aspiring writer and M.B.A. student,…who is black. Chase doesn’t underestimate the value of symbolism. But something on the scale of the Million Man March is more effective, he said, than a political debate. 1777

1768 Reuters, N. Korea tightens grip along borders, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 18 Dec 1996, 133(303), p. A9. 1769 The Associated Press, Ex-sex slaves given money from private Japanese fund, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, p. A11. 1770 Op. cit. 1771 World Report, World War II sex slaves to get compensation, San Francisco Chronicle, 14 April 1997, 133(75), p. A10. 1772 Op. cit. 1773 Bill Nichols, Critics argue substance is need, not symbolism, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 1A. 1774 Ibidem, pp. 1A-2A. 1775 Ibidem, p. 2A. 1776 Op. cit. 1777 Op. cit.

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$

In all of history, man has recovered only about 115,000 metric tons of gold – roughly enough to make a cube 58 feet on a side. Because it’s virtually indestructible, about 85 percent of it is still with us. The gold in the New York [Federal Reserve Bank’s] vault could have been treasure brought by Christopher Columbus to Queen Isabella of Spain. It could have been melted-down coins struck by King Croesus, who used it as currency centuries before Christ. “It could also have been a nugget used in 4000 B.C. to barter in a Mediterranean seaport,” explains John Lucas in the Bureau of Mines’s 1992 Mineral Yearbook. “Gold has been recycled over and over throughout the ages.” 1778 The Book of Exodus relates how the Tabernacle was adorned with gold. Solomon, whose trading expeditions to Ophir produced some $200 million to $300 million worth of gold annually (at today’s rates), gilded his ivory throne and drank from golden goblets. When the Egyption boy king Tutankhamen died around 1350 B.C., his people laid him in a 240-pound gold coffin complete with a monumental solid-gold likeness of his face.1779 In China, younger peasants are defying age-old traditions and leaving their farms in hopes of striking it rich by mining gold in western provinces. In the Amazon, laborers endure back-breaking days in excruciating heat – all for a dusting of gold. When the Statue of Liberty was refurbished for her 100th birthday in 1986, artisans gilded her symbolic flame with almost 6000 squares of dazzling gold leaf.1780 About one-fifth of the gold used in the United States today – some 47 metric tons – is for electronics. Gold’s exceptional conductivity and resistance to corrosion make our TV sets and computers more reliable. Air Force One…is equipped with gold-plated reflectors to confuse heat-seeking missles. A nearly invisible gold film on the visors of the shuttle astronauts’ helmets protects them from the sun’s harmful rays.1781 The first hint of the United State’s natural gold deposits came in 1799 when a 17-pound nugget was found in North Carolina. In 1848 James Marshall, who was building a sawmill on California’s American River, noticed a glimmer in the water.1782 When word got out, the Great Gold Rush was on.1783 About 50,000 prospectors headed west, braving an arduous land journey or a long sea voyage around South America. On a lucky day a group of miners might find $30 worth of gold.1784 Gold’s beauty, usefulness and rarity have given it a value unsurpassed for thousands of years. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great marched 35,000 men into Persia to seize hoards of the glittering metal. The gold that Julius Caesar grabbed during his conquest of Gaul enabled him to change the face of Europe. In 1492, Christopher Columbus’s eye caught sight of gold on the island of Hispaniola. Over the century that followed, Spanish conquistadors sent back from the New World vast amounts of the precious metal. 1785 English merchants in the 17th century, needing to store more gold than they could securely hide themselves, began leaving it with goldsmiths in return for a recipt, 1786…popularizing the concept of paper money.1787 With the full backing of a safe gold supply, paper money became standard practice.1788 For much of the past two centuries the United States had adhered to some form of a gold standard, a government promise to redeem bank notes for gold at a fixed price.1789 In 1879 Washington gave U.S. money the backing of gold – and, except for a short period in the 1930s, the country continued using a gold standard of some kind for the next 90 years. Then in 1971, 1790…Richard Nixon ended the practice 1791…again.1792 “In practical terms we’re still on the gold standard,” says John Lutley, a precious-metals expert at the Gold Institute in Washington, D.C. “When there’s turmoil in the currency markets, investors move assets into gold for safety.” 1793

1778 Joseph A. Harriss, Gold rush!, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), pp. 59-60. 1779 Ibidem, p. 60. 1780 Op. cit. 1781 Op. cit. 1782 Ibidem, p. 63. 1783 Op. cit. 1784 Op. cit. 1785 Ibidem, pp. 60, 63. 1786 Ibidem, p. 63. 1787 Op. cit. 1788 Op. cit. 1789 Op. cit. 1790 Ibidem, p. 64. 1791 Ibidem, p. 63. 1792 Ibidem, p. 64. 1793 Op. cit.

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“Throughout history, gold has been the benchmark against which people measured the official money of governments,” says economist Jude Wanniski. He argues that a gold-linked U.S. dollar, offering greater security to investors, would enable the government to refinance the national debt at low interest rates. 1794 “Pegging currency to gold has proved the only stable method of determining what goods are worth,” explains French economist Paul Fabra. “No satisfactory substitute has ever been devised.” 1795 The words of the German poet Goethe seem as true today as when he wrote them nearly two centuries ago: ”Everything depends on gold.” 1796 Ironnically, the very discipline of the gold standard is why some politicans oppose it. Without such control, leaders can wage their wars, pad their payrolls and expand their bureaucracies by just printing more money. 1797

• • •

South Africa…holds about 45 percent of the estimated total world gold resources of 75,000 metric tons and produces some 30 percent of the Western world’s output.1798 Reaching it,1799…miners descend as far as two miles to get to the gold-bearing ore. At this level, temperatures of the rock can hover around 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Some tunnels are so cramped that miners must crawl. About six metric tons of rock are processed to yield just one ounce of gold.1800 In the early 1860s the U.S. government was forced to borrow money to finance the Civil War. But banks, watching their gold reserves dwindle, worried that if the South won, the loans might not be repaid. As an emergency measure, Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase began issuing greenbacks – legal tender backed only by the government’s promise to pay. This, in effect, removed America from the gold standard, and the government printed money at will.1801

• • •

Over the past few years banks have systematically raised their old fees and invented new ones – as many as 100 differenct kinds. The size of these charges jumped more than 50 percent on checking and savings accounts since 1990, according to Bank Rate Monitor, and independent provider of financial data. Meanwhile, interest rates paid on passbook savings and negotiable order of withdrawal (NOW) accounts failed to keep pace with inflation, let alone with other low-risk investments. And technologies like automated teller machines (ATMs) have truly turned into cash machines – for the banks.1802 Already 80 percent of all banks charge customers $1, on average, each time they use another banks’ machine; now some are charging to use their own ATMs as well. And the number of banks charging ATM card fees has tripled to 13 percent.1803 Bankers can be ingenious in persuading customers to adopt new technologies that save the banks money. Case in point: the debit card, which is like a credit card, except the money is automatically deducted from your checking account,1804…saving banks a bundle in processing expenses.1805 Some banks use shrewd approaches to get customers to take them.1806 For example, [one bank] sent out debit cards that looked similar to ATM cards, suggesting customers stop using their old ones. After a free trial period, the bank then hit those customers with a $1 monthly fee for a card they didn’t ask for in the first place.1807 According to a report by the Federal Reserve Board, fewer than eight percent of all commercial banks now offer free checking. In some big cities such as Los Angeles and San Francisco, free checking is virtually extinct. What’s more, the minimum balance required for the average checking account has increased dramatically since the Federal Reserve last surveyed banks in 1994.1808 Since financial services were deregulated in the early 1980s, competitors have lured away high-margin business that once sustained bank profits. Americans are shunning

1794 Op. cit. 1795 Op. cit. 1796 Op. cit. 1797 Op. cit. 1798 Joseph A. Harriss, Gold rush!, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 63. 1799 Op. cit. 1800 Op. cit. 1801 Ibidem, p. 64. 1802 Condenscd from Consumer Reports (March 1996), Is your bank ripping you off?, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 23. 1803 Ibidem, p. 29. 1804 Ibidem, p. 30. 1805 Op. cit. 1806 Op. cit. 1807 Op. cit. 1808 Ibidem, p. 23.

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low-interest bank accounts in favor of higher-yielding investments such as mutual funds. Credit-card holders can get more favorable terms from a national card issuer than from their local bank. Home buyers can now tap a national market for the most competitive mortgage rates, and new-car buyers can shop for loans from auto-finance specialists.1809 Still, the banks have managed to recoup their profits – in part with high customer fees. In fact, the banking industry has reported record earning over the past three years [(June 1996)]. 1810 Many banks are fattening their bottom line by increasing the spread between what they earn on the loans they issue nnd what they pay depositors on their savings. More than two-dozen big banks in at least eight major cities – including New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco – pay just one percent anually on interest-bearing checking accounts.1811 One banker unabashedly calls his low-paying savings deposits “Chumps-‘R’-Us” accounts. Yet about one-third of all deposits still languish in savings accounts like these. 1812 Banks even charge monthly fees for the privilege of holding small savers’ money. Only one bank in ten now offers a no-fee statement savings account. But if you keep $500 in a four-percent interest-bearing account with an average monthly fee of $2, you’ll actually lose money each year. And that’s even before you pay taxes on the meager interest you’re paid. Ironically, banks often reserve thir stiffest fees for customers who transact the most business 1813…by charging…for certain transactions at teller windows.1814 [About] 15 percent of…customers – “transaction hogs” in industry parlance - accounted for 60 percent of all business at teller windows. A bank spokesman says the fee wass intended to change those customers’ behavior.1815 A major force reshaping banking in the United States today is industrywide consolidation. 1816 Consolidation, however, has not been a boon for consumers. “It’s given that less competition means higher prices and lower rates on deposits,” says Federal Reserve economist Stephen A. Rhoades. In Minneapolis, for example, three banks now control 75 percent of the market, carving up profitable niches. One analyst calls this a “mutually beneficial oligopoly.” Of course, banks are entitled to make a profit. But they also owe something to their customers. It is, after all, taxpaying consumers who ultimately keep banks solvent. No national law guarantees access to banking services. But a few states such as New York and New Jerset require banks to offer basic checking accounts with minimal fees for consumers making a limited number of transaction.1817 Banks love customers who sign up for an account without investigating competitive rates, rarely visit a teller and quietly pay their monthly fees. Don’t be one of them. Here’s what the experts advise: 1818…review what you do; 1819…watch out for “special” deals; 1820…don’t use bank services that you can buy elsewhere for less. 1821 It pays to shop around.1822

• • •

The most important event in the history of shoplifting as we know it occurred in 1879 when F. W. Woolworth opened in Utica, N.Y., the first of what would become his five-and-ten stores. It was a radical idea: take the merchandise out of glass cabinets and display it where customers can select what they want themselves. Soon, however, customers began helping themselves in a way Woolworth did not envision. As the number of self-service stores increased, so did shoplifting. And the vocabulary of retailers expanded as well. “Shrinkage” is a term they use that includes shoplifting, which is a euphemism for stealing. Stores occasionally declare “all-out war” on the practice. Their weaponry is diverse: uniformed security guards, plainclothes detectives, real and dummy television camera, mirrors, peepholes, inventory-control tags that squirt dye when removed by the unauthorized, posters (…) and mannequins dubbed Anne Droids that have miniature cameras behind the eyes.

1809 Ibidem, p. 24. 1810 Op. cit. 1811 Op. cit. 1812 Op. cit. 1813 Op. cit. 1814 Op. cit. 1815 Ibidem, pp. 24, 29. 1816 Ibidem, p. 30. 1817 Op. cit. 1818 Ibidem, p. 30, 32. 1819 Ibidem, p. 32. 1820 Op. cit. 1821 Op. cit. 1822 Op. cit.

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Despite these measures, about 98 percent of all shoplifting is successful. Of the estimated 60 million shoplifting incidents last year, a mere 1.2 million were detected. 1823 Of those thieves caught, less than half were prosecuted. The chance that any larceny will go before a judge is only one in 100.1824 “Aggressive prosecution can be a real deterrent,” [Read Hays, president of Loss Prevention Specialists, Inc., a Florida-based security consulting firm,] says.1825 A 19-year-old California woman…got caught stealing a $5 [product and] “was put in jail for three days with prostitutes, child molesters, crack addicts. Never again.” 1826 A court dismissed charges against a woman who admitted stealing food to feed her children, and based its ruling a a turn-of-the-century law favoring the needy, newspapers reported.1827 Her attorney…found a nearly century-old “state of need” defense, used by courts to dismiss cases against hungry citizens who stole bread. 1828 “Shoplifting is a direct manifestation of the moral relativism in our society,” says Hayes. “Everyone knows its wrong to take something without paying.” 1829 Stripped of its seeming innocence, shoplifting is just another form of the search for wealth without work – right up there with income-tax and expense-account cheating and welfare fraud.1830 As long as the rest of us remain silent, we’ll keep on paying – in more ways than one.1831 The American Psychiatric Association says fewer than five percent of shoplifters are kleptomaniacs: people who can’t resist the impulse to steal.1832 Recent studies disclose…that many shoplifters have relatively normal psychological health and personalities that are indistinguisable from nonshoplifters – except for their willingness to steal. Indeed Loyd W. Klemke, professor of sociology at Oregon State University…says many shoplifters consider themselves nothing but “frugal shoppers.” 1833 “These stores won’t miss this item.” 1834 “It’s kind of like stealing from the rich and giving to the poor. These stores have lots of money and I don’t have any, so I’m going to take from them and give to myself.” 1835 “Merchants can affort this. I’m not hurting anyone.” 1836 “People don’t look at it as a problem. My whole family shoplifts. We laugh about it.” 1837 “The behavior I can change is that I can be more conservative in my stealing.” 1838 Only about 15 percent of all shoplifters are professionals, but in each crime they steal merchandise of greater value than that stolen by amateurs – mostly items that can be easily resold, such as cigarettes, videotapes, compact disks, designer clothing and books.1839 No weapons are required 1840…[for] a bold variation of professional shoplifting…called “grab and run,” 1841…and the hourly “pay” beats that of almost any job.1842 Because of the high profits,…[there is] competition from organized shoplifting rings. These gangs often travel in groups of two to six, using beepers and car phones to take “steal orders” – size, color and style. One member may pose as a suspicious person to distract security guards. Those white anti-theft tags? They are removed with the same tool that clerks use (stolen too).1843 The other 85 percent of shoplifters are amateurs for whom stealing is a sideline or just an impulse. 1844 But though they are amateurs, they aren’t innocents. Their methods are inventive. According to veteran security personnel, these thieves switch price tags, conceal items under wheelchairs and in leg casts, and even use their own children. Consider one Floridian…interviewed, a 19-year-old.1845 “My mother’s been shoplifting since she was 16,” she says. “Now we both have infants, and we take them to stores together. We use the strollers, the blankets, big diaper bags. Mom and I help each other.” 1846 Another trick is to buy a 20-pound bag of dog food, empty it, return to the store, fill it up with expensive

1823 William Encenbarger, They’re stealing you blind, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), pp. 100-101. 1824 Ibidem, p. 101. 1825 Op. cit. 1826 Ibidem, p. 102. 1827 The Associated Press, Shoplifter who stole out of need is forgiven, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A15. 1828 Op. cit. 1829 William Encenbarger, They’re stealing you blind, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 103. 1830 Op. cit. 1831 Op. cit. 1832 Ibidem, p. 99. 1833 Ibidem, p. 100. 1834 Op. cit. 1835 Op. cit. 1836 Op. cit. 1837 Op. cit. 1838 Op. cit. 1839 Ibidem, p. 98. 1840 Op. cit. 1841 Op. cit. 1842 Op. cit. 1843 Ibidem, pp. 98-99. 1844 Ibidem, p. 99. 1845 Op. cit. 1846 Op. cit.

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groceries, then put it in the bottom rack of the cart. The thief may even say to the cashier, “Don’t forget my dog food.” 1847

• • •

After about $20,000 in child support checks disappeared, the [Austin, Texas,] attorney general found that several workers hired through a temporary agency had criminal records, including burglary, shoplifting and theft. 1848

• • •

No one is rushing to return $500,000 in cash that vanished after an armored truck overturned in a traffic accident…in Oakland, Calif. Even threats of prosectutions aren’t leading anyone to step forward. 1849

• • •

A 48-hour “amnesty” that allowed Miami residents to return thousands of dollars that disappeared after a security-truck crash ended [January 11,] leaving police holding only about $20 of returned funds. 1850 Police declared the “no questions asked” amnesty [January 9] – one day after a Brink’s armored security truck believed to be carrying $3.7 million flipped on a highway overpass, cracked open and sent a waterfall of bundled currency and coins into the neighborhood below. Residents of the neighborhood, one of Miami’s poorest, and passing motorists seized the opportunity to gather the cash, some filling bags with coins, others scrambling on their hands and knees to snare the windfall. Afterward, estimates were that some $500,000 or more had disappeared, most of it nearly impossible to trace.1851 Only two people…came forward – a mother of six and a schoolboy.1852 “I would like them to know that there are people all around the country who appreciate their example of honesty,” said a Chandler, Ariz., man who wrote police and asked not to be identified.1853

• • •

In January alone this year, the FBI reported 50 bank robberies in the state – almost triple last year’s January total and the highest monthly total in more than seven years. February brought an additional 17,…bringing the the total so far this year to 67 – more than one per day.1854

• • •

In The Philosophy of History, Hegel discerned a disturbing historical pattern – the crack and fall of civilizations owing to a morbid intensification of their own first principles. 1855 The main enemy of the open society…is no longer the communist but the capitalist threat.1856 The term “open society” was coined by Henri Bergson, in his book The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (1932), and given greater currency by the Austrian philosopher Karl Popper, in his book The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945). Popper showed that totalitarian ideologies like [apartheid, 1857] communism and Nazism have a

1847 Op. cit. 1848 Texas, Across the USA: news from every state, USA Today, 11 Nov 1996, 15(41), p. 8A. 1849 Daily Briefing, Update, The Seattle Times, 4 May 1997, 15(18), p. A8. 1850 The Associated Press, Only 2 people return money taken after armored truck crash, The Seattle Times, 12 Jan 1997, 15(2), p. A2. 1851 Op. cit. 1852 Op. cit. 1853 Op. cit. 1854 Arthur Santana, State has a bank robbery a day, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A1. 1855 George Soros, The capitalist threat; what kind of society do we want? “Let the free market decide!” is the often-heard response. That response, a prominent capitalist argues, undermines the very values on which open and democratic societies depend, The Atlantic Monthly, Feb 1997, 279(2), p. 45. 1856 Op. cit. 1857 Ibidem, p. 47.

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common element: they claim to be in possession of the ultimate truth. 1858 These ideologies have to resort to oppression in order to impose their vision on society. Popper juxtaposed with these totalitarian ideologies another view of society, which recognizes 1859…freedom of choice and freedom of speech. Popper called this form of social organization the “open society.” Totalitarian ideologies were its enemies. 1860 The free-market regime that prevailed a hundred years ago was destroyed by the First World War. Totalitarian ideologies came to the fore, and by the end of the Second World War there was practically no movement of capital between countries.1861 The end of the Cold War 1862…in 1993 1863…brought a response very different from that at the end of the Second World War.1864 The people living in formerly Communist countries…might have aspired to an open society when they suffered from repression, but now…they are preoccupied with the problems of survival. 1865 In social and political affairs the participants’ perceptions help to determine reality. In these situations facts do not necessarily constitute reliable criteria for judging the truth of statements. There is a two-way connection – a

feedback mechanism – between thinking and events,…called “reflexivity.” 1866 How much more likely the present regime is to break down unless we learn from experience! 1867 Popper showed that fascism and communism had much in common, even though one constituted the extreme right and the other the extreme left, because both relied on the power of the state to repress the freedom of the individual.1868 An open society may also be threatened from the opposite direction – from excessive individualism. Too much competition and too little cooperation can cause intolerable inequities and instability. 1869 Advertising, marketing, even packaging, aim at shaping people’s preferences rather than, as laissez-faire theory holds, merely responding to them. Unsure of what they stand for, people increasingly rely on money as the criterion of value. What is more expensive is considered better.1870 Insofar as there is a dominant belief in our society today, it is a belief in the magic of the marketplace. The doctrine of laissez-faire capitalism holds that the common good is best served by the uninhibited pursuit of self-interest. Unless it is tempered by the recognition of a common interest that ought to take precedence over particular interests,…[capitalism] is liable to break down. 1871 The cult of success has replaced a belief in principles.1872 Laissez-faire ideology shares some of the deficiencies of another spurious science, geopolitics. States have no principles, only interests, geopoliticians argue.1873 The other defect of geopolitics is that it does not recognize a common interest beyond the national interest. 1874 The threat comes from…tyrants seeking to establish internal dominance through external conflicts.1875 The international open society may be its own worst enemy. The Cold War was an extremely stable arrangement. Two power blocs…were struggling for supremacy, but they had to respect each other’s vital interests. 1876 During the Cold War, the United States saw the world through a two-dimensional prism of East and West. Today’s divide – between north and south – potentially is even more dangerous . . . and a greater challenge to our national values. Our economic and diplomatic links with the rest of the world must be coupled with a concern for its people.1877

1858 Ibidem, p. 45. 1859 Op. cit. 1860 Op. cit. 1861 Ibidem, p. 48. 1862 Ibidem, p. 47. 1863 Dennis Stacy & Patrick Huyghe, Cosmic conspiracy: six decades of governmant cover-ups: part five, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 49. 1864 George Soros, The capitalist threat; what kind of society do we want? “Let the free market decide!” is the often-heard response. That response, a prominent capitalist argues, undermines the very values on which open and democratic societies depend, The Atlantic Monthly, Feb 1997, 279(2), p. 47. 1865 Op. cit. 1866 Op. cit. 1867 Ibidem, p. 48. 1868 Op. cit. 1869 Op. cit. 1870 Ibidem, p. 52. 1871 Ibidem, p. 48. 1872 Ibidem, p. 52. 1873 Ibidem, p. 53. 1874 Op. cit. 1875 Op. cit. 1876 Op. cit. 1877 Robert A. Seiple, U.S. must take lead in helping world’s poor, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E2.

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This extremely stable world order has come to an end.1878 We have entered a period of disorder.1879 In recent years, Americans have turned inward – not knowing or understanding that the world has expanded too much for the artifice of isolationism to survive for very long. Our economics are inter-dependent. Our borders are too porus. Our communications structures are too efficient. 1880 By taking the conditions of supply and demand as given and declaring government intervention the ultimate evil, laissez-faire ideology has effectively banished income or wealth redistribution. 1881 The laissez-faire argument relies on the same tacit appeal to perfection as does communism. It claims that if redistribution causes inefficiencies and distortions, the problems can be solved by eliminating redistribution – just as the Communists claimed that the duplication involved in competition is wasteful, and therefore we should have a centrally planned economy.1882 “Money is like muck, not good except it be spread.” Francis Bacon was a profound economist. The laissez-faire argument against income redistribution invokes the doctrine of the survival of the fittest. The argument is undercut by the fact that wealth is passed on by inheritance, and the second generation is rarely as fit as the first.1883 Guided by the principle of the survival of the fittest, states are increasingly preoccupied with their competitiveness and unwilling to make any sacrifices for the common good.1884 The system of robber capitalism… is so iniquitous that people may well turn to a charismatic leader promising national revival at the cost of civil liberties.1885 It is easier to identify the enemies of the open society than to give the concept a positive meaning. 1886 There has to be a common interest to hold a community together.1887 Financial success is important. It allows most of us first to cover the necessitites, then to provide rewards. No one should feel guilty about that.1888 At the same time,1889…we [must] recognize other aspects of our lives: 1890…our health, our love of family, the awesome responsibility of raising our children, the importance of our friends and the balancing of all those factors with our working lives. 1891 There are common interests on a global level, such as the preservation of the environment and the prevention of war. But these interests are relatively weak in comparison with special interests. They do not have much of a constituency in a world composed of sovereign states.1892 Societies derive their cohesion from shared values. These values are rooted in culture, religion, history, and tradition.1893 To derive a political and social agenda from a philosophical, epistemological argument seems like a hopeless undertaking. Yet it can be done. There is historical precedent. The Enlightenment was a celebration of the power of reason, and it provided the inspiration for the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights. 1894 Open society [can]…occupy[] a middle ground, where the rights of the individual are safeguarded but where there are some shared values that hold society together. The middle ground is threatened from all sides. At one extreme, communist and nationalist doctrines would lead to state domination. At the other extreme, laissez-faire capitalism would lead to great instability and eventual breakdown. There are other variants. Lee Kuan Yew, of Singapore, proposes a so-called Asian model that combines a market economy with a repressive state. In many parts of the world control of the state is so closely associated with the creation of private wealth that one might speak of robber capitalism, or the “gangster state,” as a new threat to the open society.1895 As the average citizen lost his stake in the new Russia, former Communists, who make up less than ten percent of the population, prospered. Surveys of Russia’s new rich found that nearly two-thirds of the country’s 1878 George Soros, The capitalist threat; what kind of society do we want? “Let the free market decide!” is the often-heard response. That response, a prominent capitalist argues, undermines the very values on which open and democratic societies depend, The Atlantic Monthly, Feb 1997, 279(2), p. 53. 1879 Op. cit. 1880 Robert A. Seiple, U.S. must take lead in helping world’s poor, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E2. 1881 George Soros, The capitalist threat; what kind of society do we want? “Let the free market decide!” is the often-heard response. That response, a prominent capitalist argues, undermines the very values on which open and democratic societies depend, The Atlantic Monthly, Feb 1997, 279(2), p. 52. 1882 Op. cit. 1883 Op. cit. 1884 Ibidem, p. 53. 1885 Op. cit. 1886 Ibidem, p. 54. 1887 Op. cit. 1888 Greg Heberlein, Incident reminds us money isn’t everything, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. E1. 1889 Op. cit. 1890 Op. cit. 1891 Op. cit. 1892 Ibidem, p. 55. 1893 Op. cit. 1894 Ibidem, p. 58. 1895 Ibidem, p. 55.

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millionaires had been members of the Soviet Communist Party. The KGB, too, has profited by operating in such businesses as banks, trading houses and telecommunications. Many Russian joint ventures with Western companies include KGB officers.1896 Brian Foster, an Iowa farmer who has directed successful [U.S. Agency for International Development (AID)]-funded Russian projects, told Reader’s Digest, “The U.S. taxpayer got snookered.” 1897 Colorado businessman David Wolstenholme says, “I’ve walked through dozens of Russian warehouses filled with American food products salted away for later sale abroad or on the black market.” 1898 David H. Swartz, the first U.S. ambassador to Belarus, a former Soviet republic, witnessed the misuse of funds firsthand. When Washington sent millions of dollars in agricultural commodity aid to the old-line Communists who control grain distribution, a top Belarussian reformer asked Swartz, “If the United States wants to foster reform here, why do you keep on supporting the Communists?” “Good question,” replied the ambassador. He resigned in protest over American policy in 1994. 1899 Some Russian reformers say that U.S. aid should be supplied only under strict conditions.1900 The United States can do more for much less money by cutting off economic aid the Russian government and helping private citizens directly.1901

• • •

A Kentucky physician said she will publicly confess…before a state Assembly committe in Sacramento that she caused a man’s death in California by denying him 1902…[a heart transplant 1903] – and saved her HMO insurance company half a million dollars.1904 For her decision, she said, she was rewarded with advancement in her job as a medical coverage reviewer for Humana, a managed care health provider. 1905 “Everyone was thrilled when I denied that coverage,” she said. “If I had approved it, I would have been gone the next day.” 1906

• • •

We fear more than we should.1907 We forget about inflation.1908 We follow the crowd.1909 We are overconfident.1910 We hear what we want to hear.1911 We value some dollars less than others.1912 We bite off more than we can chew.1913

• • •

During the three days the world leaders are in Denver, more than 100,000 children younger than 5 will die of malnutrition and related causes. Almost one-third of the world’s population, 1.3 billion people, live in poverty. In sub-Saharan Africa, the world’s poorest region, progress has been slow, and has actually reversed in some countries. Over the past 15 years, the percentage of children in primary school has plummeted in 17 African countries. About 170 million

1896 J. Michael Waller, To Russia, with cash; former Communist hack and “gangster bureaucrats” are rollng riches – the result of our misued money. Meanwhile, Russia is testing ultramodern missile prototypes, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 178. 1897 Ibidem, p. 179. 1898 Op. cit. 1899 Ibidem, pp. 179-180. 1900 Ibidem, p. 181. 1901 Op. cit. 1902 William Carlsen, Doctor to confess role in man’s death; she says HMO rewarded her for saving $500,000, San Francisco Chronicle, 15 April 1997, 133(76), p. A13. 1903 Op. cit. 1904 Op. cit. 1905 Op. cit. 1906 Op. cit. 1907 Condensed from Money (July 1995), Gary Belsky, Here’s how you can avoid the . . . 7 money mistakes everyone makes, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 105. 1908 Ibidem, p. 106. 1909 Op. cit. 1910 Ibidem, p. 107. 1911 Op. cit. 1912 Ibidem, p. 108. 1913 Op. cit.

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Africans, nearly a third of the region’s population, do not get enough to eat. More that [sic] 23 million children are malnurished, and 16 percent of babies are underweight. 1914 Bridging the gap between the world’s rich and poor will require 1915…the courage and will of wealthy governments and their people.1916 Greed has dominated man’s history for centuries, but the threat to the survival of the planet today has increased.1917 Back in 1962, Rachel Carson…warned about the poisoning of the planet by pesticides and toxic waste. Says The Naked Savage: “Mankind was contaminating its own environment and fouling its own nest, the signal for the extinction of the species.” Men are still greedily poisoning the planet. “Seeking the greatest profits in the shortest time,” says World Hunger: Twelve Myths, “big growers are willing to overuse the soil, water, and chemical inputs without thought to eroding the soil, depleting the groundwater, and poisoning the environment.” 1918 Recently, the Greenpeace environmental organization made a stong indictment, saying: “Modern Man has made a rubbish tip of Paradise “[”earth“]” . . . and now stands like a brutish infant . . . on the brink . . . of effectively destroying this oasis of life.” 1919

1914 Robert A. Seiple, U.S. must take lead in helping world’s poor, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E2. 1915 Op. cit. 1916 Op. cit. 1917 “The slaughter of nature,” Awake! greed; how does it affect us?, 8 Jan 1997, p. 4. 1918 Ibidem, p. 3. 1919 Ibidem, p. 4.

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Extinction

Among the most riveting mysteries of human history are those posed by vanished civilizations. 1920 Among all such vanished civilizations, that of the former Polynesian society on Easter Island remains unsurpassed in mystery and isolation. The mystery stems especially from the island’s gigantic stone statues and its impoverished landscape, but it is enhanced by our associations with the specific people involved: Polynesians represent for us the ultimate in exotic romance, the background for many a child’s, and an adult’s, vision of paradise. 1921 Easter Island, with an area of only 64 square miles, is the world’s most isolated scrap of habitable land. It lies in the Pacific Ocean more than 2,000 miles west of the nearest continent (South America), 1,400 miles from even the nearest habitable island (Pitcairn). Its subtropical location and latitude – at 27 degrees south, it is approximately as far below the equator as Houston is north of it – help give it a rather mild climate, while its volcanic origins make its soil fertile. In theory, this combination of blessings should have made Easter a miniature paradise, remote from problems that beset the rest of the world. The island derives its name from its “discovery” by the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, on Easter (April 5) in 1722. Roggeveen’s first impression was not of a paradise but of a wasteland. 1922 The island Roggeveen saw was a grassland without a single tree or bush over ten feet high.1923 Their native animals included nothing larger than insects, not even a single species of native bat, land bird, land snail, or lizard. For domestic animals, they had only chickens. European visitors throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries estimated Easter’s human population at about 2,000, a modest number considering the island’s fertility. As Captain James Cook recognized during his brief visit in 1774, the islanders were Polynesians (a Tahitian man accompanying Cook was able to converse with them). Yet despite the Polynesians’ well-deserved fame as a great seafaring people, the Easter Islanders who came out to Roggeveen’s and Cook’s ships did so by swimming or paddling canoes that Roggeveen described as “bad and frail.” 1924 With such flimsy craft, Polynesians could never have…traveled far offshore to fish. The islanders Roggeveen met were totally isolated, unaware that other people existed.1925 Not a single Easter Island rock or product has turned up elsewhere, nor has anything been found on the island that could have been brought by anyone other than the original settlers or the Europeans. Yet the people living on Easter claimed memories of visiting the uninhabited Sala y Gomez reef 260 miles away, far beyond the range of the leaky canoes seen by Roggeveen. 1926 Easter Island’s most famous feature is its huge stone statues, more than 200 of which once stood on massive stone platforms lining the coast. At least 700 more, in all stages of completion, were abandoned in quarries or on ancient roads between the quarries and the coast.1927 Most of the erected statues were carved in a single quarry and then somehow transported as far as six miles – despite heights as great as 33 feet and weights up to 82 tons. The abandoned statues, meanwhile, were as much as 65 feet tall and weighed up to 270 tons. The stone platforms were equally gigantic: up to 500 feet long and 10 feet high, with facing slabs weighing up to 10 tons. 1928 The islander had no wheels, no draft animals, and no source of power except their own muscles. 1929 To deepen the mystery, the statues were still standing in 1770, but by 1864 all of them had been pulled down, by the islanders themselves.1930 The statues imply a society very different from the one Roggeveen saw in 1722. Their sheer number and size suggest a population much larger than 2,000.1931 Easter Island’s mysteries have spawned volumes of speculation for more than two and a half centuries. 1932 In the 1950s, Heyerdahl argued that Polynesia must have been settled by advanced societies of American Indians, who in turn must have received civilization across the Atlantic from…societies of the Old World. Heyerdahl’s raft voyages aimed to prove the feasibility of such prehistoric transoceanic contacts. In the 1960s the Swiss writer Erich von Däniken, an ardent believer in Earth visits by extraterrestrial astronauts, went further, claiming that Easter’s statues were the work of intelligent beings who owned ultramodern tools, became stranded on on Easter, and were finally rescued.

1920 Jared Diamond, Easter’s end; in just a few centuries, the people of Easter Island wiped out their forest, drove their plants and animals to extinction, and saw their complex society spiral into chaos and cannibalism. Are we about to follow their lead?, Discover, Aug 1995, 16(8), p. 63. 1921 Op. cit. 1922 Ibidem, pp. 63-64. 1923 Ibidem, p. 64. 1924 Op. cit. 1925 Op. cit. 1926 Op. cit. 1927 Op. cit. 1928 Op. cit. 1929 Op. cit. 1930 Op. cit. 1931 Op. cit. 1932 Op. cit.

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Heyerdahl and Von Däniken both brushed aside overwhelming evidence that the Easter Islanders were typical Polynesians derived from Asia rather than from the Americas and that their culture (including their statues) grew out of Polynesian culture.1933 They [also] spoke an eastern Polynesian dialect related to Hawaiian and Marquesan, a dialect isolated since about A.D. 400, as estimated from slight differences in vocabulary.1934 [In 1994 1935] DNA extracted from 12 Easter Island skeletons was also shown to be Polynesian. 1936 Evidence lets us imagine the island onto which Easter’s first Polynesian colonists stepped ashore some 1,600 years ago, after a long canoe voyage from eastern Polynesia. They found themselves in a pristine paradise. 1937 Pollen records show that destruction was well under way by the year 800, just a few centuries after the start of human settlement.1938 Not long after 1400 the palm finally became extinct, not only as a result of being chopped down but also because the now ubiquitous rats prevented its regeneration. 1939 While the huahua tree did not become extinct in Polynesian times, its numbers declined drastically until there weren’t enough left to make ropes from. By the time Heyerdahl visited Easter, only a single, nearly dead toromiro tree remained on the island, and even that lone survivor has now disappeared.1940 The fifteenth century marked the end not only for Easter’s palm but for the forest itself. Its doom had been approaching as people cleared land to plant gardens; as they felled trees to build canoes, to transport and erect statues, and to burn; as rats devoured seeds; and probably as the native birds died out that had pollinated the trees’ flowers and dispersed their fruit.1941 The destruction of the island’s animals was as extreme as that of the forest. 1942 In place of these meat supplies, the Easter Islanders intensified their production of chickens, which had been only an occasional food item. They also turned to the largest remaining meat source available: humans, whose bones became common in late Easter Island garbage heaps. Oral traditions of the islanders are rife with cannibalism; the most inflammatory taunt that could be snarled at an enemy was “The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth.” 1943, [ 1944] The first Polynesian colonists found themselves on an island with fertile soil, abundant food, bountiful building materials, ample lebensraum, and all the prerequisites for comfortable living. They prospered and multiplied. After a few centuries, they began erecting stone statues on platforms, like the ones their Polynesian forebears had carved. With passing years, the statues and platforms became larger and larger, and the statues began sporting ten-ton red crowns – probably in an escalating spiral of one-upmanship, as rival clans tried to surpass each other with shows of wealth and power. (In the same way, successive Egyptian pharaohs built ever-larger pyramids. Today Hollywood movie moguls…in Los Angeles are displaying their wealth and power by building ever more ostentatious mansions.1945 All that those buildings lack to make the message explicit are ten-ton red crowns.) On Easter, as in modern America, society was held together by a complex political system to redistribute locally available resources and to integrate the economies of different areas. Eventually Easter’s growing population was cutting the forest more rapidly than the forest was regenerating. 1946 As forest disappeared, the islanders ran out of timber and rope to transport and erect their statues. Life became more uncomfortable – springs and streams dried up, and wood was no longer available for fires. People also found it harder to fill their stomachs.1947 Crop yields also declined, since deforestation allowed the soil to be eroded by rain and wind, dried by the sun, and its nutrients to be leeched from it. Intensified chicken production and cannibalism replaced only part of all those lost foods. Preserved statuettes with sunken cheeks and visible ribs suggest that people were starving. With the disappearance of food surpluses, Easter Island could no longer feed the chiefs, bureaucrats, and priests who had kept a complex society running. Surviving islanders described to early European visitors how local chaos replaced centralized government and a warrior class took over from the hereditary chiefs. 1948 By around 1700, the population began to crash toward between one-quarter and one-tenth of its former number. People took to living in

1933 Ibidem, pp. 64-65. 1934 Ibidem, p. 65. 1935 Op. cit. 1936 Op. cit. 1937 Ibidem, p. 67. 1938 Op. cit. 1939 Op. cit. 1940 Ibidem, pp. 67-68. 1941 Ibidem, p. 68. 1942 Op. cit. 1943 Op. cit. 1944 “This is a hard saying; who can listen to it?” (John 6.60) — The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 1945 Jared Diamond, Easter’s end; in just a few centuries, the people of Easter Island wiped out their forest, drove their plants and animals to extinction, and saw their complex society spiral into chaos and cannibalism. Are we about to follow their lead?, Discover, Aug 1995, 16(8), p. 68. 1946 Op. cit. 1947 Op. cit. 1948 Op. cit.

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caves for protection against their enemies. Around 1770 rival clans started to topple each other’s statues, breaking the heads off. By 1864 the last statue had been thrown down and desecrated. As we try to imagine the decline of Easter’s civilization, we ask ourselves, “Why didn’t they look around, realize what they were doing, and stop before it was too late? What were they thinking when they cut down the last palm tree?” 1949 Any islander who tried to warn about the dangers of progressive deforestation would have been overridden by vested interests of carvers, bureaucrats, and chiefs, whose jobs depended on continued deforestation. Our Pacific Northwest loggers are only the latest in a long line of loggers to cry, “Jobs over trees!” 1950 Their children could no more have comprehended their parents’ tales than…eight-year-old[s]…today can comprehend… tales of what Los Angeles was like 30 years ago. Gradually trees became fewer, smaller, and less important. 1951 No one would have noticed the felling of the last small palm.1952 By now the meaning of Easter Island for us should be tellingly obvious. Easter Island is Earth writ small. Today, again, a rising population confronts shrinking resources. We too have no emigration valve, because all human societies are linked by international transport, and we can no more escape into space than the Easter Islanders could flee into the ocean. If we continue to follow our present course, we shall have exhausted the world’s major fisheries, tropical rain forests, fossil fuels, and much of our soil by the time 1953…every day newspapers report [the] details.1954 Corrective action is blocked by vested interests, by well-intentioned political and business leaders, and by their electorates, all of whom are perfectly correct in not noticing big changes from year to year. Instead, each year there are just somewhat more people, and somewhat fewer resources, on Earth. 1955

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[Charles Robert] Darwin brought almost nothing with him to the Galapagos except an enviable capacity to observe what he saw. He left after about a month with a lot of data about tortoises and finches – and seeds of the ideas that would change the direction of biology forever.1956 But the buccaneers who were there in 1677 did not come empty-handed or leave empty-handed. They brought rats and cats; they freed goats and burros and horses and cattle on the unoccupied islands. They took away giant tortoises by the shipload – tortoises stacked on their backs in the hold of a ship can live as much as a year without food or water – providing the crew with fresh meat. It may have seemed insignificant to the pirates, but in leaving behind their livestock, they set in motion a chain of events that would eventually lead to an important discovery in European social science. 1957 The goats they had released on the islands had multiplied to the point that the islands would not support any more goats. 1958 Malthus… reasoned that human beings were doing the same thing. What people bring to a place and what they take away is the key to how culture ruins environments. The Galapagos in the 1600s was no different from any environment today – what we put in and what we take out determines the future. It used to be that human beings ruined their environment by taking stuff out,1959…but we now are dumping a new kind of waste into the environment.1960 Darwin traveled for knowledge. Tourists, however, travel for pleasure. What they leave behind is money.1961

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Because of human activity, Earth is suffering from an excess of nitrogen, and the result is worldwide biological havoc. That’s the conclusion of a panel of ecologists headed by Stanford University biology professor Peter Vitousek. The glut arose because, over the past decade, humans have doubled the rate at which nitrogen as in the atmosphere is “fixed” – chemically converted into compounds that can be used by plants and animals. The excess

1949 Op. cit. 1950 Op. cit. 1951 Op. cit. 1952 Ibidem, pp. 68-69. 1953 Ibidem, p. 69. 1954 Op. cit. 1955 Op. cit. 1956 Paul Bohannon, Sightseeing in the Galapagos: be careful what you leave behind, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 8. 1957 Op. cit. 1958 Op. cit. 1959 Op. cit. 1960 Op. cit. 1961 Op. cit.

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nitrogen has disrupted one of the planet’s fundamental cycles.1962 [Nitrogen] is leaching soils of other nutrients; increasing the acidification of surface waters, which decreases biodiversity; clogging the coastal ocean with nitrogen-hungry algae; and spewing nitrogen compounds into the atmosphere, where they act as ozone destroyers, greenhouse gases, and pollutants.1963

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Russia is dying, its doctors said [June 7] warning that the population was shrinking at a rate never before seen in peacetime and accusing the government of failing in its legal duty to provide health care. “Russia is losing its main state asses – its citizens,” the Russian Pirogov Congress of Physicians resolved in a three-day meeting over 17,000 leading doctors. The resolution, quoted by Interfax news agency, decried the “unprecedented peacetime decline in the Russian population” 1964…as the death rate outstrips the birth rate by 1.6 times. A third of those are still working age, the doctors noted.1965

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The myth that the United States is immune to the population problems of the rest of the world ignores migration, infectious diseases, international labor markets, and the shared global commons of crust, oceans, atmosphere, and wildlife. Refugees and immigrants are driven from home by political upheavals, ethnic conflicit, poverty, and environmental degradation – all problems that may be exacerbated by rapid population growth – and already play visible roles in the domestic politics of Florida, Texas, and California, as well as in American foreign policy. The health of Americans depends on the health of people outside our borders – infectious diseases do not carry a passport.1966

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Fifty years ago, the waters off southern California teemed with life.1967 Today those same waters are much poorer. The fish stocks have declined dramatically; the seabird populations have declined or even crashed. The reason, say biological oceanographer John McGowan and physical oceanographer Dean Roemmich of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, is that the zooplankton population has dropped a precipitous 80 percent since 1951. And the reason for that is that the surface waters of the Pacific off California have gotten slightly warmer. 1968 McGowan and Roemmich don’t think the warming they saw – just 2 to 3 degrees Fahrenheit over the 43 years of testing – was a direct cause of the zooplankton decline. They believe instead that the warming caused a decline in phytoplankton – which are what zooplankton eat – by reducing the amount of nutrients available to the plants. 1969 Fewer nutrients mean fewer phytoplankton – and thus fewer zooplankton, fish, and seabirds. As the zooplankton population has dropped by 80 percent since the 1950s, the commercial catches of sardines, mackerel, and anchovies have dropped by more than 30 percent. Seabirds have fared even worse. 1970 What’s going on could be a natural cycle that lasts longer than the El Niño cycle.1971 But another scenario, the two researchers think, is equally plausible and more ominous: the decline in sea life they’ve observed could be an effect of man-made global warming. “We don’t know if it is a natural cycle or man-caused,” McGowan says. “If it is a man-caused thing, it will only get worse. And if the rate of change continues as it has, it will be a disaster ecologically.” 1972

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1962 Arthur Fisher, Too much nitrogen, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 33. 1963 Op. cit. 1964 Around the World, Doctors alarmed as Russia’s death rate outstrips birth rate, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A17. 1965 Op. cit. 1966 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Discover, April 1996, 17(4), p. 46. 1967 Kathy A. Svitil, Collapse of a food chain; there are fewer fish and birds off California nowadays – because there are fewer plankton, because the water is warmer. Because we warmed it?, Discover, July 1995, 16(7), p. 36. 1968 Op. cit. 1969 Op. cit. 1970 Ibidem, p. 36. 1971 Op. cit. 1972 Op. cit.

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Eight thousand years ago, forest covered more than 23 million square miles, or about 40 percent of Earth’s land surface. Today, amost half of those forests have fallen to the ax, the chain saw, the matchstick, or the bulldozer. 1973 In 1990 forests took up about a quarter of the planet’s land surface (not including an additional 13 percent of other woody vegetation, such as sparsely covered woodland and brushland). 1974 Historically, virtually all countries have experienced deforestation, mostly because of the need for new farmland, pasture, fuelwood and timber. In the U.S., forest now covers 22 percent of the land area, a decline of perhaps 40 percent since European colonization began.1975 In Europe, west of the former U.S.S.R., forest covers about 30 percent of the land, roughly half its original extent. A major problem there, particularly in eastern Europe, is defoliation, apparently caused mostly by air pollution. Forests in the former U.S.S.R. once blanketed about half the land but now cover about a third. 1976 The biggest changes have been in the tropics, where the natural forest dropped by a fifth from 1960 to 1990 as a result of population pressure, large-scale government development projects and commercial logging. The greatest decline was in tropical Asia, which lost a third of its forest. 1977 The United States is [also] among the nations said to be running out of time: In the lower 48 states, says [World Resources Institute’s Dirk] Bryant, “only 1 percent of the forest that was once there as frontier forest qualifies today.” 1978 Forests remove carbon dioxide from the air, conserve soil and water, and are home to a variety of species. They are also repositories of potentially valuable new produscts, such as pharmaceuticals, and as a source of building material and firewood they provide employment for millions worldwide. 1979

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The White House Council of Economic Advisers has concluded that the Forest Service spends more of the taxpayers’ money on timber harvests than it makes. It’s notworthy because this is the first time an honest accounting has been done by anyone except outraged environmental groups that have for decades complained about the Forest Service’s deceptive timber harvest accounting practices. In 1995, the Forest Service claimed it made a $59 million profit from commerical logging. But the Council of Economic Advisers says that during the same period, the service actually spent $850 million on timber management, reforestation, logging roads and payments to states while collecting only $616 million in timber receipts. The agency itself traditionally excludes from its calculations of harvest costs such pricy items as road-building, which allows private firms access to the trees, and the 25 percent of the timber profits it is required to give to states. “Generally, U.S. Forest Service subsidizes timber extraction from public lands by collecting less in timber sale revenue than it spends on timber program costs,” the council’s report to Congress said. “Current politics toward natural resource use are mainly rooted in past legislationn untended to stimulate the economies of the West and encourage settlement of the region . . . These policies facilitate the development and exploitation of natural resources.” 1980

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We Seattleites usually are proud to take credit for brewing up the nation’s coffee craze. Most of us would be less than proud, though, if we realized that our seemingly innocent latte addictions are contributing to overheating the planet and eradicating songbirds. It’s another lamentable example of humankind’s witless entanglement in the unrelenting law of unintended consequences. Here’s what’s happened: The growing demand for coffee – for which we can in large part thank entrepreneurs…– has caused Central and South American farmers to switch from growing coffee beans in the shade of tropical forest understory trees to growing them in the open sun. So they are clearcutting rain forests where songbirds and other species live and using more chemicals and pesticides to ensure higher rates of production. Oops.

1973 Dawn Stover, The final frontier; the planet’s last intact expanses of forest are under siege, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 59. 1974 Rodger Doyle, Global forest cover, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 32. 1975 Op. cit. 1976 Op. cit. 1977 Op. cit. 1978 Dawn Stover, The final frontier; the planet’s last intact expanses of forest are under siege, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 59. 1979 Rodger Doyle, Global forest cover, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 32. 1980 Opinion, Adding up timber numbers, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(8), p. E2.

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At a recently concluded meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Jeffrey Parrish, a diplomacy fellow with the group, said the United States consumes a thrid of the world’s coffee. So U.S. coffee drinkers, and particularly those in Seattle, should play a leading role in reversing this ecologically incorrect trend. Here’s what dedicated coffee lovers can do: Simply ask your coffee purveyor to sell you coffee grown in the shade in the old-fashioned way. Ask for coffee grown in an ecologically sustainable, organic manner. 1981 Coffee firms are exploring ways to return to cost-effective, harmless coffee growing. If they succeed, as we here on the hopelessly addicted Editorial Board most fervently pray they do,[ 1982] it goes without saying that coffee drinkers should expect to pay a higher price for that double tall non-fat [(or 2%)] with vanilla. Just consider it as a purchase of an essential, guilt-free indulgence.1983

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The trade in exotic animals – especially protected, threatened and endangered species – is not usually thought to occupy a huge share in the global market of illegal goods smuggled across borders. But in recent years, only illegal drugs have outstripped the cash value of living and dead wildlife that sluices through the black market toward trophy hunters, pet enthusiasts and devotees of traditional medicines. “The business is roughly equal to that of smuggled weapons,” says Anne-Berry Wade, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife spokeswoman. “And very few nations do anything about it.” Between $10 billion and $20 billion in plants and animals were traded illegally around the world last year, with the United States leading the list of buyers, spending $3 billion (compared with $20 billion of contraband drugs). The harvesting of…animals wouldn’t be nearly so profitable if there weren’t such collectors around the world, especially in America, Germany and Japan, where an estimated one in 10 males is a serious butterfly collector. The cargo comes in many forms. They may be live “pets,”…sold for thousands of dollars to collectors. They might be…animal parts whose use and value spans every interest: rare butterflies…caught and killed for collectors; potions…said to increase male sexual potency; or exotic skins.1984 “The people who smuggle these animals into the U.S. usually aren’t hobbyists gone astray,” [Robert Anderson, senior trial counsel for the wildlife and marine resources section at the U.S. Department of Justice and the enforcement officer in Geneva for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species] said. “They’re not doing this to eat. They’re not trying to save the species. They’re out to make a buck.” 1985

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The [Nature Conservancy’s] annual “Species Report Card” shows that at least 110 of the nation’s 20,500 known terrestrial species have gone extinct since the 17th century and 416 more are missing and possibly extinct. Hawaii has 26 species presumed extinct and 243 possibly extinct; Alabama has 24 presumed extinct and 74 possibly extinct; and California has 25 presumed extinct and 21 possibly extinct. Those three states have the highest totals.1986 The estimates mostly ignore insects, the extinction rate of which is largely unknown. 1987 Scientists have estimated that Washington has lost up to half its wetlands and up to 90 percent of its lowland old-growth forests, oak woodlands and sage steppe desert. 1988

1981 Opinion, Coffee-growing dilemma, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(8), p. E2. 1982 Drugs are everywhere. They’re easy to get, easy to use and even easier to get hooked on. — Ann Landers, Drunken duffer digs divot with chin, then sues country club and wins, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(8), p. E3. 1983 Opinion, Coffee-growing dilemma, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(8), p. E2. 1984 Donovan Webster, Black-market bounty; U.S. leads the list of illegal buyers for animals, plants, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 9 March 1997, p. C3. 1985 Ibidem, p. C1. 1986 Bill Dietrich, Conservationists say stellar record is misleading; lack of extinct species nothing to brag about, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, p. B1. 1987 Op. cit. 1988 Ibidem, p. B2.

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The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists 20 species under its jurisdiction in Washington that are on the federal Endangered Species List. They are: Animals: Grizzly bear, Columbian white-tailed deer, woodland caribou, gray wolf, bald eagle, peregrine falcon, Aleutian Canada goose, northern spotted owl, brown pelican, western snowy plover, marbled murrelet, Oregon silver-spot butterfly, and four turtles – green sea, leatherback, loggerhead and olive. Plants: Marsh sandwort, water howellia, Bradshaw’s desert parsley and Nelson’s checkermallow. 1989

• • •

The high price of caviar, the increasing popularity of herbal medicines and the huge markup for tropical birds are putting severe pressure on some of the world’s rarest species. And millions of consumers, sometimes without being aware of it, are contributing to the decline of rare mammals, fish and plants, said Ginette Hemley, the World Wildlife Fund’s policy director for international wildlife. In a report released [June 3] for the 10th meeting of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the wildlife preservation group lists 10 “most wanted” species – those most wanted by consumers whose tastes lean towards the exotic. “Consumers can play a role, not just governments,” Hemley said in an interview. “They can directly affect survival by choices made in the marketplace for everything from food to furniture.” The trade in endangered wildlife adds up to billions of dollars because some of the products are very expensive, she said. Caviar from beluga sturgeon, which must be killed to harvest their eggs, can sell for more than $80 an ounce. A rare green-cheeked Amazon parrot, which a trapper may sell for $2, can bring $500 in a U.S. pet store. And a single Asian tiger skeleton can yield more profit than some Asian people earn in a decade. 1990 In addition,…the 10 most-wanted list includes: • Black rhino, killed for their horn, with the number in eastern and southern Africa below 2,500, a 95 percent decline since 1970. • Giant panda, with fewer than 1,000 in the wilds of China, as they continue to be sent to zoos. • Goldenseal, an herb gathered in North American hardwood forests and used to treat ailments ranging from hay fever to hemorrhoids, in a market that has grown 30 percent in the past two years. • Alligator snapping turtle, which often ends up in canned soup. • Hawksbill turtle, a 3-foot-long sea turtle whose shell is the principal source of misnamed “tortoise shell” souvenirs and trinkets. • Big leaf mahogany, which often stands alone amid other hardwoods in the forest rather than in large stands and is prized for furniture. • Mako shark, highly prized by restaurateurs for its meat and its fins and being harvested twice as fast as its reproductive rate.1991

• • •

1989 Bill Dietrich, Washington’s endangered species, The Seattle Times, 27 Feb 1997, p. B1. 1990 David Briscoe (The Associated Press), Group lists 10 exotic species most at risk; the demand for products made from animals and plants such as black rhinos and the mahogany tree is threatening their survival, the World Wildlife Fund warns, The Seattle Times, 3 June 1997, 120(132), p. A7. 1991 Op. cit.

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America has 2 billion stockpiled used tires and, despite recycling adds [250 1992] million more to the heap each year.1993 Researchers have tried, with varying degrees of success, to break down old tires and recycle them into new ones, and they’ve tried adding ground-up tires to asphalt. Sitll, most tires end up in landfills. Now Kirk Manfredi, a chemist at the University of Northern Iowa, has come up with yet another way to dent this mountain of worn-out rubber: he produces lemon oil from it. Specifically, Manfredi produces lemonene, the main ingredient in the oil of lemons and other citrus fruits.1994 He still has to work on the purification process.1995 Says Manfredi, “You have to think big.” 1996

• • •

Clearing oil-slicked seabirds may help people heal, but not birds, several recent studies say. Daniel W. Anderson of the University of California at Davis tracked 112 treated pelicans, as well as 19 uncontaminated birds. After two years, only 10 percent of the oiled birds could be found, compared with 55 percent of the unaffected animals. So, too, marsh coots exposed to oil often die prematurely, presumably because the oil has left them immunosuppressed.1997 The researchers suggest that money used to rehabilitate birds might be better spent on finding ways to prevent oil spills in the first place.1998

• • •

The U.S. is now in the seventh decade of a lung cancer epidemic that started with the introduction of milder, more inhalable cigarettes near the turn of the cuntury. Because of the disease’s long incubation period, lung cancer morttality did not rise until the 1930s, but as early as 1912, critics were claiming that cigarettes casued cancer. There was, however, no strong evidence until 1950.1999

• • •

Famines today are only partly a result of natural events. Many readers may remember a Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph from 1993, showing a starving Sudanese girl collapsed on a trail, with a vulture looming behind her. At the time, the Sudanese government was just opening parts of its famine-stricken countryside – the scene of a long-running civil war – to relief operations. If aid workers had gotten in sooner, they could have prevented a crop failure from leading to a famine, but the Sudanese government stopped relief from reaching its own people. This is not divine intervention or an act of nature.2000

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Of the world’s estimated 6,000 languages, between 20 percent and 50 percent are no longer spoken by children. “These languages are obviously headed for extinction unless there are radical changes,” says Michael Krauss, director of the Alaska Native Language Center at the University of of Alaska Fairbanks. Only about 300 langueages are “safe” from extinction, he says, either because they have so many speakers – a million or more – or because they have strong government support. krauss predicts that between 90 percent and 95 percent of languages may be extinct or headed for extinction by the year 2100. Languages are vanishing not only because of cultural assimilation but also because, in some places, those in power force minorities to give up their native speech. Worldwide, languages are disappearing even faster than animal species. In many places, native cultures and their languages are threatened by by the same forces that threaten biodiversity, such as deforestation. “A conservative guess, over the next century, is that 20 languages per year will die,” says Krauss. 2001

1992 Breakthroughs In Science, Technology, and Medicine, Lemon tire very pretty . . ., Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 16. 1993 Bill Dietrich, Using tires to muffle tires, The Seattle Times, 21 Nov 1995, p. A8. 1994 Breakthroughs In Science, Technology, and Medicine, Lemon tire very pretty . . ., Discover, July 1997, 18(7), p. 16. 1995 Op. cit. 1996 Op. cit. 1997 In Brief, Oil’s lasting effect, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 26. 1998 Op. cit. 1999 Rodger Doyle, Lung cancer in U.S. males, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 28. 2000 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Omni, April 1996, 17(4), p. 47. 2001 Dawn Stover, Endangered speech, July 1997, 251(1), p. 34.

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What’s so bad about losing languages? 2002 The loss of a language…means the loss of a different way of looking at the world,2003…the loss of knowledge embedded in language – the medicinal uses of plants, for example. 2004

• • •

One way or another, human population growth on Earth must ultimately end.2005 The Easter Islanders had no books and no histories of other doomed societies. Unlike the Easter Islanders, we have histories of the past – information that can save us.2006 He who lives without discipline dies without honor.2007 The choice is ours, for now.2008 “The greatest fulfillment comes when we make the world a better place, and this connects with our deepest traditional need in capitalism – find a need and fill it,” [James Redfield] says. 2009 “The people who are most fulfilled in life are not those who just do whatever it takes to make more money. The people who are most fulfilled are those that see a longer-term meaning. Those who are cynical and look at business as war will always have trouble succeeding because that attitude always blows up at some point.” 2010

2002 Op. cit. 2003 Op. cit. 2004 Op. cit. 2005 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Omni, April 1996, 17(4), p. 47. 2006 Jared Diamond, Easter’s end; in just a few centuries, the people of Easter Island wiped out their forest, drove their plants and animals to extinction, and saw their complex society spiral into chaos and cannibalism. Are we about to follow their lead?, Discover, Aug 1995, 16(8), p. 69. 2007 Iclandic proverb, In Quotable Quotes®, Reader’s Digest, June 1996, 148(890), p. 57. 2008 Joel E. Cohen, Ten myths of population, Omni, April 1996, 17(4), p. 47. 2009 Daneen Skube, Spiritual side of work; when personal and workplace values come together, it can be good for the soul – and business, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. C3. 2010 Op. cit.

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Pedagogy

In Japanese schools children rather than janitors do the cleaning. From first grade through senior year of high school, children spend 15 minutes to a half-hour a day cleaning, taking out the garbage and removing graffiti. “Kids write graffiti in pencil,” explains Miyuki Shibahara, a junior-high-school teacher in Nishiki. Since they have to clean it themselves, she says, “they don’t have the stomach to write in pen.” As Americans dissatisfied with their own educational system look at alternatives, Japanese schools stand out in many ways. They offer orderly classes, safe corridors, rigorous training in basics, and practical lessons such as this one: for every action, like sticking gum under a desk, there must be an equal and less pleasant reaction, like removing it. Indeed schools in Japan seem not so much institutions of learning as of social engineering – constantly reminding students that they are members of a larger community. Rules are ubiquitous, and the atmosphere is a bit like that of a military academy.2011 Despite this rigidity, teens in Japan seem as rebellious in spirit as American youngsters. The difference is digree: they…fight with their fists instead of knives, and mostly get kissed instead of pregnant.2012 Why do young people work so hard? “We want to go to good universities and get good jobs,” Shingo [Horie, a 16-year-old junior] says. The Japanese themselves refer to the teen years as “examination hell,” a time of extraordinary pressure when a few failed exams can peg a student as a lathe worker instead of a corporate executive. But Japanese youngsters usually have intact families and sometimese a close-knit community of students to provide support.2013 The system can be brutal for those who do not fit in, but it also creates a tight sense of family for most children.2014 Some scholars say Japan’s educational system has served admirably in building an industrial society with a skilled labor force. But these scholars worry that graduates will lack the creativity to master the information age in the coming decades. “If we do not change our educational system, it will be the ruin of our country,” warned Morihiro Hosokawa, a former prime minister, in a recent essay. He complained that the system is so regimented and so focused on cramming information into young minds that it stifles the children. 2015

“Most [Americans] are willing to pay more to be amused than to be educated.” 2016

Long before schoolchildren learned to read with Dick and Jane books, stories by Benjamin Franklin and Nathaniel Hawthorne were excerpted in the McGuffey Reader. The stories often imparted moral lessons. And they were not easy reads. “They used a lot of uncommon words. The assumption was kids would look them up in the dictionary,” says Diane Ravitch, a former U.S. assistant education secretary.2017 Textbooks today, many experts agree, are far easier to read, with simpler vocabulary and sentence structure, than they once were.2018 In other words, textbooks have been “dumbed down.” The result, according to a wide-ranging group including teachers, textbook salesmen, education researchers and government officials, is a more poorly educated student population. Sue Fischer, president of the Association of Washington Educators of Talented and Gifted, says that during the past 15 years, the reading level of texbooks has dropped by two grade levels. That is, what used to be third-grade material is now fifth-grade material.2019 There are 100 teachers in 73 Washington school districts who are teaching subjects that they were not trained for when they earned their teaching certificate, according to the State Board of Education. 2020 Du we hav a problum hear?

2011 Condensed from The New York Times (18 July 1995), Nicholas D. Kristof, Should our schools be more like Japan’s?, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), pp. 99-100. 2012 Ibidem, p. 100. 2013 Ibidem, p. 101. 2014 Ibidem, p. 102. 2015 Op. cit. 2016 Robert C. Savage, Life Lessons (Tyndale House), In Quotable Quotes®, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 15. 2017 Nancy Montgomery, Dumbed-down texts too easy, too simple, too boring, critics say, The Seattle Times, 3 March 1996, p. A1. 2018 Op. cit. 2019 Op. cit. 2020 Education Q&A, Some schoolteachers are not always versed in what they teach, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. B2.

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We sertenly do – 2021…elementary schools throughout California largely abandoned spelling instruction 10 years ago. And, as California went whole hog for “whole language” – the theory that language skills should come naturally, by absorbing good literature – so went the nation.2022 Dear Ann: Sum won tolled me wee wood knot knead two learn how too spell because computers wood dew it four us. Eye disagree. Dew ewe? — P.E. in St. Louis Park, Minn. Dear St. Louis Park: Ewe are write. Thank ewe four a good clothes look at what “progress” has dunn fore education [inn Amerika].2023 Teachers encourag[ed] 5- and 6-year-olds to spell words the way they sounded – “I’m gowing to lern the hulla in Huwyyee” – so as not to impede the flow of ideas.2024 All over, parents perturbed by funny-looking words were being told, basically, to chill out. Now, says spelling researcher J. Richard Gentry, author of "Spel . . . Is a Four-Letter Word,” “we have a whole generation of children who are really poor spellers.” 2025 In California, the culprit was “wholistic teaching,” which started in the late 1980s. Proponents said the reason achievement was low was that learning was chopped up into disconnected parts. You couldn’t write until you could spell. You couldn’t spell until you learned the sounds of the alphabet. You couldn’t write a sentence until you knew your verbs from your nouns. Whole language said you don’t need to know the parts first. Just plunge in.2026 In many schools, fixating on spelling came to be seen as an impediment to writing, especially during the tender years of kindergarten and first grade.2027 “Young writers simply can’t learn to write freely and productively if they’re always confined to words they know they can spell conventionally,” said Kenneth Goodman, a leading theorist of the whole language movement.2028 “I really think that you were stuped to mess our classrooms. . . . Our teachers our upseat and so are the students.” “I am verey mad at you and it herts to see my teacher’s cry. Ther is know punishment that can fix whate hapend.” 2029 (Letters from eighth graders.2030)

• • •

In 1853 [Paul Bert] went to Paris, where he studied jurisprudence and obtained the licentiate in law. He studied medicine and science from 1857 to 1866, receiving the licentiate in natural sciences in 1860 and the M.D., with a thesis on animal transplantation, in 1863. From 1863 to 1866 Bert was the student and préparateur of Claude Bernard…– the conscious aim of all of Bernard’s work was to give medicine the decisive push along the road of its transformation into an “experimental” and “conquering” science 2031 –…at the Collège de France. In 1866 he was awarded the doctorate in natural sciences with the thesis De la vitalité propre des tissus animaux 2032…[and] was professor of zoology and physiology at the Faculté des Sciences of the University of Bordeaux in 1866-1867.2033 He demanded free, compulsory elementary schooling, with a secular program and lay personnel. The schoolteacher must not belong to the clergy. He is the soldier of the secular republic. 2034 The program of the elementary school must include the elements of science, for the sciences sharpen the intellect: the natural sciences develop the power of observation, and the physical sciences sow the seeds of causal thinking. History and paleontology will reveal the gradual development of man from a cave dweller to a culture-bearing, free, republican

2021 The Los Angeles Times, Nation faces a bad spell; students’ word skills on decline, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. A16. 2022 Op. cit. 2023 Ann Landers, It’s best to butt out even if daughter is suffering from ‘martyr complex’, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Focus, 20 April 1997, 15(16), p. C3. 2024 The Los Angeles Times, Nation faces a bad spell; students’ word skills on decline, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. A16. 2025 Op. cit. 2026 Op. cit. 2027 Op. cit. 2028 Op. cit. 2029 Ibidem, p. A1. 2030 Op. cit. 2031 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 2, p. 32a. 2032 Ibidem, 2, pp. 59b-60a. 2033 Ibidem, 2, p. 60a. 2034 Op. cit.

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citizen; thus evolution, and not revolution, will be man’s guiding principle. 2035 Bert [also] supported secondary education for girls.2036 As early as 1872 [Henry Pickering] Bowditch began a series of studies in anthropometry, examining the rate of growth in Boston schoolchildren. His results indicated that mode of life – nutrition and environment – were probably more important factors than race in determining the size of growing children. He also called attention to loss of weight in growing children as a warning of the approach of acute or chronic illness (1877, 1881). 2037 Active in Boston civic affairs, Bowditch was a member of the School Committee (1877-1881), president of the Massachusetts Infant Asylum (1886) and Boston Children’s Aid Society, and a trustee of the Boston Public Library. He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1872 and to the National Academy of Sciences in 1887; he was also a member of many other learned academies in the United States and Europe. He was honored by degrees from the universities of Cambridge, Edinburgh, Toronto, Pennsylvania, and Harvard. 2038 Bowditch’s scientific interest moved in several directions: in a paper with [Charles Sedgwick] Minot he showed that chloroform was more effective than ether in depressing vasomotor reflexes (1874); with Garland he studied the “effect of respiratory movements on the pulmonary circulation,” concluding that expansion of the lungs decreases the size of pulmonary vessels, while collapse of the lungs has the opposite effect (1879-1880); with [William Freeman] Southard and G. Stanley Hall he investigated the physiology of perception, with particular attention to vision (1880-1882); with Warren he conducted an extensive study of the effect of varying rates and strengths of peripheral stimulation upon contraction and dilation of blood vessels, demonstrating that by varying the stimulation it was possible to cause constriction, constriction followed by dilation, or dilation alone, with rapid stimulation causing constriction and later dilation (1883, 1886). He also conducted another series of experiments with Warren on the effects of voluntary activity and external stimulation on the knee jerk, demonstrating that activity in one part of the nervous system served as a focus for Bowditch’s experimentation for some time and led to one of his most important experiments, which brought a controversy to a close and gave final demonstration of the indefatigability of the nerve trunk, a fact of fundamental importance in the physiology of the nervous system (1885). 2039 Bowditch was one of the principal founders of the American Physiological Society in 1887 and was elected its second president in 1888.2040 Bowditch taught physiology at Harvard for thirty-five years, being appointed full professor in 1876 and serving as first occupant of the George Higginson professorship of physiology from 1903 to this retirement in 1906. He was continually involved in the reforms in medical education, and for the decade 1883-1893 he served as dean of the Harvard Medical Faculty, during which time the four-year medical course was introduced and a new chair of bacteriology established, thus giving recognition to another independent discipline.2041 Hippocrates’ suggestion of an organic explanation for abnormal behavior was ignored during the Middle Ages but revived after the Renaissance. Not until the nineteenth century, however, did the organic or biogenic view become important.2042 The organic viewpoint gained even greater strength with the discovery of the organic basis of general paresis, a progressively degenerative and irreversible physical and mental disorder. 2043 The work of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) established the germ theory of disease (invasion of the body by parasites). Then in 1897 Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902), a German neurologist, inoculated paretic patients with pus from syphilitic sores; when the patients failed to develop the secondary symptoms of syphilis, Krafft-Ebing concluded that the subjects had been previously infected by that disease. Finally, in 1905 a German zoologist, Fritz Schaudinn (1871-1906), isolated the microorganism that causes syphilis and thus paresis. These discoveries convinced many scientists that every mental disorder might eventually be linked to an organic cause. 2044 Some scientists noted, however, that certain types of emotional disorders were not associated with any organic disease in the patient. Such oberservations led to another view that stressed psychological factors rather than organic factors as the cause of many disorders. For example, the inability to attain personal goals and resolve interpersonal conflicts could lead to intense feelings of frustration, depression, failure, anger, and consequent disturbed behavior.2045 Prior to the 1920s most of the support for psychology came from private universities. The first docorate in psychology was conferred upon G. Stanley Hall by Harvard University in 1873. The next doctorate was not awarded until John Dewey received his degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1884. During the 1880s only Johns Hopkins awarded doctorates in psychology. In the 1890s and and first decade of the twentieth century, most of the doctorates in psychology were granted by Clark University. By 1920 almost thirty institutions were offering

2035 Op. cit. 2036 Ibidem, 2, p. 60b. 2037 Ibidem, 2, p. 367a. 2038 Ibidem, 2, p. 367b. 2039 Ibidem, 2, p. 367a. 2040 Ibidem, 2, p. 367b. 2041 Op. cit. 2042 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 24. 2043 Op. cit. 2044 Op. cit. 2045 Op. cit.

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advanced graduate training in psychology. The largest programs were at Clark University, the University of Chicago, Columbia University, Harvard University, and Cornell University, all private institutions. 2046 Considering entering the ministry, [Granville Stanley] Hall attended Union Theological Seminary in 1867 and took advantage of its location to explore thoroughly New York City. He became acquainted with Henry Ward Beecher, who, by arranging a loan, provided the young man with the chance to fulfill his keenest ambition, a trip to Europe. From 1868 to 1871 Hall studied at Bonn, Berlin, and Heidelberg. For the rest of his life he held European universities and teaching methods, especially German ones, in the highest regard. On his return to the United States, uncertain of his future plans, Hall taught in boys’ schools and tutored. 2047 In 1872 he accepted an offer to teach English literature at Antioch College. 2048 Very impressed by Wilhelm Max Wundt’s Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (1874), Hall resigned to study under Wundt but postponed the trip for a year to be an instructor of English at Harvard. 2049 On his second return from Europe, Hall completed his work for the Ph.D. at Harvard, under Bowditch [([also the inventor of] the “Bowditch clock” for marking various periods of elapsed time 2050)] in physiology, then wrote and lectured until 1881, when an offer to give a semipublic lecture series at Johns Hopkins University led to his becoming professor of psychology and pedagogy there.2051 Hall spent the remainder of his career, until retirement in 1920, at Clark University.2052 Much of his early effort was lost to the more securely financed fledgling University of Chicago.2053 From his studies in philosophy, physiology, and psychology, Hall began his professional work “intensely impressed with the idea . . . of subjecting psychic processes to the control of scientific and experimental methods” (Life and Confessions of a Psychologist, p. 355). This work was directly influenced by G. T. Fechner’s work in sensory stimuli, Helmholtz’s measurements of visual and auditory responses, and especially by Wundt’s experimental studies in physiological psychology. At Johns Hopkins, Hall established the first formal laboratory in psychology in the United States, one which drew to it such brilliant workers as John Dewey, Joseph Jastrow, and James McKeen Cattell. The studies were chiefly aimed at measuring psychic responses precisely. 2054 He [later] turned his attention to what is considered his greatest contribution: studies of the mental development of children and adolescents.2055 Hall’s pioneering work in this field, especially his early paper “The Contents of the Children’s Minds” (1883), gave a great impetus to many other studies on the developments of children. Hall and his students, both at Johns Hopkins and at Clark, made great use of the 60,000 sheets of child-gathered information on traits of schoolchildren previously accumulated by E. H. Russell. Adolescence, Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (1904) is considered Hall’s most influential publication.2056 Hall founded and for many years edited the first American journal in his profession, American Journal of Psychology (1887).2057 At Clark University he helped found Journal of Applied Psychology (1917).2058 Children, he believed, recapitulated the development of the human race in their development. For many years Hall taught a broad course, which he called psychogenesis, in evolution, and another on the psychology of Christianity.2059 Hall’s studies of children led him into pioneering work on educational methods. His approach to education and to teaching was historical, his interest chiefly in the development, or what he preferred to call the evolution, of education. His studies of children convinced him that education, which he considered the salvation of the world, must be adapted to the natures and needs of children, not the reverse. Hall participated in the development and extensive use of psychological and intelligence testing of students, an advance in educational psychology that considerably improved teaching methods. He was tolerant of, but not an advocate of, John Dewey’s education techniques.2060 In 1882, Dewey entered The Johns Hopkins University for graduate study in philosophy. A serious but sly student, Dewey was quietly exploring the relationship between religion and morals in late nineteenth century American life. At Johns Hopkins, Dewey accepted neo-Hegelianism. Dewey and his whole intellectual generation

2046 International Handbook of Psychology, eds. Albert R. Gilgen & Carol K. Gilgen (NY: Greenwood Press, Inc., 1987), p. 544. 2047 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 6, p. 52a. 2048 Op. cit. 2049 Op. cit. 2050 Ibidem, 2, p. 366a. 2051 Ibidem, 6, p. 52b. 2052 Op. cit. 2053 Op. cit. 2054 Ibidem, 6, pp. 52b-53a. 2055 Ibidem, 6, p. 53a. 2056 Op. cit. 2057 Ibidem, 6, p. 53b. 2058 Op. cit. 2059 Ibidem, 6, p. 53a. 2060 Op. cit.

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were seeking something new, something to explain life, a transformation of values. 2061 He had begun the transformation of his religious beliefs by ruling out the supernatural but placing its values into the natural. In time, as a philosopher, Dewey placed in the natural world a faith that had previously been assigned to a coming Kingdom of God.2062 In 1884, he joined the department of philosophy at the University of Michigan. 2063 Psychology, Deweys’ first book, was published in 1887; it combined empirical psychology with German metaphysical idealism. After a year at the University of Minnesota, he returned to Michigan as chairman of the department of philosophy 2064…and cut his final ties to organized religion. His interest became increasingly secular. He accepted an appointment at the University of Chicago [(1894) 2065] as chairman of the department of philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy. Within two years, he established the Laboratory School, which provided the institutional expression of progressive education.2066 His philosophy was a fusion of Hegelian idealism and Darwinian naturalism, expressed in a context of reform for industrial America. Ideas had significant consequences for human life; they were instruments to shape the world and place values, albeit human ones, into human affairs. As part of the natural world, all human activity, including the use of intelligence, was a process that existed in nature and not in an independent (or dualistic) mode of being. As a biological function, reflective intelligence meant that, by naturalistic metaphysics, people adapt to environmental situations. 2067 As the years passed, the honors increased; he became America’s national philosopher. As one historian remarked, he was the “guide, the mentor, the conscience of the American people . . . for a generation no major issue was clarified until Dewey had spoken.” Dewey continued to write and lecture after his retirement in 1930. He was a real intellectual presence during the New Deal, World War II, and afterward. His political activities often drew criticism, and traditionalists saw dire social consequences in his progressive educational ideas. 2068 A society and foundation were established to help spread Dewey’s ideas on democracy and educational reform. 2069 Although he was often criticized for the excesses of progressive education, his educational writings contributed to the reform of American public schools. Finally, his writing and teaching, particularly in the first half of the twentieth century, made him a leading American liberal. Concerned always about individual self-realization and reconstruction of American society for a just life for all, John Dewey practiced in his own life what he advocated for others. 2070

• • •

Mistakes are the usual bridge between inexperience and wisdom.2071 Confusion is underdeveloped wisdom, primitive wisdom, while wisdom is completely developed.2072

• • •

Asked in whom they trust, more Americans in 1994 professed great confidence in scientists and doctors than in any other professionals, including Supreme Court Justices and – by nearly five to one – journalists. 2073 Recently…a number of prominent scientists have begun voicing an alarm that increasing secrecy among academic researchers is delaying progress, diverting resources, suppressing good ideas and, most worrisome, undermining the credibility – and thus usefulness – of science as a whole. Steven A. Rosenberg, chief of surgery at the National Cancer Institute, argues that in medicine, at least, “it is a very clear moral issue. If you withhold information, you potentially delay progress. If you delay progress, you potentially delay the development of effective treatments, and humans [sic] beings suffer and die who need not have done so.” 2074

• • •

2061 The Great Scientists, ed. Frank N. Magill (Connecticut: Grolier Educational Corp., 1989), p. 21. 2062 Op. cit. 2063 Op. cit. 2064 Op. cit. 2065 Op. cit. 2066 Op. cit. 2067 Ibidem, pp. 21-22. 2068 Ibidem, p. 22. 2069 Ibidem, pp. 22-23. 2070 Ibidem, p. 23. 2071 Phyllis Theroux, Night Lights (Viking Penguin), In Quotable Quotes®, Reader’s Digest, Jan 1996, 148(885), p. 15. 2072 Guru Rinpoche according to Karma Lingpa, The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing In the Bardo, trans. with commentary by Francesca Fremantle & Chögyam Trungpa (Boston: Shambhala, 1987), p. 22. 2073 W. Wayt Gibbs, The price of silence, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 15. 2074 Op. cit.

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Within the U.S. government’s massive stockpile of classified documents 2075…[is] taxpayer-funded research that no longer needs to be guarded and in many cases should have been released long ago. Such technical know-how, if made available, could give the American economy a boost without compromising the country’s defense, argue business leaders, scientists and other advocates of less secrecy.2076

2075 Daniel G. Dupont & Richard Lardner, Needles in a Cold War haystack, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 41. 2076 Op. cit.

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Pain

Anxiety, dread, panic, aversion, depression – a small demonology of our age: It makes one anxious just to name them, and most people will eagerly perform any ritual, intone any magic that might keep such demons at bay. But, despite the disruptions they cause us today, these demons once had a life-saving purpose. Just as physical pain warns us of potential damage to the body, emotional pains helped us avoid more complicated threats to life and limb. Indeed, the full bouquet of our cherished traits and tastes, as well as the bestiary of our negative behaviors, evolved at a time when humans lived in small bands of hunter-gatherer scavengers. To us, their lives seem arduous and uncertain, but heaven knows what they would make of ours. The only thing is, we still navigate by their maps, still respond according to their instincts, still act like hunter-gatherers, though we grapple with problems they would not have encountered, understood or valued.2077

• • •

To study human behavior, pain may be inflicted (for example, surgical implants may cause pain or shocks may be used to induce stress).2078 The research must be consistent with certain principles of conduct, however, and intended to protect subjects as well as to enable researchers to contribute to the long-term welfare of human beings (and other animals).2079 Animal rights groups have also expressed recent concern over the use of animals in psychological research ([Bales, J. (1988). New laws limiting duty to protect. APA Monitor, 19, 18 2080]).2081 Only when alternative procedures are unavailable and the goal justified by the potential value to human beings should researchers be allowed to consider subjecting animals to discomfort or pain,2082…[but] the experiment is perhaps the best tool for testing cause-and-effect relationships. 2083

• • •

Fordyce (1982, 1988) 2084…pointed out that the only available data concerning…pain (or any other somatoform symptoms) are the subjective reports from the afflicted people,2085…[but recent findings indicate] multiple cortical sites…have been shown to “light up” in PET scan studies of experimental pain in humans. 2086 The traditional labeled line or telephone wire perspective that pain is the product of “pain pathways” originating in the periphery and projecting to “pain centers” in the thalamus and cortex came under fire 30 years ago. It was partly replaced by the gate control theory of Ronald Melzack and Patrick D. Wall, who argued that pain is not just a function of the activity of small-diameter primary afferent fibers that respond to injury stimuli but is rather a complex perception influenced by sensory discriminative, affective, and cognitive factors.2087 It is [also] a long-held tenet that electrical stimulation of the brain does not evoke pain. Many sensations can be generated, such as music, pictures, tingling, and odors, but pain is rarely if ever elicited. A memory of pain, however, can be revealed by electrical stimulation of the brain of patients undergoing different neurosurgical procedures. This suprising result first suggested that the perception of pain, rather than arising from a single “pain center” in the brain, results from distributed processing in numerous brain areas. 2088 For example,2089…Fred Lenz and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins University 2090…described a 69 year old woman who was receiving electrical stimulation as part of treatment for a movement disorder. In the course of the

2077 Diane Ackerman, The fears that save us, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: PARADE, 26 Jan 1997, p. 18. 2078 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 156. 2079 Op. cit. 2080 Ibidem, p. A-19. 2081 Ibidem, p. 156. 2082 Op. cit. 2083 Ibidem, p. 140. 2084 Ibidem, p. 219. 2085 Op. cit. 2086 Allan I. Basbaum, Ph.D. (joint appointment in the Dept. of Physiology and is a member of the W. M. Keck Foundation Center for Integrative Neuroscience at the University of California, San Francisco), Memories of pain, Science and Medicine, Nov/Dec 1996, 3(6), p. 26. 2087 Ibidem, p. 22. 2088 Ibidem, p. 26. 2089 Op. cit. 2090 Op. cit.

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stimulation, the patient suddenly reported intense pain in her chest, identical to the angina she had experienced over the previous nine years.2091 In another patient, the stimulation evoked intense pain in the peroneal region; the patient “thought she was having a baby.” She was not pregnant at the time, but had delivered four children previously. Again, intense pain experiences had left their mark.2092 There is…considerable evidence that tissue injury leads to the release from membrane phospholipids of arachidonic acid, which is then metabolized to prostaglandins by cyclooxygenase. Prostaglandins act directly on the terminal of primary afferent fibers to lower their threshold for activation. The effectiveness of aspirin and related nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs largely results from their blockage of cyclooxygenase. 2093

Depressed?

How odd to live in a country whose Constitution guarantees us the right to pursue happiness. In a recent study of 39 cultures reported in Psychology Today, the U.S. ranked 12th in perceived happiness. Citizens of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden were the happiest depite their gloomy weather. Surprisingly, people in France and Japan said they were among the least happy.2094 In collectivist countries such as China, an individual’s wishing to be happy is thought selfish and therefore not a high priority.2095

• • •

Medical problems can trigger depression in some people.2096 Specific vitamin and mineral deficiencies also may bring on depression in some people. Medications, including barbiturates, tranquilizers, heart drugs, hormones, blood pressure medications, painkillers, arthritis drugs, and even some antibiotics, have been linked with depression, as has chronic alcohol use, according to an article in the November 1990 issue of The Johns Hopkins Medical Letter: Health After 50 entitled “Depression: Lifting the Cloud.” 2097 Certain life conditions, such as extreme stress or grief, may trigger a natural psychological or biological tendency toward depression.2098 Conditions such as poor or inconsistent parenting, parental illness, loss of an attachment figure, and neglect or abuse often produce lowered self-esteem and increased vulnerability to depression. Deressed children show many of the same characteristics as do depressed adults. 2099 Even as infants, abused children show…more noncompliant, resistant, and avoidant behavior. 2100 Furthermore, as these abused children advanced…they not only continued to show problems in relations with peers, teachers, and caregivers, they also had academic problems and low self-esteem, exhibited behavior problems, and, not suprisingly, were depressed and withdrawn. 2101

Headaches

Headaches are among the most common psychophysiological complaints. Approximately 45 million Americans suffer chronic or recurrent headaches that vary in intensity from dull to excruciating ([Clark, M., Gosnell, M., Hager, M., Shapiro, D., Norris, E., & Gordon, J. (1988, Spring). Headaches: How to ease the pain. Newsweek on Health, pp. 12-21 2102]). It is unclear whether the different forms of headaches (migraine, tension, and cluster) are produced by different

2091 Op. cit. 2092 Op. cit. 2093 Allan I. Basbaum, Ph.D. (joint appointment in the Dept. of Physiology and is a member of the W. M. Keck Foundation Center for Integrative Neuroscience at the University of California, San Francisco), Memories of pain, Science and Medicine, Nov/Dec 1996, 3(6), p. 22. 2094 Diane Ackerman, The fears that save us, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: PARADE, 26 Jan 1997, p. 20. 2095 Op. cit. 2096 James E. Marti with Andrea Hine, The Alternative Health & Medicine Encyclopedia, (NY: Gale Research Inc., 1995), p. 175. 2097 Op. cit. 2098 James E. Marti with Andrea Hine, The Alternative Health & Medicine Encyclopedia, (NY: Gale Research Inc., 1995), p. 175. 2099 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 519. 2100 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 436. 2101 Op. cit. 2102 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-28.

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psychophysiological mechanisms or if they merely differ in severity. Individuals with headaches show greater sensitivity to pain in areas of the body other than the head than those who are headache free ([Marlow, N. I. (1992). Pain sensitivity and headache: An examination of the central theory. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36, 17-24 2103]). One factor, stress, appears to contribute to the initiation of headaches ([Gannon, L. R., Haynes, S. N., Cuevas, V., & Chaves, R. (1987). Psychophysical correlates of induces headaches. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 367-371 2104]).2105 Headache pain is being preceived as more than a function of a physiological factor (muscle tension, dilation of cranial arteries). Cognitive-emotional and pain-motivated behaviors, such as verbal and nonverbal complaints and avoidance, are also being considered ([Phillips, H. C. (1983). Assessment of chronic tension headache behavior. In R. Melzack (Ed.), Pain measurement and assessment (pp. 155-165). New York: Raven Press 2106]). Several psychological interventions such as relaxation, cognitive therapy, and biofeedback show promise in treating headaches ([Blanchard, E. B. (1992). Psychological treatment of benign headache disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 859-879 2107]).2108

• • •

Good documentation exists for the effectiveness of meditation, biofeedback, and yoga for stress reduction and the control of particular physiologic reactions.2109 While meditation methods vary, they seem to have a common cognitive thread: Through passive observation, the normal relationship between the person and the environment is altered. Problem-solving, planning, worry, awareness of the events of the day are suspended. In this way consciousness – that is, the normal focuses of attention – is altered and a state of relaxation is often induced. Meditators may report that they have “merged” with the object of meditation…and then transcend it, leading to “oneness with the universe,” rapture, or some great insight. Psychology has no way of measuring “oneness with the universe,” but psychologists can measure bodily changes.2110 An electromyograph (EMG), which monitors muscle tension, is commonly used to help people become more aware of muscle tension in the forehead and elsewhere and to learn to lower this tension. Through other instruments people have learned to lower their heart rates, their blood pressure, and the amount of sweat in the palm of the hand. All of these changes are relaxing. People have also learned to elevate the temperature of a finger.2111 Increasing the temperature of a finger – that is, altering patterns of blood flow in the body – helps some people control headaches which stem from too great a flow of blood into the head.2112

Complementary Medicine

A clinically responsible balance between the science of medicine and the comfort of complementary medicine will dominate in the 21st century.2113 Alternative treatments, used instead of conventional regimens, can be dangerous.2114 Complementary therapies, used in conjunction with mainstream treatment, 2115…tend to be noninvasive and free of side effects.2116 People with effective support networks tend to show fewer symptoms of both physical and mental disorders in the face of stress than do people without such support ([Heller, K., Price, R. H., Reinharz, S., Riger, S., & Wandersman, A. (1984). Psychology and community change: Challenge of the future. Homewood, IL: Dorsey; 2117 Hirsch, B. J., & DuBois, D. L. (1992). The relation of peer social support and psychological symptomatology during the

2103 Ibidem, p. A-57. 2104 Ibidem, p. A-37. 2105 Ibidem, p. 243. 2106 Ibidem, p. A-65. 2107 Ibidem, p. A-23. 2108 Ibidem, p. 245. 2109 Barrie R. Cassileth (University of North Carolina School of Medicine and Duke University School of Medicine), Reaching out: complementary therapy, Science and Medicine, Nov/Dec 1996, 3(6), p. 9. 2110 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 195. 2111 Ibidem, p. 199. 2112 Op. cit. 2113 Op. cit. 2114 Ibidem, p. 8. 2115 Op. cit. 2116 Op. cit. 2117 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-43.

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transition to junior high school: A two-year longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 333-347 2118]). That is, social supports may help decrease the impact of stress on mental health. 2119 People often turn to others for help and guidance during emotional stress. They first seek support from family members, friends, coworkers, or clergy, and then perhaps from mental health professionals. By social supports, we mean the availability and quality of interpersonal resources that people can call on during emotional stress. Social supports can provide guidance, feedback, material aid, behavioral assistance,…and positive social interactions ([Barrera, M., & Ainlay, S. L. (1983). The structure of social support: A conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 133-143 2120]).2121 Many fail to understand…techniques, standard in other countries, that control pain, reduce stress, and alleviate symptoms.2122 Medicine’s crowning achievement, high-technology care, has ironically frustrated a public wanting more gentle, effective, and “natural” approaches.2123 Pleasant aromas, soothing music, distracting immersion in the visual arts, an environment with soothing palettes of color,2124…[meditation, hands-on massage,2125] all are complementary therapies than can foster healing and enhance well-being. Music therapy, for example, is an ancient healing technique with a great deal of accumulated anecdotal evidence. Many medical centers have music therapists. 2126 Research suggests that massage improves circulation and reduces anxiety. It promotes a sense of well-being and relaxation in patients of all ages.2127

Ω

Although most research studying the impact of psychological factors on immune function is fairly recent, the mind-body connection between some physical disorders has been extensively studied. In many instances, a relationship has been found between psychological or social factors and the origin and exacerbation of these conditions.2128 The possibility of influencing health with our minds and spiritual beliefs resonates well with the individualism of American culture. Prayer, spirituality, and mind-body efforts are popular and are moving from the realm of the unconventional into mainstream medicine.2129 Ninety-nine percent of doctors believe there is an important relationship between the spirit and the flesh, according to [a 1996 American Academy of Family Physicans 2130] survey.2131 In a California study of prayer’s effects on recovery from heart problems, half the nearly 400 subjects were the subjects of prayers by Christians, while the others received no known prayers from anyone affiliated with the study. Neither group was told about the prayers. The patients who received prayers had half as many complications as those who didn’t and had a lower rate of congestive heart failure, [professor at Georgetown Medical School Dale] Matthews said. A second study, by Dartmouth Medical School, tracked how patients’ own prayers helped them recover from bypass surgery. The death rate after six months was 9 percent, Matthews said. For churchgoers, however, the rate dropped to 5 percent. None of the deeply religious patients died during that period. 2132 Amen, say proponents of faith healing.2133

2118 Op. cit. 2119 Ibidem, p. 598. 2120 Ibidem, p. A-20. 2121 Ibidem, p. 597. 2122 Barrie R. Cassileth (University of North Carolina School of Medicine and Duke University School of Medicine), Reaching out: complementary therapy, Science and Medicine, Nov/Dec 1996, 3(6), p. 9. 2123 Op. cit. 2124 Op. cit. 2125 Op. cit. 2126 Op. cit. 2127 Op. cit. 2128 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 239. 2129 Barrie R. Cassileth (University of North Carolina School of Medicine and Duke University School of Medicine), Reaching out: complementary therapy, Science and Medicine, Nov/Dec 1996, 3(6), p. 8. 2130 Brian Melley (The Associated Press), Medicine explores link between faith, healing; most doctors believe spirit and flesh related, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 16 Dec 1996, 133(301), p. A14. 2131 Op. cit. 2132 Op. cit. 2133 Brian Melley (The Associated Press), Medicine explores link between faith, healing; most doctors believe spirit and flesh related, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 16 Dec 1996, 133(301), p. A14.

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At California Pacific Medical Center in San Francisco, Elizabeth Targ, M.D., is overseeing a national study to determine the effect of remote prayer on healing AIDS patients. A previous study showed results that were promising enough to warrant further research.2134

2134 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 54.

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!

The cognitive perspective probably originated with the Stoic philosopher Epictetus, who noted, “Men are disturbed not by events, but by the views they take of them.” 2135 The study of cognitions as a cause of psychopathology [(abnormal behavior)] has led many therapists to concentrate on the process (as opposed to the content) of thinking that characterizes both normal and abnormal individuals. 2136 Cognitive therapy consists of highly specific learning experiences designed to teach patients (1) to monitor their negative, automatic thoughts (cognition); (2) to recognize the connections between cognition, affect, and behavior; (3) to examine the evidence for and against distorted automatic thoughts; (4) to substitute more reality-oriented interpretations for these biased cognitions; and (5) to learn to identify and alter the beliefs that predispose them to distort their experiences [(Beck, A. T., & Weishaar, M. E. (1989), Cognitive therapy. In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychotherapies (pp. 285-320). Itasca, IL: Peacock.2137 p. 308 2138)].2139 Hesitation is as interesting as action, delusion is as gripping as heroism, and good and evil are so inextricably mixed as to sometimes seem two aspects of the same thing.2140

Behaviorism

John Broadus Watson was born on 9 January 1878 near Greenville, South Carolina, the son of a wayward father and a deeply pious mother. Named after John Broadus, a local fundamentalist minister, and constantly steered in a religious direction by his mother, young Watson nonetheless developed a fierce rebellious streak that became a permanent part of his character. His youthful pugnacity earned him the nickname “Swats,” and as a teenager he got arrested for fighting and for firing a gun inside city limits. He recalled that at school “I was lazy, somewhat insubordinate, and . . . never made above a passing grade” [(John Broadus Watson, Autobiography in Carl Murchison, ed., A History of Psychology in Autobiogaphy, Vol. 3 (Worcester, MA: Clark University Press, 1936), pp. 271-281, see p. 271; also see Kerry W. Buckley, Behaviorism and the Professionalization of American Psychology: A Study of John Broadus Watson, 1878-1958 (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 1982), pp. 1-3 2141)].2142 Watson went to Chicago expecting to work with the department’s eminent chairman 2143…John Dewey (1859-1952). Ever the maverick, he found Dewey’s approach uncongenial: “I never knew what he was talking about then, and unfortunately for me, I still don’t know,” Watson recalled in his autobiography. 2144 Even so he continued to minor in the subject and took a considerable number of philosophy courses. 2145 A second minor, one in neurology, eventuated from his work in the neurological laboratory of H. H. Donaldson, where he made the acquaintance of the white rat. He also took biology and physiology under Jacques Loeb, who wanted Watson to do his dissertation with him. [James R.] Angell and Donaldson did not consider Loeb “safe” 2146…for a student to work with 2147…so he worked with the two of them instead.2148 It is a fair inference, however, that Loeb had already instilled in him a latent hostility toward subjective modes of analysis in psychology. Loeb may justly be described as Watson’s greatest precursor in exemplifying and proselytizing for this attitude. 2149 [Watson’s] doctoral dissertation made use of both neurological and behavioral techniques in the study of the correlation of the behavior and the growth of medullation in the central nervous system of the white rat. 2150 Watson

2135 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 79. 2136 Ibidem , p. 81. 2137 Ibidem, p. A-21. 2138 Ibidem, p. 83. 2139 Ibidem, p. 79. 2140 Michael Upchurch (special to The Seattle Times), Sheldon Novick’s biography of Henry James sheds new light on the author’s early career, The Seattle Times, 26 Jan 1997, 15(4), p. M2. 2141 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 437. 2142 Ibidem, p. 288. 2143 Op. cit. 2144 Ibidem, p. 290. 2145 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 474. 2146 Ibidem, pp. 474-475. 2147 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 8, p. 446b. 2148 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 475. 2149 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 8, p. 446b.

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graduated in 1903 and was 2151…[eventually] made an instructor.2152 Success came at a price, however, for Watson had had to hold several jobs to support himself, and overwork contributed to an emotional breakdown. He could not sleep without a light on, and suffered anxiety attacks that dissipated only after taking ten-mile walks. He later hinted that sexual concerns may have been involved, when he reported that his breakdown “in a way prepared me to accept a large part of Freud” [(Watson, Autobiography, p. 274 2153)]. Watson’s breakdown coincided with complications in his personal life, following his rejection by one young woman he had fallen in love with, and his subsequent engagement to a nineteen-year-old student named Mary Ickes,2154…a Chicago socialite [whom he eventually married].2155 Watson was a hard worker and produced a considerable number of studies with the white rat, the monkey, and the tern before he left Chicago in 1908 for Johns Hopkins. In 1913 an article appeared proposing a new psychology. Written by John Broadus Watson, then only thirty-five years old, it opened as follows: Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness [(J. B. Watson, “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It, Psychological Review, 20, (1913): 158-177 (Herrnstein and Boring, Excerpt No. 94) 2156)].2157 Watson sought to exclude from psychology all references to the orthodox modes of experience – mind, consciousness, images, and feelings – anything that could not be demonstrated behaviorally, that is, by the actions of muscles or glands. Much of Watson’s work involved attempts at the replacement of the orthodox subject matter of introspective psychology with behavioral equivalents: subvocal speech for thought, discrimination for sensory judgment, and changes in the sex organs for feelings, just to name a few.2158 [For instance,] after learning to talk by conditioning, thought is nothing more “than talking to ourselves” [(J. B. Watson, Psychological Care of Infant and Child (New York: W. W. Norton, 1928) 2159)].2160 [Watson] recognized no demarcation between humans and the “lower animals.” The subject matter of behaviorism was the study of how humans and animals alike adjust to their environment. 2161 The descriptive categories were stimulus and response, he said. Watson believed that “In a system of psychology completely worked out, given the stimuli the response can be predicted.” His ultimate goal was “to learn general and particular methods by which I may control behavior.” 2162 He believed that “If psychology would follow the plan I suggest, the educator, the physician, the jurist and the business man could utilize our data in a practical way” [(J. B. Watson, “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It, Psychological Review, 20, (1913): 158-177 (Herrnstein and Boring, Excerpt No. 94) 2163)].2164 According to [E. B.] Titchener, Watson’s enterprise was not psychology at all but a form of biology. In fact, many biologists had been doing for years what Watson was now proposing to do in the name of behaviorism. 2165 Because an animal shows movements similar to those of a human in similar circumstances, it is possible to reconstruct the animal’s consciousness as essentially similar to that of the human under these same circumstances. The observations are then to be interpreted cautiously in terms of human consciousness. 2166 At John Hopkins Watson received a full professorship in experimental and comparative psychology and the directorship of the laboratory. Watson did his most important work between 1908 and 1920, while at Johns Hopkins.2167

2150 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 475. 2151 Op. cit. 2152 Ibidem, p. 474. 2153 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 437. 2154 Ibidem, p. 291. 2155 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 474. 2156 Ibidem, p. 494. 2157 Ibidem, p. 466. 2158 Op. cit. 2159 Ibidem, p. 496. 2160 Ibidem, p. 480. 2161 Ibidem, p. 467. 2162 Op. cit. 2163 Ibidem, p. 494. 2164 Ibidem, p. 467. 2165 Ibidem, p. 468. 2166 Ibidem, p. 475. 2167 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 475.

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After 1916, Watson emphasized the importance of conditioning.2168 The United States entered World War I in 1917 and was therefore directly involved in the conflict for less than two years. During that time, however, psychologists were recruited by the government to develop and administer group intelligence tests, a task they accomplished with considerable success. This was significant because it gave additional credibility to the young dicipline.2169 Habits are nothing more than complex conditioned responses, such as those involved in playing tennis, in soling shoes, or in exhibiting maternal reactions to children [(J. B. Watson, Behavioism, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1930) 2170)]. These habits are integrations of conditioned responses around an activity built up from the available behavior repertoire, starting with innate movements. Movements combine by conditioning into complex acts. 2171 Conditioning is the basis of speech, and speech is the basis of thinking.2172 [For example, an] infant’s vocalization of “da-da” is attached to the person of the [representative] father; through further conditioning it becomes “daddy.” 2173 Other words and thoughts develop in a similar fashion. Subvocal speech, or thinking, has been developed through conditioning.2174 In 1920 Watson’s academic career came to an abrupt end as a result of scandal. When divorce proceedings were instituted against him, sensational publicity was the result, and he was asked to resign from the Johns Hopkins faculty. In the same year, he married Rosalie Raynor, with whom he had collaborated on a research study of infants.2175 Watson believed the main significance of…[previous] studies lay not in the bare fact that people and dogs could both be conditioned to salivate to or withdraw their toes from inherently neutral stimuli, but in their implications for further and broader conditioning experiments.2176 In particular, he suggested…that human emotions might profitably be thought of as glandular and muscular reflexes which, like salivation, easily become conditioned. 2177 Watson began asking what human emotional responses were innate and “unconditioned,” and in answer described his observations of human infants who presumably had not yet had time to acquire any conditioned responses.2178 First, Watson observed an apparently innate fear response.2179 Only two kinds of stimuli seemed able to produce this reaction in very young infants: a sudden and unexpected loud sound, or the sudden loss of support as when the infant was suddenly dropped (and then caught without any physical harm being done). [ 2180] Infants did not react in this or any other dramatic way when confronted with darkness or other stimuli commonly regarded as fearful by older people. (Thus Watson must have concluded that his own fear and inability to sleep in the dark during his emotional breakdown in Chicago had been an acquired rather than an innate emotional reaction.) 2181 Second, Watson observed an emotional reaction in infants he called rage. 2182 Just one kind of stimulus – the physical hindering of movement – produced this reaction in a newborn.2183, [ 2184] Finally, Watson saw evidence for a third unconditioned emotion in infants that he provisionally called love.2185 He saw everything else, including such supposedly “natural” reactions as fear of the dark and love for one’s mother, as the results of Pavlovian-style conditioning.2186 All the complications and complexities of adult emotional experience were presumably nothing more than conditioned responses built upon three relatively simple unconditioned emotional reflexes.2187

2168 Ibidem, p. 481. 2169 Edited by Albert R. Gilgen & Carol K. Gilgen, International Handbook of Psychology (NY: Greenwood Press, Inc., 1987), p. 537. 2170 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 496. 2171 Ibidem, pp. 481-482. 2172 Op. cit. 2173 Ibidem, p. 482. 2174 Op. cit. 2175 Ibidem, p. 476. 2176 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 294. 2177 Op. cit. 2178 Ibidem, p. 295. 2179 Op. cit. 2180 Moro reflex — E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 149. 2181 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 295. 2182 Op. cit. 2183 Op. cit. 2184 Babkin or palmar-mental reflex — E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 149. 2185 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 296. 2186 Op. cit. 2187 Op. cit.

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In a classic and oft-cited experiment, Watson (Watson and Rayner, 1920), using classical conditioning principles, attempted to condition a fear response in a young child named Albert. [Mary Cover] Jones (1924) reported: Albert, eleven months of age, was an infant with phlegmatic disposition, afraid of nothing “under the sun” except a loud sound made by striking a steel bar.[ 2188] This made him cry. By striking the bar at the same time that Albert touched a white rat, the fear transferred to the white rat. After seven combined stimulations, rat and sound, Albert not only became greatly disturbed at the sight of a rat, but this fear had spread to include a white rabbit, cotton, wool, a fur coat,2189…a dog, a Santa Claus mask,2190…and the experimenter’s hair. It did not transfer to his wooden blocks and other objects very dissimilar to the rat. 2191 In other words, Watson was able to demonstrate that the acquisition of a phobia (an exaggerated, seemingly illogical fear of a particular object or class of objects) could be explained by classical conditioning. 2192 The conditioning view assumes that these phobic reactions are classically conditioned responses (…). At some point (in this view) the person must have experienced intense fear while in the presence of what’s now the phobic stimulus (cf. [Watson, J. B., & Raynor, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1-14 2193]). By classical conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus took on the ability to provoke the anxiety reaction. The same principle presumably applies no matter what the feared stimulus is, which confers a kind of generality that many psychologists find appealing.2194 It can be inferred that such fears could inadvertently build up in a home, so that a child is being conditioned when he is in bed in the dark and hears a loud clap of thunder, producing thereafter a fear of the dark. 2195 Watson and Rayner stated that the fear responses “in the home environment are likely to persist indefinitely, unless an accidental method for removing them is hit upon.” And in a concluding tasteless section of their article, they ridiculed the Freudian psychoanalyst who might one day try to treat Albert’s phobia: The Freudians twenty years from now, . . . when they come to analyze Albert’s fear of a seal skin coat . . . will probably tease from him a recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream . . . he may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the factors which brought about the fear [(John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner, “Conditioned Emotional Reactions,” Journal of Experimental Psychology (3:1-14, 1920), pp. 12, 14 2196)].2197 It is extremely easy for therapists to take advantage of their clients’ trust and to exploit it. 2198 Originally, Watson had intended to “decondition” Albert to the fear, but [he didn’t]. Mary Cover Jones (1924), a student of Watson’s, was able to demonstrate how fear could be unlearned through classical conditioning principles. By using food as a stimulus to counteract the fear response, Jones described vividly how this could be done: During a period of craving for food, the child is placed in a high chair and given something to eat. The feared object is brought in, starting a negative response. It is then moved away gradually until it is at a sufficient distance not to interfere with the child’s eating. The relative strength of the fear impulse may be gauged by the distance to which it is necessary to remove the feared object. While the child is eating, the object is slowly brought nearer to the table, then placed upon the table and, finally, as the tolerance increases, it is brought close enough to be touched. Since we could not interfere with the regular schedule of meals, we chose the time of the mid-morning lunch for the experiment. This usually assured some degree of interest in the food and corresponding success in our treatment. 2199

2188 Moro reflex — E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 149. 2189 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 72. 2190 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 483. 2191 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 72. 2192 Op. cit. 2193 Charles S. Carver & Michael F. Scheier, Perspectives on Personality, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996), p. 600. 2194 Ibidem, p. 352. 2195 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 483. 2196 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 437. 2197 Ibidem, p. 298. 2198 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 630. 2199 Ibidem, pp. 72-73.

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The positive aspects of food eventually overcame the negative (fear-arousing) aspects of the object. The pairing of a negative stimulus to elicit the undesirable response (fear) with a pleasant stimulus (food) to elicit a pleasurable response is called counterconditioning; it is a major form of therapy used by many behaviorists. 2200

• • •

Virtual reality offers several advantages over the conventional treatment for phobias, which requires that patients repeatedly expose themselves to real-life situations that cause anxiety. “Virtual therapy” saves time and money, because the therapist isn’t required to accompany the patient to the fear-producing environment. Instead, the patient can be treated in the privacy of the therapist’s office.2201

• • •

In 1926 [(1924 2202and 1913 2203)] in the heat of the nature-nurture controversy Watson expounded 2204…the battle cry of the radical,2205…militant,2206…behaviorist movement: 2207 Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed and my own specific world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even into a beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors. 2208, 2209, 2210, [ 2211]

• • •

2200 Ibidem, p. 73. 2201 Stan Pinkwas, Overcoming phobias, Popular Science, Aug 1995, 247(2), p. 29. 2202 At Johns Hopkins University in 1924… — Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 430. 2203 Watson, J. B., (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177, In Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. 9. 2204 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 80. 2205 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 430. 2206 Watson, John Broadus, In James P. Chaplin, Dictionary of Psychology: Revised Edition, (NY: Laurel, Dell Publ. Co., Inc., 1982(1968)). 2207 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 430. 2208 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 80. 2209 [(‘specific’ reads as ‘specified’)] — Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 430. 2210 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 479. 2211 [(everything after thief omitted; ‘specific’ reads as ‘special’)] — Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. 9.

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Recollection (recall) is not synonymous with remembering [(Aristotle, On Memory and Reminiscence, 451 a 21-452 b 11 2212)]. Remembering is the spontaneous reproduction of past perceptions, that is, a retention of the effect of past experience. Recall is the active search to recover these past perceptions. Recall demands hard thinking, which in this context Aristotle called deliberation, since it involves a search in which one reasons that one has had the experience in question.2213 Recall occurs insofar as experiences succeed one another in memory. This is to say that the recall of one object tends to be followed by the recall of that which is like it (similar to it), contrary to it (contrasted with it), or accompanying it (contiguous with it) in the original learning. 2214 Aristotle also regarded “bonds of association” as acquiring special strength from emotion. He indicates that when excited by love or by fear, the person can see a desired emotion or a feared one approaching despite there being little resemblance [(Aristotle, On Dreams, 460 b 2 2215)]. He goes on to state that the more one is under the influence of emotion, the less “similarity” is necessary for this to happen.2216

• • •

Other changes in internal states can of course be induced by drugs, producing so-called state dependency effects. Such effects can be produced by alcohol, for example; what is learnt drunk is best recalled drunk. Sometimes alcoholics will hide money or drink while in a drunken state, and then forget where it has been hidden, only to remember once they are drunk again. Such drug-based state dependency did of course play an important role in what is claimed to be the first detective story written, The Moonstone of Wilkie Collins.2217

Neobehaviorism

Watson’s behaviorism was an extremely strong influence on American psychology,2218…[though] technically, any behavioral approach that came after Watson and his immediate contemporaries may be called neobehaviorism. The neobehaviorists were as diverse as their forebears, but their differences as well as similarities show how American psychology developed during the behavioral era.2219

• • •

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on 20 March 1904 in the small railroading town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania.2220 Concerning [his mother’s] strict notions of propriety, Skinner wrote: “I was taught to fear God, the police, and what people will think. As a result, I usually do what I have to do with no great struggle” [(B. F. Skinner, Autobiography in G. E. Boring and Gardner Lindzey, eds., A History of Psychology in Autobiography, Vol 5 (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), pp. 387-413, see p. 407 2221)].2222 Skinner published his first literary work at age ten, a poem entitled “That Pessimistic Fellow,” in the Lone Scout magazine. Unpublished works written during high school included a morality play featuring the characters Greed, Gluttony, Jealousy, and Youth and a melodramatic novel about a young naturalist’s love affair with the daughter of a dying trapper. Skinner did well academically, and in 1922 became his family’s first college man as a freshman at Hamilton College in Clinton, New York. At Hamilton, Skinner took some biology courses and a philosophy course,…but no psychology. He majored in English and wrote regularly for the college newspaper, literary magazine, and humor magazine – adopting the pen name of Sir Burrhus de Beerus for the last. An inveterate practical joker, he helped spread a false rumor that Charlie Chaplin was going to speak on campus.2223 As a senior, Skinner publicly parodied the speech teacher, subverted the traditional oratory competition by submitting a farcical speech, and decorated the hall for class day exercises with less than complimentary caricatures of the faculty.2224 2212 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 90. 2213 Ibidem, p. 83. 2214 Op. cit. 2215 Ibidem, p. 90. 2216 Ibidem, p. 84. 2217 Thomas Butler, Memory: History, Culture and the Mind (U.K.: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1989), pp. 56-57. 2218 Thomas H. Metos, The Human Mind: How We Think and Learn (NY: Franklin Watts, 1990), p. 98. 2219 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 485. 2220 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 304. 2221 Ibidem, p. 438. 2222 Ibidem, p. 305. 2223 Ibidem, p. 306. 2224 Op. cit.

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Skinner and others developed the learning theory known as operant (or instrumental) conditioning, in which the stimulus follows the behavior, as opposed to classical conditioning, in which the stimulus always precedes the behavior.2225 For example, classical conditioning is a passive process. When a reflex occurs, conditioning apparently doesn’t require you to do anything.2226 Instrumental conditioning, in contrast, is an active process (cf. [Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 2227]). The events that define it begin with a behavior on your part (even if the “behavior” is the chosen act of remaining still). 2228 Skinner used two other tools in his operant conditioning to learning. One was the procedure called shaping, that is, using reward to guide the subjects natural behavior toward the desired behavior gradually. The other tool was changing the emphasis from rewards to reinforcers. There are two kinds of reinforcers.2229 For humans, a positive reinforcer is approval, attention, money, or promotion, for example. A negative reinforcer for a rat is an electric shock that is stopped, thus becoming a reward. In humans, withdrawal of approval by parents may make a child study harder and get better grades. The basis of reinforcement is that whether a positive or a negative reinforcement is used, it strengthens the behavior of the laboratory animal or human.2230 Skinner read a book in which the philosopher Bertrand Russell, one of his favorite writers, discussed John B. Watson’s recently published Behaviorism critically but seriously. “I do not fundamentally agree with “[”Watson’s“]” view,” wrote Russell, “but I think it contains much more truth than most people suppose, and I regard it as desirable to develop the behaviourist method to the fullest possible extent” [(B. F. Skinner, Particulars of My Life (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), quoted, p. 298 2231)]. Intrigued, Skinner read Watson as well as the recently translated Pavlov, liked what he read, and began to suspect that behavioristic analyses might just be able to account for many of those “whys” of behavior that were missing in literature. A symbolic turning point occurred when Skinner read an article by H. G. Wells about Pavlov and the famous British writer George Bernard Shaw. The irascible and colorful Shaw had greatly disliked Pavlov’s writings, and had sarcastically described the Russian as a scoundrel and vivisectionist with the habit of boiling babies alive just to see what would happen. Wells expressed admiration for both men and posed a hypothetical question: Pavlov and Shaw are drowning on opposite sides of a pier and you have but one life belt to throw in the water; to which side would you throw it? Skinner instantly knew that his choice would be for Pavlov, and further resolved to go to graduate school and become a behavioristic psychologist. He applied and was accepted at Harvard, for the autumn of 1928.2232 Watson, in a manifesto entitled, “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” (1913), had already enunciated the credo: “Do away with introspection! Psychology must be objective! Most human behavior can be explained on the basis of conditioning! Psychologists should study the behavior of simple animals, from which all necessary principles can be derived to apply to human beings! The goal of psychology is not the understanding of experience but the prediction and control of behavior!” Pavlov had shown that dogs could be conditioned to respond to a stimulus (e.g., to salivate to the ringing of a bell) by pairing it with another stimulus (e.g., food) to which they would instinctively respond, and Watson, in his “little Albert” experiment, had shown that a human infant could be similarly conditioned. Now it would be up to Skinner to enlarge upon their work and see how far this line of investigation could lead. In December of his first year at Harvard, he had written, “I have almost gone over to physiology, which I find fascinating. But my fundamental interests lie in the field of psychology, and I shall probably continue therein, even, if necessary, by making over the entire field to suit myself” ([The] Shaping [of a Behaviorist,] 1979, p. 38).2233 To discover and prove that so-called free behavior in rats is really a function of an external condition might be exciting to anyone; but to Skinner the hope that this would lead to proof that free will and conscious (or unconscious) choice in human beings were no less the results of external conditions was what a later generation would call “mind-blowing.” He was gripped by the possibilities of his experiments as any inspired genius, and the drive – or compulsion – to extend the behaviorist view to the very limits of its applicability was never to diminish.2234 During World War II, Skinner conducted a series of experiments in which he trained sets of pigeons to navigate bombs dropped from aircraft so they would hit their targets accurately. The pigeons were to be harnessed inside the nose cones of the bombs; 2235…had been trained, through operant conditioning, to keep their eyes on 2236…[the

2225 Thomas H. Metos, The Human Mind: How We Think and Learn (NY: Franklin Watts, 1990), p. 99. 2226 Charles S. Carver & Michael F. Scheier, Perspectives on Personality, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1996), p. 339. 2227 Ibidem, 596. 2228 Ibidem, 339. 2229 Op. cit. 2230 Ibidem, pp. 99, 102. 2231 Raymond E. Fancher, Pioneers of Psychology, 2nd ed. (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990), p. 438. 2232 Ibidem, pp. 307-308. 2233 Harvey Mindess, Makers of Psychology: The Personal Factor (NY: Human Sciences Press, Inc., 1988), p. 93. 2234 Ibidem, p. 94. 2235 Ibidem, p. 96. 2236 Op. cit.

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target; and] attached to their heads were rods whose movements steered the bombs. 2237 These birds would have been the equivalent of modern guidance computers.2238 Bizarre as it sounds, the experiment apparently worked, and Skinner was eventually able to interest the army brass in observing a demonstration. The operation became known as “Project Pigeon” and was classified until the end of the war. It was never used, however, partly because the officers who considered it found it ludicrous, but also because by this time the U.S. was preparing to launch the atom bomb. An item of greater interest to the public was 2239…[what] he called…the “baby-tender” and spent years trying to distribute it commercially.2240 Skinner’s arguments in favor of the baby tender involved the fact that the danger of an infant smothering in its bedclothes was eliminated, that the baby enjoyed more protection from infection than would ordinarily be the case, and that a controlled environment was preferable to the environment of most households in which children are raised.2241 Years later, with his academic reputation firmly established, Skinner had more success in initiating programmed instruction and the use of teaching machines in school settings. He invented the first of these devices…to promote the principle that mechanical and electronic “teachers” were more reliable and effective than humans ones – a stand that won him both acclaim and opposition in educational circles. 2242 Still a student at Harvard, he recalls, “I was now so much the complete behaviorist that I was shocked when people I admired used mentalistic terms.” 2243 The young man…was already demonstrating the validity…that behaviorism could become a belief system generating the exclusivity, dogma, and righteousness of any other creed.2244 The questions that interest clinicians…[include] why behavior that does not appear to be reinforcing, at least in the sense of generating pleasurable consequences, often persists in human beings for years, and the differential issue of why some of us adjust to changes in our environment while others do not.2245 Skinner’s first public declamation of the world-saving power of behaviorism is contained in his Utopian novel, Walden Two (1948). A fuller exposition of his views on the future of the human race is put forth in Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971).2246 [Margaret] Mead accused him of wanting to play God,…and Karl Popper wrote, “Skinner is an enemy of freedom and democracy. He has explained his contempt for freedom quite openly in his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity. He has expounded it many years before in a book Walden Two, which is the dream of a very kind but megalomaniac behaviorist who defends a behaviorist dictatorship” (p. 391).2247 A Utopian novel set in contemporary America, Walden Two is the story of a visit by a small group of academics to an extraordinary community run along strictly behaviorist lines. They are variously impressed and repelled by what they see. The community was founded by a man named Frazier, a former psychologist turned reformer, whose belief in operant conditioning knows no bounds. He shows Walden Two to his visitors…keeping up a running commentary on its virtues, at first in a fairly objective manner, but eventually with all the fervor of a zealot. At the beginning of their visit, for instance, he takes the group out for a walk. “This is our lawn,” he says. “But we consume it. Indirectly, of course – through our sheep. And the advantage is that it doesn’t consume us. 2248 We soon found that the sheep kept to the enclosure and quite clear of the fence, which didn’t need to be electrified. So we substituted a piece of string, which is easier to move around.2249 [The lambs] stray,” Frazier conceded, “but they cause no trouble and soon learn to keep with the flock.” 2250 The curious thing is that most of these sheep have never been shocked by the fence. Most of them were born after we took the wire away. It has become a tradition among our sheep never to approach string. The lambs acquire it from their elders, whose judgment they never question. It’s fortunate that sheep don’t talk,” said [one of Frazier’s visitors]. “One of them would be sure to ask ‘Why?’ The Philosophical Lambkin” (Walden Two, 1948, pp. 15-16).2251 The incident seems innocuous enough, but the reader soon learns that it is a prototype for the rest of the story. Not only the animals but also the people at Walden Two have been conditioned to be of service to the community and to carry out their appointed duties without complaint and without question. The resultant peacefulness and efficiency of the place becomes captivation to some of the visitors, but it disturbs others,…who continually raise[] the issue of human beings being deprived of their freedom of choice.

2237 Op. cit. 2238 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 491. 2239 Harvey Mindess, Makers of Psychology: The Personal Factor (NY: Human Sciences Press, Inc., 1988), pp. 96-97. 2240 Ibidem, p. 97. 2241 Op. cit. 2242 Ibidem, pp. 97-98. 2243 Ibidem, p. 94. 2244 Op. cit. 2245 Ibidem, p. 96. 2246 Ibidem, p. 94. 2247 Ibidem, p. 98. 2248 Ibidem, p. 99. 2249 Op. cit. 2250 Op. cit. 2251 Ibidem, p. 100.

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Frazier’s counterargument, like his author’s, is that so-called freedom of choice is an illusion. We are all controlled by our environments, he says. We make continual efforts to control each other – teachers to control their students, students to control their teachers; parents to control their children, children to control their parents; friends and lovers, governments and citizens, all are engaged in this enterprise – but we do it poorly, haphazardly, because we don’t understand what we’re doing and even refuse to acknowledge the truth of our behavior. 2252 Getting carried away near the end of the story, Frazier addresses his guests in a state of mounting excitement 2253…[while] the visitors wrestle with the moral dilemma it presents. 2254 “What remains to be done?” he said.2255 “Well, what do you say to the design of personalities? 2256 The control of temperament? Give me the specifications and I’ll give you the man! . . . And what about the cultivation of special abilities? 2257 These things are left to accident or blamed on heredity.2258 We can analyze effective behavior and design experiments to discover how to generate it in our youth” 2259 (Walden Two, 1948, pp. 274-5).2260 Years later, Skinner wrote, “Much of the life in Walden Two was my own at the time.2261 I took a fairly extreme position,2262…[and] I let Frazier say things that I myself was not yet ready to say to anyone. . . . Eventually (however) I became a devout Frazierian” (Shaping, 1979, pp. 297-8).2263 [Walden Two] (and Skinner) were attacked in Life Magazine under the heading, “The Newest Utopia is a Slander on Some Old Notions of the Good Life.” 2264 “Dr. Skinner is the professor of psychology who is responsible for the invention of something known as ‘the mechanical baby tender’ . . . But the menace of the mechanical baby tender is as nothing compared to the menace of books like Walden Two. For Dr. Skinner’s utopia is a triumph of ‘cultural engineering’ and ‘behavioral engineering’ where the conditioned reflex is king. . . . Once they are trained, the inhabitants have ‘freedom.’ But it is the freedom of those Pavlovian dogs which are free to foam at the mouth whenever the ‘dinner’ bell invites them to a nonforthcoming meal” (pp. 347-8).2265 The title [Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971) 2266] must be taken literally. Skinner lets us know from the outset that he considers the value placed on our so-called freedom to shape our own lives, as well as the vaunted ideal of the dignity of the individual, to be outmoded notions whose time has past. 2267 He attacks them by insisting that a “technology of behavior” based on the principles of operant conditioning could produce a world as free from crime, unhappiness, and inefficiency as from our unfortunate overestimation of the worth of the individual and our common delusion that there actually is such a thing as freedom of the will. 2268

• • •

Significant funding of psychology by the federal government started during World War II, particularly from 1941 to 1945 when the United States was formally involved in the conflict.2269 The war had some bearing on each of the following events or developments: a) the accelerated growth of the dicipline; b) the expansion of professional (particularly clinical) psychology; c) the spread of the psychoanalytic influence; d) the formation of guidelines for research using human subjects; e) studies on anti-Semitism, prejudice, and rumor; f) analyses of concentration-camp experiences; g) research on peace, war, aggression, stress, and frustration; h) psychological projects solicited by the United Nations; i) increased interest in conducting interdisciplinary research; j) investigations suggested or made possible by technological developments; k) test development and validation; l) small-group research and the growth of

2252 Op. cit. 2253 Op. cit. 2254 Ibidem, p. 101. 2255 Ibidem, p. 100. 2256 Op. cit. 2257 Op. cit. 2258 Ibidem, p. 101. 2259 Op. cit. 2260 Op. cit. 2261 Op. cit. 2262 Op. cit. 2263 Ibidem, pp. 101-102. 2264 Ibidem, p. 102. 2265 Op. cit. 2266 Op. cit. 2267 Op. cit. 2268 Op. cit. 2269 International Handbook of Psychology, eds. Albert R. Gilgen & Carol K. Gilgen (NY: Greenwood Press, Inc., 1987), p. 545.

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social psychology; and m) talent searches and work on creativity [(Gilgen, A. R. (1982). American psychology since World War II: A profile of the discipline. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press., p. 45 2270)].2271 The behavioral orientation has remained central to post-World War II American psychology for a variety of reasons, including the interest on the part of psychologists, educators, and helping professionals of all types in ways to change human behavior (influence learning and performance); faith in laboratory research, observable phenomena, experimental methodologies, and animal studies;…and a belief that, in general, the activities of people and other higher life forms are molded more by the environment than genes. 2272 As a working method, behaviorism has proven itself remarkably effective in many areas of life.2273

2270 Ibidem, p. 555. 2271 Ibidem, pp. 548-549. 2272 Ibidem, p. 549. 2273 Harvey Mindess, Makers of Psychology: The Personal Factor (NY: Human Sciences Press, Inc., 1988), p. 107.

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The Net

Donald [O.] Hebb (1904-1985) probably did more than any other individual to reestablish modern physiological psychology as part of behavior theory.2274 Hebbs’s conditioning work led to an offer from Robert M. Yerkes of Yale, which he declined, going instead to Chicago to study with Karl Lashley. When Lashley went to Harvard in 1935, Hebb went with him, completing his doctorate under Lashley there in 1936. 2275 Hebb spent the years 1942-1947 at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida. It was at Yerkes’s laboratory that Hebb noticed the emotional response elicited by chimpanzees on seeing a clay model of a chimpanzee’s head. Their response could be elicited by any detached body member such as a hand. Their response also extended to humans, since they reacted to a mannequin hand. This emotional response increased with age. 2276 Hebb continued to deal with the problem of human intelligence and brain action. It was in 1944 that he adopted the position that would come to be known as the cell assembly theory. Hebb tells us: I found out that Rafael Lorente de Nó had recently shown: (1) that reentrant or closed circuits were to be found throughout the brain, which thus was no longer to be seen as a through-transmission, sensorimotor mechanism, but as one capable of a purely internal activity also, as a possible basis of thought; and (2) that one neuron by itself may not be able to excite a second neuron at the synapse, but can do so if supported by simultaneous action from another neuron. (That is, two presynaptic neurons can be effective when one is not, which, in principle, offers an explanation of the selective effect of attention, when some activity that is going on in the cortex provides such support for one sensory input but not for another.) The first idea offered a solution for my earlier problem, What is a concept? – namely, that it is a group of cortical neurons exciting and reexciting each other. The second idea was a fascinating one, for attention and set had been a complete mystery up to that time . . . and now I had a possible solution [(D. O. Hebb and W. R. Thompson, “The Social Significance of Animal Studies,” in Gardner Lindzey, et., Handbook of Social Psychology, (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968), Vol. 2, pp. 532-561 2277)]. Hebb was now looking at thought “as a sequence of brain events, each excited jointly by the preceding event and by the sensory stimulation of the moment. The schema implied that thought must be disrupted in a strange environment with unfamiliar contingencies [(D. O. Hebb, “D. O. Hebb,” p. 295 2278)].2279 It was then that Hebb thought back to the chimpanzees at Yerke’s laboratory and their fear reactions to dismembered organs. He concluded that “emotional disturbance is a disruption of thought due to a conflict with environmental events or to a lack of usual sensory support” [(Ibid., p 296 2280)]. This notion would become part of Hebb’s cell assembly theory.2281 A cell assembly is a group of neurons clustered together functionally because of a past history of being stimulated together. Their main characteristic is that they are capable of acting together for a time as a closed system. They may have been produced through some sensory event, or they may have been aroused by some previously existing assembly. One cell assembly may activate another assembly. 2282 Cell assemblies that are activated at the same time may become organized into “phase sequences,” which are a sequence of cell assembly functions. Taking the child as his subject, Hebb tells us that when a baby hears footsteps an assembly is excited; while this is still active, he sees a face and feels hands picking him up, which excites other assemblies – so that “footsteps-assembly” becomes connected with “face assembly” and the “being-picked-up assembly.” After this has happened, when the baby hears footsteps only, all three assemblies are excited; the baby then has something like a perception of a mother’s face and the contact of her hands before she has come in sight – but since the sensory stimulations have not taken place, this is ideation or imagery, not perception [(D. O. Hebb, Textbook of Psychology, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1972), p. 67 2283)].2284

2274 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), pp. 491-492. 2275 Ibidem, p. 492. 2276 Op. cit. 2277 Ibidem, p. 499. 2278 Op. cit. 2279 Ibidem, pp. 492-493. 2280 Ibidem, p. 499. 2281 Ibidem, p. 493. 2282 Op. cit. 2283 Ibidem, p. 499. 2284 Ibidem, p. 493.

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Hebb stated that “Neural transmission is not simply linear, but apparently always involves some closed or recurrent circuits; and a single impulse cannot ordinarily cross a synapse – two or more must act simultaneously, and two or more afferent fibers must, therefore, be active in order to excite a third to which they lead” [(Ibid.2285)]. The reflex arc is not a simple loop but one that may have many loops built into it, some of which may be recurrent or reverberatory and others of which are simply closed. He also opposed the notion that the nervous system was a passive transmitter of sensory information from receptors. He based his opposition on the idea that the central nervous system may be activated without external stimulation. 2286

• • •

Perhaps the largest single change in American psychological orientation since World War II has been the rise of cognitive psychology. There is no one source for its development. The founding of the movement is often dated with the appearance of Ulrich Neisser’s Cognitive Psychology in 1967 [(Ulrich Neisser, Cognitive Psychology (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966) 2287)].2288 [Neisser] gives what is still perhaps the best definition of cognitive psychology: the term “cognition” refers to all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations. Such terms as sensation, perception, imagery, retention, recall, problem-solving, and thinking, among others, refer to hypothetical stages or aspects of cognition [(Ulrich Neisser, Cognitive Psychology (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966) 2289)]. Neisser recognized that this definition gave the impression that cognitive psychology studied everything a human might possibly do.2290 Neisser…discriminates among 2291 [dynamic psychology,2292] cognitive psychology and physiology, although he does not challenge the validity or value of each of these positions own approaches to the subject matter.2293 Perhaps the best candidate for an origin date for the movement is 1956 with the appearance of A Study of Thinking by Jerome Bruner, Jacqueline Goodnow, and George A. Austin [(Jerome Bruner, J. J. Goodnow, and G. A. Austin, A Study of Thinking (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956) 2294)]. Bruner uses that date himself [(Jerome Bruner, In Search of Mind: Essays in Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1983), p. 120 2295)]. The book was a product of the Harvard Cognition Project, founded by Bruner and conducted in the Laboratory of Social Relations at Harvard beginning in 1952.2296 [One] development the authors credited came directly from the war effort. It was information theory which arose from communications research. Just as with stimulus-response psychology, the inputs and outputs of a communication system, it soon became apparent, could not be dealt with exclusively in terms of the nature of these inputs and outputs alone nor even in terms of such internal characteristics as channel capacity and noise. The coding and recoding of inputs – how incoming signals are sorted and organized – turns out to be the important secret of the black box that lie athwart the communication channel [(Jerome Bruner, In Search of Mind: Essays in Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1983), p. vii-viii 2297)]. It was from this background of communications research that information processing theory originated. In 1948 Norber Wiener at MIT coined the word cybernetics in his book Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. The notion of feedback mechanisms was particularly influential in the later cognitive science.2298

• • •

2285 Ibidem, p. 499. 2286 Ibidem, pp. 493-494. 2287 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 629. 2288 Ibidem, p. 622. 2289 Ibidem, p. 629. 2290 Ibidem, p. 624. 2291 Op. cit. 2292 Ibidem, p. 623. 2293 Ibidem, p. 624. 2294 Ibidem, p. 629. 2295 Op. cit. 2296 Ibidem, p. 623. 2297 Ibidem, p. 629. 2298 Ibidem, p. 623.

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The study of computers, “thinking machines,” would provide a model for many future researchers in cognition.2299 Psychologists are given to thinking of human processes in terms of the status of the physical sciences of the day. So it is not suprising that a number of cognitive psychologists describe human information processing in computer science concepts such as input and output and bits of information.2300 Most neurobiologists today believe that neurons are the active elements in brain function.2301 The human brain contains about 100 billion of these swiching elements.2302 For every neuron in the brain, there are roughly ten glial cells (from the greek word for “glue”), which hold the neuronal structure together. An average neuron in the human brain has between 1,000 and 10,000 synapses.2303 It is now known that the brain contains microcircuits… (about 1/10,000 of a centimeter) made up of neurons and synapses. 2304 These microcircuits seem to increase in abundance with the complexity of a particular life form.2305 The existance of such microcircuits suggests that intelligence may be the result of the abundance of specialized switching elements in the brain.2306 Neural networks are good at solving problems involving multiple constraints such as image processing. Pattern recognition, for example, is easy for a neural network because such networks can process many things in parallel.2307

• • •

Even before birth, the brain is affected by environmental conditions, such as the nourishment and stimulation a developing fetus receives. Brain cells and neurons begin to develop while the baby is in the uterus. During early nurturing they make connections with each other called synapses. 2308 Infants who heard The Cat in the Hat [(Seuss, Dr. (T. S. Geisel) 2309)] prenatally preferred to hear it after birth.2310 There is accumulating evidence that newborns may exhibit a postnatal preference for a specific passage or melody experienced prenatally ([DeCasper, A. J., & Spence, M. (1986). Neweborns prefer a familiar story over an unfamiliar one. Infant Behavior and Development, 9, 133-150; DeCasper, A. J., & Spence, M. (1992). Auditorily mediated behavior during the perinatal period: A cognitive view. In Newborn attention: Biological constraints and the influence of experience. Norwood. NJ: Ablex; Fifer, W. P., & Moon, C. (1989). Auditory experience in the fetus. In W. P. Smotherman & S. R. Robinson (Eds.), Behavior of the fetus (pp. 175-187). Caldwell, NJ: Telford Press]).2311 The first three years of life are when the vast majority of [synapses] are produced. After the first few years a kind of pruning occurs and unnecessary wiring is eliminated. In the first three years, a baby’s potential future wiring for intelligence, sense of self, trust and motivation for learning is laid down. Warm, responsive care in these early years is critical. 2312 Loving parents talk, sing and read to their babies. They hug and cuddle them. The current research emphasizes how critical this warm approach is.2313 “Children need a lot of interaction with adults to learn language and concepts about how the world operates,” explains [University of Washington (UW) professor Kathryn] Barnard. “The more we learn about early brain development, we learn that, unless the brain gets appropriate stimulation, it’s not going to develop as well.” Susan Spieker, Barnard’s fellow UW researcher, adds that bonding in the first year of life is crucial to learning. “Babies need a secure base from which to explore and learn. In a high-risk environment, babies have to learn a whole other pattern of behavior for survival – and that is not complatible with the type of learning that needs to take place.” 2314

2299 Robert I. Watson, Sr. & Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 624. 2300 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 25. 2301 neurons, Richard P. Brennan, Dictionary of Scientific Literacy, (NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992). 2302 Op. cit. 2303 Op. cit. 2304 Op. cit. 2305 Op. cit. 2306 Op. cit. 2307 Ibidem, neural network. 2308 T. Berry Brazelton, The symbiosis of nurture and nature, San Francisco Chronicle, 19 May 1997, p. D8. 2309 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. I-14. 2310 Ibidem, p. 121. 2311 Ibidem, p. 120. 2312 T. Berry Brazelton, The symbiosis of nurture and nature, San Francisco Chronicle, 19 May 1997, p. D8. 2313 Op. cit. 2314 Carey Quan Gelernter, Giving tots an equal start; some Washington babies gain a jump-start on Head Start through local programs, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. M1.

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Crying is actually a building block to learn how to talk, she explains. A baby whose crying is met with comfort, learns to use it to communicate – and eventually to substitute talking for crying. Ignoring crying can lead to language delays.2315 Socioeconomic status [i]s an[other] important predictor of which children… do[] better in school. But by far the biggest predictor was how much the children were talked to before age 3 – and this was independent of socioeconomic status, and of race.2316 Successful kids are talked-to kids.2317 The average number of words children heard per hour was 2,150 in professional families; 1,250 in working-class families; and 620 in welfare families.2318 By measuring vocabulary growth, because it is strongly associated with rates of intellectual development, they found that by age 4, patterns of growth were already established and intractable. 2319 Poverty can be broken, but it takes an education.2320 Besides the sheer amount of talk, what mattered was the ratio of negative instructions (“quit that,” “don’t touch,”) compared to other talk. 2321 “[Some] parents did not [even] take the bus to the zoo, or turn the TV on to ‘Sesame Street,’ and they did not talk to their children very much.” 2322

Cortical Plasticity

Before puberty, a child can achieve the fluency of a native speaker in any language (or even in two or more languages simultaneously) without special training. After puberty, it is extremely difficult to learn a first language. In cases of speech disruption due to brain damage, young children often recover their language capacity rapidly and completely; if the brain damage occurs after puberty, the prognosis for the recovery of language is poor ([Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley 2323]).2324 We now realize that the concept of the adult mammalian brain as largely static is no longer tenable. Numerous studies show that experimental manipulations can lead to growth and plasticity in the adult brain. We have confirmed that growth and plasticity, including neurogenesis and synaptogenesis [(the ability to modify the number, nature, and level of activity of its synapses 2325),] can also occur throughout the animal’s natural life.2326 Classic studies in cats [ 2327] generated four principles of functional malleability or “plasticity” in the developing visual cortex. They are the concepts of specificity, gating, consolidation, and the critical period. Recent studies of adult humans and monkeys revealed that the acquisition of skills, or procedural learning, seems to share many of the same characteristics.2328 Procedural [(implicit) 2329] learning is the formation of “how to” memories: a gain in performance of a task is acquired implicitly during the actual execution of the task. 2330 Implicit memory…refers to behavioral knowledge of an experience without conscious recall. A child who demonstrates knowledge of a skill (e.g., bicycle riding) without recalling how he/she learned it, or an adult who has an affective reaction to an event without understanding the basis for that reaction (e.g., a combat veteran who panics when he hears the sound of a helicopter, but cannot remember that he was in a helicopter crash which killed his best friend) are demonstrating implicit memories in the absence of explicit recall.2331

2315 Op. cit. 2316 Carey Quan Gelernter, Successful kids are talked-to kids, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. M3. 2317 Op. cit. 2318 Op. cit. 2319 Op. cit. 2320 Jerry Large, Poverty can be broken, but it takes an education, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. M3. 2321 Carey Quan Gelernter, Successful kids are talked-to kids, The Seattle Times, 27 April 1997, 15(17), p. M3. 2322 Op. cit. 2323 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. R-37. 2324 Ibidem, p. 256. 2325 C. W. Cotman & M. Nieto-Sampedro, Cell biology of synaptic plasticity, Science, 21 Sep 1984, 225(4668). 2326 M. S. Kaplan (Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Sinai Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21215), Plasticity after brain lesions: contemporary concepts, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Nov 1988, 69(11). 2327 The studies discovered, among other things, that kittens reared in environments devoid of vertical stimuli run into legs of chairs as adults, and kittens reared in environments devoid of horizontal stimuli miss targets when leaping as adults. Kittens reared in a deprived environment suffer as adults in an enriched environment. 2328 Avi Karni, M.D. (Visiting Associate in the Laboratory of Brain and Cognition at NIMH and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Neurobiology at the Weizmann Institute and the Department of Neurology at the Sheba Medical Center), Adult cortical plasticity and reorganization, Science and Medicine, Jan-Feb 1997, 4(1), p. 24. 2329 Statement on memories of sexual abuse (American Psychiatric Association statement), 1995 Information Please (TM) Almanac, Annual 1995, p. 438(1). 2330 Avi Karni, M.D. (Visiting Associate in the Laboratory of Brain and Cognition at NIMH and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Neurobiology at the Weizmann Institute and the Department of Neurology at the Sheba Medical Center), Adult cortical plasticity and reorganization, Science and Medicine, Jan-Feb 1997, 4(1), p. 24.

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Declarative [(explicit) 2332] learning is the formation of “what” memories: the explicit recollection of events and facts.2333, [ 2334] To acquire a skill such as reading, which is a procedural memory task, requires a different memory process than to remember something recently read, which is a declarative memory task. Memorizing a text, especially for recitation, may involve both systems. Pronunciation and prosody [(metrical style),] for example, may be retained through procedural memory.2335 This distinction between explicit and implicit memory is fundamental because they have been shown to be supported by different brain systems, and because their differentiation and identification may have important clinical implications.2336 Everyone has first-hand experience with the fact that “practice makes perfect.” Performance of a task improves with repetition, and after a critical amount of training, highly skilled performance levels are attained. It is reasonable to assume that a gain in performance reflects, and indeed is subserved by, a change in neural processing that is triggered by practice. These neural changes may be quite long-lasting, as many skills, once acquired, are retained over long time intervals.2337 Early life cortical plasticity is specific, controlled, and time-dependent; 2338… measurements of adult human skill learning reflect the same principles. 2339 Dov Sagi of the Weizmann Institute and [Avi Karni] followed the time course of development of a discrimination skill in human adults. [Their] observations suggest two stages in the acquisition of improved perception.2340 A fast improvement, occurring early in training, can be induced by a limited number of trials, on a time scale of a few minutes or less, but only if high-quality sensory input is provided. It occurs consistently early in the initial practice sessions of naive subjects and then saturates, with performance remaining stable within the session and for up to 8 hours afterward.2341 After this latent period, large and long-lasting improvements in performance were found.2342 Performance continued to improve over days.2343 Once a maximal level of performance was reached, most of the gain was retained over months and even years. 2344 [Their] experimental results indicate that experience-dependent gains in performance are mostly not concurrent with practice but follow, and require, a latent phase of several hours’ duration, during which the skill evolves. 2345 Brain imaging provides a potentially effective probe for examining some of the neurobiological correlates of learning and memory in the human brain. Safety considerations impose limitations on the design of the studies. 2346 [Avi Karni and colleagues] combined simple measurements of motor performance with event-related functional MR

2331 Statement on memories of sexual abuse (American Psychiatric Association statement), 1995 Information Please (TM) Almanac, Annual 1995, p. 438(1). 2332 Op. cit. 2333 Avi Karni, M.D. (Visiting Associate in the Laboratory of Brain and Cognition at NIMH and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Neurobiology at the Weizmann Institute and the Department of Neurology at the Sheba Medical Center), Adult cortical plasticity and reorganization, Science and Medicine, Jan-Feb 1997, 4(1), p. 24. 2334 Statement on memories of sexual abuse (American Psychiatric Association statement), 1995 Information Please (TM) Almanac, Annual 1995, p. 438(1). 2335 Avi Karni, M.D. (Visiting Associate in the Laboratory of Brain and Cognition at NIMH and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Neurobiology at the Weizmann Institute and the Department of Neurology at the Sheba Medical Center), Adult cortical plasticity and reorganization, Science and Medicine, Jan-Feb 1997, 4(1), p. 24. 2336 Statement on memories of sexual abuse (American Psychiatric Association statement), 1995 Information Please (TM) Almanac, Annual 1995, p. 438(1). 2337 Avi Karni, M.D. (Visiting Associate in the Laboratory of Brain and Cognition at NIMH and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Neurobiology at the Weizmann Institute and the Department of Neurology at the Sheba Medical Center), Adult cortical plasticity and reorganization, Science and Medicine, Jan-Feb 1997, 4(1), p. 24. 2338 Ibidem, p. 26. 2339 Ibidem, p. 28. 2340 Ibidem, p. 29. 2341 Op. cit. 2342 Op. cit. 2343 Op. cit. 2344 Op. cit. 2345 Op. cit. 2346 Ibidem, p. 30.

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imaging [(fMRI)] [ 2347] of local blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signals in primary motor cortex across several weeks of training.2348 In the motor task used, the fingers of the nondominant hand were opposed to the thumb in two mirror-reversed matched sequences [(similar to fingering guitar frets)]. Subjects were instructed to tap each sequence as accurately and as rapidly as possible without looking at the hand.2349 Short-term effects of training in motor and sensorimotor tasks on patterns of brain activation [were] examined by [positron emission tomography (PET)] scanning during a single training session. As learning progressed, activity in the primary motor cortex increased, 2350…[and] a consistent decrease in the activation of the cerebellum and several higher-level motor processing areas occurred after…practice.2351 After about three weeks of 2352…10 to 20 minutes of daily practice,2353…speed had more than doubled, and there was a concurrent gain in accuracy.2354 By week 4, the extent of motor cortex activation evoked by the execution of the practiced sequence was consistently larger than the area activated by the control sequence. 2355 The improvement was specific to the trained hand and did not generalize to performance with the [dominant] hand. Also, there was no significant gain in the performance of the control sequence, even though both sequences were made of identical component movements.2356 [As an analogy, improvement after practicing descending scales would not generalize to playing ascending scales.] Motor skill learning reorganizes the adult primary motor cortex. 2357 Functional MR imaging of evoked BOLD signals in the hand representation area of the contralateral primary motor cortex reflected the changes in performance. Before training, a comparable extent of motor cortex was activated by both sequences. Nevertheless, in naive subjects, repeating either of the two sequences after a brief interval (40 seconds) resulted in a smaller area of activation, a habituation-like effect.2358 [Avi Karni and colleagues] found that motor skill learning is constrained by the same factors that control perceptual learning, in terms of both the specificity of the learning process…and the time course of learning the skill.2359 [Their] results suggest that two distinct phases can be found in adult human motor skill learning, analogous to those in perceptual skill learning. The first is a within-first-session switch in processing mode, from habituation-like decrease to enhancement-related increase in the area of the motor cortex activated by a given sequence of movements upon repetition.2360 Moreover, the switch in the motor cortex response to the repetition of a motor event is dependent on a critical amount of specific practice.2361 This change in primary motor cortex may, in effect, reflect neural changes occurring in other parts of the distributed motor system, such as the cerebellum, as suggested by several PET studies. This may be conceptualized as the acquisition of a task-related routine.2362

2347 [Other scientists] needed…a way to identify the regions of the brain that are engaged when healthy subjects are reading or trying to read,…[and their need was also fulfilled] with the advent in the late 1980s of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Using the same scanning machine that has revolutionized clinical imaging, fMRI can measure changes in the metabolic activity of the brain while an individual performs a cognitive task. Hence, it is ideally suited to mapping the brain’s reponse to stimuli such as reading. Because it is noninvasive and uses no radioisotopes, fMRI is also excellent for work involving children. — Sally E. Shaywitz, M.D. (co-director of the Yale Center of the Study of Learning and Attention, professor of pediatrics at the Yale School of Medicine, and has directed the Connecticut Longitudinal Study), Dyslexia; a new model of this reading disorder emphasizes defects in the language-processing rather than the visual system. It explains why some very smart people have trouble learning to read, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 103. 2348 Avi Karni, M.D. (Visiting Associate in the Laboratory of Brain and Cognition at NIMH and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Neurobiology at the Weizmann Institute and the Department of Neurology at the Sheba Medical Center), Adult cortical plasticity and reorganization, Science and Medicine, Jan-Feb 1997, 4(1), p. 30. 2349 Ibidem, p. 31. 2350 Ibidem, p. 30. 2351 Op. cit. 2352 Ibidem, p. 31. 2353 Op. cit. 2354 Op. cit. 2355 Ibidem, p. 32. 2356 Ibidem, p. 31. 2357 Ibidem, p. 30. 2358 Ibidem, p. 31. 2359 Ibidem, pp. 30-31. 2360 Ibidem, p. 32. 2361 Op. cit. 2362 Op. cit.

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A much slower between-sessions second phase of learning follows the initial changes and may reflect the gradual evolution of a specific representation of the skilled movements, which depends on long-term practice. This interpretation agrees with finding in the monkey of cortical changes associated with acquisition of a motor skill. 2363 The emergence of enduring, robust changes in adult cortical representations as a function of learning was demonstrated in a series of studies by Michael Merzanich and colleagues, combining psychophysical and electrophysiological recordings in monkeys.2364 In one study, adult monkeys were trained to discriminate small differences in the frequency of sequentially presented tones. They were found to progressively improve on performing the task over several weeks of training.2365 A significant increase in the cortical representation of the narrow band of frequencies relevant for performance of the task was found. 2366 In all instances in which a learned behavior was found to drive cortical changes, 2367…there was a functional reorganization of the local neuronal circuitry in task-relevant sensory or motor areas [(Adapted from G. H. Recanzone, C. E. Schreiner, and M. M. Merzenich, Journal of Neuroscience 13:87-103, January 1993 2368)].2369 It is not surprising that a stable population of neurons in mature primates, including man, may be essential for the retention of memory and learned behavior.2370

2363 Op. cit. 2364 Ibidem, p. 30. 2365 Op. cit. 2366 Op. cit. 2367 Op. cit. 2368 Op. cit. 2369 Op. cit. 2370 P. Rakic, DNA synthesis and cell division in the adult primate brain, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1985, 457().

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Um . . .

Cloning, brain transplants, laser-guided cybersoldiers, gene-altered cucumbers; in the past two weeks alone [(before March 30),] these future-shock topics have made newspaper headlines around the world. Suddenly, it seems, the future is rushing at us. And we can’t tell whether to cheer or huddle deeper into our mental caves.2371 To prevent getting trampled by a stampede of data, [individuals] will soon rely on software agents to monitor the flow of information, ferret out movies, news, and information of specific interest, and even do routine chores – sort of an electronic valet.2372 [FM] 2030 has lectured at universities from Harvard to UCLA, where he has taught courses in future studies for the past 10 years; written books and articles for major publications, including The New York Times, Los Angeles Times and Science Digest; and served as a consultant for companies like Lockheed, J.C. Penny and Rockwell International, according to a[] [Florida International University] spokesperson. He sees, in a generation, healthy life spans of 120 years, the result of improving our own bodies. And, not long afterward, something like immortality when computers can scan our thoughts, memories, emotions, dump them onto silicone [sic] chips and insert them into the “brains” of “total body prosthesis:” 2373 They don’t call it science fiction for nothing.2374 Computers that become part of our bodies are not so far-fetched. According to Peter Cochrane, head of research at British Telecommunications PLC, surgeons have performed about 17,000 cochlear implants on patients with hearing loss. “These people are already walking around with chips in their heads,” he says.2375 “Something is being created that is not movies and is not television,” says Denise Caruso. “No one really knows what it is just yet. But I wouldn’t invest in a company where the people involved didn’t have a vision for the future.” 2376 Instead of displaying an image first so you can then look at it, the Virtual Retinal Display uses a beam of colored light to paint the image directly onto your retina. You see the image as though you were looking at a 14-inch video monitor sitting at arm’s length.2377 [Thomas] Furness of the University of Washington’s HITLab has [also] developed a…retinal display.2378 “We’ve found that people who have inoperable cataracts can see with this machine,” says Furness, “because we’re bypassing the optics of the eye and going directly to the retina.” Implantable versions in high-definition “are definitely within a 15-year time frame,” Furness says.2379 The new, post-industrial age just now under way, in which humans have invented machines to extend their brains, creates a whole new decentralization.2380 Soon, the electronics for…global-positioning satellite system[s]…will be on a single, embedded chip.2381 Then, your…personal digital assistant “will know where it is at all times and be able to query the Net,”…says Internet pioneer Vinton G. Cerf, MCI Communications Corp.’s senior vice-president for Internet architecture and engineering.2382 British Telecom thinks future generations…could be installed right in your ear.2383 Researchers at Fujitsu Ltd., Japan’s largest computer company, have spent more than a decade trying to make agents more lifelike. Collaborating with Carnegie Mellon University, they have developed 3-D animated characters

2371 Fred Tasker (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Futurists offer varying forecasts for 21st century, The Seattle Times, 30 March 1997, p. A4. 2372 Linda Marsa, All that glitters: cashing in on the interactive future, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 12. 2373 Fred Tasker (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Futurists offer varying forecasts for 21st century, The Seattle Times, 30 March 1997, p. A4. 2374 Robert K. J. Killheffer, Writing with the net up: emphasizing the “science” in science fiction, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 13. 2375 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 74. 2376 Linda Marsa, All that glitters: cashing in on the interactive future, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 12. 2377 Suzanne Kantra Kirschner (Editor) with Kevin Miller (Researcher), What’s new, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 16. 2378 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 74. 2379 Ibidem, p. 75. 2380 Fred Tasker (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Futurists offer varying forecasts for 21st century, The Seattle Times, 30 March 1997, p. A4. 2381 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 75. 2382 Op. cit. 2383 Op. cit.

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that “live” and evolve in a computer’s memory.2384 Over time, [it] learns the sound of its owner’s voice 2385…and comes when you call.2386 The technology behind Fujitsu’s digital pet is called artificial life, or a-life.2387 Scientists at the Univeristy of Tokyo are exploring ways that la cucaracha can become more socially redeeming. Using hardy American roaches, scientists remove their wings, insert electrodes in their antennae and affix a tiny backpack of electric circuits and batteries to their carapace. The electrodes prod them to turn left and right, go backward and forward. The plan is to equip them with minicameras or other sensory devices.2388 Consider the remarkable human brain. The biochemical reactions in its fluids and tissue perform many tasks faster than a Cray supercomputer. “A Cray can multiply two ten-digit numbers in 109 seconds,” says John Ross of Stanford University. “But your brain can probably recognize 500 people on the street. No Cray could ever do that.” 2389 “What we need is a transportation system for linking minds, the electronic equivalent of the Vulcan mind meld from Star Trek, where you crawl into someone’s head. We can aspire to this, even in 15 years.” 2390 To train soldiers in decision-making,…the Army has been known to square…off with simulated forces on virtual battlefields. The behavior of simulated enemy tanks is so realistic that soldiers can’t distinguish them from human-driven foes.2391 Will computers…behave more like living creatures? Can they aspire to even primitive consciousness? Michigan’s Holland says it can’t be ruled out.2392 “There’s a kind of amphorism: Any time you jump three orders of magnitude, you have a whole new science,” says Holland. As we move toward billions of elements on a chip, the boundaries that separate us from machines will continue to blurr. [sic] “It’s beyond our realm to say that machines of such enormous complexity can’t be conscious,” says Holland.2393 There are likely to be more than a glitch or two involved in wiring up America. 2394 As these machines move more seamlessly into our lives, our bodies, and our thoughts, the very notion of a “computer” – with its manuals, glitches, and crashes – may recede to a memory.2395 “Today’s computers are pathetic in some senses. They are not as smart as my dog: He can listen and respond. . . . If I have a computer that smart, I can change the world,” [says Nathan Myhrvold, Microsoft’s top research director].2396 [Says, Daniel Mange, Head of logical systems at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,2397] “In computers, all information is written in a string of digits of zeros and ones. In biology, it’s almost the same. The question is whether it’s possible to transfer some of the properties of living creatures to artificial silicon circuits [(or vise versa)]. With enough complexity, our systems could get a certain degree of autonomy and consciousness. Machines could do tasks similar to ours – and program themselves. I don’t know if this is dangerous, but it’s part of our future.” 2398

• • •

As the rhesus plays, Andrew B. Schwartz, a senior fellow at the Neurosciences Institute, sits in front of a floor-to-ceiling rack of equipment recording the animal’s thoughts – or rather electrical traces of them. His instruments are connected by a wire far thinner than a human hair to a single brain cell lying just below the surface of the animal’s primary motor cortex. No electricity goes into the subject’s skull. But the moment the monkey

2384 Ibidem, p. 77. 2385 Op. cit. 2386 Op. cit. 2387 Op. cit. 2388 Peepers creepers; research at the University of Tokyo is investigating ways in which cockroaches with the mini-cameras can be used to locate vermin or perhaps even survivors of earthquakes, Time, 27 Jan 1997, 149(4), p. 17(1). 2389 Mariette DiChristina, Better computing through chemistry, Popular Science, Aug 1995, 247(2), p. 34. 2390 Thomas Furness (Director of the University of Washington Human Interface Technology Lab), In Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 75. 2391 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 82. 2392 Ibidem, p. 84. 2393 Op. cit. 2394 Linda Marsa, All that glitters: cashing in on the interactive future, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 12. 2395 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 84. 2396 Ibidem, p. 76. 2397 Otis Port, Dueling brainscapes, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 88. 2398 Op. cit.

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decides to move its arm, this neuron starts firing, sending pulses out to the computer, which registers how rapidly they arrive. From the pattern of signals produced by fewer than 100 brain cells sampled as the rhesus repeats its task, Schwartz has all the data he needs to predict where the monkey’s arm is going a good tenth of a second before the animal moves a muscle. Neuroscientists discovered a decade ago that the rate at which a neuron fires in the motor cortex determines the direction the associated muscle will tend to move. Averaging the directions sent by a bunch of brain cells within the region, researchers found that they could predict with uncanny accuracy which way a monkey was going to move its arm – so long as the movement was a straight line. Working with colleagues at Arizona State University, Schwartz has improved the technique to reproduce the spirals and other complex curves the subject draws in three-dimensional space.2399 Schwartz found that the key to translating motor cortex signals is to associate neuron firing rates with velocity as well as direction. He improved the accuracy of his decoder further by accounting for what he calls “a time-warping phenomenon” in the brain. When humans and other primates draw straight lines, the lag between brain signal and muscle movement is tiny, just a few hundredths of a second. Curves are harder, however. So the tighter the curve, the slower we draw it, and the further our brains have to race ahead of our hands. That process complicates movement prediction, however. “If at one moment the lag from neuron firing to movement is 200 milliseconds and then a moment later the lags drops near zero, the two signals might cross, making the movements occur out of order,” Schwartz says. “In reality, the change from moment to moment is never so radical that signals actually cross, but you can see how predictions get really messed up unless we take time warping into account.” 2400 His colleagues have constructed an artificial neural net that reorganizes itself to extract as much information as possible from the cortex signals. It should predict new patterns with more accuracy.2401 His group will [also] start testing two new devices. A larger probe will sense the firing rates of many cortex cells simultaneously, producing real-time predictions such as those generated by muscle and brain-wave monitors. And an early prototype of a wireless probe will radio its host’s intentions to an external processor. If the device is successful, the researchers will try to shrink and implant it within an animal’s skull. 2402

• • •

Cyberonics, of Houston, devised [a] 55-gram pocket watch-sized generator, which is inserted above the rib cage. Its wires carry current to electrodes wrapped around the vagus nerve in the carotid area, which sends signals from the viceral system – the heart, stomach, intestines, and vocal cords – to the brain. When activated, the generator typically emits one or two milliamperes of pulsed current in 30-second bursts every five minutes.2403 Volunteers report minor side effects which can be managed by changing output settings – a slight tingling buzz as well as minor voice changes and hoarseness caused by the current – both rather negligible compared to the dizziness, blurred vision, and drowsiness endured by the 140,000 American epileptics who have severe seizures despite current treatment methods. The device costs…about the cost of three to four years of drug therapy. 2404

One, Zip

While some biochemists have struggled to synthesize complex macromolecules to mimic natural compounds, others have been taking a simpler road – to cast the desired molecule in plastic. 2405 Klaus Mosbach of the University of Lund cast holes in the shape of corticosteroids (antiflammatory drugs that typically contain several dozen atoms) and discovered that the resulting plastic could bind the steroids from a solution containing a mixture of similar compounds. Mobach also imprinted polymers to recognize diazepam (the active ingredient in Valium). Because the plastic’s properties change when its cavities are filled, it can serve as a highly specific biosensor. The technique that appears to work best involves monomers (the polymer building blocks) that incorporate an extra chemical group capable of reacting, albeit weakly, with the template molecule. These reactions stabilize the monomers in place around the template while the polymer is solidifying. Once polymerization is complete, researchers can add solvents, bases or acids to undo the binding and remove the template. Using a similar technique, Kenneth J. Shea of the University of California at Irvine says his group has developed molecularly imprinted membranes that can even distinguish between versions of a single compound that 2399 W. Wayt Gibbs, Mind reading; researchers can now predict what a monkey will draw – before it even moves, Scientific American, June 1996, 274(6), p. 34. 2400 Ibidem, p. 36. 2401 Op. cit. 2402 Op. cit. 2403 George Nobbe, Seizure chaser, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 30. 2404 Op. cit. 2405 Paul Wallich, Molecular molds; plastic replicas mimic complex molecules, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 45.

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differ only in their symmetry, or chirality. “Left-handed” versions of a drug can be made to pass through the membrane much more easily than “right-handed” ones, or vice versa. This selectivity could be extremely important for pharmaceutical companies because chirality often determines a drug’s activity. (Perhaps the most famous case is thalidomide, whose right-handed version has shown great promise as a nontoxic anticancer agent, but whose left-handed version caused the deformation of thousands of children born to women who took the drug in the 1950s and 1960s.) Imprinted polymers could also act as catalysts by holding organic molecules in particular configurations where they can react more easily, Shea notes. Because they are mde of relatively durable plastics rather than amino acids, such “artificial enzymes” could find use in industrial processes by which their natural counterparts would quickly be destroyed by heat or corrosive conditions. If the casting process fulfills its promise, the synthesis of new molecules may rely on nanoscopic molding techniques rather than on the theoretical modeling that currently consumes so many hours of computer time around the globe.2406

• • •

The idea of sending information from one point to another without expending any energy to speak of seems reminiscent of the perpetual motion machines and other engineering fantasies. Ever since 1948, when engineer Claude Shannon established the minimum amount of energy it takes to send a unit of information, engineers assumed the matter was closed. Not so, says IBM physicist Rolf Landauer. The conventional view of a communication link as a pipeline, in which bits – the ones and zeros of computer data – are loaded in at one end and unloaded at the other, is inherently wasteful, he says. Wouldn’t it be more efficient tot recycle those bits instead? “If I use some crazy machinery, I can send a bit from here to there with as little energy as I want,” Landauer says. Instead of a pipeline, Landauer proposed this past year, researchers should start thinking about designing a communications “ski lift.” Essentially, it would be a continuous stream of particles that loop from the transmitter to the receiver and back. Say you were using ammonia molecules, composed of three hydrogen atoms with a nitrogen atom sticking out to the side like an arrow. At first all the nitrogens would point to the left, corresponding to a zero, but the transmitter would flip some of the molecules so they would point to the right, corresponding to a one, in such a way as to encode the message. At the receiving end, the molecules in the ski lift would interact with another string of molecules, swapping orientations and thereby delivering the message before returning to the transmitter. So why doesn’t this require any energy, or only an arbitrarily small amount? For one thing, Landauer assumes the machinery controlling his ski lift is frictionless. For another, the ammonia molecules return to the sender, so the energy contained in their mass – the energy given by the formula E = MC2 – isn’t lost either. And finally, the transfer of information at the receiving end requires no energy, because it would occur through tunneling – the quantum mechanical phenomenon by which a particle can switch states spontaneously, tunneling through an energy barrier rather than having to jump over it. In Landauer’s scheme, the barrier surrounding an ammonia molecule in the receiver would be lowered just enough and at the right instant to encourage the molecule to tunnel into the same state – left- or right-pointing – as a molecule arriving on a ski lift. In practice, of course, Landauer doesn’t know how to control tunneling that finely, and he doesn’t know how to build a frictionless ammonia ski lift. And with conventional communications pipelines growing ever cheaper and more capacious, there is no great market just now for a more energy-efficient approach. “As the demand for the number of bits we send around the world keeps increasing, there will be a time when people would like to save this energy,” says Landauer. “But we haven’t gotten there yet.” He sees his idea less as a blueprint than as a suggested line of research – he calls it a “want ad,” which is different from a fantasy. 2407

• • •

All matter is built of atoms with a similar structure. 2408

• • •

Hanging from the ceiling of Ned Seeman’s office, suspended by fishing wire, is a model of . . . um, something. Its half dozen coils of plastic tubing are paired up in a way that resembles the double helix of a DNA molecule, but DNA was never like this. Instead of forming one simple, linear strand, the plastic coils of this thing snake around, separating and coming together again to trace out a complex, cube-shaped framework.2409

2406 Ibidem, p. 46. 2407 Jeffrey Winters, The quantum ski lift, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 81. 2408 Mariette DiChristina, Not matter, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 40.

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[Bruce] Robinson was interested in Holliday junctions, four-way intersections that can form when two strands of DNA come together, and he wanted Seeman to build a physical model of a Holliday junction. That investigation, in early 1979, set Seeman on the path toward building with DNA.2410 For much of the 1980s, Seeman says, he was simply laying the groundwork to pursue his ambitious program. “It was five years before we got a DNA synthesis machine,” he recalls. And he had to train himself in a whole new area of science. He began testing his ideas by building simple, two-dimensional structures, such as four-armed junctions and rectangles. Even those were not easy. “I didn’t know how to do any of the molecular biology techniques,” he says.2411 Eventually, however, Seeman got it right, and by 1988 he decided he had learned enough to make the jump into three dimensions.2412 It begins with two 80-base strands of DNA, each of which is formed into a loop by sealing the ends together. These two pieces will eventually become the left and right sides of the cube. To each loop Seeman adds four more DNA strands, each about 40-bases long, that zip up partially with the larger piece, creating a pair of half-cubes – squares with a leg sticking out from each corner. Finally, he joins the two half cubes by linking the legs end to end. The resulting cube has 12 edges, each a double strand of DNA 20 bases long, and eight corners that are three-armed junctions.2413 He has developed a rigid type of junction called a double-crossover molecule, consisting of two Holliday junctions linked very closely to each other. These double-crossover molecules have allowed Seeman to connect more than a dozen short lengths of DNA in a row and keep them from drooping back on themselves and forming circles. Combining triangular construction with straight lines made from double-crossover molecules should allow him to build two-dimensional structures that are not floppy, Seeman believes. In three dimensions, Seeman has sketched out a number of rigid frameworks that could be assembled out of triangles. “It’s pure Buckminster Fuller,” he says, referring to the engineer whose famous geodesic dome depended on triangles for its structural strength. Like the geodesic dome, three-dimensional frameworks made from double-crossover molecules could be remarkably strong and rigid.2414

• • •

For nearly 20 years, scientists have expected great things from semiconducting polymers – chimericial [sic] chemicals that can be as pliable as plastic wrap and as conductive as copper wiring. Indeed, these organic compounds have conjured dreams of novel optoelectronic devices, ranging from transparent transistors to flexible light-emitting diodes.2415 In the past year [(1996),] researchers have added two promising candidates to the wish list: solar cells and solid-state lasers. The lasting appeal of these materials – also called synthetic metals – is that they are more durable and less expensive than their inorganic doubles. Furthermore, they are easy to make. Like all plastics, they are long, carbon-based chains strung from simple repeating units called monomers. To make them conductive, they need only be doped with atoms that donate negative or positive charges to each unit. These charges clear a path through the chain for traveling currents.2416 In the September 27 issue of Science,…[results] show that these materials can emit laserlike light across the full visible spectrum – even in such rare laser hues as blue and green. 2417

A.I.

Computer designers face a constant struggle to find the right balance between speed and generality. They can build versatile chips that perform many different functions relatively slowly, or they can devise application-specific chips that do only a limited set of task but do them much more quickly.2418 A new development in integrated circuits offers a third option: large, fast, field-programmable gate arrays, or FPGAs – highly tuned hardware circuits that can be modified at almost any point during use. FGPAs consist of 2409 Robert Pool, Dr. Tinkertoy; to Ned Seeman, DNA is more than the storehouse of life’s great secrets. It’s the most marvelous construction toy every created, Discover, Feb 1997, 18(2), p. 51. 2410 Ibidem, p. 53. 2411 Ibidem, p. 55-56. 2412 Ibidem, p. 56. 2413 Ibidem, p. 57. 2414 Op. cit. 2415 Kristin Leutwyler, Plastic power; polymers take a step forward as photovoltaic cells and lasers, Scientific American, Dec 1996, 275(6), p. 46. 2416 Op. cit. 2417 Ibidem, p. 48. 2418 John Villasensor & William H. Mangione-Smith (electrical engineering faculty at the University of California, Los Angeles), Configurable computing; computers that modify their hardware circuits as they operate are opening a new era in computing design. Because they can filter data rapidly, they excel at pattern recognition, image processing and encryption, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 67.

203 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

arrays of configurable logic blocks that implement the logical functions of gates. 2419 In most hardware that is used in computing today, the logical functions of gates are fixed and cannot be modified. In FPGAs, however, both the logic functions performed within the logic blocks and the connections between the blocks can be altered by sending signals to the chip.2420 The configurable logic blocks in FPGAs can be rewired and reprogrammed repeatedly. 2421 Newer FPGAs can be configured in one millisecond, and we expect to see devices with configuration times as low as 100 microseconds within two years. Ultimately, computing devices may be able to adapt their hardware almost continuously in response to changes in the input data or processing environment. 2422

• • •

The Tera [Computer Company in Seattle’s 2423] machine is billed as the world’s first shared-memory computer that can be scaled up to include hundreds of processors [(eventually, up to 256) 2424] (the ability to accommodate so many processors puts the machine in a category known as massively parallel). In a shared-memory machine, all the processors have access to a common memory; in the alternative design, called distributed memory, each processor has its own memory.2425 The model it presents to programmers is relatively straightforward, because they need not keep track of which memory harbors individual data elements.2426 On each clock cycle the machine can switch from one virtual processor to another; in so doing, it executes with every tick of the clock an instruction from a different program. This same scheme is employed to keep the machine’s processors from competing for data.2427 The Tera machine’s projected peak rate of one gigaflop per processor is about half that of the Cray T90, a state-of-the-art vector supercomputer. The T90, however, can include no more than 32 processors.2428 The future of ultrahigh-performance computing belongs to scalable machines, according to Malvin H. Kalos, director of the Cornel Theory Center, a supercomputer facility located at Cornell University. 2429 Only this type of machine has a chance of achieving the trillion floating-point operations per second (a “teraflop”) that many scientists and engineers are seeking to help them meet a series of “Grand Challenges” first identified years ago by the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Kenneth Wilson. These challenges include so-called rational drug design, which would let biochemists design entire drug molecules on a computer, and the forecasting, on a fine scale, of global shifts in rainfall, temperature and other climate factors over periods ranging from decades to centuries. 2430

• • •

Computer programs can analyze the content of an image to be retrieved in many ways. Some look for images that nearly match a given sample image. Others rely on general appearance. 2431 Yet another alternative is to look for an object with a defined identity.2432 These alternatives represent three fundamentally different notions of image retrieval: to find images that are iconically similar to a known exemplar; to analyze images in terms of “stuff” – regions of near-constant color or texture; or to identify “things” the way people do. (See also the description of pattern matching in “Configurable Computing,” by John Villasenor and William H. Mangione-Smith, on page 66.) 2433

2419 Op. cit. 2420 Op. cit. 2421 Op. cit. 2422 Op. cit. 2423 Glenn Zorpette, The sale of a new machine: can a new scientific computer revive a moribund industry?, Scientific American, Dec 1996, 275(6), p. 40. 2424 Ibidem, p. 44. 2425 Ibidem, p. 40. 2426 Op. cit. 2427 Op. cit. 2428 Ibidem, p. 44. 2429 Op. cit. 2430 Op. cit. 2431 David Forsyth, Jitendra Malik & Robert Wilensky (faculty members in the computer science division and collaborators in the Digital Library Project at the University of California, Berkeley), Searching for digital pictures; computers that can reason about images may be able to pick out distinct features of a person, place or object from photograph archives, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 88. 2432 Ibidem, p. 89. 2433 Op. cit.

204 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Rather than try to define explicity the features that make up a face, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University trained a neural-network program with a large, labeled collection of faces and nonface images. Eventually the network learned to pick out eyes, nose and mouth.2434 We have made significant progress by simply assembling regions of coherent stuff according to hypotheses based on texture and spatial arrangement. 2435

• • •

Brandeis [University] computer scientist Maja Mataric and colleagues have assembled 24 robots that can move around, pick up objects, and transmit and recive radio signals. Mataric has trained the robots to decide when to aggregate or disperse, travel in a flock, and search for “food,” sharing information to maximize group yield. So far the robots, know as the Nerd Herd, have mastered the art of foraging for pucks scattered throughout Mataric’s lab and can collect them efficiently without trampling one another in the process. She’s recently added four larger and smarter robots to the group. “I can envision a system of natural leaders and followers eventually evolving,” say Mataric. Before long, she predicts, robots could take over dangerous jobs like disabling mines, putting out fires, or cleaning up toxic spills. James McLurking, a research scientist at MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Lab, is pursuing a slightly different tack. He’s studying ant colonies to learn engineering principles that might be applied to his matchbook-sized “ant” robots. “Nature doesn’t worry about getting things right all the time,” McLurkin says. “It’s OK to lose a few ants “[”robotic or real“]”, for the success of the community.” He now has a dozen robots that communicate via infrared signals. One “ant,” for instance, might announce: “I found food.” Others relay the message: “I found an ant that found food.” A similar scheme could work at landfills, with robots gathering salvageable materials.2436

• • •

Schmedly, the walking robot,…stands about three feet tall, weighs 25 pounds, and has a disembodied brain in the form a desk-top computer. While Schmedly is not the first walking robot, it is the first to learn to walk by experience, according to its inventor, Tom Miller, an engineer at the University of New Hampshire. Unlike other walking robots, Schmedly doesn’t follow a rigid program. Miller gives the robot a minimum of instructions – it knows, for example, to take its weight off a foot before lifting it, then move the foot forward, set it down, and repeat with the other foot. But Schmedly has to figure out how far to lean, how high to lift its feet, and where to put its hips in relation to its feet. To that end, the robot has four sensors on each foot that tell it exactly how much weight each part of the foot bears. Schmedly also has an “inner ear” for balance, in the form of accelerometers that measure gravity and motion.2437

• • •

See rattie. See rattie slip into a harness hooked up to a bright pink nylon string. See rattie run. Rattie is a rat on a mission. Dragging the string – attached to a cluster of slender cables – through a maze of pipes and crawl spaces inside public-school walls, she is helping connect California classrooms to the Internet. In the past 18 months, the 2 1/2-year-old female has wired eight elementary schools in Solano County and San Francisco, guided by trainer Judy Reavis, who directs her by tapping walls or luring her with strategically placed dry cat food.2438 And there’s a bonus. The kids love having a rodent electrician on the premises, and Rattie seems happy too.2439 “She’s so used to the kids; she’s very personable,” 2440…[says] Reavis, 44, a vice president of Hermes Systems Inc., a technology company in Benicia, Calif.2441 Don’t call [Rattie] vermin: This rat helps kids to the Internet. 2442 [But not] Fatiama, a street child in Mexico City whose best friend is a small white mouse. 2443

2434 Ibidem, In your face algorithms, p. 92. 2435 Ibidem, Searching for digital pictures; computers that can reason about images may be able to pick out distinct features of a person, place or object from photograph archives, p. 93. 2436 Steve Nadis with Jerry Shine, Go team, go, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 40. 2437 Breakthroughs, One small step for Schmedly. . ., Discover, April 1996, 17(4), p. 14. 2438 Inside job; don’t call her vermin: this rat helps hook kids to the Internet, People Weekly, 23 Jun 1997, 47(24), p. 62. 2439 Op. cit. 2440 Op. cit. 2441 Op. cit. 2442 Op. cit. 2443 Robert A. Seiple, U.S. must take lead in helping world’s poor, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. E2.

205 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

• • •

The European Laboratory for Particle Physics has created – for 40 billionths of second – the opposite of matter, antimatter. By bombarding xenon gas with antiprotons (negatively charged protons), researchers created 2444…nine atoms of antihydrogen: 2445…an antiproton orbited by an antielectron (or positron). The antihydrogen was short-lived, because when matter and antimatter collide, the two annihilate each other. 2446 The trick was to get a pair of particles moving at roughly the same speed and direction. “We produce positrons that have all sorts of velocities,” says [Walter] Oelert [of the Institute for Nuclear Physics in Jülich, Germany 2447]. “Once in a while one will have the same velocity as the antiprotons, and that’s when they combine.” 2448 Scientists hope to explore the subtle differences between matter and antimatter, to learn more about the nature of the universe.2449 “When you have so little antihydrogen, you don’t want to be chasing it around the laboratory,” explains [Gerald] Gabrielse [of Harvard 2450]. “You want it to sit there so you can look at it.” 2451

• • •

It sounds like a warlock’s recipe. Take a certain gene. Insert it – anywhere – into a fruit-fly embryo. Presto: a large, perfectly formed fly eye. But it’s science, not witchcraft. Using what they call the “master control gene” for eye growth, Swiss researchers at the University of Basel have made extra fly eyes appear on antennae, wings, and feet.2452 Called “eyeless” (because its absence results in flies with no eyes), the gene is similar to one identified in mammals, including humans. 2453

2444 Mariette DiChristina, Not matter, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 40. 2445 David H. Freedman, Antiatoms: here today. . ., Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 74. 2446 Mariette DiChristina, Not matter, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 40. 2447 David H. Freedman, Antiatoms: here today. . ., Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 74. 2448 Op. cit. 2449 Mariette DiChristina, Not matter, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 40. 2450 David H. Freedman, Antiatoms: here today. . ., Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 75. 2451 Op. cit. 2452 Mariette DiChristina, An eye for a fly, Popular Science, July 1995, 247(1), p. 22. 2453 Op. cit.

206 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“ “Clone” derives from the Greek word for “twig.” ” 2454

To put the recent cloning of sheep in perspective, it helps to keep in mind two things: dogs and sex. 2455 Biologist Ursula Goodenough came close to the reason with her quip to the New York Times: If cloning were perfected, she said, “there’d be no need for men.” 2456 Sex isn’t just fun, it’s serious business.2457 Sex, after all, was an important driver of earlier technologies, such as VCRs, CD-ROMs, and electronic commerce.2458 Here’s why sex really matters: 2459 Our microbial enemies constantly evolve ways to defeat our defenses and invade our cells. Sex is our brilliant countermeasure, originated by evolution eons ago. By mingling genes, male and female creatures arm their offspring with novel DNA [(deoxyribonucleic acid…contains the genetic coding that distinguishes one person from another 2460)] combinations. Microbes equipped to burglarize one generation’s cells find the cellular locks changed in the next. In short, without sex, we’d soon be toast for germs. 2461 Cloning gene-tweaked animals 2462…– living drug factories 2463–…that make human medicines in their milk,2464 …[for example,] would keep the beasts’ precious genomes from being sullied over time by sexual gene mixing. 2465 Genetic engineering of a transgenic pig begins with the preparation of a DNA fragment (…) containing a copy of the human gene of interest and a so-called promoter sequence. The latter, derived from the gene for a mouse milk protein, assures that the human gene will be activated only in the pig’s mammary tissues. Embryos are then harvested from a donor pig, and a selection of fertilized eggs (…) are injected with the foreign gene combination using a finely drawn glass pipette (…). The engineered DNA is added to the region of the male “pronucleus,” a concentration of genetic material contributed by the sperm that fertilized the egg. A pig chromosome will take up the foreign DNA, perhaps because it recognizes the isolated fragments as pieces of its own DNA in need of repair.2466 Indeed,…[cloning] represents the perfect discovery for the Me Generation – it can now fancy itself becoming the Me Me Me Generation. We’ll not bore you with the litany of dark possibilities – surely you’ll scream if you hear the word Orwellian again.2467 When future historians finish deflating the late 20th century, an era acutely distended by hype, they’ll probably be left with just two events worth entire chapters. One was the advent of the computer chip, which let us embed our smarts in everything from bombs to greeting cards to cellular phones. The second is even more momentous: Scientists have cracked open the human genome, our ultimate life stuff.2468

• • •

World-changing biochips, formally known as DNA arrays, bear an uncanny resemblance to the chips that ushered in the Information Age. Instead of transistors, they are crammed with dense grids of molecular tweezers build to grip DNA. They give medical researchers the ability to analyze thousands of genes at once – in effect, to

2454 John Rennie (Editor in Chief), The misunderstood clone, Scientific America, May 1997, 276(5), p. 8. 2455 David Stipp, Biotech’s real power lies in reading the book of life, not blindly copying it, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 55. 2456 Op. cit. 2457 Op. cit. 2458 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 82. 2459 David Stipp, Biotech’s real power lies in reading the book of life, not blindly copying it, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 55. 2460 Bradley Graham (Washington Post), DNA sampling sparks worries; two Marines take privacy issues to court, The Seattle Times, 14 April 1996, p. A22. 2461 David Stipp, Biotech’s real power lies in reading the book of life, not blindly copying it, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 55. 2462 Op. cit. 2463 Op. cit. 2464 Op. cit. 2465 Op. cit. 2466 William H. Velander (professor of biochemical engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University), Henryk Lubon (staff scientist at the Jerome H. Holland Laboratory of the American Red Cross), & William N. Drohan (director of the plasma derivatives department at the Jerome H. Holland Laboratory), Transgenic livestock as drug factories; by introducing key human genes into mammals, biologists can induce dairy animals to produce therapeutic proteins in their milk, Scientific American, Jan 1997, 276(1), p. 72. 2467 David Stipp, Biotech’s real power lies in reading the book of life, not blindly copying it, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 55. 2468 David Stipp, Gene chip breakthrough; microprocessors have reshaped our economy, spawned vast fortunes, and changed the way we live. Gene chips could be even bigger, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 56.

207 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

speed-read the book of life. It is in the chips’ readouts that their power becomes apparent: gorgeous multicolored data arrays that bring to mind the stained-glass windows of the world’s great cathedrals. 2469 Sober [(and stoned)] historians will note, of course, that the gene revolution has been in the works for years. In 1990, for instance, a far-flung team of federally funded scientists launched 2470…a $3 billion research effort called the Human Genome Project,2471…the international effort that is expected to unravel the structures of all 100,000 or so human genes by 2003. The new biochips mark a turning point, though, because they promise to do for this second revolution what silicon chips did for the first: make it personal. 2472 Scientists since the early 1900s have fantasized about figuring out the hereditary codes that shape everything from eye color to cholesterol metabolism. It wasn’t until the early Nineties, when high-speed “gene sequencing” technology was developed, that researchers had a way to get there. That lopped years off the Human Genome Project. But deconstructing the genome is only the first step – like learning to pick out words in a foreign language before grappling with their meanings. Realizing the gene revolution’s potential will require understanding how genes collaborate to cement memories in our brains, say, or how they malfunction to change a healthy adult into one dying of cancer. That’s the goal of the second phase of the revolution, functional genomics.2473 Genetically assessing breat tumors represents the sort of change that will soon render almost every medical textbook obsolete. Venerable disease categories are about to be exploded: gene chips will probably be the detonators. When the smoke clears, the old taxonomy of sickness will be replaced by a far more powerful, complex one consisting of families of genetically defined subtypes of disease. Within a decade it should be possible to put a few of your cells in a gene-chip scanner and quickly analyze your genetic risks for scores of diseases.2474 No corner of health care, a nearly trillion-dollar industry in the U.S. alone, will remain untouched. Most dramatic will be the impact on the $180-billion-a-year worldwide pharmaceuticals business. New generations of drugs will increasingly be tailored to particular patients and will aim not only at treating disease but also at preventing it.2475 All these possibilities are enough to make sober [(and stoned)] scientists almost giddy. “We’re like kids in a candy store,” says Paul Meltzer, a senior genetics researcher at the National Institutes of Health. Scientists are “increasingly enthralled” by the gene chips, the journal Nature Genetics recently declared.2476 “We’re on the crest of a tidal wave,” [president and co-inventor 2477 of Affymetrix’s biochips Stephen P. A.] Fodor says.2478 “Ninety-nine percent of people don’t have an inkling about how about how fast this revolution is coming.” 2479 Since 1993, when Incyte Pharmaceuticals of Palo Alto made the niche’s first [International Purchase Order (IPO),] eight genomics leaders have racked up average annual share price gains of more than 75%. The leaping stocks look like those in biotech’s first wave, yet genomics companies are a different breed. Unlike traditional biotechs, genomics companies have secured big drug-industry deals from the get-go. That dilutes their near-term potential but makes them more likely to stay independent. The eight have raised almost $500 million in public stock sales; meanwhile, they’ve signed drug-industry deals worth up to $1.7 billion in all, says Lehman Brothers analyst Matthew Murray. Human Genome Sciences, in Rocksville, Maryland, set the pace in 1993 by signing a $125 million contract with SmithKline Beecham. Millennium Pharmaceuticals in Cambridge, Massachusetts, boasts deals potentially valued at more than $450 million. 2480 Along with other technologies, biochips are ushering in the “industrial age of genomics,” says venture capitalist Brook Byers,…[of] Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers.2481 Murray predicts that one or more of today’s genomics leaders will have a market value topping $5 billion by 2005, and $40 billion by 2010.2482 [Hoffman-La 2483] Roche [(manufacturer’s of Rohypnol)] has one of the most impressive genomics portfolios.2484 Says Affymetrix executive vice president Kenneth Nussbacher: “Everyone knows genomics is huge and important. But how do you package it?” 2485

2469 Ibidem, pp. 56, 58. 2470 Ibidem, p. 58. 2471 Bradley Graham (Washington Post), DNA sampling sparks worries; two Marines take privacy issues to court, The Seattle Times, 14 April 1996, p. A22. 2472 David Stipp, Gene chip breakthrough; microprocessors have reshaped our economy, spawned vast fortunes, and changed the way we live. Gene chips could be even bigger, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 58. 2473 Ibidem, p. 62. 2474 Ibidem, p. 58. 2475 Op. cit. 2476 Ibidem, p. 59. 2477 Op. cit. 2478 Op. cit. 2479 Ibidem, p. 62. 2480 Ibidem, The business of genetics, p. 67. 2481 Op. cit. 2482 Op. cit. 2483 Op. cit. 2484 Op. cit. 2485 Ibidem, Gene chip breakthrough, p. 72.

208 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Humor, Satire, Tongue and Cheek

Here’s how its going to work: In an incredibly delicate operation, a human egg white, over easy, is implanted with several poached yolks from a local farmer’s prize livestock. The resulting offspring are docile under attack from wolves and investment bankers, calm to the point of entropy in long business meetings, and willing to eat all kinds of salads except those containing chèvre, for which they show an understandable aversion. 2486 Even more exciting is the news that…experiments are under way to develop the same process using genetic material from pigs, sharks, and weasels, which it is hoped will be suitable in the cloning of more senior management. 2487 At the same time,…master consultants…have reportedly developed a consistent strain of young, slender, handsome analysts, each very much like the other, all superbly grounded in the business implications of – well, just about everything you might care to name.2488 As has been widely reported elsewhere, sometime in…[1963,] in a secret laboratory located somewhere beneath Cleveland, a shaving from…[John Doe, a] most talented young consultant, was brewed into not one but four separate fetuses, each of which was immediately subjected to radical incubation and brewed into full twentysomething status. Tragically, all of them, when they were capable of speech, recommended the immediate dismantling of the laboratory…and its subsequent relocation to decentralized posts accessible only to those willing to fly…[Air America].2489 Also intriguing are tidbits of data that come to us from Japan, where a joint venture of four biotechnology companies is said to be developing clones of existing workers who will be willing to serve not just for one but for several lifetimes, often without a decent dinner. 2490 But for those of us who tend to view world events and say, “What’s in it for me?” attention must be paid to the work of CloneUs Geneworx, the fledgling upstart in suburban Seattle that promises the chance to invest in a personal clone. Think about it: complete ownership of an alternate self until that entity either reaches the age of… [26 to 27] or expresses the intention of cloning itself, whichever comes first; total access to another individual with your genetic framework to…otherwise live out all the distasteful portions of one’s business existence, confidant that the person representing your point of view in these exchanges is someone whose DNA, Social Security Number, and shoe size are the same as yours;…because he’s you. I don’t know about you, but I’m signing up for one right away. I can’t wait to get him to work on my upcoming strategic plan presentation.2491 I know when he arrives I’m going to feel a little guilty, though, ordering him around all the time, telling him where he can sleep, what to eat, which meetings to attend (and always the wrong ones). 2492 Particularly promising are the results coming out of Ethix Inc., a small group of human resources professionals headquartered in…[Woods Hole,] Massachusetts. These folks seem to be basing their arguments on a solid, traditional footing, including the debt owed by the clone for the gift of life, the duty of the clone to repay years of nurturing and guidance, the utilization of guilt when the clone refuses to recognize the honor of repaying that debt. In all fairness, or so the thinking goes, did you not give the clone the flesh off your back, feed it, water it, teach it right from wrong, give it a roof over its head, even offer it a head start in the world of business? 2493 Does it call? Does it write? Does it drop by when it’s in town to visit its no-good clone friends? 2494 After all, it’s only human.2495

Duh

“Give a totalitarian government the advanced tools made possible by the biological revolution,” [futurists Alvin and Heidi Toffler] told The New York Times, “and we can see a world of competing eugenic strategies as arrogant regimes play God with future generations.” Cloned armies, for example, are genetically altered to fight more fiercely than warriors of the past. Even worse, advanced computers could create weapons that attack specific racial groups by honing in on their gene structures.2496

2486 Stanley Bing, Business applications of clone technology; think about it: an alternate self could attend your budget review, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 45. 2487 Op. cit. 2488 Op. cit. 2489 Op. cit. 2490 Op. cit. 2491 Ibidem, pp. 45-46. 2492 Ibidem, p. 46. 2493 Op. cit. 2494 Op. cit. 2495 Op. cit. 2496 Fred Tasker (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Futurists offer varying forecasts for 21st century, The Seattle Times, 30 March 1997, p. A4.

209 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

• • •

Oh, give me a clone Of my own flesh and bone With its Y chromosome changed to X And when it has grown Then my own little clone Will be of the opposite sex 2497 [Clone, clone of my own With its Y chromosome changed to X And when we’re alone Just me and my clone Will think of nothing but sex 2498] The late, great Issac Asimov co-authored that doggerel with Randall Garrett decades ago, but it fits today with the general giddiness over mammalian cloning.2499

Petri Dish Humor

Clinton’s ‘Kids First’ hatched 4 years ago.2500 [But] “we weren’t bred in a test tube,”…[responds the New York City Police Lieutenant].2501 “We all came out of society. We have domestic problems. We have sick parents. Some of us even have problem kids, too.” 2502

2497 John Rennie (Editor in Chief), The misunderstood clone, Scientific America, May 1997, 276(5), p. 8. 2498 Continuation of the ditty posted on a door in the University of Washington’s health-sciences complex (circa 1990). 2499 John Rennie (Editor in Chief), The misunderstood clone, Scientific America, May 1997, 276(5), p. 8. 2500 Call him cocky. Call him impetuous. Call him suicidal. President Clinton has decided to revive the health-care scheme that almost scuttled his presidency three years ago.… Give him credit for brazenness, though. ClintonCare is back. It’s following a blueprint drafted three years ago…that…can mean free salvation for 5 million uninsured kids. — Tony Snow, Clinton’s ‘Kids First’ hatched 4 years ago; who’d be against kids? No one, but the problem of uninsured children is overstated, UDS Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 13A. 2501 Gary Fields, Domestic abuse gun law is disarming cops, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 10A. 2502 Op. cit.

210 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Schrödinger’s Kitten

In Greek mythology, the hero Perseus is faced with the unenviable task of fighting the dreaded Medusa. The snake-haired beast is so hideous that a mere glimpse of her immediately turns any unlucky observer to stone. In one version of the story, Perseus avoids this fate by cleverly using his shield to reflect Medusa’s image back to the creature herself, turing her to stone. But what if Persus did not have well-polished armor? He presumably would have been doomed. If he closed his eyes, he would have been unable to find his target. And the smallest peek would have allowd some bit of light striking Medusa to reflect into his eye; having thus “seen” the monster, he would have been finished. In the world of physics, this predicament might be summed up by a seemingly innocuous, almost obvious claim made in 1962 by Nobelist Dennis Gabor, who invented holography. Gabor asserted, in essence, that no observation can be made with less than one photon – the basic particle, or quantum, of light – striking the observed object. In the past several years, however, physicists in the increasingly bizarre field of quantum optics have learned that not only is this claim far from obvious, it is, in fact, incorrect. For we now know how to determine the presence of an object with essentially no photons having touched it. Such interaction-free measurement seems to be a contradiction – if there is no interaction, how can there be a measurement? That is a reasonable conundrum in classical mechanics, the field of physics describing the motions of…objects that are not too small. But quantum mechanics – the science of electrons, photons and other particles in the atomic realm – says otherwise. Interaction-free measurements can indeed be achieved by quantum mechanics and clever experimental designs. If Perseus had been armed with a knowledge of quantum physics, he could have devised a way to “see” Medusa without any light actually striking the Gorgon and entering his eye. He could have looked without looking.2503 Basically, a quantum system can be trapped in its initial state, even though it would evolve to some other state if left on its own. The possibility arises because of the unusual effect that measurements can have on quantum systems. The phenomenon is called the quantum Zeno effect, because it resembles the famous paradox raised by the Greek philosopher Zeno, who denied the possibility of motion to an arrow in flight because it appears “frozen” at each instant of its flight. It is also known as the watched-pot effect, a reference to the aphorism about boiling water. We all know that the mere act of watching the pot should not (and does not) have any effect on the time it takes to boil water. In quantum mechanics, however, such an effect actually exists – the measurement affects the outcome (the principle is called the projection postulate). 2504 The mystery about the quantum-classical transition stems from a crucial quality of quantum particles – they can undulate and travel like waves (and vice versa: light can bounce around as a particle called a photon). As such, they can be described by a wave function, which Schrödinger devised in 1926. A sort of quantum Social Security number, the wave function incorporates everything there is to know about a particle, summing up its range of all possible positions and movements. Taken at face value, a wave function indicates that a particle resides in all those possibilities at once. Invariably, however, an observation reveals only one of those states. 2505 What good is all this quantum conjuring? We feel that the situation resembles that of the early years of the laser, when scientists knew it to be an ideal solution to many unkown problems. The new method of interaction-free measurement could be used, for instance, as a rather unusual means of photography, in which an object is imaged without being exposed to light. The “photography” process would work in the following way: 2506…The picture is made by photons that have never touched the object.2507 Techniques can also work with a semitransparent object and may possibly be generralized to find out an object’s color.2508 A variation of such imaging could someday conceivably prove valuable in medicine – for instance, as a means to image living cells. 2509 Such imaging would…pose less risk to patients.2510 A candidate for more immediate application is the imaging of the clouds of ultracold atoms recently produced in various laboratories. The coldest of these exhibit Bose-Einstein condensation, a new type of quantum state in which many atoms act collectively as one entity. In such a cloud every atoms is so cold – that is, moving so slowly

2503 Paul Kwiat, Harald Weinfurter & Anton Zeilinger, Quantum seeing in the dark; quantum optics demonstrates the existence of interaction-free measurements: the detection of objects without light – or anything else – ever hitting them, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), pp. 72-73. 2504 Ibidem, p. 75. 2505 Philip Yam, Bringing Schrödinger’s cat to life, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 124. 2506 Paul Kwiat, Harald Weinfurter & Anton Zeilinger, Quantum seeing in the dark; quantum optics demonstrates the existence of interaction-free measurements: the detection of objects without light – or anything else – ever hitting them, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 77. 2507 Op. cit. 2508 Op. cit. 2509 Op. cit. 2510 Op. cit.

211 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

– that a single photon can knowck an atom out of the cloud. Initially, no way existed to get an image of the condensate without destroying the cloud.2511 Besides imaging quantum objects, interaction-free procedures could also make certain kinds of them. Namely, the thechniques could extend the creation of “Schrödinger’s cat,” a much loved theoretical entity in quantum mechanics. The quantum feline is prepared so that it exists in two states at once: it is both alive and dead at the same time – a superposition of two states.2512 With his feline, Schrödinger attempted to illustrate the problem: according to quantum mechanics, particles jump from point to point, occupy several places at once and seem to communicate faster than the speed of light. So why don’t cats – or…planets or people, for that matter – do the same things? After all, they are made of atoms. Instead they obey the predictable, classical laws quantified by Isaac Newton. 2513 [In 1996,2514] workers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology managed to created a preliminary kind of Schrödinger’s cat – a “kitten” – with a beryllium ion. They used a combination of lasers and electromagnetic fields to make the ion exist simultaneously in two places spaced 83 nanometers apart – a vast distance on the quantum scale.2515 It was not the first instance, and hopefully not the last, in which quantum optimism triumphed over quantum pessimism.2516 [These “kittens”] show how readily the weird gives way to the familiar.2517 Writing [(data storage) 2518] on an atom is theoretically plausible. An electron in a superposition of 2,500 energy levels has a wave function sufficiently complex to encode a message. Words are written by assigning color and saturation to the amplitude and phase of the wave function.2519 Other uses for quantum superposition, such as in [quantum computing,2520] cryptography, chemistry and even teleportation, have been demonstrated. Schrödinger’s boxed cat may have outwitted the best philosophical minds so far, but it seems to have found plenty of technological reasons to stay put.2521 “I am sorry that I ever had anything to do with quantum theory,” Erwin Schrödinger reportedly complained to a colleague. The Austrian physicist was not lamenting the fate of his now famous cat, which he figuratively placed in a box with a vial of poison in 1935.2522 Here kitty, kitty.2523 Rather he was commenting on the strange implications of quantum mechanics, the science behind electrons, atoms, photons and other things submicroscopic.2524

• • •

Joseph Wolf was one of the greatest natural illustrators of the 19th century [(late-colonial period),2525] a status well documented in…lithographs he created for the 1883 A monograph of the Felidai, or family of cats. Amazingly, Wolf never saw living examples of these animals (such at Felis serval),2526…but he breathed vitality into the specimens and sketches he scrutinized,2527…[stylizing] the majesty of the great cats.2528

• • •

Prince Tuthmosis’ cat Mit sits forever before a table piled high with loaves of bread, a duck and a few beef ribs topped with lotus flowers. Another ancient Egyptian, the nobleman Ptahmosis, holds the wooden scepters of office while a monkey tethered beneath his chair kicks up a foot in delight and plucks a grape from a bunch it is holding.

2511 Ibidem, pp. 77-78. 2512 Ibidem, p. 78. 2513 Philip Yam, Bringing Schrödinger’s cat to life, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 124. 2514 Paul Kwiat, Harald Weinfurter & Anton Zeilinger, Quantum seeing in the dark; quantum optics demonstrates the existence of interaction-free measurements: the detection of objects without light – or anything else – ever hitting them, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 78. 2515 Op. cit. 2516 Ibidem, p. 75. 2517 Philip Yam, Bringing Schrödinger’s cat to life, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 124. 2518 Ibidem, p. 129. 2519 Ibidem, p. 127. 2520 Ibidem, p. 129. 2521 Op. cit. 2522 Ibidem, p. 124. 2523 Ibidem, p. 126. 2524 Ibidem, p. 124. 2525 Corey S. Powell, The illustrated page, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 142. 2526 Op. cit. 2527 Op. cit. 2528 Op. cit.

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The scenes are from tomb carvings in which the ancients immortalized not only sacred animals but also their pets. A few pets were even mummified and buried after death. “Pets were very common,” said Salima Ikram, an Egyptologist leading a drive to create a room at the Egyptian Museum to house some 150 mummified cats, crocodiles, falcons, dogs, fish, snakes and baboons.2529 Hunting dogs were not unusual in the Old Kingdom, which began some 4,500 years ago. Cats were first domesticated around 2000 B.C.2530 Intef II, a nobleman from Thebes, is pictured in a stone carving with his hunting dogs – Behkai, Bakir, Phet and a fourth whose name is not legible. The hieroglyphics state that Behkai was good at hunting oryxes and Phet was adept at catching birds.2531 There was clearer evidence of pets during the New Kingdom, which began around 1550 B.C., and was marked by great wealth and power under leaders as Ramses II.2532 Tomb paintings from the New Kingdom feature several frivolous scenes of cats, including very fat cats and cats wearing earrings and necklaces. “These animals simply don’t look like very efficient hunters of mice,” [Jaromir] Malek [of Oxford University in England] said. [Denise] Doxey [of Egyptian section at the University of Pennsylvania’s museam] notes the names of pets on some tombs and says it shows that their owners wanted to help bring the animals into the afterlife. “Putting someone’s name in a tomb is a way of giving them immortality,” she said. 2533

• • •

It was to be a routine medical exam for 20 or so Marines at a military clinic on a Hawaiian base…[in January 1995 2534]. But when they were instructed to supply blood and cheek-cell samples for DNA cataloging, two Marines balked and asked questions about the intended use of the genetic information and privacy protections – questions for which the medical staff had no immediate answer. For their refusal to comply with a four-year-old Defense Department effort to amass a giant DNA data bank on military and civilian personnel, [two corporals 2535] face[d] a court-martial [April 15, 1996,] in Hawaii and risk[ed] up to six months in jail, loss of rank and pay and a bad-conduct discharge.2536 What the Marine Corps is treating as a case of disobedience has drawn the Defense Department into a growing national debate about whether increased genetic testing will lead to discrimination by employers, health-insurance firms, schools and others on the basis of someone’s DNA makeup.2537 What bothers [the corporals] – and the civil libertarians who have rallied behind them – is the potential for abuse of genetic information and the adequacy of current privacy safeguards.2538 Genetic testing will become the future standard of medical care. Life insurers will also need access to genetic information if the insurance industry is to survive intact and if coverage is to remain affordable. 2539 No federal law explicitly prohibits genetic discrimination, although several bills proposing to do so are pending. 2540 Some researchers already report cases of healthy people being denied jobs or insurance because of genes that reveal susceptibilities to various illnesses.2541 Acknowledging its initial effort to set up the DNA data bank was somewhat flawed, the Pentagon [subsequently] issued “policy refinements”…strengthening privacy protections but reaffirming the need for the gene repository, which is maintained in Gaithersburg, Md., by the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology.

2529 Louis Meixler (The Associated Press), Tomb drawings indicate Egyptians early on kept dogs and cats as pets, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A19. 2530 Op. cit. 2531 Op. cit. 2532 Op. cit. 2533 Op. cit. 2534 Bradley Graham (Washington Post), DNA sampling sparks worries; two Marines take privacy issues to court, The Seattle Times, 14 April 1996, p. A22. 2535 Op. cit. 2536 Op. cit. 2537 Op. cit. 2538 Op. cit. 2539 R. J. Pokorski (Swiss Re America, Fairfield, Connecticut 06430), Genetic information and life insurance, Nature, 6 July 1995, 376(6535). 2540 Bradley Graham (Washington Post), DNA sampling sparks worries; two Marines take privacy issues to court, The Seattle Times, 14 April 1996, p. A22. 2541 Op. cit.

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Instead of preserving the DNA…for 75 years, as originally planned, the Pentagon now says donors can request destruction of their gene samples when they leave Defense Department employment. 2542 But the changes did little to quiet critics.2543

2542 Op. cit. 2543 Op. cit.

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“Snips and snails and puppy dog tails”

There is no neat and tidy “moment of death.” After the heart stops and the lungs are still and the brain gives up on sending out messages, some cells in the muscle, skin, and bone tissue can live on for days. 2544 The most striking element of the putrefying process is that the bacteria involved in breaking you down are the same ones that have been living in your intestines, aiding the digestion of food. They’re lurking down there right now, waiting for their chance at “the big meal.” In seventh grade we were taught to call them “friendly bacteria.” 2545 The hardiest organs turn out to be the uterus and the prostrate, often remaining intact for up to a year. 2546 All this assumes, of course, that scavanging animals haven’t found you and used you as a protein source.2547

• • •

“While the heart, the kidneys, the lungs, and the liver can survive for thirty minutes to an hour without blood flow, the brain is only good for six to eight minutes before suffering irreversive [hypoxic] damage,” [says Dr. Ron Klantz].2548 The center for the National Academy for Sports Medicine and the American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine run by Klantz and his partner, Dr. Robert Goldman 2549…[have created] what they call a Brain Resuscitation Device or the BRD.2550 The system is actually comprised of two devices, the Brain Cooling Device, which cools the head externally, and the Brain Resuscitation Device, which cools the brain internally. 2551 According to Dr. Robert Pozoz, who studies the effects of extreme hot and cold on the body at the Naval Health Research Center in San Diego, “Cooling works by slowing the body’s metabolism and thereby diminishing its need for oxygen.” 2552 By pumping what Klatz calls a “chemical cocktail” – a mixture of oxygen and nutrients – through the neck’s prominent carotid arteries into the brain, this device ensures that the brain will receive elements vital to its survival.2553 Klatz…concedes, “The BRD is basically a cerebral bypass pump in a briefcase.” 2554 It’s suitable for ambulances, emergency rooms, ships, any place.2555 “We’re working right now on incorporating a feedback monitoring system…to tell us the read-time metabolic status of the brain,” he says. “That would allow us to alter the chemical cocktail to deliver the proper drugs and achieve maximum improvement. It would also tell us when someone is brain dead, so we wouldn’t have to waste the time and resources when someone is too far gone.” 2556 Klantz…is also working on another invention, the Organ Resuscitation Device [(ORD)]. “At this time, there are nearly 100,000 people in this country waiting for organ transplants,” Klantz says. “With over two million American dying every year, it’s ridiculous they can’t get them.” 2557 “Once paramedics have determined a patient cannot be resuscittated,” Klantz explains, “they can use the device to preserve organs.” For families willing to donate, the ORD can maintain organs in the body until they can be readied for transplant or storage. If permission is denied, the device can be easily removed with no damage to the deceased. 2558 It’s the toughest choice anyone can be asked to make: deciding whether to stop life support or end medical treatment for a loved one. How that decision is made can devastate a family. But it’s not a decision that families must face alone. Help is available from special ethics committees set up at Evergreen Hospital Medical Center in Kirkland, Bellevue’s Overlake Hospital Medical Center and Children’s Hospital & Medical Center in Seattle. These groups rely on a step-by-step process that lets families make peace with a life or death decision. 2559 Ethics committees don’t make decisions. That’s up to the patient, the family and the medical team. 2560 Committees

2544 Scot Auguston, A Guided Tour: Death in Seattle, The Stranger, 14 Aug 1996, 6(8), p. 13b. 2545 Ibidem, p. 15a. 2546 Op. cit. 2547 Op. cit. 2548 Janet Stites, The resuscitator, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 38. 2549 Op. cit. 2550 Op. cit. 2551 Op. cit. 2552 Ibidem, p. 40. 2553 Op. cit. 2554 Op. cit. 2555 Ibidem, p. 42. 2556 Op. cit. 2557 Op. cit. 2558 Op. cit. 2559 Jeanne Lang Jones, Local hospitals offer help with painful decisions, Eastside Journal, 1 April 1997, 21(226), p. A1. 2560 Op. cit.

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have about 18 members and include doctors, nurses, chaplains, board members, social workers, ethicists and community representatives.2561 [A] couple believed their 3-month-old son,…born with a defective heart, could live a good life. Then a routine check-up turned into an emergency surgery. [The boy’s] heart stopped twice. Each time, doctors revived him, but the baby continued to weaken. It was nearly 2 a.m. when the baby’s doctors pulled the [parents] into a conference room. The doctors had done everything they could – did the [parents] want cardiopulmonary resuscitation, a very painful procedure, used a thrid time on their dying son? Stunned, the first-time parents had to decide quickly, before [the boy] again went into cardiac arrest. “The option they were giving was to keep him alive a little longer but we could not see any point to that,” [the mother] said. “I thought, he’s been through enough.” The doctors removed the tubes, placed [the boy] in [his mother’s] arms and closed the privacy curtain around the family. [The boy] died in [his mother’s] arms.2562 An ethics consultation is an orderly process that tracks hospital regulations. Heart-rending decisions are faced with a series of carefully considered questions. “It’s almost like magic,” [Overlake chaplain Jerry] Nash said. “It makes the issues pop out.” 2563

Blood

Vampires can tell a good story.2564 The only disadvantage with pretending to be a vampire is that not everyone gets it.2565 [In March,2566] for example, researchers reported making human hemoglobin – needed for blood substitutes – in bioengineered tobacco plants, of all things.2567

• • •

Using real blood in emergency situations, especially outside of the hospital, is not feasible. There are too many problems with compatibility, and blood has a short shelf life. 2568 In the Eighties…the fear of AIDS-contaminated blood 2569…[and] the U.S. Army’s interest in a new battlefield resuscitation solution that would avoid the logistical problems of whole blood 2570…sparked renewed support for developing blood substitutes.2571 Artificial or substitute blood alleviates the threat of blood contamination during transfusions, negates the problem of typing, and has the added advantage of having a longer shelf life than real blood. It acts primarily as an oxygen carrier, emulating the function of red blood cells.2572

2561 Op. cit. 2562 Ibidem, pp. A1, A9. 2563 Ibidem, p. A9. 2564 Vanessa Ho, Play-acting vampires say slayings ruin game, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 17 Jan 1997, 134(15), p. A10. 2565 Op. cit. 2566 David Stipp, Biotech’s real power lies in reading the book of life, not blindly copying it, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 55. 2567 Op. cit. 2568 Janet Stites, The resuscitator, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 42. 2569 Op. cit. 2570 Robert M. Winslow (Professor of Medicine at the University of California, San Diego, and Chief of the Hematology/Oncology Section at the San Diego VA Medical Center), Blood substitutes, Science and Medicine, March/April 1997, 4(2), p. 54. 2571 Janet Stites, The resuscitator, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 42. 2572 Op. cit.

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Blood substitute products in development 2573…[include PHP, HemeAssist, Hemopure, PEG-Hemoglobin, HemoLink, PolyHeme, Optro, Oxygent, and Oxyfluor].2574 Hemopure is manufactured…from purified bovine hemoglobin that is subsequently reacted with the bifunctional reagent glutaraldehyde to form hemoglobin polymers.2575 Optro is unique among blood substitute canditates because it is manufactured using bacterial [(E. coli) 2576] recombinant technology.2577 Oxygent is a stable emulsion of perflubron [(perfluorocarbon) 2578] and egg yolk lecithin.2579

• • •

[Srour et al.] have…reported the ability of uncharacterized human bone marrow (BM) cells to engraft into preimmune fetal sheep, thereby creating sheep-human chimera suitable for in vivo examination of the properties of human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC).2580 [Zanjani et al.] have taken advantage of the permissive environment of the early gestational age fetus to engraft human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) into preimmune fetal lambs. The resulting chimeras exhibit long-term multilineage engraftment of human cells in the bone marrow (BM) and peripheral blood.2581

Fibrin

Local application of fibrin adhesive is recommended in all types of bleeding. 2582 Fibrin glue is a biological product,2583…[and] is superior to conventional blood preclotting.2584 Hemostasis could be achieved in 90% of 124 applications of glue under different indications 2585…[including] local bleeding control and for sealing of vascular prostheses.2586 Fibrin glue…can be used with more safety…than the artificial adhesives. 2587 No adverse reaction has been observed.2588 Fibrin glue has been utilized for the past 15 [(read: 22)] years in Europe in plastic surgery, especially…for nerve and skin grafts.2589 Fibrin glue has [also] been used in…neurosurgical patients. 2590 Fibrinogen…[can be] prepared from the patient’s own blood, not from controlled donors as with the commercial fibrin glues. There is no danger of transmitting infectious diseases, or of immunoreactions when using this autogenous tissue glue. Its production is easy and cheap.2591 2573 Robert M. Winslow (Professor of Medicine at the University of California, San Diego, and Chief of the Hematology/Oncology Section at the San Diego VA Medical Center), Blood substitutes, Science and Medicine, March/April 1997, 4(2), p. 56. 2574 Op. cit. 2575 Ibidem, p. 57. 2576 Ibidem, p. 58. 2577 Op. cit. 2578 Ibidem, p. 59 2579 Op. cit. 2580 E. F. Srour, E. D. Zanjani, K. Cornetta, C. M. Traycoff, A. W. Flake, M. Hedrick, J. E. Brandt, T. Leemhuis & R. Hoffman (Division of Hematology/Oncology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis 46202-5121), Persistence of human multilineage, self-renewing lymphohematopoietic stem cells in chimeric sheep, Blood, 1 Dec 1993, 82(11). 2581 E. D. Zanjani, G. Almeida-Porada, & A. W. Flake (Department of Medicine, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Medicine, Reno, NV 89520), Retention and multilineage expression of human hematopoietic stem cells in human-sheep chimeras, Stem Cells (Dayt), March 1995, 13(2). 2582 G. Walterbush, A. Haverich, H. G. Borst, Clinical experience with fibrin glue for local bleeding control and sealing of vascular prostheses, Thoractic Cardiovascular Surgery, 1982, 30(4). 2583 T. Fukumoto, Y. Matsushima, S. Tomita & Y. Inaba, The use of fibrin glue in neurosurgical operations, No Shinkei Geka, April 1985, 13(4). 2584 G. Koveker, Clinical application of fibrin glue in cardiovascular surgery, Thoractic Cardiovascular Surgery, Aug 1982, 30(4). 2585 G. Walterbush, A. Haverich, H. G. Borst, Clinical experience with fibrin glue for local bleeding control and sealing of vascular prostheses, Thoractic Cardiovascular Surgery, 1982, 30(4). 2586 Op. cit. 2587 T. Fukumoto, Y. Matsushima, S. Tomita & Y. Inaba, The use of fibrin glue in neurosurgical operations, No Shinkei Geka, April 1985, 13(4). 2588 D. Marchac & D. Renier (Hopital Necker-Entants Malades, Paris, France), Fibrin glue in craniofacial surgery, Journal of Craniofacial Surgery, Jan 1990, 1(1). 2589 Op. cit. 2590 T. Fukumoto, Y. Matsushima, S. Tomita & Y. Inaba, The use of fibrin glue in neurosurgical operations, No Shinkei Geka, April 1985, 13(4). 2591 G. Wolf, H. Wolfgruber, 3 years’ experience with concentrated autogenous fibrin glue in plastic ENT surgery, Laryngol Rhinol Otology (Stuttg), Feb 1985, 64(2).

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Skin

The largest human organ system, skin varies in thickness from less than 1 mm to greater than 4 mm. The epidermis is made up almost entirely of renewable cells (keratinocytes) in several stages of terminal differentiation, whereas the dermis has fewer cells (fibroblasts) that synthesize a complex collagenous connective tissue matrix. 2592 The epidermis is the thin outer layer provides a barrier to infection and loss of moisture, and the dermis is the thick inner layer that provides that provides mechanical strength and elasticity. The epidermis is a keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium with several morphologically distinct layers of cells: the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and the outermost stratum corneum. The epidermis undergoes constant self-renewal, and proliferation of the keratinocyte, its predominant cell, is confinend to the basal layer and moves upward through each successive layer, it undergoes a stepwise process of derminal differentiation that results in the anucleate keratin-filled cells of the stratum corneum. This layer, which provides much of the barrier function, is eventually slouged off and replaced with new cells. The entire renewal process for the epidermis takes approximately 30 days. In addition to keratinocytes, the epidermis contains small numbers of melanocytes, which are responsible for pigmentation, and Langerhans cells, which are derived from bone marrow and play an important role in immune function of the skin.2593 The dermis, which is composed of fibrous connective tissue and ground substance, is divided into two zones, a papillary dermis and a reticular dermis. The papillary dermis lies just beneath the epidermis and molds to the contour of the rete ridges of the epidermis.2594 Cells of both the epidermis and the dermis participate in complex interactions to form the epidermal appendages of the skin. Among these appendages, the apocrine sweat glands, which secrete lipids, water, and proteins, are found only in specialized areas. Eccrine sweat glands, which secrete water and salts to achieve thermoregulation, and sebaceous glands, which secrete a complex mixture of lipids to help waterproof the epidermis and hair follicles, are widespread in distribution.2595

• • •

In addition to providing vital physiological functions, a healthy skin is important to psychological well-being.2596 Each year, approximately 13,000 people in the United States are burned severely enough to require skin grafting. About 1000 of these burns involve more than 60% of the body surface.2597 Wound coverage for patients with extensive burns has traditionally been provided by temporary grafts of cadaver skin. 2598 Diabetic ulcers affect some 600,000 people in the U.S., some of whom are at serious risk of amputation. An estimated 1 million people suffer from venous ulcers, and another 2 million have pressure sores. Existing wound care technologies are able to address the needs of many of these patients, but there are large patient populations for whom available methods are inadequate. These people could realize an important clinical benefit from a skin substitute. 2599 Efforts to develop effective skin substitutes bore their first fruit about 20 years ago, and cultures of patients’ own epidermal keratinocytes have been available to surgeons for some time. 2600 [And] scientists working at small, pioneering biotechnology companies are growing not only replacement skin but heart valves, breasts, ears, cartilage, and other body tissues.2601

• • •

Research into bioengineered skin substitutes has proceeded along two principal lines: (1) optimization of in vitro methods for culture and proliferation of skin cells and (2) development of biomaterials that mimic important properties of the skin. The work was originally motivated by the desperate needs of a small population of severely

2592 Jeffrey R. Morgan, Ph.D., (Senior Research Scientist at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit & an Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School) & Martin L. Yarmush, M.D., Ph.D, (Helen Andrus Benedict Professor of Surgery and Bioengineering at Harvard Medical School and Director for Research at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit), Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 7. 2593 Ibidem, pp. 6-7. 2594 Ibidem, p. 7. 2595 Ibidem, p. 8. 2596 Ibidem, p. 7. 2597 Ibidem, p. 6. 2598 Op. cit. 2599 Op. cit. 2600 Op. cit. 2601 Edward Edelson, The body builders; researchers are racing to create skin, cartilage, and organs in tissue-engineering labs, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 61.

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burned patients, and as a result, several skin equivalent products are available for burn care. Skin substitutes are potentially of benefit to much larger numbers of patients with various kinds of trauma to the skin, and new products are emerging to meet their needs.2602 Howard Green of Harvard Medical School, along with James Rheinwald, demonstrated in 1975 that epidermal keratinocytes could be cultured in vitro using a feeder layer of murine fibroblasts. Based on this discovery, Genzyme Tissue Repair in Cambridge started the Epicel Service in 1988 to produce cultured grafts of autologous epidermal keratinocytes.2603 Genzyme’s manufactured skin is grown from a patient’s own skin. Researchers extract keratinocytes 2604…from a full-thickness biopsy of a patient’s skin,2605…and culture the cells to manufacture sheets of epidermis that can then be grafted back onto the patient, [sic] Obviously, rejection isn’t a problem. 2606 Genzyme Tissue Repair can deliver 100…sheets, covering about 18% of a typical adult’s body surface area, within 16 days of the biopsy and as many as 252 sheets (45% of the body surface) within 21 days. The grafts have mostly been used to treat burn patients; other uses have included giant congenital nevi and decubitus ulcers. 2607 Culture Technology, Inc., of Sherman Oaks, California, offers a similar service for the culture of autologous skin cells to treat burn patients From a skin biopsy,2608…the resulting composite cultured autograft, Lifeskin, is approximately 75 cm2.2609 According to the company, the delivery time is approximately 17 to 21 days.2610 The first synthetic skin replacement products to be brought to market are in effect templates that encourage regeneration of dermis. The approach was devised and clinically tested by John Burke at MGH and the Shriners Burns Institute and Ioannis Yannas of MIT. Integra Artificial Skin, manufactures by Integra LifeSciences Corp. of Plainsboro, New Jersey, contains no cells.2611 In a typical application, the burn wound is excised and covered with Artificial Skin. 2612 According to the manufacturer, the intended use of Integra Artificial Skin is for the “postexcisional treatment of life-threatening full-thickness or deep partial thickness thermal injury where sufficient autograft is not available at the time of excision or not desirable due to the physiological condition of the patient.” 2613 Another dermal substitute is acellular human dermis, originally developed by Charles Cuono at Yale University. A similar product, AlloDerm, is offered by Life Cell, Inc., of The Woodlands, Texas. AlloDerm is aseptically prepared by processing 2614…screened cadaver skin obtained from tissue banks.2615 Although AlloDerm has no cells, it has a complex architecture that retains many important structural features and protein components of the dermis. For example, AlloDerm has bundles of collagen and elastin fibers organized as both reticular and papillary dermis.2616 In addition to applications in burns, AlloDerm has been used for a variety of indications, mostly in oral, reconstructive, and plastic surgery.2617 Dermagraft-TC was developed by Advanced Tissue Sciences in La Jolla and has been recently approved by the FDA.2618 The skin…is the product of an intellectual partnership formed in 1984 between Dr. Joseph Vacanti, a surgeon at Harvard Medical Schook, and Robert Langer, a chemical engineer at MIT. It occurred to Vacanti, when

2602 Jeffrey R. Morgan, Ph.D., (Senior Research Scientist at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit & an Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School) & Martin L. Yarmush, M.D., Ph.D, (Helen Andrus Benedict Professor of Surgery and Bioengineering at Harvard Medical School and Director for Research at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit), Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 6. 2603 Ibidem, p. 8. 2604 Edward Edelson, The body builders; researchers are racing to create skin, cartilage, and organs in tissue-engineering labs, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 63. 2605 Jeffrey R. Morgan, Ph.D., (Senior Research Scientist at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit & an Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School) & Martin L. Yarmush, M.D., Ph.D, (Helen Andrus Benedict Professor of Surgery and Bioengineering at Harvard Medical School and Director for Research at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit), Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 8. 2606 Edward Edelson, The body builders; researchers are racing to create skin, cartilage, and organs in tissue-engineering labs, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 63. 2607 Jeffrey R. Morgan, Ph.D., (Senior Research Scientist at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit & an Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School) & Martin L. Yarmush, M.D., Ph.D, (Helen Andrus Benedict Professor of Surgery and Bioengineering at Harvard Medical School and Director for Research at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit), Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 9. 2608 Op. cit. 2609 Op. cit. 2610 Op. cit. 2611 Op. cit. 2612 Ibidem, p. 10. 2613 Op. cit. 2614 Op. cit. 2615 Op. cit. 2616 Ibidem, p. 11. 2617 Op. cit. 2618 Op. cit.

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confronted with a frustrating shortage of livers to transplant, that “maybe we could make new livers.” He took his problem across town to Langer, a close friend. “My idea was to take degradable polymers, make scaffolds out of them, and grow cells on them,” Langer says. “The idea was that if we made the scaffolds the right way, the cells would be able to reorganize themselves and make new tissues. The scaffold polymers would then degrade and disappear, leaving behind only new tissue.” Langer and Vacanti are now on the scientific advisory board of Advanced Tissue Sciences in La Jolla. It’s there that two engineered skin products are being developed. Both are made from the living skin cells of infant foreskins – byproducts of circumcisions. To create new skin, researchers extract cells called fibroblasts from the forskins. These cells are seeded onto a meshlike scaffold and supplied with nutrients and oxygen. “We trick the fibroblasts into thinking they’re in the body,” says company president Gail K. Naughton. The fibroblasts cover the scaffold as they grow, forming a thin sheet. This sheet resembles the inner layer of skin.2619 Advanced Tissue Sciences adds a synthetic epidermal layer to its dermal sheets to create a product called Dermagraft-TC.2620 It is a two-layer synthetic material: 2621…The outer layer is a silicone polymer, and the inner layer is a nylon mesh, where they deposit collagen, extracellular matrix proteins, and growth factors. The fibroblasts are rendered nonviable by freezing, leaving behind the proteins and growth factors.2622 Dermagraft-TC is a “transitional covering” for severe burns. It temporarily replaces the patient’s own dermis to prevent dehydration, but is later removed. In clinical tests, it appears to be less prone to rejection than dressings of cadaver skin – the standard treatment. The company makes a second product, simple Dermagraft, for the treatment of diabetic ulcers. Each year, these gaping foot wounds that don’t heal properly force as many as 75,000 U.S. diabetics to undergo amputations. 2623 Organogenesis, Inc., of Canton, Massachusetts, has developed a skin equivalent with an epidermal layer of cultured keratinocytes and a dermal analog of cultured fibroblasts in a collagen gel. The research behind the product was originally pursued by Eugene Bell when he was at MIT. Bell and his colleagues demonstrated that when cultured fibroblasts were mixed with a solution of bovine collagen and allowed to form a gel, the fibroblasts remained metabolically active. Over time, the fibroblasts began to reorganize the bovine collagen as well as to produce their own collagen and matrix proteins. 2624 Organogenesis, Inc.…produces a skin equivalent product known as Apligraf from allogneic keratinocytes and fibroblasts taken from neonatal foreskins.2625 “We’re able to manufacture four acres of skin from a single foreskin,” says senior vice president Dr. Michael L. Sabolinski. He keeps on his desk a sample of cultured skin about three inches in diameter. To prove the toughness of the skin to a visitor, Sabolinski lifts the thin, transparent sample from its dish and tugs on it a couple of times. Unlike Dermagraft, the Graftskin made by Organogenesis boasts both a dermis and and epidermis. 2626 Organogenesis claims its culturing technique eliminates rejection. 2627

Sluff & Stuff

Using a technique developed in Sweden, Genzyme is also making cartilage that can be used to repair injuries to knees and other joints. Again, the starting material is the patient’s own cartilage cells. 2628 When the cartilage cells go back into the knee, explains Ross Tubo, scientific director at Genzyme, “they say, ‘I recognize the neighborhood and now I’m going to build the house I used to live in.’ ” 2629

2619 Edward Edelson, The body builders; researchers are racing to create skin, cartilage, and organs in tissue-engineering labs, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), pp. 61-62. 2620 Ibidem, p. 62. 2621 Jeffrey R. Morgan, Ph.D., (Senior Research Scientist at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit & an Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School) & Martin L. Yarmush, M.D., Ph.D, (Helen Andrus Benedict Professor of Surgery and Bioengineering at Harvard Medical School and Director for Research at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit), Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 11. 2622 Op. cit. 2623 Edward Edelson, The body builders; researchers are racing to create skin, cartilage, and organs in tissue-engineering labs, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 62. 2624 Jeffrey R. Morgan, Ph.D., (Senior Research Scientist at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit & an Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School) & Martin L. Yarmush, M.D., Ph.D, (Helen Andrus Benedict Professor of Surgery and Bioengineering at Harvard Medical School and Director for Research at the Shriners Burns Institute, Boston Unit), Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 12. 2625 Op. cit. 2626 Edward Edelson, The body builders; researchers are racing to create skin, cartilage, and organs in tissue-engineering labs, Popular Science, May 1996, 248(5), p. 63. 2627 Op. cit. 2628 Op. cit. 2629 Op. cit.

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Applications for engineered tissue seem endless. Take a condition called retrouretal reflux. This bladder abnormality, in which urine flows the wrong way, affects a significant number of children, according to Dr. Anthony Atala of Boston Children’s Hospital. Currently, most patients have surgery, which usually means a seven-day hospital stay. Atala’s engineered body part could enable patients to go home immediately. 2630 “It takes about four weeks to grow the organ,” Atala says. “It’s been tested on dogs and pigs – the pig’s urinary system is closest to man’s.” 2631 In a more challenging effort, David Mooney, a chemical engineer at the University of Michigan, is collaborating with Dr. James Martin of the Carolina Medical Center in Charlotte, North Carolina, to tissue-engineer a human breast replacement for women who undergo mastectomy. Their hope is to start growing a woman’s own tissue on a polymer scaffold molded into a realistic shape. Once the tissue has started growing, the scaffold would be implanted in the body, then seeded with cells. It would finish growing in the woman’s body. Such a treatment could provide a safe alternative to silicone or saline implants for the 250,000 women who undergo mastectomy each year. But generating a complex three-dimensional structure like a breast isn’t easy, Mooney admits. One complication is that a woman’t breast consists mostly of fatty tissue, the growth of which isn’t well understood. Mooney is working with a variety of cell types to learn which will best frow into a realistic breast. “We haven’t settled on a specific configuration,” he says. “We’re just at the stage of doing initial animal trials. We hope to know within three years whether it’s a reasonable approach.” 2632 If you think that growing a breast is a problem, think about a heart valve.2633 Some 60,000 people a year have faulty heart valves replaced with plastic valves, pig valves, or occasionally human valves (which are scarce). Dr. Christopher Breuer, who works with Vacanti, is crafting tissue-engineered heart valves.2634 Breuer has made valves from animal cells and implanted them in lambs. So far, the results look promising. 2635 Could scientists grow an entire heart for someone who needs a transplant? The demand is certainly there: Of the 40,000 American patients who require heart transplants each year, only about 2,300 get them, because more transplantable hearts aren’t available. 2636 How about a liver? 2637 [Or eyes? Or ears?]

2630 Op. cit. 2631 Op. cit. 2632 Ibidem, pp. 63-64. 2633 Ibidem, p. 64. 2634 Op. cit. 2635 Op. cit. 2636 Op. cit. 2637 Op. cit.

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“Eyes in the back of your head” 2638

In truth, there are no basic differences between the physiology of laboratory animals and humans. 2639 [In fact, Dan] Graur [of Tel Aviv University] compared amino acid sequences in 91 proteins from humans, monkeys, rats, rabbits, and other mammals. He found that, on average, the proteins from rabbits differed from the same proteins in rats by almost 13 percent, while proteins from rabbits and primates differed by less than 10 percent. 2640 Both [humans and lower animals] control their internal biochemistry by releasing endocrine hormones that are all essentially the same; both humans and laboratory animals send out similar chemical transmitters from nerve cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems, and both react in the same way to infection or tissue injury. 2641

• • •

An extra eye primordium [h]as [been] implanted into the forebrain region of embryonic Rana pipiens [creating three-eyed frogs 2642]. During development both normal and supernumerary optic tracts terminated within a single, previously uninnervated tectal lobe.2643 [Also,] eyes transplanted to tadpole tails send axons rostrally in two spinal-cord tracts.2644 When eyes are transplanted to the ear area, optic axons enter the hindbrain and follow the same tracts rostrally and caudally.2645 Using a marsupial mouse, [researchers] have transplanted additional eye primordia to the midbrain at stages before host visual centers are normally innervated. 2646

Wolffian Lens Regeneration

Wolffian lens regeneration in the newt, in which the lens can be regenerated from the iris pigmented epithelium,…ha[s] shown by cell culture studies that the capacity of lens transdifferentiation [(cell-type conversion) 2647] is not limited to the newt cells, but widely conserved in pigmented epithelial cells (PECs) of [salamander,2648] chick and quail and even human fetuses 2649…and adults.2650, 2651 Recently, we have established a unique in vitro model system of chick embryonic PECs. In this culture system we are able to control each step of transdifferentiantion from PECs into lens cells by regulating culture conditions and to produce a homogeneous cell population with potential for synchronous differentiation into either lens or pigment cell phenotype. These multipotent (at least bipotent) cells showed cellular characteristics resembling neoplastic cells in many ways. 2652 It

2638 T. E. Breitenbach, Proverbidioms ™ (NY: 1980). 2639 Jack H. Botting (retired university lecturer and former scientific adviser to the Research Defense Society in London) & Adrian R. Morrison (director of the Laboratory for Study of the Brain in Sleep at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine), Animal research is vital to medicine, Scientific American, Feb 1997, 276(2), p. 85. 2640 Rachel Preiser, Bugs is more like us, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 70. 2641 Jack H. Botting (retired university lecturer and former scientific adviser to the Research Defense Society in London) & Adrian R. Morrison (director of the Laboratory for Study of the Brain in Sleep at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine), Animal research is vital to medicine, Scientific American, Feb 1997, 276(2), p. 85. 2642 M. Constantine-Paton, M. I. Law, Eye-specific termination bands in tecta of three-eyed frogs, Science, 10 Nov 1978, 202(4368). 2643 Op. cit. 2644 M. J. Katz & R. J. Lasek, Eyes transplanted to tadpole tails send axons rostrally in two spinal-cord tracts, Science, 13 Jan 1978, 199(4325). 2645 Op. cit. 2646 S. A. Dunlop, R. D. Lund, L. D. Beazley (Department of Zoology, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009, Australia), Segregation of optic input in a three-eyed mammal, Experimental Neurology, 1996, 137(2). 2647 G. Juric-Lekic, F. Bulic-Jakus, B. Kablar & A. Svajger (Institute of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Republic of Croatia, Yugoslavia), The ability of the epithelium of diencephalic origin to differentiate into cells of the ocular lens, International Journal of Developmental Biology, Sep 1991, 35(3). 2648 Op. cit. 2649 G. Eguchi (Department of Developmental Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Japan), Cellular and molecular background of wolffian lens regeneration, Cell Differential Development, Nov 1988, 25 Suppl(). 2650 S. E. Zalik & I. Meza, In vitro culture of the regenerating lens, Nature, 13 Jan 1968, 217(124). 2651 G. Juric-Lekic, F. Bulic-Jakus, B. Kablar & A. Svajger (Institute of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Republic of Croatia, Yugoslavia), The ability of the epithelium of diencephalic origin to differentiate into cells of the ocular lens, International Journal of Developmental Biology, Sep 1991, 35(3). 2652 G. Eguchi (Department of Developmental Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Japan), Cellular and molecular background of wolffian lens regeneration, Cell Differential Development, Nov 1988, 25 Suppl().

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has been proved by application of cell culture procedures of the system that PECs dissociated from fully-grown human eyes readily transdifferentiated into lens phenotypes in the manner observed in chick embryo PECs. 2653

Spinal Cord Repair

Each year spinal cord injuries rob some 10,000 Americans 2654…– many under 30 – 2655…of the freedom to move.2656 Brain axons sheathed in myelin, an insulating substance, make up the spinal cord’s white matter, which forms a cylinder around a core of myelin-free motor and sensory neurons – the gray matter. At various points along the spine, axons from the brain leave the white matter and plunge into the gray matter to make contact with motor neurons, which relay signals to the muscles. The myelin sheath allows those signals to travel faster from the brain, but it has a downside: it contains chemicals that prevent axons from regrowing if they’re severed. Gray matter, on the other hand, is free of the inhibitory proteins.2657 [Even before 1985,] spinal cord chimeras constructed between two histoincompatible chickens…remain[ed] healthy and seem[ed] to develop a complete tolerance to the graft.2658 The important point…is that the establishment of the neuronal circuits and of the connexions [sic] of the grafted neurons to their peripheral and central targets occurs between cells of two different species in such a way that normal behavior of the chimera is ensured. These animals can stand, walk, and fly as normal chickens do.2659 In quail-chick and chick-chick chimaeras, spinal cord segments were found to be functional after replacement by isotopic and isochronic grafting of the neural tube.2660 Here [(1994)] we achieve such a replacement in neonatal rats under less restricted topological and temporal conditions than were necessary for the avian chimaeras. The replaced segments united with the host spinal cord and promoted robust growth and regrowth of axons across the graft, enabling neural connections to be reconstructed that were hardly disntinguishable from normal. The animals with replaced segments could walk, run and climb with almost normal hind-forelimb coordination. This functional restoration in these animals appeared to be permanent, raising the possibility for therapeutic application in humans. 2661 [But] last July, Researchers Lars Olson, Henrich Cheng, and Yihao Cao at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden announced that they had succeeded in restoring some muscle function to rats with severed spinal cords. 2662 From the rat’s chest muscles, [Cheng] removed bits of nerve fibers – axon conduits – to create tunnels across the gap; muscle nerve fibers contain specialized cells that actually stimulate rather than inhibit axonal growth. Cheng anchored the fiber tunnels in place with thin metal wires and a natural adhesive called fibrin. 2663 Three weeks later, a few of the rats began to show signs of recovery.2664 The animals, while not cured, were able to support their weight and hobble around their cages. Much research, Olson cautions, is needed before the technique can be tested on humans. 2665

“Heard the one about the chicken who kept on changing its mind?” 2666

The cerebral cortex of mammals differentiates into functionally distinct areas that exhibit unique cytoarchitecture, connectivity, and molecular characteristics.2667 Synaptic plasticity is most evident after injury to

2653 Op. cit. 2654 Jeff Goldberg, Mending spinal cords, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 84. 2655 Earl Ubell, Secrets of the brain, The Seattle Times & Seattle Post-Intelligencer: Parade, 9 Feb 1997, p. 20. 2656 Jeff Goldberg, Mending spinal cords, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 84. 2657 Op. cit. 2658 M. Kinutani & N. M. Le Douarin, Avian spinal cord chimeras. I. Hatching ability and posthatching survival in homo- and heterospecific chimeras, Developmental Biology, Sep 1985, 111(1). 2659 Op. cit. 2660 Y. Iwashita, S. Kawaguchi & M. Murata (Restoration of Integrative Brain Science, Faculty of Medicine, Kyoto University, Japan), Restoration of function by replacement of spinal cord segments in the rat, Nature, 13 Jan 1994, 367(6459). 2661 Op. cit. 2662 Jeff Goldberg, Mending spinal cords, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 84. 2663 Ibidem, pp. 84-85. 2664 Ibidem, p. 85. 2665 Op. cit. 2666 Robert Langreth, Heard the one about the chicken who kept on changing its mind? Evan Balaban of the Neurosciences Institute transplanted quail brains into chicken embryos, , 6 March 1997, p. B1. 2667 M. F. Barbe & P. Levitt (Department of Physical Therapy, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140), Attraction of specific thalamic input by cerebral grafts depends on the molecular identity of the implant, Procedures of National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 1 May 1992, 89(9).

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the nervous system, and the cellular and molecular mechanisms that make it possible are beginning to be understood. Transplantation of brain tissue provides a powerful approach for studying mechanisms of synaptic plasticity. In turn, understanding the response of the central nervous system to injury can be used to optimize transplant survival and integration with the host brain. 2668 Transplantation of embryonic brain tissue or mature peripheral nerves into the adult mammalian central nervous system promotes axonal regrowth from axotomized central nervous system [(CNS)] neurons.2669 The combined morphological, biochemical, electrophysiological, and behavioral data…show that implanted embryonic nerve cells in some cases can substitute quite well for a lost intrinsic neuronal system in mammals. 2670 The ability to transplant an unlimited supply of clonally related neural progenitors that, in the brain, have the capacity to differentiate into neurons and glia in an anatomically and, perhaps, functionally appropriate manner, may not only facilitate developmental inquiries, but may also circumvent the limitations of primary fetal tissue for neural transplantation.2671 The transplantation of neural tissue into the brain has the potential to repair the effects of trauma and of congenital abnormalities and to replace tissue that has ceased to function as the result of disease. 2672 The types of transplants also make possible new strategies for gene therapy and repair of the CNS, including replacement of degenerated cells, engineering donor cells to be resistant to toxins, delivery of missing metabolic or other gene products, over-expression of molecules, and substitution of alternate metabolic pathways. 2673

• • •

Dissociated brain cells of rat embryos were implanted in the brain of adult normal and hypoxia-subjected rats. In both cases these cells survived successfully, differentiated into neurons and glial cells and remained viable throughout the whole experimental period (60 days). These cells were able to synthesize DNA and divide. Dissociated cells of rat embryo brains tended to aggregate after transplantation and were present not only as single neurons but also as large neuronal assemblies having the shape of islets and columns. These cells promoted considerable normalization of degenerated rat cortical neurons after hypoxia.2674 In a…study in which rats with electrodes implanted into the center of intracortical nigral grafts were allowed to “self-stimulate” via the graft,2675…the results show[ed]…that the rate of lever-pressing is related to the proximity between the electrode tip and the DA-containing neurons in the graft. This strongly supports the notion that the implanted DA neurons can transmit behaviorally meaningful and temporally organized information to the host brain via their efferent connections.2676 The potential utility of cultured neuroblastoma cells as donor tissue for neural implants into the mammalian brain has [also] been examined. Cells from a human neuroblastoma cell line, IMR-32, were labeled…and chemically rendered amitotic. These differentiated IMR-32 cells were grafted into the hippocampi of five adult African Green monkeys, and graft survival was evaluated.2677 [The] grafted neuroblastoma cells…survive[d] for prolonged periods in the primate brain and may serve as a practical source of donor tissue for neural implants. 2678

• • •

2668 C. W. Cotman & M. Nieto-Sampedro, Cell biology of synaptic plasticity, Science, 21 Sep 1984, 225(4668). 2669 L. F. Kromer & C. J. Cornbrooks, Transplants of Schwann cell cultures promote axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian brain, Procedures of the National Academy of Science U.S.A., Sep 1985, 82(18). 2670 F. H. Gage, P. Brundin, R. Strecker, S. B. Dunnett, O. Isacson & A. Bjorklund (Department of Neuronsciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093), Intracerebral neuronal grafting in experimental animal models of age-related motor dysfunction, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1988, 515(). 2671 E. Y. Snyder (Department of Neurology (Neuroscience), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts), Grafting immortalized neurons to the CNS, Current Opinions Neurobiology, Oct 1994, 4(5). 2672 T. J. Gill & R. D. Lund (Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, PA 15261), Implantation of tissue into the brain. An immunologic perspective, JAMA, 12 May 1989, 261(18). 2673 E. Y. Snyder (Department of Neurology (Neuroscience), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts), Grafting immortalized neurons to the CNS, Current Opinions Neurobiology, Oct 1994, 4(5). 2674 M. A. Alexandrova, L. V. Polezhaev & L. V. Cherkasova, Transplantation of dissociated embryonic brain cells in the brain of adult normal rats and rats subjected to hypoxia, J Hirnforcsh, 1985, 26(3). 2675 F. H. Gage, P. Brundin, R. Strecker, S. B. Dunnett, O. Isacson & A. Bjorklund (Department of Neuronsciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093), Intracerebral neuronal grafting in experimental animal models of age- related motor dysfunction, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1988, 515(). 2676 Op. cit. 2677 D. M. Gash, M. F. Notter, S. H. Okawara, A. L. Kraus & R. J. Joynt, Amitotic neuroblastoma cells used for neural implants in monkeys, Science, 26 Sep 1986, 233(4771). 2678 Op. cit.

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Mammalian chimaeras can be produced experimentally by aggregating early embryos or by injecting cells into them. They have been used to study several aspects of early development. However, lack of a genetic marker enabling unequivocal identification of all cells of either genotypes in situ has frustrated full exploitation of the experimental possibilities by these organisms 2679…[so] chimeras have been constructed in the avian embryo following the observation of the particular structure of the interphase nucleus in the Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica).2680 In all embryonic and adult cell types of this species a large amount of heterochromatin is associated with the nucleolus, making quail cells readily distinguishable from those of the chick where the constitutive heterochromatin is evenly dispersed in the nucleus.2681 The quail nuclear marker [makes] it possible to identify precisely the 2682…cell migrations and cell interactions 2683…[of] quail cells into chick embryos or vice versa 2684…within the chimeric cephalic structures.2685 [Also,] the Japanese quail is a precocial species, and because of its relatively rapid development, sexual maturation in about 40 days after hatching, and prolific breeding capacity, it…[has] become an organism well suited for…research. One stumbling block has been the inability to induce, with any consistency, parental behavior in laboratory stocks.2686 Quail-chick chimeras have been instrumental in the study of the ontogeny of the medulla oblongata and of the cerebellum.2687 Development of apparently normal brain and facial structures to which the contribution of the grafted tissue could be observed by means of the quail nuclear marker, 2688 …[and] data resulting from…[other] experiments…present a rational for the genesis of malformations of the face and brain and of congenital endocrine abnormalities occurring in man.2689

• • •

The tissue for the transplant has been collected, with the consent of the mothers of the fetuses, from private clinics where abortions are performed. It consists of brain cells from the mesencephalon, an area that develops into the substantia nigra and other midbrain structures, dissected from half a dozen six- to eight-week-old fetuses.2690 “Brain cells at this age can grow just like seeds,” says [transplant team leader Curt] Freed. “They establish root systems in the form of neural connections,” regenerating damaged brain circuits. 2691 Some of the first experiments with the procedure were performed in the mid-1980s. Roughly 200 such operations have taken place worldwide since the technique was introduced amid a storm of political controversy over the source of the transplanted tissue – electively aborted fetuses. In this country, despite the judgment of a National Institutes of Health [(NIH)] advisory committee that fetal tissue transplantation was ethical and promising,

2679 R. L. Gardner & M. H. Johnson, Investigation of cellular interaction and deployment in the early mammalian embryo using interspecific chimaeras between the rat and mouse, Ciba Foundation Symposium, 1975, 0(29). 2680 N. M. Le Douarin (Institut d’Embyrologie Cellulaire et Moleculaire du CNRS et du College de France, Nogent-sur-Marne), The Claude Bernard lecture, 1987. Embryonic chimeras: a tool for studying the development of the nervous and immune systems, Procedures R Society London “[”Biol“]”, 22 Oct 1988, 235(1278). 2681 Op. cit. 2682 G. F. Couly & N. M. Le Douarin, Mapping of the early neural primordium in quail-chick chimeras. II. The prosencephalic neural plate and neural folds: implications for the genesis of cephalic human congenital abnormalities, Developmental Biology, 1987, 120(1). 2683 N. M. Le Douarin (Institut d’Embyrologie Cellulaire et Moleculaire du CNRS et du College de France, Nogent-sur-Marne), The Claude Bernard lecture, 1987. Embryonic chimeras: a tool for studying the development of the nervous and immune systems, Procedures R Society London “[”Biol“]”, 22 Oct 1988, 235(1278). 2684 Op. cit. 2685 G. F. Couly & N. M. Le Douarin, Mapping of the early neural primordium in quail-chick chimeras. II. The prosencephalic neural plate and neural folds: implications for the genesis of cephalic human congenital abnormalities, Developmental Biology, 1987, 120(1). 2686 E. H. Hess, S. B. Petrovich & E. B. Goodwin, Induction of parental behavior in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica), Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, March 1976, 90(3). 2687 N. M. Le Douarin, K. Tan, M. Hallonet & M. Kinutani (Institut d’Embyrologie Cellulaire et Moleculaire du CNRS et du College de France, Nogent-sur-Marne), Studying brain development with quail-chick neural chimeras, Kaibogaku Zasshi, April 1993, 68(2). 2688 G. F. Couly & N. M. Le Douarin, Mapping of the early neural primordium in quail-chick chimeras. I. Developmental relationships between placodes, facial ectoderm, and prosencephalon, Developmental Biology, Aug 1985, 110(2). 2689 G. F. Couly & N. M. Le Douarin, Mapping of the early neural primordium in quail-chick chimeras. II. The prosencephalic neural plate and neural folds: implications for the genesis of cephalic human congenital abnormalities, Developmental Biology, 1987, 120(1). 2690 Jeff Goldberg, Fetal attraction; in theory, brain cells that have been killed by Parkinson’s disease can be replaced with cells from the brains of aborted fetuses. Now that the necessary politics and the technology are in place, neurosurgeons are about to find out if that theory is correct, Discover, July 1995, 16(7), p. 88. 2691 Op. cit.

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government funding to test the technique in humans was banned during the Reagan and Bush presidencies. 2692 That ban was lifted by executive order during the first days of the Clinton administration. 2693 “People thought, ‘Well, it’s banned; it must be something really great,’ ” 2694…[says] William Freed (no relation to Curt Freed), an NIH researcher.2695 “From a skin biopsy…we can produce as much tissue in two weeks as you could harvest from a hundred fetuses,” says Krys Bankiewicx, who is working with the California biotechnology company Somatix Therapy to perfect methods of mass-producing cells for transplant. In April [1995,] doctors at the Lahey Hitchcock Clinic in Burlington, Massachusetts, began trials of cross-species [(interspecific)] transplants, inserting tissue from five fetal pigs into the brain of a Parkinson’s patient.2696 In a recent article in the Journal of Neurosurgery, Bankiewicz describes experiments he conducted at the NIH in which he transplanted a variety of fetal cells – none of which produce dopamine, but all rich in growth factors – into rats and monkeys. The result was nearly as good as fetal transplants of mesencephalic tissue. 2697

• • •

The use of the interspecific chimaeras for behavioural studies is…illustrated by experiments in which certain genetic characteristics of the quail song pattern have been transferred to the chick by 2698…substituting definite regions of the chick embryo by their quail counterpart. 2699 Transplants containing the entire quail mesencephalon and diencephalon resulted in the transfer of certain aspects of species-typical crowing behavior. 2700 [The most recent announcement from] neurobiologist Evan Balaban of The Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla, California, us[ing] microsurgical techniques to transplant cells from the brains of Japanese quail embyros into the brains of Plymouth Rock chick embryos,2701…the chicks that hatched had a transplanted behavior: They bobbed their heads rapidly while crowing. Chicks don’t normally make these head movements, but quail do. In a related experiment, Balaban transplanted another portion of the brain, creating chicks that sing like quail without bobbing their heads.2702

Egypt, Peru, Mexico, Brazil, Latvia, Tibet, Canada, United States, Colombia

The chances for extensive integration may be greatest for neuronal suspension grafts implanted as deposits directly into the depth of the brain, but even solid grafts inserted as whole pieces into the brain have, in several cases, been seen to become reinnervated from the host brain in adult and developing recipients. 2703

• • •

2692 Ibidem, p. 89. 2693 Op. cit. 2694 Ibidem, pp. 88-89. 2695 Ibidem, p. 89. 2696 Ibidem, p. 93. 2697 Op. cit. 2698 N. M. Le Douarin (Institut d’Embyrologie Cellulaire et Moleculaire du CNRS et du College de France, Nogent-sur-Marne), Embryonic neural chimaeras in the study of brain development, Trends in Neuroscience, Feb 1993, 16(2). 2699 G. F. Couly & N. M. Le Douarin, Mapping of the early neural primordium in quail-chick chimeras. II. The prosencephalic neural plate and neural folds: implications for the genesis of cephalic human congenital abnormalities, Developmental Biology, 1987, 120(1). 2700 E. Balaban, M.A.Teillet & N. Le Douarin (Institut d’Embyrologie Cellulaire et Moleculaire du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et du College de France, Nogent-sur-Marne), Application of the quail-chick chimera system to the study of brain development and behavior, Science, 9 Sep 1988, 241(4871). 2701 David Graham, Brain transplant for chickens, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 33. 2702 Op. cit. 2703 F. H. Gage, P. Brundin, R. Strecker, S. B. Dunnett, O. Isacson & A. Bjorklund (Department of Neuronsciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093), Intracerebral neuronal grafting in experimental animal models of age- related motor dysfunction, Ann. New York Academy of Science, 1988, 515().

226 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Trephination is the oldest known surgical technique.2704 It has been suggested that Stone Age cave dwellers may have treated behavior disorders with [this] surgical method…in which part of the skull was chipped away to provide an opening through which the evil spirit could escape. People may have believed that when the evil spirit left, the person would return to his or her normal state.2705 Disputes often arise from the interpretation of historical data: a different explanation of trephining is that it was used to remove bone splinters and blood clots resulting from blows to the head in fights between men ([Maher, W. B., & Maher, B. A (1985). Psychopathology: I. From ancient times to the eighteenth century. In G. A. Kimble & K. Schlesinger (Eds.), Topics in the history of Psychology (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 2706]). This explanation is consistent with findings that most trephined skulls were of men. 2707

• • •

Peru has been recognized as a major source of ancient trephined skulls, many of which date back 2300 years. 2708 From a neurosurgical perspective…of the archaeological studies performed on [trephined] skulls, 2709…comparative osteology has shown that almost 70% of patients survived the procedure. The various instruments, hemostatic [(blood clotting)] agents, anesthetics, surgical techniques, and cranioplasties used are reconstructed from the anthropological literature.2710 Analysis of the data leads to the conclusion that, despite their rudimentary knowledge of disease, the ancient Incas must have had some knowledge of anatomy and proper surgical procedure. 2711 The anthropological reports of skull trepanation (trephination) among the early Indians of Canada and the United States of America 2712…[indicated] the location of skull perforation was parietal in…[most] cases and less often frontal…or occipital.2713 The average skull opening was oval or oblong, with a diameter of 3.0 cm. The method of trepanation was probably gradual scraping in most cases. Skull fractures were not present in any case. About 90% of the trepanations showed evidence of healing, indicating survival. 2714 3,800 skulls of inhibitants [sic] of the Baltic Sea coast of previous centuries have been investigated beginning with the [N]eolithic period up to the 18th century. 10 cases of skull trepanation were found, 8 of which were performed in Latvia, 6 were successful. One of them is of large size (120 x 60 mm) and shows traces of healing. It is dated back to the [N]eolithic period. Five were performed before the 18th century. The favourable results testity [sic] the skill and considerable medical knowledge of folk physicians. Furthermore, it also witnesses the great resistance of the organism of ancient people in Latvia in cases of surgical intervention. 2715

• • •

[There are also] cases of cranial surgery in direct association with the osseous image of a non-trauma-induced soft tissue lesion (sinus pericranii).2716 [A] case, from Alameda, California (Late Middle Period, ca. 300-500 AD), is the earliest and only definitive evidence of invasive surgery from prehistoric North America. Because this individual presents the only bony evidence of cranial surgery other than trepanation or cauterization, it contributes substantially to our extremely limited understanding of medical practices in preliterate societies. 2717

2704 S. Rifkinson-Mann (Department of Neurosurgery, New York University Medical Center, New York), Cranial surgery in ancient Peru, Neurosurgery, Oct 1988, 23(4). 2705 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 18. 2706 Ibidem, A-56. 2707 Ibidem, p. 18. 2708 S. Rifkinson-Mann (Department of Neurosurgery, New York University Medical Center, New York), Cranial surgery in ancient Peru, Neurosurgery, Oct 1988, 23(4). 2709 Op. cit. 2710 Op. cit. 2711 Op. cit. 2712 J. L. Stone & M. L. Miles (Department of Surgery, Cook County Hospital, Chicago, Illinois), Skull trepanation among the early Indians of Canada and the United States, Neurosurgery, June 1990, 26(6). 2713 Op. cit. 2714 Op. cit. 2715 V. Derums, Trepanations of the skull in ancient Latvia (author’s transl.), Zentralbl Allg Pathol, 1979, 123(3). 2716 G. D. Richards (Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley 94720-3712, USA), Brief communication: earliest cranial surgery in North America, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Oct 1995, 98(2). 2717 Op. cit.

227 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“Private enterprise puts up the money.” 2718

Many animal development experts now suspect that genetically duplicating humans is possible, especially as Donald Wolf of the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center has already cloned rhesus monkeys from embryonic cells. (Cows, sheep and rabbits have also been cloned from embryonic cells in recent years, but these experiments lacked the emotional impact of a copied mature animal.) Indeed, it took less than two weeks from the date of the Roslin Institute’s announcement [(emphasis added)] in Nature for Valiant Ventures in the Bahamas to announce that it will build a laboratory to clone people willing to pay. The company was founded for the purpose by the Raëlian Movement, a self-styled religious organization.2719 The results of the cloning research had been embargoed by the journal Nature. 2720 In the past, reports of cloning experiments could be tempered by assurances that they have no applications to human beings. Not so with th[is] experiment.2721 Cloning a mammal from mature body tissue is a quantum leap toward what many have pondered and some have feared – cloning people.2722 Human cloning…could be done, said Neal First, professor of animal biotechnology and reproductive biology at the University of Wisconsin.2723 If a wealthy person wanted to clone,…theoretically it could be done, he said. 2724 “A private clinic could set up and clone…[a] person just as nice as could be,”…he said. 2725 “If the technique is made efficient, it has the potential for really revolutionizing what we do in animal breeding,” he said. Cloning the best milk producers could reduce the nation’s dairy herd by a third, cut food costs and help protect the environment. But dairy farmers probably wouldn’t like it, First said, because many would go out of business. “That gets to be a social issue . . .” he said.2726

• • •

The development of the Roslin Institute clearly shows how, in the late 20th century, the needs and goals of basic science are often driven by and entwined with those of business. 2727 Although the institute started in 1993, it grew from a predecessor created during World War II for a simple, urgent reason: German submarines were preventing ships from reaching Britain and the country was in danger of starving. 2728 The Animal Breeding Research Organization, Roslin’s predecessor, was assigned to use the emerging field of genetics to help produce more home-grown food.2729 By the late 1960’s, British agriculture was as efficient as any in the world. So the Animal Breeding Research Organization suddenly needed to find a new occupation. The researchers there chose to remake the place as a center of molecular biology and biotechnology. Roslin is a government-financed organization, and its scientists make government salaries. 2730 Technically, the institute is run by a company, PPL Therapeutics P.L.C.2731 Dr. [Ron] James was not particularly steeped in the intricacies of genetic engineering when he first showed up in Edinburgh. But he had an eye for business opportunities, and he had already developed a strong sense that there were possibilities of some sort in the area of breeding genetically engineered, or transgenic, animals. “He is a very, very clever man,” remarked Ian Leslie, assistant director of biotechnology projects at Scottish Enterprise, a government development agency that provided Dr. James with some early seed money.

2718 Michael Specter with Gina Kolata (w/ reporting contributions from Michael Specter, Edmund L. Andrews & Michael Cooper in Scotland & by Gina Kolata, Lawrence M. Fisher & Leslie Eaton in the United States), After decades and many mishaps, cloning success, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A9. 2719 Tim Beardsley, The start of something big? Dolly has become a new icon for science, Scientific America, May 1997, 276(5), pp. 15-16. 2720 Ronald Kotulak (Chicago Tribune), Researchers successfully clone sheep; creating copies of humans could be possible, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A4. 2721 Peter Kendall (Chicage Tribune), Ethicists debate morality of cloning, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A4. 2722 Op. cit. 2723 Ronald Kotulak (Chicago Tribune), Researchers successfully clone sheep; creating copies of humans could be possible, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A4. 2724 Op. cit. 2725 Op. cit. 2726 Op. cit. 2727 Michael Specter with Gina Kolata (w/ reporting contributions from Michael Specter, Edmund L. Andrews & Michael Cooper in Scotland & by Gina Kolata, Lawrence M. Fisher & Leslie Eaton in the United States), After decades and many mishaps, cloning success, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A9. 2728 Op. cit. 2729 Op. cit. 2730 Op. cit. 2731 Op. cit.

228 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“We came here because of the transgenic chickens,” Dr. James said in an interview. 2732 “But once we got here, we found the sheep.” 2733

The Process

First, [Roslin Institute’s Ian] Wilmut and his colleagues scraped the udders of a[] 2734…6-year-old adult 2735… sheep for membrane cells.2736 Scientists say the most remarkable thing…was…us[ing] the DNA from an adult cell, not an embryo, to make a new lamb.2737 Such cells are usually kept alive in a liquid of 10 percent fetal calf serum, the fluid component of blood, which is rich in foodlike cellular nutrients. But Wilmut realized that a standard technique to put cells to sleep – reducing the level of serum to 0.5 percent – could make the cell “forget” that it was a mammary cell and enable it to “remember” the genetic instructions for making an entire sheep. 2738 Scientists speculate that by making the…cells dormant and bringing them close to the point of death, something happens to break the chemical locks that have kept most of the genes inoperative.2739 [People have been led to] believe[] that once a cell became differentiated, most of its approximately 100,000 genes were permanently shut off. Only a few genes remained active to permit the cell to perform its specific function, whether that is to produce milk, hair or organ tissue. 2740 [Keith H.S.] Cambell and company [then] “mated” individual cells with the gene-free eggs by pairing them in test tubes and zapping them with electricity.2741 The cells fuse into one, then begin dividing…using the genetic instructions from the cultured cell.2742 [Genzyme Transgenics’ Michael] Young said the Scottish technique has the potential to give researchers thousands of animals made exactly to order. 2743 Th[is]…has intriguing implications for agriculture or drug manufacture, possibly allowing mass production of animals with a desired trait, much faster than traditional breeding.2744 And the fact that it came not from a high-powered industrial or university lab but from a Scottish animal-research laboratory gives the accomplishment a dramatic charm: Score one for the hands-on guys of applied science, not the theorists.2745

The Patent

“Our (patent) applications do . . . apply to use in animals,” Harry Griffin told The Associated Press in a telephone interview. “But it is up to the relevant authority in each country to decide whether the term ‘animals’ should include humans.2746 Asked if the institute intended to patent its process to include human cloning, Griffin said, “That was the intention.” The applications have been submitted to the World Intellectual Property Organization, a U.N. agency based in Geneva.2747 But Griffin said the institute does not expect a ruling on the patents for two to three years. 2748 The Rural Advancement Foundation International, which has offices in Pittsboro, N.C., and Ottawa, said it will lobby a World Health Organization meeting in Geneva…to stop the patents. 2749 “The ethics and fate of human

2732 Op. cit. 2733 Op. cit. 2734 Mark D. Uehling, Ian Wilmut clones a sheep, but he isn’t losing any sleep, Popular Science, May 1997, 250(5), p. 74. 2735 Bill Dietrich, Brave New World of cloning not upon us yet, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A3. 2736 Mark D. Uehling, Ian Wilmut clones a sheep, but he isn’t losing any sleep, Popular Science, May 1997, 250(5), p. 74. 2737 Bill Dietrich, Brave New World of cloning not upon us yet, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A3. 2738 Mark D. Uehling, Ian Wilmut clones a sheep, but he isn’t losing any sleep, Popular Science, May 1997, 250(5), p. 74. 2739 Ronald Kotulak (Chicago Tribune), Researchers successfully clone sheep; creating copies of humans could be possible, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A4. 2740 Ronald Kotulak (Chicago Tribune), Researchers successfully clone sheep; creating copies of humans could be possible, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A4. 2741 Rick Weiss (Washington Post), Are these the sheep of things to come? Method could produce identical animal clones, The Seattle Times, 7 March 1996, p. A1. 2742 Op. cit. 2743 Op. cit. 2744 Bill Dietrich, Brave New World of cloning not upon us yet, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A3. 2745 Op. cit. 2746 Maureen Johnson (The Associated Press), Patent sought for cloning technique; humans would be included in patented process, Eastside Journal, 9 May 1997, 21(264), p. A1. 2747 Op. cit. 2748 Op. cit. 2749 Op. cit.

229 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

cloning is not a matter to be entrusted to the Roslin Institute,” the foundation said. “This is an issue of profound global importance and must be resolved at the highest levels.” 2750 The foundation said the institute reiterated that it did not intend to attempt human cloning and that the institute was seeking the patent to stop others from pursuing it.2751 The foundation said it believes the institute. But it is concerned that PPL Therapeutics, the company collaborating with the scientific team that cloned Dolly, could sublicense the technology to three big pharmaceutical enterprises: Boehringer Ingelheim of Germany, Nov Nordisk of Denmark, and American Home Products.2752

Research

Cloning may…benefit somatic gene therapy as as tool for basic research. By making it easy to obtain large numbers of genetically identical cells for study, cloning should help elucidate how embryonic cells commit to become a particular cell type. “That process of commitment involves shutting off genes that would otherwise have played a role in becoming a liver or a brain,” reflects Jon Gordon, professor or obstetrics, gynecology and reproductive science at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City. “I think the fact that we can now reverse that gives us hope that we can understand that process better and understand diseases that are based on or manifest as errors in this process, like cancer.” 2753

• • •

[Roger] Gosden and his colleagues explored th[e] idea [of reversing sterility] by freezing strips of ovarian tissue donated by women undergoing medical treatments. Afterward they transplanted the thawed strips into mice that, thanks to genetic engineering, lacked an immune system and so couldn’t reject the foreign tissue. For 18 days the human tissue was nourished by the blood vessels of the mice until the researchers removed them. The oocytes were structurally sound and had even grown.2754 “If the tissue does this well after grafting in animals, we expect it will do even better in the person providing it,” he predicts.2755 In December 1995, Gosden removed part of an ovary from a three-year-old girl about to undergo radiation treatments for cancer that would leave her sterile. The girl has now recovered and is healthy. 2756 Years from now, Gosden believes, if she decides to become a mother, doctors will be able to reimplant the tissue successfully. Gosden’s procedures could also radically change the process of egg donation. A donor wouldn’t have to endure major surgery; the only thing required would be a simple biopsy.2757 Several hospitals around the world are beginning to bank ovarian tissue samples from girls and women, most of whom are about to undergo cancer treatments. “We’re going to freeze anything we can get our hands on,” says Robert Clark, director of the assisted reproduction laboratory at Boston’s Brigham and Women’s Hospital. “We’re hoping that the technology for maturing human oocytes will be better in three or four or five years and we’ll have a shot at obtaining pregnancy with the eggs.” But this same technology will also make it possible for egg banks to store thousands upon thousands of oocytes that can be matured on demand for paying customers.2758 Moreover, if egg banks are set up, where will the ovarian tissue come from? [John] Eppig’s methods [(artifical ovaries),] like Gosden’s, could theoretically be used on tissue from cadavers, but the thought of a baby with a dead biological mother is a bit macabre. An aborted fetus, meanwhile, is one of the richest sources of oocytes because so few of its eggs have committed suicide [(undergone apoptosis),] but this option is even more controversial: when Godsen restored an adult mouse’s fertility with fetal tissue, he created such an uproar in the United Kingdom that Parliament passed a law banning such a use of fetal tissue in humans.

2750 Op. cit. 2751 Op. cit. 2752 Op. cit. 2753 Bill Dietrich, Brave New World of cloning not upon us yet, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A3. 2754 John Travis, Brave new egg; we may soon be able to grow unlimited numbers of perfectly healthy, fertilizable human eggs in the laboratory. Whether we should, of course, is an entirely different question, Discover, April 1997, 18(4), p. 78. 2755 Op. cit. 2756 Op. cit. 2757 Op. cit. 2758 Ibidem, p. 80.

230 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Eppig shares these concerns. “An aborted fetus could become the biological mother of thousands of children, and society and I are not ready for that,” he says. Technology, however, has never been known for its patience. Whether society and Eppig like it or not, we may all have to prepare for the brave new world. 2759

• • •

The recently debuted technology for cloning is usually discussed as a means of creating genetic copies of whole adult individuals. This is far from its only use, however. Cloning could be combined with other biotechnologies, either to achieve more novel goals or to improve on previous methods. Although the technique is still [allegedly] in its infancy, and needs to be studied and developed much further, educated musings about cloning’s ability to inform gene therapy are already being brought to the table. An area that might particularly benefit is germ-line gene therapy – genetic modifications that couuld correct a problem for future generations. “I think cloning is going to be used as a tool that will make gene therapy work,” comments Lee Silver, a molecular biologist at Princeton University and an expert on reproductive technologies. “For the first time, germ-line gene therapy becomes realistic.” Germ-line therapy, which is not yet being studied in humans, could ideally prevent deadly or debilitating disorders such as sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis. Such diseases are typically transmitted silently from generation to generation by people carrying one copy of a defective gene; the disease becomes manifest when two carriers have a child who inherits two copies.2760 Gene therapy, aided and abetted by cloning, could theoretically correct the condition for their children, and all subsequent progeny as well. The recipe would begin with a fertilized egg growing, in the laboratory, into a mass of early embryonic tissue. A functioning gene – say, for the blood’s oxygen-carrying protein, beta globin, which is mutated in sickle cell anemia – would then be inserted into the embryonic cells by tailored viruses or other vectors. (A marker sequence inserted along with the gene might help identify which cells took up the gene correctly.) The DNA of one of those cells could then be implanted into a new egg cell from the mother, beginning the pregnancy afresh. In effect, this last step replaces the the original embryo with a healthier clone of itself. Germ-line therapy does not require a cloning step, but cloning might make it easier. Very early stage embryonic cells, if separated, retain the ability to regenerate into whole embryos (indeed, that is how identical twins, triplets and quadruplets arise). Gene therapists could therefore alter the DNA of the embryonic cells and return one to the mother for gestation. The problem is that embryonic cells lose their “pluripotent” capacity after a few cell divisions [without culturing], so the gene therapists would be forced to work on relatively few cells. The inefficiency of current gene manipulation techniques would consequently undermine many therapeutic attempts. With cloning, however, the age and number of cells eligible for manipulation is unlimited. In theory, cloning would allow therapy on cells from a more advanced pregancy (although this would raise more troubling ethical issues for many parents). In a variation on this theme, the gene therapy might also be conducted on cells from one of the parents. A child cloned from those altered cells would be free of the genetic defect but in other ways a genetic duplicate of its donor parent.2761

“Now that scientists have cloned a sheep, are humans next?” 2762

Scientists in Oregon have produced monkeys from cloned embryos; 2763…there are no insurmountable biological barriers to creating multiple copies of a human being. [(Duh.)] “It demands that we take seriously the issue of human cloning,” said Arthur Caplan, a bioethicist at the University of Pennsylvania.2764 Lead researcher Don Wolf, a senior scientist at the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center in Beaverton and director of the human in vitro fertilization laboratory at Oregon Health Sciences University in Portland, said researchers do not plan to produce clones from adult monkeys.2765 The monkeys were created in a two-step technique. First, researchers created several monkey embryos using a standard in vitro fertilization method of mixing eggs from a single female with sperm in a petri dish. Once the embryos had divided into eight cells, Wolf and colleagues teased apart the embryos’ cells.

2759 Op. cit. 2760 Steve Mirsky (Reuter Fellow in Medical Journalism at Columbia University) & John Rennie (Editor in Chief of Scientific American), What cloning means for gene therapy, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 122. 2761 Ibidem, pp. 122-123. 2762 Time for Kids advertisement, In Time, 23 June 1997, 149(25), p. 9. 2763 Rick Weiss & John Schwartz (Washington Post), In Oregon lab, monkeys from cloned embryos, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A3. 2764 Op. cit. 2765 Op. cit.

231 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

In the second step, the scientists took one full set of chromosomes from each embryo cell and inserted each batch into a fresh egg cell whose DNA had been removed. Each of those cells then had the potential to become a new embryo.2766 The two monkeys “seem totally normal,” Wolf said. Although they were carried by separate surrogate mothers, they are brother and sister because both embryos were created by mixing eggs and sperm from the same mother and father.2767 [In 1993,] a university researcher in Washington D.C. ha[d] cloned human embryos, splitting single embryos into identical twins or triplets, apparently the first report of such a feat. The experiment, while not a technical breakthrough since the scientist used methods that are commonly used to clone [other] animal embryos, opens a range of practical and ethical questions. 2768 Dr. Arthur Caplan, director of the Center for Bioethics at the University of Minnesota…[said,] “It doesn’t take a Nobel Prize team with a million-dollar lab. It’s fairly simple.” Despite the scruples of most scientists, he said, there is no way to control or contain the technology.2769 Any time scientists seem to be meddling with the stuff of human life, thorny questions about propriety arise. One “Brave New World” [(by Aldous Huxley)] scenario made possible by embryo cloning is that parents might be able to save identical copies of embryos so that, if their child ever needed an organ transplant, the mother could give birth to the child’s identical [(monozygotic (MZ))] twin, a perfact match for organ donation. 2770 [(Though do please remove the cerebrum during fetal development.)] A National Institutes of Health panel concluded in 1994 that certain types of human-embryo research could not be justified but that others were ethically acceptable. Some embryo research could lead to better treatments for infertility, for example, or produce important insights into genetic diseases. 2771 Three years ago, the National Advisory Board on Ethics in Reproduction, an independent group of experts, also devised guidelines regarding embryo research. The group came out in opposition to certain human-cloning applications, including the creation of a human twin of an adult for that adult to raise as a child – the work just now accomplished in sheep. But the group found no reason to outlaw, under certain circumstances, the “splitting” of human embyros – a variant of human cloning that creates identical twins that are not indentical to the parent. Those recommendations have never been formally considered by the government, however, because of the congressional ban on all embryo studies.2772 [But] we need to control the science, not abandon it.2773 The rush to ban all types of human cloning slows cures for disease or even puts it out of reach.2774 [Back] in December 1994, President Clinton declared that federal funds could not be used to create human embryos for research 2775…experiments that might hold promise for the treatment of disease. 2776 The United Kingdom [(Human Embryo Act)] and other European countries [(Denmark, Spain, Germany and Australia 2777)] have banned human cloning, but experts here say there are no laws or regulations to prevent it. “This had not been on (the [Presidential National Bioethics Advisory Commission’s]) agenda,” says [bioethicist Thomas] Murray [at Case Western University in Cleveland, Ohio]. “It may now have to be.” 2778 Besides cloning, the bioethics commission also is examining research in animal husbandry, biogenetics and general biotechnology.2779 While some experts argue that humans will never be cloned, others cite in-vitro fertilization as an example of how technology can be developed for one purpose and used for another. Once applied only to animals, it is now used by tens of thousands of infertile couples.2780

2766 Op. cit. 2767 Op. cit. 2768 Gina Kolata (The New York Times), Scientists clone human embryo, 24 Oct 1993, The Seattle Times, p. A1. 2769 Op. cit. 2770 Op. cit. 2771 Rick Weiss (Washington Post), Clinton asks ethics panel to review cloning issue; human-embyro policy to be studied, The Seattle Times, 25 Feb 1997, p. A1. 2772 Op. cit. 2773 David Mazzarella (Editor), Cloning humans; limited ban saves research, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 14A. 2774 Op. cit. 2775 Rick Weiss (Washington Post), Are these the sheep of things to come? Method could produce identical animal clones, The Seattle Times, 7 March 1996, p. A1. 2776 Sonya Ross (The Associated Press), Federal money for human cloning banned; Clinton also seeks delay on experiments, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A2. 2777 Robert A. Rosenblatt (Los Angeles Times), Commission seeks ban on human cloning; proposed law would extend to private labs, The Seattle Times, 18 May 1997, 15(20), p. A7. 2778 Tim Friend, Breakthrough with sheep could herald human cloning, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 1B. 2779 Sonya Ross (The Associated Press), Federal money for human cloning banned; Clinton also seeks delay on experiments, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A2. 2780 Tim Friend, Breakthrough with sheep could herald human cloning, USA Today, 24 Feb 1997, 15(113), p. 1B.

232 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“Maybe having a copy made of Fluffy or Fido, if you know (the pet) is going to expire, would be appealing to people,” says bioethicist Arthur Caplan of the Center for Bioethics at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.2781 [(I wish that I could have cloned my rare polydactyl calico as any other colorful cat with extra toes.)] “The irony is that for a long time people in the ethics community have asked for a discussion of cloning. But that has always been met by the response that it can’t be done and there is no reason to worry about it,” he says. “But people need to realize that what wasn’t doable last week may be possible next week.” 2782 Why not clone humans? The fears over cloning, they say, are misplaced.2783 Far from playing God, what could be more human? 2784 In a pre-emptive strike against mad scientists nationwide, President Clinton recently announced a plan to outlaw the cloning of human beings. More exactly, he wants to restrict the use of “somatic cell nuclear transfers.” 2785 Clinton has banned the use of federal money to clone humans and asked private companies to ban such research.2786 “We have a responsibility to move with caution and care,” Clinton said, comparing recent[ly announced] cloning advancements to how splitting the atom started the nuclear age.2787 In Congress, Rep. Vernon Ehlers, R-Mich., has launched a bill to make human cloning illegal.2788 But is a ban wise? History has shown that people who are aghast at some new medical technique – in-vitro fertilization – later grow blasé about it. “I’m uncomfortable with sanctimonious and ill-thought-out presidential decrees where the president has determined we have crossed a boundary beyond which humanity dare not go,” said James Hughes, a sociologist at the University of Connecticut at Hartford. “I disagree there is such a boundary,” he said. “Humanity should be in control of its own destiny.” 2789 [The director of the National Institutes of Health, Harold] Varmus told a congressional committee [March 6] that he personally found the idea of human cloning “offensive,” then added, “There is, however, the issue of creating human clones to combat reproductive difficulties.” 2790 [The National Bioethics Advisory Commission] urged that any laws on cloning “be carefully written so as not to intefere with other important areas of scientific research.” 2791 “They are leaving the door wide open to future cloning,” Sen. Christopher Bond, R-Mo., said.2792 Genuine public and political concern about cloning humans should not be permitted to obstruct…research that revolves around cloned human cells and tissues. Doing so will not prevent abuses, but likely drive them further underground – deeper into the places where public values and scientific integrity don’t reach. 2793

Made To Order

If cloning is made legal, will there be people who decide to clone children for the “wrong” reasons? Probably. But that, say its advocates, is no reason to ban it.2794 Cloning may remove some of the practial barriers,…but it does not alter the ethical ones. Many researchers, not to mention the general public, are deeply concerned that germ-line techniques could be misapplied toward eugenic goals with authoritarian or even genocidal overtones. 2795

2781 Op. cit. 2782 Op. cit. 2783 Shankar Vedantam (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), A few rise to support the cloning of humans, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A1. 2784 Op. cit. 2785 David Mazzarella (Editor), Cloning humans; limited ban saves research, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 14A. 2786 Shankar Vedantam (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), A few rise to support the cloning of humans, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A8. 2787 Mimi Hall, Clinton’s cloning ban applauded, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 1A. 2788 Shankar Vedantam (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), A few rise to support the cloning of humans, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A8. 2789 Op. cit. 2790 Op. cit. 2791 Paul Recer (The Associated Press), Human cloning ban suggested, but lab research given go-ahead, The Seattle Times, 8 June 1997, 15(23), p. A1. 2792 Op. cit. 2793 David Mazzarella (Editor), Cloning humans: limited ban saves research, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 14A. 2794 Op. cit. 2795 Steve Mirsky (Reuter Fellow in Medical Journalism at Columbia University) & John Rennie (Editor in Chief of Scientific American), What cloning means for gene therapy, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 123.

233 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

[In 1938 2796 Germany, for instance,] Hans Spemann proposed what he called a “fantastical experiment.” He suggested taking the nucleus from a cell of a late stage embryo, juvenile or adult and transplanting it into an egg. In other words, cloning.2797 The communication between German experimental embryologists and American geneticists was so slight that the communication was made only toward the end of Spemann’s life. 2798 [(Spemann was dead before the end of 1941.) 2799] “A great deal of the current uproar is based on fear about technology,” said Hilde Nelson, a senior ethicist at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville.2800 “You can imagine people from Adolf Hitler [to Janet Reno] to Saddam Hussein when you ask what you could do with this thing,” noted [University of Washington’s chairman of the comparative-medicine department, Melvin] Dennis. “It’s really scary, and people need to take a hard look at it.” 2801 [Meanwhile,] a woman has sued the University of Washington, contending she was fired from her job as a manager of the medical school’s urology department for blowing the whistle on financial and scientific misconduct.2802

• • •

Could these techniques…be used to clone the brainy or beautiful? 2803 In principle there is nothing to prevent a wealthy person from cloning himself, cloning a California condor, cloning 500 Marilyn Monroes – or, to be precise, 500 Monroe bodies without Marilyn’s formative experiences.2804 A cloned Hitler, for example, might turn out to be a philanthropist.2805 If cloning humans were legal, should it be regulated? Of course, say its supporters. But if it were not legal, could it be stopped? Probably not.2806 The only good news for people frightened about another Hitler is that it will not be repeated by a crazy scientist working alone.2807 It will sure take one strong clone to stand up to those arguments.2808

2796 Michael Specter with Gina Kolata (w/ reporting contributions from Michael Specter, Edmund L. Andrews & Michael Cooper in Scotland & by Gina Kolata, Lawrence M. Fisher & Leslie Eaton in the United States), Realization of a ‘fantastical experiment,’ The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A8t. 2797 Op. cit. 2798 Ibidem, 12, p. 569a. 2799 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 12, p. 567b. 2800 Shankar Vedantam (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), A few rise to support the cloning of humans, The Seattle Times, 10 March 1997, 120(59), p. A1. 2801 Op. cit. 2802 The Associated Press, Manager who blew whistle sues UW, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 5 April 1996, p. C5. 2803 Bill Dietrich, Brave New World of cloning not upon us yet, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A3. 2804 Op. cit. 2805 Ronald Kotulak (Chicago Tribune), Researchers successfully clone sheep; creating copies of humans could be possible, The Seattle Times, 23 Feb 1997, 15(6), p. A4. 2806 Bill Dietrich, Brave New World of cloning not upon us yet, The Seattle Times, 4 March 1997, 120(54), p. A3. 2807 Mark D. Uehling, Ian Wilmut clones a sheep, but he isn’t losing any sleep, Popular Science, May 1997, 250(5), p. 74. 2808 Stanley Bing, Business applications of clone technology; think about it: an alternate self could attend your budget review, Fortune, 31 March 1997, 135(6), p. 46.

234 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Doppelgängers

Expermimental embryologists began to realize that developmental pathways need not be completely determincd by the time the egg is formed.2809 Until full differentiation is achieved, cells grow through proliferation from progenitor cells.2810 If an experimenter splits a sea-urchin embryo at the two-cell stage into two single cells, for example, each of the cells will develop into a complete animal, even though together the two cells would have produced only one animal if left undisturbed. When human embryos split naturally, the result is identical [(monozygotic (MZ))] twins.2811 Prenatal development includes three periods: the period of the zygote, the period of the embryo, and the period of the fetus.2812 The period of the zygote, which is sometimes called the germinal period, includeds approximately the first two weeks of life, extending from fertilization until the fertilized ovum, or zygote[’s,] 2813…specialized cells (trophoblast, endoderm, and extraembryonic mesoderm) form 2814…and becomes implanted.2815 [These specialized cells] attach the embryo to the uterus (implantation) and form vascular connections necessary for nutrient transport.2816 The trophoblast forms the ultimate interface between foetal and maternal tissue. It seems to lack the foreign antigens required to induce immunological rejection reactions in the mother. Therefore a successful pregnancy probably does not depend on the production of blocking antibodies to protect the foetus from maternal cytotoxic T cells.2817 The maternal decidua is comprised principally of immune cells and it is into this tissue that the fetal trophoblast must invade to establish the placenta. 2818 The placenta plays a critical role in providing an environment that supports optimal fetal growth. It does this by providing the site of nutrient transfer from the mother to the fetus and waste secretion from the fetus to the mother, acting as a barrier against pathogens and the maternal immune system, and as an active endocrine organ capable of secreting hormones, growth factors, cytokines, and other bioactive products 2819…to the embryo’s advantage.2820 The mechanism(s) that regulates invasion of trophoblasts through the uterine epithelium during embryo implantation and nidation in hemochorial placental mammals is poorly understood. While limited trophoblast invasion is essential for the establishment of normal pregnancy, dysregulation of this process may contribute to the pathogenesis of choriocarcinoma, a highly invasive and lethal form of cancer arising from the trophoblasts. 2821 Trophoblast cells and cancer cells have several properties in common.2822 Maternal nutritional and hormonal state from as early as the first few days after fertilization, can influence the growth rate of the placenta and the fetus and also the length of gestation. 2823 Among the hormones produced by the

2809 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (director of the genetics division of the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen), Gradients that organize embryo development; a few crucial molecular signals give rise to chemical gradients that organize the developing embryo, Scientific American, Aug 1996, 275(2), p. 54. 2810 M. J. Iatropoulos & G. M. Williams (American Health Foundation, Valhalla, NY, USA), Proliferation markers, Experimental Toxicology and Pathology, Feb 1996, 48(2-3). 2811 Op. cit. 2812 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McCraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 101. 2813 Ibidem, pp. 101-102. 2814 J. C. Cross, Z. Werb & S. J. Fisher (Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto Ontario, Canada), Implantation and the placenta: key pieces of the development puzzle, Science, 1994, 2, 266(5190). 2815 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McCraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 102. 2816 J. C. Cross, Z. Werb & S. J. Fisher (Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto Ontario, Canada), Implantation and the placenta: key pieces of the development puzzle, Science, 1994, 2, 266(5190). 2817 S. Bjercke (Kvinneklonikken Rikshospitalet, Oslo), “[”Surface molecules on the trophoblast cells“]”. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen, 10 April 1991, 111(9). 2818 I. L. Sargent (Nuffield Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, UK), Maternal and fetal immune responses during pregnancy, Experimental Clinical Immunogenetics, 1993, 10(2). 2819 R. V. Anthony, S. L. Pratt, R. Liang & M. D. Holland (Department of Physiology, Colorado State University, Fort Collings 80523, USA), Placental-fetal hormonal interactions: impact on fetal growth, Journal of Animal Science, June 1995, 73(6). 2820 J. C. Cross, Z. Werb & S. J. Fisher (Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto Ontario, Canada), Implantation and the placenta: key pieces of the development puzzle, Science, 1994, 2, 266(5190). 2821 G. C. Kundo, G. Mantile, L. Miele, E. Cordella-Miele & A. B. Mukherjee (Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-1830, USA), Recombinant human uteroglobin suppresses cellular invasiveness via a novel class of high-affinity cell surface binding sites, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2 April 1996, 93(7). 2822 S. Bjercke (Kvinneklonikken Rikshospitalet, Oslo), “[”Surface molecules on the trophoblast cells“]”. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen, 10 April 1991, 111(9). 2823 J. Robinson, S. Chidzanja, K. Kind, F. Lok, P. Owens & J. Owens (Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Adelaide, Australia), Placental control of fetal growth, Reprod. Fertil. Dev., 1995, 7(3).

235 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

placenta are members of the growth hormone/prolactin gene family, the placental lactogens (PL) and prolactin-related proteins.2824 One action of the PL may be to modulate fetal [insulin-like growth factor(s) (IGF)] production. Research with mice, using gene ablation techniques, indicates the importance of the IGF for maintaining normal fetal growth rate.2825

Culture

Over the years, a great deal of effort has been made to maintain the viability of mammalian embryos once they have been removed from the female’s uterus. Early embryo research studies used the simplest of medium (eg, physiological saline) in an effort to maintain embryo homeostasis in vitro, but little progress on embryo viability was made.2826 In recent years, the most notable progress made in this research area has been made with the use of “helper” cells to co-culture early-stage embryos to hatched blastocysts.2827 Chicken embryo fibroblasts and…mouse cells…replicate DNA in serum-free medium and…form colonies in soft agar.2828 Several cell lines can [also] be grown in media, supplemented with milk instead of serum. To obtain a good plating efficiency the medium containing milk must be supplemented with calf serum at a final concentration of 0.5%. The milk must be centrifuged before use to get rid of the fat and cellular debris. Using these precautions several monolayer cell lines can be grown routinely in milk supplemented media, just as well as in serum supplemented media. The economic advantages of using milk instead of serum are considerable. 2829 Human fibroblast cultures grew very well in 100% fetal bovine serum that had been dialyzed against MEM. For cells grown in dialyzed serum, the final number increased with increasing serum concentration, in contrast to the well established toxic effects of high concentrations of nondialyzed serum. 2830 The fertile chicken egg may provide an effective, inexpensive method for promoting the development of early-stage embryos from other species.2831 A new method has been developed that involves the culture of mammalian embryos in the amniotic cavity of a developing chick embryo.2832 The mammalian embryos were first placed into a drop of liquid agarose. One to four embryos were then aspirated into a beveled injection pipette and cooled, allowing the agarose to harden. Following penetration of the amnion with the beveled pipette, the agarose cylinder containing the embryos was expelled into the amniotic cavity. The…culture system was then returned to incubation at 37 C for an additional 72 to 96 h. Following incubation, the amniotic cavity containing both chick and mammalian embryos was isolated and the agarose-embedded mammalian embryos were harvested. Significantly more embryos developed in the chick embryo amnion than in the control medium alone. Results obtained using this method…indicate that the chick-embryo amnion can support the development of early-stage, mammalian embryos to the blastocyst stage of development.2833 Technological advances in manipulation of mammalian embryos outside the maternal environment have resulted in opportunities for study of preimplantation embryo development, identification of developmental phenomena that are unique to mammals, and further improvement of technology. Mammalian embryos may be cultured in vitro at 37 C for up to several days or they may be stored at –196 C indefinitely. The mammalian embryo possesses the unique capacity to regulate its development and differentiate into a normal individual after being stimulated to incorporate foreign cells or after a portion of its cells are removed. This regulatory ability has proven useful in research dealing with the production of chimeras. It allows genetic copies of an embryo to be produced by dissociation of an early cleavage-stage embryo into its component blastomeres or by bisection of a morula.2834

2824 R. V. Anthony, S. L. Pratt, R. Liang & M. D. Holland (Department of Physiology, Colorado State University, Fort Collings 80523, USA), Placental-fetal hormonal interactions: impact on fetal growth, Journal of Animal Science, June 1995, 73(6). 2825 Op. cit. 2826 J. K. Thibodeaux & R. A. Godke (Department of Veterinary Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803-4210), Arch Pathol Lab Med, April 1992, 116(4). 2827 Op. cit. 2828 B. Fasciotto, D. Kanazir, J. P. Durking, J. F. Whitfield & V. Krsmanovic, AEV-transformed chicken erythroid cells secrete autocrine factors which promote soft agar growth and block erythroleukemia cell differentiation, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 13 Mar 1987, 143(2). 2829 Sereni & R. Baserga, Routine growth of cell lines in medium supplemented with milk instead of serum, Cellular Biology Int Rep, April 1981, 5(4). 2830 E. Elmore & M. Swift, Growth of human skin fibroblasts in dialzyed fetal bovine serum, In Vitro, 1977, 13(12). 2831 E. G. Blakewood, J. M. Jaynes, W. A. Johnson & R. A. Godke (Department of Animal Science, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803), Using the amniotic cavity of the developing chick embryo for the in vitro culture of early-stage mammalian embryos, Poultry Science, Dec 1989, 68(12). 2832 Op. cit. 2833 Op. cit. 2834 G. B. Anderson, Manipulation of the mammalian embryo, Journal of Animal Science, 61 Suppl. 3, 1985.

236 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Breeding

The combination of embryo cloning, cryopreservation of embryos and non-surgical embryo transfer is required for basic research and animal breeding.2835 Procedures already in use [(1988)]…include embryo transfer, chimera production, embryo splitting, gene transfer and nuclear transfer. 2836, [ 2837] The optimal combination of these technologies…will depend upon further research and the role…in society.2838 Reconstituted embryos (REs) have been produced by electrofusion-mediated nuclear transplantation method.2839 Nuclear transfer has been used to study the differentiation process in embryogenesis, as well as a method to produce multiple identical individuals. When nuclei are transferred to activated, enucleated oocytes the nuclei swell in diameter, synthesize DNA, acquire cytoplasmic proteins and release nuclear proteins. This protein exchange is thought to result in specific genomic modifications resulting in the transferred nucleus behaving as a zygotic nucleus.2840 Nuclear transplantation and cell fusion techniques have proved valuable for embryological studies in several non-mammalian animal species. More recently [(1986)] these procedures have been used successfully in small laboratory mammals, notably the mouse, to investigate the ability of nuclei and cytoplasm from various sources to produce viable embryos when combined.2841 Remov[ing] the genes from the eggs, leaving a living cell endowed with the molecular machinery for making an embryo but lacking the crucial genetic material, 2842…these cells…[can] divide repeadedly in culture dishes. In less then a week, thousands of the identical cells fill[] several dishes. 2843 Repeated cycles (multiple generations) of nuclear transfer procedures have the potential of producing 2844…an unlimited number 2845…of identical offspring from the micromanipulation of one mammalian embryo.2846 For years, scientists have been creating lines of genetically identical laboratory animals such as mice and rabbits by tinkering with embryo cells in laboratory dishes. 2847 [In 1984,2848 the] first embryo cloning with sheep [was] reported. Steen Willadsen reported that he cloned a live lamb from immature sheep embryo cells. Others later replicate[d] his experiment using a variety of animals, including cattle, pigs, goats, rabbits and rhesus monkeys.2849 [As of January 1, 1992,] the largest clone which [wa]s known exist[ed] of seven bulls. 2850

• • •

2835 A. Clement-Sengewald & G. Brem, Embryo cloning in domestic animals, Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr, trans. from German, 1 Jan 1992, 105(1). 2836 R.S. Prather & N.L. First, Cloning embryos by nuclear transfer, Journal of Reproductive Fertility Supplement 41, 1990. 2837 J. N. Shelton, Embryo manipulation in research and animal production (Department of Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra), Australian Journal of Biological Science, 1988, 41(1). 2838 Op. cit. 2839 G. X. Cheng, Y. G. Wang, X. G. Zhou, F. Du, Y. D. Xiao, & S. F. Xu (Mammalian Embryology and Genetics Engineering Laboratory, Institute of Biotechnology, Jiangsu Agricultural College, Yangzhou, China), A preliminary study on early development of goat (Capra hircus) reconstituted embryos, Shih Yen Sheng Wu Hsueh Pao, trans. from Chinese, June 1995, 28(2). 2840 R. S. Prather & N. L. First (Department of Meat and Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706), Cloning embryos by nuclear transfer, Journal of Reproductive Fertility Supplement 41, 1990. 2841 S. M. Willadsen, Nuclear transplantation in sheep embryos, Nature, 6-12 March 1986, 320(6057). 2842 Rick Weiss (Washington Post), Are these the sheep of things to come? Method could produce identical animal clones, The Seattle Times, 7 March 1996, p. A1. 2843 Op. cit. 2844 S. L. Stice & C. L Keefer (ABS Specialty Genetics, DeForest, Wisconsin 53532), Multiple generational bovine embryo cloning, Biol Reprod, April 1993, 48(4). 2845 Op. cit. 2846 Op. cit. 2847 Rick Weiss (Washington Post), Are these the sheep of things to come? Method could produce identical animal clones, The Seattle Times, 7 March 1996, p. A1. 2848 Michael Specter with Gina Kolata (w/ reporting contributions from Michael Specter, Edmund L. Andrews & Michael Cooper in Scotland & by Gina Kolata, Lawrence M. Fisher & Leslie Eaton in the United States), Realization of a ‘fantastical experiment,’ The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A9t. 2849 Op. cit. 2850 Michael Specter with Gina Kolata (w/ reporting contributions from Michael Specter, Edmund L. Andrews & Michael Cooper in Scotland & by Gina Kolata, Lawrence M. Fisher & Leslie Eaton in the United States), Realization of a ‘fantastical experiment,’ The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A9t.

237 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

The preimplantation embryo is highly resilient to experimental manipulations. A specific manipulation that has revealed many clues to the developmental process is chimera production.2851 Chimeras produced from amphibian, mammilian, and especially avian embryos have provided important insights into vertebrate development. Important contributions have led to new concepts in understanding the development of, for example, the nervous system, the vascular system, and the skeletal muscles. The migration of cells is particularly accessible in chimeras. More important results are to be expected from chimeras in the future, especially by combining this approach with other state-of-art techniques.2852

• • •

The trophoblast may serve as an example of tissue that is endowed with invasive properties under physiological conditions. Invasiveness of the trophoblast is enabled by the secretion of various proteases capable of degrading extracellular matrix components. Trophoblast invasive behaviour is strictly controlled by anti-invasive factors produced by uterine decidual cells.2853 To assess invasive abilities of trophoblast cells we have transplanted E9 and E14 rat trophoblast (i.e. the trophoblast obtained on embryonic day 9 and 14) into the brain of adult rats. The brain parenchyma as an immunologically privileged site is suitable for acceptance of grafts of different tissues. Moreover, the trophoblast placed into the CNS lacks inhibitory influence of anti-invasive factors that normally regulate trophoblast invasivity in the course of intrauterine gestation.2854 The transplant of E9 and E14 trophoblast cells obtained a blood nourishment from host vessels. A proper vascularization is necessary for further transplant growth. 2855 E9 and E14 trophoblast continued to differentiate after transplantation into the CNS of adult rats. 2856 E9 and E14 trophoblast is considerably differentiated and it does not invade a neighboring tissue. Trophoblast cells located at t [sic] the graft periphery may migrate on free surfaces but they do not invade through the host parenchyma. Migration occurs at a limited distance from the transplant and the cells remain in a close contact with other trophoblast cells in the graft via their cytoplasmatic processes. The ability to lyse host blood vessels and form vascular lacunae is well preserved in E9 and E14 trophoblast after grafting into the CNS. This ability is necessary for a proper transport of nutrients from the host blood stream to fetal tissue that normally occurs in the placenta. 2857 [And] trophoblast giant cells grow from the ectoplacental cones of 7 1/2 days’ gestation that are implanted in the lung from the surface, intrabronchially, or via the circulation.2858

Ritual

While a postgraduate student in Leipzig with Wilhelm His, [Franklin Paine] Mall had begun to collect human embryos; and in Baltimore he continued to build up his collection. With this material he made valuable studies of the development of the intestinal canal, the body cavities, the diaphragm, and the abdominal walls. In 1910-1912 Mall collaborated with Franz Keibel of Freiburg in editing Handbook of Human Embryology, written by American and German experts. The two-volume work has not yet been superseded. The growth of Mall’s collection of human embryos and their preparation for research use made so large a demand on the resources of his university department that in 1913 he appealed to the Carnegie Institution of Washington to create a department of embryology at the John Hopkins Medical School, to which he gave his collection, by that time the largest in the world. He led this laboratory until his death in 1917, holding its directorship as well as the Johns Hopkins chair of anatomy.2859

• • •

2851 R. S. Prather, L. J. Hagemann & N. L. First (Department of Meat and Animal Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706), Preimplantation mammalian aggregation and injection chimeras, Gamete Research, Feb 1989, 22(2). 2852 B. Christ & F. Wachtler (Institut fur Anatomie der Ruhr-Universitat, Bochum), “[”Chimeras in biologic embryology“]”, Naturwissenschaften, April 1988, 75(4). 2853 J. Mokry & S. Nemecek (Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Faculty Charles University, Hradec Kralove), Neural transplantation of the rat midgestation trophoblast, Sb Ved Pr Lek Fak Karlovy Univerzity Hradci Kralove, 1995, 38(2). 2854 Op. cit. 2855 Op. cit. 2856 Op. cit. 2857 Op. cit. 2858 D. H. Carr, Trophoblast growth in the lungs of mice, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oct 1979, 54(4). 2859 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 9, p. 57a.

238 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Scientists who routinely clone animal embryos said that cloning human embryos should be just as easy. 2860 The technique of embryo transfer is now routinely employed in several species and with several objectives. In laboratory animals the technique is used mainly in investigations of reproductive biology, whereas in human beings it is used to overcome specific forms of impaired fertility. 2861 [Sientists have even] demonstrate[d] that parthenogenetic chimaerism can indeed result in viable human offspring, and suggest possible mechanisms of origin for this presumably rare event. 2862 [And even before 1988,] investigations on the mechanisms that allow survival of the fetal allograft have been extended by pregnancies in which the fetus and pregnant female are from different species. Such interspecific pregnancies are useful models for the study of maternal/fetal interactions and also may assist in the preservation of endangered species.2863

2860 Gina Kolata (The New York Times), Scientists clone human embryo, 24 Oct 1993, The Seattle Times, p. A1. 2861 J. M. Sreenan (Agricultural Institute, Belclare, Tuam, County Galway, Ireland), Embryo transfer: its uses and recent developments, Vet Rec, 25 June 1988, 122(26). 2862 L. Strain, J. P. Warner, T. Johnston & D. T. Bonthron (University of Edinburgh, Department of Medicine, Western General Hospital, UK), A human parthenogenetic chimaera, Natural Genetics, Oct 1995, 11(2). 2863 G. B. Anderson (Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616), Interspecific pregnancy: barriers and prospects, Biological Reproduction, Feb 1988, 38(1).

239 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Animals “Smell” Fear

The platypus can locate food by sensing the extraordinarily faint electric fields that their animal prey inadvertently produce [(Gregory, E. 1991. Tuned-in , turned-on platypus. Natural History 99 (May):30-37 2864)]. Certain electric fish take this skill one step further by producing a weak electric field and then detecting disturbances to the field caused by a prey’s intrusion into it [(Lissman, H. W. 1963. Electric location by fishes. Scientific American 208 (Mar):50-59 2865)].2866

• • •

It picks up ‘brain waves,’…POPULAR SCIENCE observed about the electroencephalogram in December 1943. First introduced in Germany in 1929, the EEG has helped doctors to diagnose various ills. 2867 The neurons interact in sparse but numerous synaptic connections to generate macroscopic dendritic activity patterns that are observed in electroencephalographic (EEG) waves.2868 The neurons of cerebral cortex are largely autonomous and generate activity that is manifested in trains of microscopic axonal action potentials, 2869…which induce state transformations in population dynamics. Each state transition transforms sensory information to perceptual meaning.2870 The amount of data…[is] reduced by extracting broad band coherence values for… frequency bands; 2871…[for example,] delta (2-3.9 Hz), theta (4-7.9 Hz), alpha 1 (8-9.9 Hz), alpha 2 (10-12.9 Hz), and beta 1 (13-17.9 Hz).2872 The sensory input is accessed by time ensemble averaging, whereas the perceptual output is found by spatial ensemble averaging. Spatial phase gradients in the EEG are useful for identifying EEG segments in a sequence of state transitions in response to sensory input. The rapidity and flexibility with which they take place give strong reason to postulate that the mechanism for the construction of these sequences of patterns is a dynamical system operating in a chaotic domain.2873 Low dimensional chaos is a property of many physiological oscillatory systems including the brain.2874 Both the eye and brain generate magnetic fields when stimulated with a variety of visual cues. These magnetic fields can be measured with a magnetometer; a device which uses superconducting technology.2875 Magnetic field variation from the human brain produced by visual stimulation have been observed in a normal laboratory setting with a superconducting quantum interference device and no magnetic shielding of the subject. Previously unknown temporal and spatial features of the field near the scalp are reported [(1975) 2876].2877 With the development of multichannel magnetoencephalographs biomagnetic signals can be recorded over large areas at the same time. It allows determination of the magnetic field outside the head. 2878 The technology works by measuring the extremely faint magnetic fields producted when nerve cells in the brain fire electrical signals to communicate one another.2879 Biomagnetometers, which look like…beauty-parlor hair dryers, measure brain-generated magnetic fields that are onen ten-millionth the strength of Earth’s magnetic field.2880 The

2864 John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 5th ed. (Mass: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993), p. 591. 2865 Ibidem, p. 597. 2866 Ibidem, p. 132. 2867 Mariette Dichristina (Editor) with addtional research by William L. Thieriot, Brain reader, Popular Science, July 1997, 251(1), p. 9. 2868 W. J. Freeman (Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley 94720), Characterization of state transitions in spatially distributed, chaotic, nonlinear, dynamical systems in cerebral cortex, Integrated Physiological and Behavioral Sciences, July 1994, 29(3). 2869 Op. cit. 2870 Op. cit. 2871 H. Harada, K. Shiraishi, T. Kato, T. Soda, Coherence analysis of EEG changes during odour stimulation in humans, Journal of Laryngology and Otology, July 1996, 110(7). 2872 Op. cit. 2873 Op. cit. 2874 N. Pradhan, P. K. Sadasivan, S. Chatterji & D. N. Dutt (Dept. of Psychopharmacology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, India), Patterns of attractor dimensions of sleep EEG, Comput Biol Med, 1995, 25(5). 2875 R. A. Armstrong & B. Janday (Department of Vision Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK), A brief review of magnetic fields from the human visual system, Ophthalmic Physiol Opt, July 1989, 9(3). 2876 D. Brenner, S. J. Williamson & L. Kaufman, Visually evoked magnetic fields of the human brain, Science, 31 Oct 1975, 190(4213). 2877 Op. cit. 2878 E. Knutsson & L. Gransberg (Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Karolinska Hospital, Stockhom, Sweden), Localization of epileptic foci with multichannel magnetoencephalography, MEG, Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wein), 1995, 64. 2879 magnetoencephalography, Richard P. Brennan, Dictionary of Scientific Literacy, (NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992). 2880 Op. cit.

240 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

biomagnetic signals originating from a[]…discharge is, however, mixed with biomagnetic signals generated by the background activity in the brain.2881 A long auditory stimulus [also] elicits a magnetic evoked response in the human brain, consisting of transient deflections followed by a sustained response. The distributions of the magnetic fields indicate that the auditory evoked transient response at a latency of 100 ms as well as the auditory sustained response are generated at and around the primary auditory cortex.2882 These fields exhibit features with a clear spatial symmetry which can be accounted for by assuming that their source consists of two vertically oriented neuronal complexes symmetrically located deep in the temporal lobes. This assignment, which is also consistent with the available electrical data, places the sources within the auditory cortex near the sylvian fissure. 2883 In…right-handed male adults,2884…[when] stimulating the right ear the averaged magnetic field from the left hemisphere is approx. twice as great as that from the right hemisphere, whereas stimulating the left ear no difference in magnitude is found.2885 The responses from contralateral stimulation are approx. 9 ms earlier than those from ipsilateral stimulation with no interhemispheric differences. 2886 [When] the component of the magnetic field normal to the skull was measured; in some cases this component was oriented in the outward direction (group 1 and some group 2 subjects), in the other cases in the inward direction (group 2). 2887 By recording the magnetic field of the human brain while simultaneously presenting light to the eye and sound to the ear we have identified a brain region where auditory and visual signals converge. The location of this region is close to primary auditory cortex and far from primary visual cortex. 2888 Exposure to static magnetic fields as used in NMR-equipment generates a new encephalomagnetic field in human brain.2889 [It has also been]…found…that by measuring sleep parameters, the REM latency is shortened in the E-W position of sleepers compared with the N-S position.2890 There are statistically significant differences in the EEG of normal subjects, depending on whether the subjects sit facing the N-S or E-W direction. The difference is especially pronounced in the alpha-power.2891

• • •

The oscillation is rather a modest beast, a pile of tiny brass balls that jiggles up and down and joins with other piles to form patterns.2892 In a breathless tour of buzzwords, the New York Times recently linked oscillations with origin of life, self-organized criticality, fractals, human individuality and complexity.2893 The whole wiggle[] phenomenon probably had its origin in an invention…[during the early 1870s 2894] by a French physiologist by the name of Etienne J. Marey, who fitted a membrane on a tiny drum (a “tambour”) and placed this device wherever he wanted vital rhythms to be turned into graphs. When pressure of any kind of depressed the membrane, the air in the tambour would be forced along a tube to push against a membrane fitted to another tambour at the far end of the tube. A stylus mounted on this second membrane would move in response and trace a line. With the tambour, still in general medical use as late as 1955, Marey could reduce virtually any kind of physiological vibrations to lines. He called his squiggles “the language of life.” 2895

2881 E. Knutsson & L. Gransberg (Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Karolinska Hospital, Stockhom, Sweden), Localization of epileptic foci with multichannel magnetoencephalography, MEG, Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wein), 1995, 64. 2882 R. Hari, K. Aittoniemi, M. L. Jarvinen, T. Katila & T. Varpula, Auditory evoked transient and sustained magnetic fields of the human brain. Localization of neural generators, Experimental Brain Research, 1980, 40(2). 2883 D. E. Farrell, J. H. Tripp, R. Norgren & R. J. Teyler, A study of the auditory evoked magnetic field of the human brain, Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol, July 1980, 49(1-2). 2884 C. Elberling, C. Bak, B. Kofoed, J. Lebech & K. Saermark, Auditory magnetic fields from the human cortex. Influence of stimulus intensity, Scan Audiology, 1981, 10(3). 2885 Op. cit. 2886 Op. cit. 2887 CF. K. Bak, J. Lebech & K. Saermark, Dependence of the auditory evoked magnetic field (100 msec signal) of the human brain on the intensity of the stimulus, Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol, Aug 1985, 61(2). 2888 M. P. Regan, P. He, & D. Regan (Department of Psychology, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada. Martin/george.psych.yorku.ca), An audio-visual convergence area in the human brain, Experimental Brain Research, 1995, 106(3). 2889 L. von Klitzing (Department of Clinical Research, Medical University Luebeck, Germany), A new encephalomagnetic effect in human brain generated by static magnetic fields, Brain Research, 1 Feb 1991, 540(1-2). 2890 G. Ruhenstroth-Bauer, W. Gunther, I. Hantschk, U. Klages, J. Kugler & J. Peters (Max-Planck-Institut fur Biochemie, Martinsried), Influence of the earth’s magnetic field on resting and activated EEG mapping in normal subjects, International Journal of Neuroscience, 1993, 73(3-4). 2891 Op. cit. 2892 Madusree Mukerjee, Science with brass; unusual movements from tiny metal balls, Scientific American, Nov 1996, 275(5), p. 28. 2893 Op. cit. 2894 James Burke, Highbrow stuff, Scientific American, May 1996, 274(5), p. 110. 2895 Op. cit.

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Wiggly lines began to appear 2896…[everywhere, and] late in the century, left the uncharted field of psychological disorders and their treatment with a brand-new Viennese technique touted as “Mesmerism.” Franz A. Mesmer’s assistants would first examine patients to locate their “magnetic poles,” whereupon Mesmer himself would appear (in feathered hat and long robes) to stroke relevant areas of their body, transmitting a mysterious, curative “influence” to the sufferer. One of the most popular manual healing methods, “therapeutic touch,” involves no direct contact despite its name. Instead, healers move their hands a few inches above a patient’s body and remove “blockages” to the patient’s “energy field.” Developed by a nursing professor emeritus at New York University, therapeutic touch is taught at most American nursing schools. Although critics deride its fundamental premises, therapeutic touch is widely practiced by nurses in this and other countries. And patients like it.2897 Despite the fact that such hardheads [and womanizers] as Benjamin Franklin pronounced Mesmer a fake, the concept of this influence persisted. The idea had, after all, already been around for 300 years. Even Descartes had thought a “vital spirit” flowed down the nerves from the pineal gland. For this reason, by 1820,…Franz J. Gall and Johann C. Spurzheim, were parlaying the new “science” of phrenology.2898 Sometime in 1873,2899…Camillo Golgi saw…brain cells that today bear his name. From [a] single experiment, the whole of modern neurophysiology was to emerge.2900 So if somebody ever does succeed in discovering where your memory resides and how it can be improved, it’ll probably be thanks to Golgi and the prenology freaks.2901

• • •

Scientists announced [November 17] that a new drug 2902…– one of a class of chemical compounds known as ampakines 2903 –…is showing, for the first time, that memory can be improved.2904 Younger people who took the drug showed a 20-25 percent improvement in memory, [Dr. Gary Lynch, a neuroscientist at the University of California at Irvine,] said. But people older than 65 doubled their test scores. 2905 Scientists are learning how memories form by studying fruit flies. 2906 Jerry Yin and his colleagues at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York showed that fruit flies that produce excess amounts of a brain chemical called CREB are unable to establish long-term memories. This spring, the biologists created a second strain of fruit flies that overproduce a different form of CREB. These flies…learned a task after a single trial and remembered it when tested a week later. Fruit flies normally take ten trials, with rest intervals in between, to master the task. 2907 “We’re not saying these fruit flies “[”the second strain“]” are any smarter than average,” Yin says. “They’re just putting what they learn into long-term memory.” 2908 “Humans and mice have both kinds of molecules,…and the molecular details are almost identical.” 2909

• • •

Science has shown, again and again, that “There are more things in heaven and earth” than there were once thought to be.2910 At laboratories like [director of Consciousness Research Laboratory at the University of Nevada, Ph.D. Dean] Radin’s, along with the pioneering Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research lab (PEAR), founded by rocket engineer Robert Jahn, Ph.D., in 1979, psychic ability is studied in carefully designed and repeatable studies. These scientists have staked out a narrow and mesmerizing band of reality where science and the “mystical” begin to merge.

2896 Op. cit. 2897 Barrie R. Cassileth (University of North Carolina School of Medicine and Duke University School of Medicine), Reaching out: complementary therapy, Science and Medicine, Nov/Dec 1996, 3(6), p. 9. 2898 James Burke, Highbrow stuff, Scientific American, May 1996, 274(5), pp. 110-111. 2899 Ibidem, p. 111. 2900 Op. cit. 2901 Op. cit. 2902 Robert S. Boyd (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Experimental drug improves memory, The Seattle Times, 18 Nov 1996, 119(277), p. A4. 2903 Op. cit. 2904 Op. cit. 2905 Op. cit. 2906 Steve Nadis, Long memories, Popular Science, Aug 1995, 247(2), p. 26. 2907 Op. cit. 2908 Op. cit. 2909 Op. cit. 2910 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson, 1987), p. 156.

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“When the history of consciousness in the twentieth century is written,” contends Dr. [Larry] Dossey, “it will be the studies at these laboratories that mark the turning point.” It is in these labs, at this moment, that science may actually be demonstrating that consciousness is nonlocal; that is, it’s not limited to specific points in space…or even to the brain itself. And so it was, paradoxically, the scientists who rescued me from my withering faith. 2911 Two of the most robust areas of scientific research are telepathy and telekinesis (mind over matter). In the first, a “sender” tries to connect with a “receiver,” though they are isolated from each other. 2912 A sender may try to alternately calm and excite a receiver at random intervals, simply via his thoughts and own state of being; the receiver’s skin conductance and galvanic skin response (indications of arousal) are measured. Studies repeatedly demonstrate significant results. 2913 Mind over matter emerges as the most electrifying area of research. It seems that human intention can influence machines – even at a distance, when no influence seems possible. Researchers are both enthralled and puzzled by the data, which makes no sense. Studies thus far have examined machines that randomly produce positive or negative electrical pulses, or measure random radioactive decay, or randomly generate numbers. By concentrating, subjects try to influence the machines in one direction or another. After more than 14 million trials, Jahn has found a constant, significant influence of humans on the performance of machines, and the odds of this happening are 1 in 5,000. Other studies have shown that people can influence not only the random generator they are concentrating on, but hidden generators they don’t even know about. The actual shift is small, but to understand it requires a stunning leap of perspective. Something is at work here that indicates our world may be far more fluid and interconnected than we ever imagined. Inspired by Jahn’s research, Radin tested five different random generators on October 4, 1995, the day the O. J. Simpson verdict was delivered. At 10 A.M. Pacific time, when 44 million Americans were tuned in to television and radio, the random generators all became significantly less random. The shift lasted for 50 seconds. Radin believes that “the movement of mind does affect matter. It influences everything you can imagine, including mind itself. If 44 million minds are focuses on one thing, that coherence spreads out, and influences even machines.” Other researchers have tried to find flaws in the studies. “We’ve wondered if influence varies with distance, or with data rate, or with the voltage of the machine,” says physicist Michael Ibison, Ph.D., a visiting scholar at PEAR. “It doesn’t.” So, says Ibison, you start musing on the mysteries of quantum physics, where mind and matter don’t seem so separate and divided. “When cooled to zero degrees Kelvin,” he says, “matter exhibits very weird behavior at great distances, as if the whole system is a single, unified, unbroken, organic thing, and instantaneous changes are visible everywhere. But that’s still just a metaphor. All we really know is that what you are thinking now can actually be correlated with what is happening over there in a machine.” 2914 In January 1994, the Psychological Bulletin published a review of mental telepathy research spanning 20 years. The research not only shows significant proof that telepathy exists, but also reveals surprising connections between artists and psychic abilities. Daryl J. Bem, professor of psychology at Cornell University, co-authored the article with the late University of Edinburgh parapsychologist Charles Honorton. Honorton, who died in November 1992, conducted most of the experiments. “Taken with earlier studies, the probability that the results could have occurred by chance is less than one in a billion,” says Bem, who was deeply impressed with Honorton’s safeguards against flaws and cheating.2915 [They] argue that they have indeed found “replicable evidence” for “anomalous information transfer.” 2916 The studies used the ganzfeld (German for total field) technique that works to block noise and other distractions from the senses.2917 The ganzfeld studies, conducted at Honorton’s Psychophysical Research Lab in Princeton, New Jersey, consisted of 11 experiments, with 240 receivers tested in 354 sessions. 2918 Six out of eight music students judged targets successfully, although their reported imagery was not as detailed as the drama students’. Four out of ten drama students correctly identifed their target, describing the imagery so vividly anyone could choose the correct target.2919 Even the CIA came out of the closet…[in 1995] with its abashed confession that the government agency had spent $20 million on psychic research in the last two decades.2920 It was in 1973 that the Central Intelligence Agency began looking into the business of psychic phenomena.2921 The studies the CIA sponsored were conducted

2911 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), pp. 54, 78. 2912 Ibidem, p. 78. 2913 Op. cit. 2914 Op. cit. 2915 Lorrin Harvey, Mental telepathy in the lab; tests show psychic abilities among actors and musicians, Omni, Nov 1994, 17(2), p. 20. 2916 Steve Nadis, At long last, proof?, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 78. 2917 Lorrin Harvey, Mental telepathy in the lab; tests show psychic abilities among actors and musicians, Omni, Nov 1994, 17(2), p. 20. 2918 Op. cit. 2919 Op. cit. 2920 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 51. 2921 Jeffrey Kluger, CIA ESP, Discover, April 1996, 17(4), p. 36.

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first at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in Menlo Park, California, and later at the nearby, privately owned Science Applications International Corporation.2922 “The CIA studies were conducted in a number of ways,” says Jessica Utts, a statistician at the University of California at Davis who participated in some of the experiments, “but all the research had the same objective: to determine how well volunteers could perform in a sensory experiment in which something besides their usual senses was being studied.” 2923 “Over the first 15 years of the 20-year study,” she says, “154 separate experiments were conducted consisting of 26,000 trials. During those experiments,…the statistical significance figure was a mere .00000000000000000001 [(p << 0.05)] – meaning that you would expect to see those results only once in 1020 tries if the outcome was due solely to chance.” 2924 “The studies lead to the conclusion that psychic abilities exist.” 2925 The studies she analyzed…were conducted according to the most rigid of scientific methods: the trials were usually double-blind, with neither the experimenter nor the subject knowing what image had been selected; the subjects were unknown to the experimenters before the studies began; and when the experimenters chose volunteers, they sometimes went out of their way to select the least psychically inclined ones as possible. “During one set of trials early in the study,” Utts says, “we were looking for Stanford employees who might want to serve as subjects, and we learned that one particularly skeptical man had been telling his colleagues what nonsense our work was. After testing, we decided he’d be perfect for our needs, and as it turned out he was. On one trial, he described seeing a target image that resembled a tree, but one that was almost entirely gray and mushroom-shaped at the top. The image we had selected for him was a videotape of a nuclear explosion.” 2926 After being tapped for the CIA’s psychic espionage program – now known as Star Gate – [David Morehouse] spent eight months, eight hours a day, being trained in the practice known as “remote viewing,” by which individuals are taught to…access people…remote from them.2927 A typical assignment, says Morehouse, was to access the mind of an enemy test pilot in order to get detailed information about fighter planes. 2928 The information was correlated with other surveillance programs.2929 If the same extrasensory sleuthing could be used to locate… missile bases near Moscow or troop movements in China, the United States could gain a[n]…advantage in the global intelligence game.2930 Though the CIA claims it has abandoned the program because of lack of success, Morehouse and his remote viewing colleagues believe Star Gate is as active as ever but has gone further undercover. They also believe the government is taking this technique into the realm of weaponry, training individuals in “remote influence” – accessing another human mind to inflict harm on it.2931 “Give yourself to the Dark Side, Luke,” sneers Darth Vader. “Your friends have fallen into a trap. Their situation is hopeless.” “Never!” Luke Skywalker vows. “I will never turn.” But the rage simmers in his soul as he watches the good guys being slaughtered in their battle with the storm troopers. “Your thoughts betray you,” says Vader.2932 Morehouse says remote influence was used against Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War. “Later, on CNN, I saw him accuse the U.S. of using psychics to attack him.” 2933 It’s possible, then, that the world we live in truly is a web without a weaver, that each strand in that web vibrates alone, and yet in consonance with the whole. As science inches along that web with its newly designed studies, we seem to illuminate a strand here, a strand there, just as real rainwater and light bring a spider’s silk into sudden brilliant relief.2934 There’s no question that our fascination with the paranormal is here to stay. “It’s one of the most ancient human attractions,” notes Dr. Dossey, “part of the legacy of the human species, part of our original nature.” 2935

2922 Op. cit. 2923 Op. cit. 2924 Ibidem, p. 37. 2925 Op. cit. 2926 Op. cit. 2927 Jill Neimark, I was a psychic spy, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 52. 2928 Op. cit. 2929 Op. cit. 2930 Jeffrey Kluger, CIA ESP, Discover, April 1996, 17(4), pp. 34, 36. 2931 Jill Neimark, I was a psychic spy, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 52. 2932 Return of the Jedi, In Ross Anderson, A matter of opinion, 22 June 1997, The Seattle Times Pacific Magazine, p. 17. 2933 Jill Neimark, I was a psychic spy, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 52. 2934 Ibidem, Do the spirits move you?, p. 80. 2935 Op. cit.

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Dreams

Dreaming is one of the most familiar altered states and also one of the most mysterious. At one time or another almost everyone has had a dream that seemed to have deep meaning.2936 To unlock dreams, Freud identifed four dream processes that he believed disguise the hidden meanings of dream images. The first is called condensation. Through condensation, a single character in a dream may represent several people at once.2937 A second way of disguising dream content is displacement. Displacement may cause the most important emotions or emotions or actions of a dream to be redirected toward safe or seemingly unimportant images. Thus, a student angry at his parents might dream of accidentally wrecking their car instead of directly attacking them. 2938 A third dream process is symbolization.2939 Let’s say, for example, that a student dreams of coming to class naked. 2940 A…symbolic meaning might be that the student feels vulnerable in the class or is unprepared for a test. 2941 Secondary elaboration is the fourth method by which the meaning of dreams is disguised. Secondary elaboration is the tendency to make a dream more logical and to add details when remembering it. The fresher a dream memory is, the more useful it is likely to be.2942 Much can be learned by simply considering the setting, cast of characters, plot, and emotions portrayed in a dream.2943

• • •

In neurology, the physician is often presented with an array of baffling symptoms. What, for instance, would you make of 2944…Doberman pinschers who get so excited upon eating their favorite foods that they collapse head first into their bowls? 2945 Mental illness is not funny.2946 “If REM-sleep paralysis can occur during wakefulness, why can’t we dream while we’re awake?” [neurologist at the Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center in Minneapolis Mark Mahowald 2947] asks. Some narcoleptics do, especially during transitions between wake and sleep. A man visited by a “night hag” continued to dream after waking up – an example of a hypnopompic hallucination.2948 Out-of-body expeiences may represent yet another form of “wakeful dreaming.” 2949 Others start dreaming before they’re fully asleep, leading to hypnagogic hallucinations.2950 These “impaired state boundaries” play a role in narcolepsy, notes University of Michigan neurologist Michael Aldrich. “But that’s not proof.” To pinpoint the disorder’s origins may require animal models. Neuroscientist Jerry Siegel at UCLA is investigating a group of neurons in the medial medulla of the rat brainstem, just above the spinal cord. “If that regions is deactivated,” Siegel says, “you don’t get the normal suppression of muscle tone in REM sleep.” When narcoleptic dogs get excited, he observed, neurons in this area start firing, perhaps triggering cataplexy.2951

• • •

Stephen LaBerge, a 45-year-old [(September 1994)] psychophysiologist and the world’s leading investigator… of lucid dreaming,2952…likes to call himself and his fellow lucid dreamers “oneironauts,” a neologism he coined from the Greek words for dream and explorer.

2936 Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West Publ. Co., 1989), p. 167. 2937 Op. cit. 2938 Op. cit. 2939 Op. cit. 2940 Op. cit. 2941 Op. cit. 2942 Op. cit. 2943 Op. cit. 2944 Steve Nadis, The man who fought with squirrels in his sleep: odd things happen when the dreamer is awake (and vice versa), Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 12. 2945 Op. cit. 2946 Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), p. 42. 2947 Steve Nadis, The man who fought with squirrels in his sleep: odd things happen when the dreamer is awake (and vice versa), Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 12. 2948 Op. cit. 2949 Op. cit. 2950 Op. cit. 2951 Op. cit. 2952 John Horgan, Lucid dreaming revisited, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 46.

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Lucid dream references date back at least to Aristotle, and the Dutch psychiatrist Frederik van Eeden coined the term lucid dreaming almost 80 years ago. Modern surveys indicate that most adults can recall at least one lucid dream and that roughly one person in ten has such dreams regularly, once a month or more. Yet lucid dreams generally interested only dabblers in paranormal and occult phenomena until the late Seventies, when LaBerge began his investigations as a graduate student at Stanford University. At this time, many sleep researchers believed lucid dreams to be simply delusions occurring during brief arousals from sleep. By definition, they argued, dreams are devoid of real awareness or volition. To rebut this claim, LaBerge did experiments in which he and other lucid dreamers communicated with the waking world by means of eye signals. He thereby established to the satisfaction of many sleep researchers that lucid dreams occur during…REM sleep, when ordinary dreams occur.2953 Overcoming considerable initial resistance, LaBerge managed to publish his scientific finding in peer-reviewed scientific journals.2954 He likes to compare lucid dreaming to virtual reality; the major difference, he says, is that lucid dreaming employs “the best computer you can get – your brain.” Lucid dreams also provide a way to tap the mind’s creative powers, according to LaBerge. 2955 He notes that many scientists, artists, writers, and musicians find inspiration through their dreams. 2956 The British poet Samuel Coleridge, for example, claimed to have composed his great poem “Kubla Khan” in a dream, and chemist Friedrich Kekule said he discovered the structure of benzene while dreaming.2957 Like most dream investigators, he has been unable to obtain federal funds for his research. “It’s not a disease nor a bomb,” he says with some bitterness. LaBerge sometimes sounds like a politician trying cautiously to navigate between two mutually antagonistic constituencies. “On one side, you’ve got hard-headed scientists who don’t seem to understand the value of dreams,” he explains, “and the other extreme is the dreamwork movement that sees dreams as the voice of God [or angels] that know[] all and [are] all wise.” 2958 Gallup polls show that 69 percent of Americans believe in angels, half believe they have their own guardian angels.2959 After noting that “this is a somewhat delicate subject,” he acknowledges that “psychedelic drugs opened my mind to the inner world.” In fact, LaBerge left Stanford in 1968 for the University of San Francisco, where, with funding from NASA and other sources, he concocted hallucinogenic drugs he hoped could be used to probe the mind.2960 “Believe it or not,” LaBerge says with a smile, “when I came up with lucid dreaming, I was being practical.” 2961 His initial study proving that lucid dreams occur during REM sleep was inspired by a study in which a polygraph showed a subject’s eyes moving back and forth rhythmically during REM sleep. When awakened, the subject reported he had been dreaming about a Ping-Pong game. Dream eye movements apparently correspond to actual eye movements.2962 LaBerge reveals that he has “a view of dreaming and waking which is probably the opposite of the usual view.” In fact, he believes that dreaming is the basic function of the brain in understanding the world. We are always dreaming, he says – that is, we are always constructing “simulations of reality” out of the firing of neurons. “That’s what we’re doing now,” he says. “The difference is, the dreams we’re having right now are constrained by sensory input” 2963…caus[ing] things to look different so it would appear time has passed. 2964

“And being warned in a dream. . .” 2965

Why is it when we talk to God we’re said to be praying – but when God talks to us, we’re schizophrenic? – Lily Tomlin 2966 You cannot say that an encounter with God is to mental illness what death is to cancer: the logical outcome of a deteriorating illness process. The technical term – theological technical term, not psychiatric – is theophony. A theophany consists of a self-disclosure by the divine. It does not consist of something the percipient does; it consists of something the divine – the God or gods, the high power – does.2967 2953 Op. cit. 2954 Op. cit. 2955 Op. cit. 2956 Op. cit. 2957 Ibidem, p. 50. 2958 John Horgan, Lucid dreaming revisited, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 50. 2959 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 50. 2960 John Horgan, Lucid dreaming revisited, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), pp. 50-51. 2961 Ibidem, p. 51. 2962 Op. cit. 2963 Ibidem, p. 80. 2964 Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), p. 41. 2965 Matthew 2.12, The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 2966 Abigail van Buren, Dear Abby, The Seattle Times, 3 June 1997, 120(132), p. E5. 2967 Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), p. 37.

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The nature of God’s supreme care for us is precisely that he has become our fellow sufferer: Jesus, the child shivering in a manger; his parents pursued by a ruthless government; the man Jesus falsely accused and hung on a cross. With us, for us, and from us, he will suffer until the end of time. God’s salvation is manifest in precisely that suffering. And while we will no doubt continue to mock God’s powerlessness, 2968…[we will probably forget that God has Satan to contend with 2969].

• • •

Superman is dead, Batman is eligible for retirement, and Thor has gone back to Valhalla. What has happened to our…heroes? Dystopian anti-comics explore such issues as mental illness, lurid sex, and graphic violence.2970 In a world that could really use a hero, [we are] offer[ed]…a dead man.2971 [We are] always looking for the hero’s heart that beats in each of us as we struggle every day for survival. 2972 A hero’s words may fall on a deaf world in desperate need of redemption, but…merely showing the horror of existence only adds to the despair. And this is not enough.2973 “Since behavior patterns such as aggression, selection of sexual partners, and the care of young play a prominent part in cultural activities,…[Edward O. Wilson suggested in 1975 2974that] the true science of society will originate from neurobiology and sociology.” 2975 Neuroscientists…reported compelling new evidence that intuition plays a crucial role in helping people make sensible decisions and provides clues to how “gut feelings” work in the brain. 2976 “We all have examples in our own life where we talk about hunches and gut feelings,” said Antonio Dimasio of the University of Iowa College of Medicine, who led the research.2977 The findings, published in…the journal Science, may help dispel notions that emotions are unimportant, Dimasio said. “It’s an artifact of the hyper-rationalist modern times that we live in that we have become distrustful of intuition,” he said.2978

O.K., Why?

We may never understand exactly why emotion was given the cold shoulder of science for almost 100 years. 2979 There would have been every reason to expect that the budding brain sciences would concern themselves with emotion in much the same way they had been taking on language or visual perception. Curiously, it never came to pass. Emotion was consistently left out of the mainstream of what became neuroscience and cognitive science. A handful psychologists…carried on important studies on emotion; psychiatrists and pharmacologists…developed and applied drugs.2980

• • •

Now Joseph had a dream, and when he told it to his brothers they only hated him the more, 2981…[and later when] they saw him afar off, before he came near to them they conspired to kill him. They said to one another, “Here comes this dreamer. Come now, let us kill him and throw him into one of the pits; then we shall say that a wild beast has devoured him, and we shall see what will become of his dreams.” 2982

2968 Jesus, the realist; U.S. Catholic Church confronts sexual abuse scandal, Commonweal, 17 Dec 1993, 120(22). 2969 Job 1.7 & 2.2, The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 2970 Paul C. Schuytema, Looking for a hero: modern comic book characters toil in an imperfect world. Plus, shaving bad compact discs and pumping gas from Uranus, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 27. 2971 Op. cit. 2972 Op. cit. 2973 Op. cit. 2974 Magill’s Survey of Science: Life Science Series, ed. Frank N. Magill (CA: Salem Press, 1991), 2, p. 770. 2975 Op. cit. 2976 Rob Stein (Washington Post), Study: intuition crucial in making sensible decisions, The Seattle Times, 2 March 1997, 15(9), p. A20. 2977 Op. cit. 2978 Op. cit. 2979 Antonia R. Damasio, Thinking and feeling, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 140. 2980 Op. cit. 2981 Genesis 37.5, The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 2982 Ibidem, Genesis 37.18-20.

247 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

March 13

Something happened in the skies over Arizona the night of March 13.2983 Thousands saw it, dozens videotaped it and people all over the state are haunted by it still. 2984 The event lasted 106 minutes.2985 The most common description – and the one captured on videotapes – was that of a V-shaped object. It had seven lights – three on each prong of the V and a seventh “trailing light” set apart from the others. Occasionally, some of the lights blinked out. Witnesses generally agree on three things. First, it was enormous. The most conservative estimate describes it as three football fields long. Computer analysis of the tapes puts it at 6,000 feet, or more than a mile. Second, it made no sound. Third, it moved slowly over Phoenix, cruising at 30 mph. Several times it hovered in place in the sky. Pilots in the region asked air traffic controllers to identify the lights, but controllers couldn’t help. Although controllers could see the lights, they say nothing showed up on their radar screens. “Weird, inexplicable,” says Bill Grava, a pilot and a controller for 12 years who had tower duty that night at Sky Harbor International Airport here. “I still don’t know what to think, and I have no idea what it was. Something military, I guess.” Dana Valentine, 31, was sitting in his yard in Phoenix when the lights headed his way. The laser printer technician ran in and grabbed his father, an aeronautics engineer, and both gaped skyward as the lights passed 500 feet above them. “We could see the outline of a mass behind the lights, but you couldn’t actually see the mass,” Valentine says. “It was more like a gray distortion of the night sky, wavy. I don’t know exactly what it was, but it’s not a technology the public has heard of before.” 2986 [(Video camera-assisted camouflage exists.)] “It was astonishing, and a little frightening,” [Tim] Ley, 54, a management consultant, says. “It was so big and so strange. You couldn’t actually see the object. All you could see was the outline, as though something was blotting out the stars.” Like most witnesses, Ley found the lights extraordinary. “They weren’t bulbs,” he says. “They looked like gas. There was a distortion on the surface. Also, the light didn’t spill out or shine. I’ve never seen a light like that.” Neither has anybody else, according to Michael Tanner and Jim Dilettosa. They’re two of four partners who own Village Labs, a Tempe, Ariz., firm that designs…supercomputers for the federal government. 2987 They ran a computer analysis of videos shot by amateur observers, comparing the mysterious lights to every other light on the Phoenix skyline videotaped that night. The lights overhead were dramatically unique, they say – a perfectly uniform light with no variation from one edge to the other and no glow. They have ruled out lasers, flares, holograms and aircraft lights as sources. “I have no idea what they were,” Dilettosa says. For his part, Tanner has been videotaping witnesses and sorting out the chronology. His present view: There were four objects, including the V formation, all arriving out of the north at about the same time and leaving the same way they came.2988 Phoenix officials say the city can’t investigate because “we have no air force,” Scott Phelps, spokesman for Mayor Skip Rimsza says. “It’s way beyond our resources to chase lights in the sky. We pick up trash. Call the governor.” Gov. Fife Symington’s office isn’t involved, either. When a caller to his regular weekly radio program asked him about it, Symington said it was the first he’d heard about it. No official action is planned. [Phoenix Councilwoman Frances] Barwood wrote U.S. Sen. John McCain, and he referred the matter to the U.S. Air Force in Washington, D.C. The Air Force closed the case last week by announcing that it would do nothing. That’s because the U.S. government hasn’t officially been involved with UFOs since 1969, when the Air Force shut down Project Blue Book, the UFO investigative service created after the Roswell incident. “This is a matter for local jurisdictions,” Air Force spokeswoman Gloria Cales says. In other words, the city says it’s an Air Force matter, and the Air Force says it’s a city matter. The upshot: No government agency is investigating. One private organization has investigated, however. Arizona’s state director of the Mutual UFO Network, a band of 5,000 investigators around the country, has proclaimed it a UFO. That’s unusual. Only about 5% of UFO sightings earn that distinction from this group.

2983 Richard Price, Arizonians say the truth about UFO is out there; on March 13 hundreds of people reported an enormous object, or objects, in the night sky, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 4A. 2984 Op. cit. 2985 Op. cit. 2986 Op. cit. 2987 Op. cit. 2988 Op. cit.

248 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“I can’t vouch for it being extraterrestrial, state director Tom Taylor says. “It could be military-related, although I find it difficult to believe to believe the military would let it fly around like that.” At Luke Air Force Base, beleaguered Lt. Col. Mike Hauser says the calls keep coming. People are angry and demanding. They want an investigation. They allege a cover-up. “They’re calling us liars,” he says. “I take great exception to that. I’ve answered every question. We have nothing to hide. But the fact is that we . . . don’t investigate UFOs.” 2989 “The fact is that more people are seriously interested in UFOs now than they ever have,” Don Ecker, research director and news editor at UFO Magazine, says. “Convincing the government may be an exercise in futility, but it’s not hard to find believers on the streets.” 2990 [Says] truck driver Bill Greiner,…a skeptic before March 13,2991…“I wish the government would just admit it. You know what it’s like in this city right now? It’s like having 50,000 people in a stadium watch a football game and then having someone tell us we weren’t there.” 2992

• • •

The Whitewater investigation 2993…sounds as if it’s more than, as the first lady recently suggested, “the never-ending fictional conspiracy that, honset to goodness, reminds me of some people’s obsession with UFOs.” 2994

• • •

The psychologist Carl Jung, who believed in the existence of UFOs, stated decades ago: “If we wish to avoid a catastrophe, the authorities in possession of important information should not hesitate to enlighten the public as soon and as completely as possible.” 2995 [In 1995, 2996] Robert Miller, the governor of Nevada renamed State Route 375 the Extraterrestrial Highway, supposedly because of the frequency of UFO sightings.2997 Courageous people, including psychiatrist Dr. John Mack and astronaut Gordon Cooper, have risked being branded as heretics for their efforts to inform the public. Such thinkers have realized that a more complete understanding of UFOs is vital for a more balanced development of human society.2998

• • •

Shortly before 3pm on Tuesday, June 24, 1947, 50 years ago, Kenneth Arnold saw something while flying near Mount Rainier [ 2999] that changed him – and the world – forever. Although Ken Arnold was only 32 that summer, he already owned a successful company, Great Western Fire Control Company of Boise, Idaho, and his own airplane.3000 He had clocked more than 4,000 hours aloft, and served with the Ada County Sheriff’s Aerial Posse and Idaho’s “mercy flyers.” At 2pm on that Tuesday, Arnold lifted off from Chehalis airfield bound for Yakima. It was a clear, cloudless summer day, a pilot’s paradise. Arnold decided to search the slopes of Mount Rainier for a Marine Corps C-46 that had gone down six months earlier. After all, it was his patriotic duty, and there was a $5,000 reward for locating the wreckage.3001 At 9,200 feet,3002…the nearest aircraft was a four-engined DC-4, cruising 15 miles behind and left of him on its way to Seattle from San Francisco.3003

2989 Op. cit. 2990 Op. cit. 2991 Op. cit. 2992 Op. cit. 2993 Editorials, Whitewater resurfaces, Eastside Journal, 24 April 1997, 21(249), p. A10. 2994 Op. cit. 2995 Anne Ramsey Cuvelier, The truth is still out there; cult tragedy shouldn’t taint all UFO research, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A25. 2996 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 50. 2997 Op. cit. 2998 Anne Ramsey Cuvelier, The truth is still out there; cult tragedy shouldn’t taint all UFO research, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A25. 2999 Jack Broom, Beam us up, Scotty! UFO info available on many Web sites, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. C1. 3000 Walt Crowley, The came from way out here!, Seattle Weekly, 25 June 1997, 22(26), p. 21. 3001 Op. cit. 3002 Op. cit. 3003 Op. cit.

249 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Suddenly, a dazzling flash of light flooded Arnold’s cockpit. He searched the sky for its source and finally spotted a formation of nine aircraft about 20 miles distant, speeding out of the north toward Mount Rainier and his own line of flight. His first thought was that they were new military jets, but he couldn’t see any tail structures – just a series of thin lines, like a wing viewed from the edge – and they flew oddly. The craft were arrayed in a descending echelon, mimicking one half of a “V” of Canada geese with the head goose at the highest point. When the leader rose or descended, the rest followed suit like the undulating tail of a Chinese kite stretching over five miles. They wove in and out of the mountain peaks while gently rolling to and fro, reflecting the sun from their mirror-smooth surfaces and revealing their silhouettes against the mountains. Eight of them were tab-shaped with curved leading edges, resembling the head of a house key, and the second to last was a thin crescent (an anomaly that Arnold did not reveal until much later). 3004 When the formation reached Mount Rainier, Arnold glanced down at his control panel clock, which read 14:59. He kept one eye on the sweep hand as the objects crossed directly in front of him and continued their bizarre zigzag course down the hog’s back of the Cascades. They passed Mount Adams 102 seconds later and disappeared from view.3005 He did some arithmetic. He put a scale on his map and calculated that Mount Adams lay some 47 miles south of Mount Rainier. Divided by 102 seconds, this translated into .46 mile per second – or 1,656 miles per hour! The only thing that could achieve such a speed was a V-2 rocket, and that was a ballistic missile that went up and came down in a parabolic arc, not a wingless tab or a crescent that threaded in and out of mountains in controlled flight.3006 At Pendleton,3007…curious pilots and technicians 3008…noodled through Arnold’s calculations and decided that he had overestimated the distance between Mount Adams and Mount Rainier. Thirty-nine miles was more realistic, but this still yielded a fantastic speed of 1,368 mph.3009 The next morning,…he told a skeptical [East Oregonian 3010] editor, Nolan Skiff, that the objects “flew like a saucer would if you skipped it across the water.” 3011 Then came July 4.3012 At 1:05, Portland police dispatcher Dick Haller put out an APB calling for officers to report any unusual aerial phenomena. In a matter of seconds, responses flooded in. A group of sheriff’s deputies in nearby Vancouver reported seeing as many as 20 discs. Three Portland harbor patrolmen said they saw up to six discs, shining like “chromium hubcaps,” heading south “at terrific speed.” Officers Walter Lissy and Robert Ellis also observed half a dozen discs from their car near the Oaks Amusement Park. Yet more police called in with their own sightings over the next hour, followed by reports from alarmed citizens. A few hundred miles southeast, picnickers at Twin Falls, Idaho, watched seven discs fly overhead in a “V” formation at 2:50pm. Ten minutes later, another group of 10 discs passed on their way west, followed in another 10 minutes by a final group of as many as 18. Some 50 people confirmed seeing at least one of the formations. Discs were also seen that afternoon over Seattle. An alert Coast Guard yeoman, Frank Ryman, was in his yard when a single disc appeared high over his Lake City home at about 5:30. He ran into the house, grabbed his Speed Graphic press camera, and snapped the shutter once before the silvery object disappeared into the northern sky. He called the Seattle P-I and 3013…on the morning of July 5, along with the Portland incidents and nearly 100 other sightings around the United States and Canada,3014…the front page of its Sunrise Edition 3015…proudly trumpeted, “Seattle Lensman First to ‘Catch’ Disc by Camera.” 3016 On three separate occasions during the morning of July 8, officers and ground crew at Muroc (now Edwards) Air Force Base observed several silvery discs or spheres speeding west against the prevailing wind over California’s Mojave Desert. That afternoon, the pilot of a P-51 saw a “flat object of light-reflecting nature” above him. When he tried to catch up with it, it accelerated out of his range and vanished. These were not the first sightings by military personnel, but they were the most unnerving – given their proximity to a top-secret research facility. They were nothing, however, compared to what was brewing at Roswell Field in New Mexico.3017 U.S. Army officials reported a crashed flying saucer near remote Roswell, N.M. The next day, they insisted it was nothing but a weather balloon.3018 In reporting [8th Air Force commander Gen.

3004 Op. cit. 3005 Op. cit. 3006 Ibidem, p. 22. 3007 Op. cit. 3008 Op. cit. 3009 Op. cit. 3010 Op. cit. 3011 Op. cit. 3012 Op. cit. 3013 Ibidem, pp. 22-23. 3014 Ibidem, p. 23. 3015 Op. cit. 3016 Op. cit. 3017 Op. cit. 3018 Jack Broom, Beam us up, Scotty! UFO info available on many Web sites, The Seattle Times, 22 June 1997, 15(25), p. C1.

250 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Roger 3019] Ramey’s Roswell retraction, The New York Times sneered at claims of “celestial crockery,” and other papers began openly mocking witnesses.3020 Rumors of a cover-up would have to wait for decades to mature. On July 9, the nation’s press took Ramey’s weather balloon explanation at face value, and editorial interest in flying discs quickly deflated. The slightly mocking phrase “flying saucer,” formerly used sparingly, was now applied routinely to sightings (the neutral tag “Unidentified Flying Object” was not officially coined until 1950). The Army Air Force was less cavalier. Embarrassed by Roswell but alarmed by the Muroc sightings, it began inching toward a formal investigation of flying saucer reports.3021 [Harold] Dahl,3022…a Tacoma harbor patrolman,3023…his son and dog, and two crewman [sic] were patrolling the east bay of Maury Island (now linked by a causeway to Vashon Island, midway between Tacoma and Seattle) at about 2pm. Dahl looked up and saw six “very large doughnut shaped aircraft” hovering about 2,000 feet over his boat.3024 The next morning, Dahl was visited by a stranger who “wore a black suit” and drove a new Buick sedan. He invited Dahl to breakfast with him and then stunned Dahl by relating the previous day’s incident down to the last detail. Then he told Dahl that “if he loved his family and didn’t want anything to happen to his general welfare, he would not discuss this experience with anyone.” 3025 The “flying saucer flap” of 1947 was not unprecedented. Hundreds reported sighting “mysterious airships” across the United States late in the 1890s, although dirigibles were not yet in wide use. In 1946, thousands of Scandinavians reported seeing “ghost rockets” flying overhead. In both instances, witnesses translated their sightings into conventional hypotheses, i.e., zeppelins and missiles. More than 850 sightings of flying saucers were claimed during the fateful summer of 1947. In these reports (and thousands since), only a handful of people observed “flying tabs” or “flying sickles” resembling what Arnold actually described. Instead, the vast majority witnessed the “flying discs” that the press said he saw. Thanks to the media’s power of suggestion, anything strange in the sky became a flying saucer. After July 10, the sightings virtually ceased, but it was only the calm before the storm. The following year began with a bang on January 7, when Capt. Thomas Mantell died in the crash of his P-51 during the pursuit of a “tremendous” UFO sported by scores of witnesses over Kentucky. The pace of sightings steadily increased through 1951, abetted perhaps by the release of such classic films as The Thing and The Day the Earth Stood Still. The latter featured the landing of a flying saucer in Washington, DC, and life imitated art in July 1952 when scores of UFOs were tracked visually and on radar of the nation’s capital. 3026 [(The government has recently denied any sightings over the District of Columbia).] Project Sign was organized in late 1947, and investigations were taken over by a small agency code-named Project Blue Book five years later. Blue Book closed in 1969 after concluding that UFOs were neither a threat to national security nor worthy of further scientific study.3027 Although embittered by the relentless criticism and second-guessing of his own sightings, Arnold continued to follow UFO reports.3028 In one of his final interviews: 3029…“Then there might be two worlds connecting the living and the dead,” he said. “Maybe you continue living when you die. I can’t imagine myself on the steps of God playing a harp with 10 million other souls . . . maybe it has something to do with that.” Kenneth Arnold died on January 16, 1984. The mystery of what he saw in the sky over Mount Rainier 50 years ago – and what tens of thousands have since seen all around the planet – remains very much alive. 3030

• • •

…The Good Guys Are As Tough As The Bad Guys: An Interview With A Man Who Knows…3031

3019 Walt Crowley, The came from way out here!, Seattle Weekly, 25 June 1997, 22(26), pp. 23-24. 3020 Ibidem, p. 24. 3021 Op. cit. 3022 Ibidem, p. 26. 3023 Ibidem, p. 24. 3024 Ibidem, p. 26. 3025 Op. cit. 3026 Ibidem, pp. 28-29. 3027 Ibidem, p. 29. 3028 Op. cit. 3029 Op. cit. 3030 Op. cit. 3031 Wallace Terry, The Seattle Times/Seattle Post-Intelligencer: PARADE, 26 Jan 1997, p. 1.

251 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Fluid Dynamics

We all pass through life surrounded – and even sustained – by the flow of fluids. Blood moves through the vessels in our bodies, and air (a fluid, properly speaking) flows into our lungs. Our vehicles move through our planet’s blanket of air or across its lakes and seas, powered by still other fluids, such as fuel and oxidizer, that mix in the combustion chambers of engines. Indeed, many of the environmental or energy-related issues we face today cannot possibly be confronted without detailed knowledge of the mechanics of fluids. 3032 A revolution has begun, and it will only grow as we learn to manipulate matter at the atomic scale in ever more clever and efficient ways. 3033 Magnetohydrodynamics [(MHD)] involves magnetic fields (magneto) and fluids (hydro) that conduct electricity and interact (dynamics).3034 MHD technology is based on a fundamental law of electromagnetism: When a magnetic field and an electric current intersect in a liquid, their repulsive intersection propels the liquid in a direction perpendicular to both the field and the current. 3035

• • •

A computer-actuated relay clicks in the small control room at Israel’s Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Nearby, a two-story-high power generator starts up.3036 But there’s a strange silence. There’s no whine from high-speed turbine blades, no hum from copper generator coils whirring in a magnetic field, no hiss of pressurized, superhot steam. That’s because Etgar-3, the world’s first liquid-metal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) plant, has no moving mechanical parts. Instead, a stream of relatively low-temperature metal is forced through a magnetic field. Electricity is then tapped directly from electrodes contacting this metal – up to 30 percent more efficiently than with turbine-based generators, say proponents.3037

• • •

In place of a propeller or paddle wheel, [‘Yamato 1’ 3038] uses jets of water produced by a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) propulsion system.3039 Inside each thruster, the seawater flows into six identical tubes, arranged in a circle like a cluster of rocket engines. The ten-inch-diameter tubes are individually wrapped in saddle-shaped superconducting magnetic coils made of niobium-titanium allow filaments packed into wires with copper cores and shells. Liquid helium cools the coils to –452.13°F, just a few degrees above absolute zero, keeping them in a superconducting state in which they have almost no resistance to electricity. Electricity flowing through the coils generates powerful magnetic fields within the thruster tubes. When an electric current is passed between a pair of electrodes inside each tube, seawater is forcefully ejected from the tubes, jetting the [craft] forward.3040

• • •

IBM aims to push the computer networking trend in a new direction…[with] a human-body network.3041 Whether in your wallet or pocket, the [so-called Personal Area Network (PAN) 3042] emits a continuous stream of electric signals that run through the body. “The body is a good conductor,” says IBM’s Tom Zimmerman, who co-developed the technology at MIT Media Lab.3043 The power generated is one-billionth of an amp and the frequency is similar to that of an AM radio.3044

3032 Parviz Moin & John Kim, Tackling turbulence with superconductors, Scientific American, Jan 1997, 276(1), p. 62. 3033 Richard W. Siegel, Creating nanophase materials, Scientific American, Dec 1996, 275(6), p. 79. 3034 magnetoencephalography, Richard P. Brennan, Dictionary of Scientific Literacy, (NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992). 3035 Dennis Normile & Robert Langreth, Superconductivity goes to sea, Popular Science, Nov 1992, 241(5). 3036 John Free, Now: liquid-metal MHD; magnetohydrodynamic power, Popular Science, July 1985, 227. 3037 Op. cit. 3038 Dennis Normile & Robert Langreth, Superconductivity goes to sea, Popular Science, Nov 1992, 241(5). 3039 Op. cit. 3040 Op. cit. 3041 Mike Snider, Someday you’ll send data with a handshake, USA Today, 18 Nov 1996, p. D1. 3042 Op. cit. 3043 Op. cit. 3044 Op. cit.

252 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

IBM envisions the PAN’s electric current someday sending small amounts of data to and from…just about anything you touch, even another person.3045 IBM has demonstrated…two businessmen exchange a calling card’s worth of information simply by shaking hands.3046

Alienophobia

Many scientists believe that the universe is probably full of intelligent life and that the opposite would be statistically impossible. Furthermore, evidence exists that UFOs have been visiting this planet for decades, if not centuries; the level of sightings and activity have greatly intensified after…the dawn of the nuclear and space ages. The evidence includes thousands of declassified government documents about UFOs, and huge numbers of photographs, films and videos – as well as eyewitness accounts and cases of physical traces created by landed objects. 3047 [Also,] twenty-six astronauts have reported seeing UFOs while in orbit around Earth. 3048 In addition, some research has established that for more than 40 years, the FBI, CIA, and NASA have all lied repeatedly to the American public about their active involvement in investigating the UFO phenomenon. Why is it that the combined interest of the intelligence communities should be focused on a subject which they publicly claim does not exist? Research has demonstrated that the UFO subject continues to be the focus of a well organized government cover-up, which probably started with good intentions. But now, this official posture of denial has become increasingly dangerous.3049 In the 1980s, a…memo revealed the existence of a top-secret group, dubbed MJ12, made up of high-level government officials devoted to the secret reality of UFOs.3050 Data 3051…confirmed the obvious: military and government personnel, like many other sectors of the population, saw and reported mysterious lights in the sky.3052 Joe Stefula, formerly a special agent with the army’s Criminal Investigation Command, made public on several electronic bulletin boards what purports to be a diagram of an infrared event detected by a [Defense Support Program (DSP)] satellite on May 5, 1984.3053 “What makes this particular Fast Walker so peculiar,” says Stefula, “is that it comes in from outer space on a curved trajectory, passes within three kilometers of the satellite platform, and then disappears back into space. Whatever it is, it was tracked for nine minutes. That doesn’t sound like a meteorite to me.” [Aerojet General’s Ron] Regeher agrees: “It was there too long. It was going too slow. It didn’t have enough speed for escape velocity.” But escape it did.3054 Nor was this an isolated event. According to the unnamed source, such Fast Walkers are detected, on the average, “two to three times a month.” 3055

• • •

A poll this month by CNN and Time magazine found that 22% of adult Americans believe intelligent beings from other planets have been in contact with human beings.3056 A Gallup poll last September found that 72% of Americans think there is life on other planets. And 71% said they think the U.S. government knows more about UFOs than it’s telling.3057 By ridiculing a subject that has such far-reaching implications, the media are alienating large sections of the population and creating ignorance and confusion.3058

3045 Op. cit. 3046 Neil Gross, Into the wild frontier, Business Week, 23 June 1997, 3532, p. 75. 3047 Anne Ramsey Cuvelier, The truth is still out there; cult tragedy shouldn’t taint all UFO research, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A25. 3048 Continuuem, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 28. 3049 Anne Ramsey Cuvelier, The truth is still out there; cult tragedy shouldn’t taint all UFO research, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A25. 3050 Dennis Stacy & Patrick Huyghe, Cosmic conspiracy: six decades of government UFO cover-ups; part five, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 49. 3051 Op. cit. 3052 Op. cit. 3053 Ibidem, p. 87. 3054 Op. cit. 3055 Op. cit. 3056 Richard Price, Arizonians say the truth about UFO is out there; on March 13 hundreds of people reported an enormous object, or objects, in the night sky, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 4A. 3057 Op. cit. 3058 Anne Ramsey Cuvelier, The truth is still out there; cult tragedy shouldn’t taint all UFO research, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A25.

253 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Viking 1

When the Viking 1 spacecraft arrived at Mars in July 1976, it fell into orbit around the Red Planet 3059…[while] its cameras shot thousands of pictures as it circled within 1,000 miles of the planet’s rugged features. 3060 Recognizing that any chance of discovering Martian life could be ruined by prior contamination, Earth’s spacefaring nations agreed to a policy of planetary protection,…requiring that both U.S. and Soviet Mars landers undergo rigorous sterilization. Roughly five to 15 percent of the cost of the $1 billion Viking mission was spent on thermal sterilization of the two Mars landers, according to Richard Young, who served as NASA’s planetary quarantine officer in 1976.3061 Most scientists agree that Earth microbes have little chance of overrunning Mars. However, bacteria freeze-dried in the cold vacuum of space have proven haredy survivors. In 1969, Apollo 12 astronnauts retieved parts from the unmanned Surveyor lunor lander and found viable Streptococcus mitus bacteria: Somehow the microbes had survived on the moon for more than two and a half years.3062 On the morning of July 26, 1976, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California, received a set of images taken during Viking 1’s thrity-fifth orbit. One of those frames, from the northern desert region called Cydonia, showed a mesa – roughly a mile long and 1,500 feet high – that resembled a humanoid face. 3063 [Dr. Gerald] Soffen said 3064…“that ‘it was just a trick, just the way the light fell on it,’ ” 3065…recalls Richard C. Hoagland.3066 “I don’t know any people of any consequence who give any credence to this whatsoever,” delcares Michael Carr, who headed the Viking orbiter imaging team. “Not one person of scientific credibility believes this.” 3067 Although some members of the JPL staff did note the mesa’s resemblance to a face when Viking sent back that particular image, he admits, the lab published it “only for laughs.” 3068 And although [Steven] Squyres recognizes and the NASA investigators insist that they are open to any new evidence that the [future] Mars probes turn up, they don’t at present believe that it’s likely that the Cydonian structures are artificial. “ [Mark] “[”Carlotto’s“]”…arguement is unconvincing because it doesn’t prove anything,” [Michael] Malin says. “Just because a hill looks like a face doesn’t prove that it is a face. In my view, the face barely resembles one, and there is certainly nothing in its form or topography that is even suggestive of its being artificial.” 3069 If aliens did create the structures Hoagland points to with the intention of leaving a message, Malin contends that “they picked a very poor place to do it because the area is already fractured by Mars – which created a lot of angles there.” 3070 NASA’s planetary scientists have maintained over the years that the face is a natural rock formation produced by wind erosion and…the particular lighting angle.3071 After analyzing specific frames, taken with different sun angles during orbits weeks apart, [Hoagland] contends, his interdisciplinary team of researchers has found substantial evidence that the face, some adjacent pyramid structures, and other objects on Mars’ surface were created by intelligent beings. On August 21, 1993, the Mars Observer spacecraft was preparing to settle into orbit around Mars to begin a two-year mission to photograph and analyze the surface of the Red Planet when it abruptly fell silent. 3072 Whatever the cause, the loss of the Observer [radio contact 3073] meant the loss, too, of our chance to learn the truth behind Cydonia and its mysterious face.3074 Hoagland, author of The Monuments of Mars, has had considerable experience working with the space community. He was a consultant to CBS News, where he designed space simulations and advised Walter Cronkite on the network’s coverage of the Apollo lunar missions. In 1972, eminent planetary scientist Carl Sagan credited Hoagland, as well as British space pioneer Eric Burgess, for the initial suggestion to include a recorded message

3059 Robert C. Kiviat, Casting new light on the Mars face, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 32. 3060 Op. cit. 3061 Randall Black, Breaking the Martian quarantine: must we prevent life on a planet where none can exist?, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 25. 3062 Op. cit. 3063 Robert C. Kiviat, Casting new light on the Mars face, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 32. 3064 Op. cit. 3065 Op. cit. 3066 Op. cit. 3067 Ibidem, p. 36. 3068 Op. cit. 3069 Ibidem, p. 80. 3070 Ibidem, p. 81. 3071 Ibidem, p. 32. 3072 Op. cit. 3073 Op. cit. 3074 Op. cit.

254 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

aboard Pioneer 10. And at the time of the Viking mission, Hoagland was under contract as an author/consultant to NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Hoagland’s involvement with the Cydonia controversy began in 1981 when after seeing the work of Vincent DiPietro and Gregory Molennar at a science conference, he first wondered if the face amounted to more than a natural landform or a trick of lighting.3075 DiPietro and Molennar…searched through the entire Viking data file and…found a second picture – taken 35 days later – that reveals more of the right side of the face due to the sun’s slightly higher position in the Martian sky. Still, Hoagland wasn’t convinced that the face was an artifical construction until 1983.3076 “As I sat there looking at the photographs,” Hoagland says, “I began to wonder why no one had taken this seriously, and what if it wasn’t just a trick of lighting?” 3077 “It had features which were humanoid,” he remembers, “and it seemed above chance that it also had the right proportion.” He then speculated that if sentient life forms had indeed constructed the face, they might have build it to be seen from the ground rather than from the air. He then attempted to determine where one would have had to stand on the planet’s surface to see the face. “That’s when my eyes were forced to look to the left and the right,” he says, “and I noticed a separate collection of very geometric pyramid shapes, where one would have had a perfect view of the face.” He reasoned that these pyramids could be the ruins of an ancient city of some sort. In a previously published report titled “Unusual Martian Surface Features,” DiPietro and Molennar had also described “a monstrous, rectangular pyramid,” located ten miles southwest of the face. They noted its dimensions were rouughly 1 mile long by 1.6 miles across.3078 Erol Torun, a physical scientist with the Defense Mapping Agency,…corroborates DiPietro’s and Molennar’s findings. The pyramid’s “position and orientation – in respect to other suspicious objects in the immediate vicinity – are perfectly aligned,” he says. The pyramid’s main axis aligns with the face, he explains, and an extension of the left arm of the pyramid intersects the center of the city, while an extension of its right arm intersects a peculiar object that Hoagland calls “tholus.” The pyramid displays “geometric regularity,” Torun concludes, that doesn’t occur in nature. 3079

Carl Sagan: “Intelligent life on Earth first reveals itself through…geometric regularity.” 3080

“The large Cydonian pyramid is a geometric figure on Mars that has internal angles which are identical to those that can be measured between the face, the city, and other key surface features nearby,” Hoagland says. “The meaning in this is that if you find a specific geometry in the pyramid and then you find a bigger example of the same geometry spread out over many more square miles, it’s telling you something – it’s not natural.” 3081 The patterns he has found in Cydonia, Hoagland believes, are similar to the sort of constructions that well-known planetary scientist Carl Sagan considers indicative of intelligent life. 3082 In an episode of the Cosmos television series called “Blues for the Red Planet,” Sagan demonstrated that “intelligent life on Earth first reveals itself through the geometric regularity of its constructions” – an intricate pattern of straight lines, squares, rectangles, and circles. Canals, roads, and circular irrigation patterns, he explained, “all suggest intelligent life with a passion for Euclidean geometry.” 3083 Still other members of the scientific community – even some at NASA – believe the face and nearby objects merit further study. Mark Carlotto, a former division staff analyst with the image-computing technology division at TASC…began examing the Viking data in 1985 after reading about Hoagland’s studies. 3084 “The mesa obviously looks like a face,” says Carlotto. “It always did to me, and that was the intriguing thing that piqued my curiosity to make me take a closer look at the data.” Carlotto, author of The Martian Enigmas, has specifically attempted to test the validity of NASA’s trick-of-lighting explanation for the face. Using a “shape-from-shading” image-analysis technique that creates a three-dimension image from two-dimensions data, he has concluded that “the impression of a face is not a trick of lighting. Three-dimensional imagery suggests that the impression of facial features persists over a wide range of illumination and viewing conditions.” While the face has received the most attention, another object that Hoagland discovered back in 1983 and termed the “fort” is perhaps the most interesting feature in the Viking frames, according to Carlotto. 3085 Other tests Carlotto has performed indicate that the face and some other Cydonian objects are strongly nonfractal, meaning

3075 Op. cit. 3076 Ibidem, p. 35. 3077 Op. cit. 3078 Op. cit. 3079 Op. cit. 3080 Ibidem, p. 36. 3081 Op. cit. 3082 Ibidem, p. 35. 3083 Ibidem, p. 36. 3084 Op. cit. 3085 Op. cit.

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they don’t appear to have occurred naturally. Using some techniques developed at TASC to detect manmade structures in satellite images, he and some colleagues determined that the face doesn’t share the characteristics of the terrain that surrounds it.3086 Stan McDaniel, a professor of philosophy at Sonoma State University with a 30-year background in such areas of study as ethics, philosophy of science, and critical thinking, has conducted a two-year study of NASA’s official policy regarding the face and the methodology that both NASA and the independent investigators have employed in analyzing it. Many of NASA’s arguments aginst the independent investigators’ conclusions are “seriously flawed, both in terms of methodology and logic,” McDaniel says. Moreover, the methodology used by DiPietro, Molennar, Carlotto, Torun, and Hoagland “is sound,” based on established scientific criteria, he says. 3087 In McDaniel’s view, “the magnitude of the issue at stake – which is the possible proof of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence” – should compel NASA to ensure that any new Mars orbiter takes high-resolution photographs of the landforms by making them a top mission priority.3088 And despite the unexpected failure of the Mars Observer, Hoagland, Malin, and the rest of the world could know before the decade is out the elusive truth – whatever it may be – behind the mysterious monuments of Mars.3089

3086 Op. cit. 3087 Ibidem, p. 81. 3088 Op. cit. 3089 Op. cit.

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Historicism

Vesalius advanced the state of medicine from potions of boiled puppy, lily leaves and minced earthworms to modern anatomy with his new show-and-tell book called On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), which literally took humans apart: brain, blood vessels, nerves, bones, muscles. The work was made easier thanks to a helpful judge in Padua, Italy (where Vesalius was professor), who supplied the author with fresh corpses of executed criminals more or less to order. The book was a boffo success, triggering an epidemic of grave robbing by medical student wannabes.3090

• • •

In 1761 [Casper Friedrich] Wolff became a field doctor in the Prussian army, which was then at war with Russia; and he also lectured in anatomy at the Breslau Military Hospital. 3091 After returning to Berlin in 1763, Wolff gave private lectures in anatomy, physiology, and medicine.3092 In 1766 he accepted an invitation from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.3093 [During the] twenty-seven years [following 1767 3094] he published thirty-one memoirs in the Academy’s Proceedings, including several that were devoted to anatomical research on the muscles of the heart and on connective tissue. He paid special attention to the study of human monstrosities, which were collected in the Academy’s anatomical cabinet (which Wolff directed) of the Kunstkammer. Surviving manuscripts indicated that Wolff prepared a major work on the “theory of monsters,” in which he attempted to systemize his epigenetic ideas.3095 Wolff later…postulat[ed]…that “the formation of organic bodies in general is caused by one natural force,” which inhabits the animal or plant substance (1768). In his last published treatise (1789), he concluded that the “essential force . . . consists in nothing other than in a certain special and definite kind of attractive and repulsive force.” 3096 Wolff’s detailed studies of plants led him to establish that growth takes place at the apex of any axial organ, in the so-called growing point. In the cabbage and chestnut he observed the gradual formation of the leaf layers and the appearance of veins and petioles. In establishing that the blossom is a modified leaf, Wolff anticipated the theory of metamorphosis, formulated in 1790 by Goeth, according to which all the organs of a plant are the result of transformation of leaves. In the chick embryo, Wolff followed the development of the heart and blood vessels, and studied the formation of the blood from “blood islets” and the development of the extremities, the mesonephros, and the intestines. 3097 He thus laid the foundations of the theory of embryonic layers. 3098 [Wolff died in 1794,3099 and he is still known for] the primary kidneys which he discovered [that] became known as Wolffian bodies and their ducts, Wolffian ducts.3100 Wolff’s works contributed to the development of embryology and especially to the work of [Christian Heinrich] Pander and [Karl Ernst von] Baer.3101 Most of Baer’s contributions to embryology were made between 1819 and 1834.3102 He was the first to describe and name the five primary brain vesicles. He made considerable advances in the understanding of the development and function of the extraembryonic membranes (chorion, amnion, allantois) in the chick and mammal. Incidentally he was responsible for the introduction of the term “spermatozoa” for what were then known as animalcules in the seminal fluid (but he thought them parasites).3103 Baer’s greatest contributions to embryology were of far wider general significance. In 1826 he discovered the egg of the mammal in the ovary, bringing to completion a search begun at least as early as the seventeenth century.3104 Baer first found the true egg in [Karl Friedrich] Burdach’s house dog, a bitch sacrificed for the investigation; subsequently he found eggs in a number of other animals. Thus he concluded that “every animal 3090 James Burke, Revolutionary stuff, Scientific American, March 1997, 276(3), p. 130. 3091 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 15, p. 524b. 3092 Op. cit. 3093 Op. cit. 3094 Op. cit. 3095 Op. cit. 3096 Ibidem, 15, p. 525a. 3097 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 15, pp. 524b-525a. 3098 Ibidem, 15, p. 525a. 3099 Ibidem, 15, p. 524a. 3100 Ibidem, 15, p. 525a. 3101 Ibidem, 15, p. 525b. 3102 Ibidem, 1, p. 386b. 3103 Op. cit. 3104 Op. cit.

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which springs from the coition of male and female is developed from an ovum, and none from a simple formative liquid.” (De ovi mammilium et lominis genesi, O’Malley trans., p. 149). This was a unifying doctrine whose importance cannot be over emphasized.3105 When Baer received a copy of Pander’s work in 1818 at Königsberg University, where he was serving as prosector to his old Dorpat professor, Burdach, he began his own investigations, which ultimately revolutionized embryology. Baer’s first treatise on the subject includes an introduction styled as a personal letter to Pander, explaining his differences with his old friend. Pander, for reasons that are not entirely clear, never pursued his early research. 3106 After receiving his degree, Pander traveled in a leisurely manner through Germany, France, Spain, Holland, and England with d’Alton as a companion, visiting anatomical museums and making various paleontological, geological, and biological observations.3107 Pander developed an evolutionary theory of the development of animal forms which had strong Lamarckian overtones. Goethe endorsed his transformist ideas, and [Charles Robert] Darwin was aware of them through secondary sources.3108 In 1821 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.3109 [Twenty-one years 3110 later] he then resumed…gathering paleontological materials. 3111 Pander [had] discovered the trilaminar structure of the chick blastoderm, a term he also coined. He stated that he used the term blastoderm, from the Greek blastos, germ, and derma, skin, because the embryo chose it as “its seat and its domicile, contributing much to its configuration out of its own substance, therefore in the future we shall call it blastoderm.” 3112 [Burdach] obtained the services of Karl Ernst von Baer, a former student of his at Dorpat, and the Konigliche Anatomische Anstalt in Königsberg was formally opened on 13 November 1817. Within it, Burdach taught courses in anatomy, physiology, propaedeutics, and the life of the fetus, and Baer – treated more as a colleague than assistant – dealt with zootomy, human anatomy, and fetal physiology.3113 Burdach maintained that one must know formation and life in order to arrive at the real goal, knowledge of the nature of the total entity. He argued that every coherent, systematic work must proceed in accordance with a particular point of view, and he stated his [sic] explicitly: Nature is a unity, of which all phenomena, including those of the mind, partake, and an ideal Sein lies at the base of all appearances.3114 For Burdach, as for many of his contemporaries, physiology was no longer a study of life and its appearances. “Physiology is therefore the apex of all natural science, the point of unity of the knowledge of reality.” 3115 Burdach sought to show that the nervous system was itself a unity and not just a conglomerate of various anatomical structures. He examined the parts of the brain with the intent of delineating the systems of which they were elements, and was particularly interested in such integrating structures as the intracerebral connecting paths and the fiber tracts.3116

• • •

[Baer, Burdach, L. Oken, and H. Steffens 3117 were influenced by Frederick Wilhelm Joseph] Shelling’s philosophy of nature.3118 The physicians of the Brownian school, who viewed man as the unity of body and soul, also welcomed Schelling’s ideas. In 1802 the faculty of medicine of the University of Landshut awarded Schelling an honorary doctorate of medicine.3119 With the philosophy of identity, Schelling went one step further: real and ideal, and nature and mind are seen to be identical when conceived with sufficient understanding. Mind, and life as the bearer of mind, can be understood only on the assumption that nature is not a conglobation of dead matter, but rather, in its essence, a living primary force, capable of infinite activity. The secret of the unity of nature and mind in the Absolute, however, can ultimately be grasped only in the completion of the creative act, which leads to the product of nature. This occurs in intellectual intuition, which, according to Schelling, affords an immediate, concrete, intuitive apprehension of

3105 Ibidem, 1, pp. 386b-387a. 3106 Ibidem, 10, p. 287a. 3107 Op. cit. 3108 Ibidem, 10, p. 287b. 3109 Op. cit. 3110 Op. cit. 3111 Op. cit. 3112 Ibidem, 10, p. 287a. 3113 Ibidem, 2, p. 595b. 3114 Op. cit. 3115 Ibidem, 2, p. 596a. 3116 Ibidem, 2, p. 595b. 3117 Ibidem, 12, p. 155b. 3118 Op. cit. 3119 Op. cit.

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the Absolute. (Kant, on the other hand, reserved this intuition to the divine intellect.) Such intuition cannot be taught, but it becomes immediately evident in the contemplation of art. 3120 Friedrich Schelling may have admired Kielmeyer [(F. Schelling, Von der Weltseele (1798); cited in Balss, “Kielmeyer als Biologe,” p. 269 3121);] the latter certainly could not applaud the extravagances of Schelling and his followers. Kantian criticism was the first step in Kielmeyer’s scientific inquiry. “Prior to any research,” he wrote, “the human mind must first find agreement on the extent and limitations within which, with the undivided and reciprocal support of all of its powers, it may advance the inquiry” [(Kielmeyer, Gesammelte Schriften, pp. 112-113 3122)]. Kielmeyer then found that space and time are the fundamental categories of all understanding.3123 Karl 3124 Kielmeyer of the University of Stuttgart 3125…had shown that vertebrates, in the course of their embryonic life, go through phases recalling their supposed ancestors; hence, the human embryo possesses the preliminary forms of branchial fissures typical of the fish.3126 Organisms, which he viewed from the dynamic stance of the comparative physiologist and not the static view of traditional anatomy, were the product of a developmental force – and that force was strictly analogous to (and perhaps identical with) the predominant forces of chemical transformation and, more fundamentally, the forces of physical change in general. Physics and chemistry were presumably the primary bases for interpreting biological change, and Kielmeyer devoted considerable attention to the possible relationship between attraction, chemical affinity, and the developmental force of organisms. The imponderables – light, electricity, and, above all, heat and magnetism – were emphasized and a coherent doctrine of the interaction of opposites (Polarität) advocated. Nevertheless, while deriving the foundation of his general system from physics and devoting a major portion of his professional activity to chemistry, Kielmeyer exerted his greatest influence in biology. All anatomical and classificatory evidence suggested, he believed, the existence of a graduated scale of organisms (Stufenfolge) in the present world. The history of the earth as a whole, according to Kielmeyer’s “concept of natural history,” must deal “not only with its present condition, but also with that which has gone before and perhaps with that which will follow after, that is, “[”with the earth“]” as it is, as it was and as it will be” [(Kielmeyer, Gesammelte Schriften, p. 228 3127)]. These incessant transformations are guided by a developmental force, which constituted the heart of Kielmeyer’s biological doctrines (it stands as the primary force in the great Rede of 1793; irritability and sensibility are later acquisitions of the developing higher organism). Unity of phenomena is dictated by unity of cause, that is, a common developmental force: “I hold that the force which, in previous times, brought forth on our earth the series of organisms, is, in its essence and laws “[”of action“]”, one and the same as the force by which today are produced in each organized individual the series of its developmental stages” [(Ibid., p. 205 3128)]. The sequence in both stages was comparable; and thus it was on the dual grounds of observed similarities and the commonality of the developmental force, the latter being decisive, that Kielmeyer gave early expression to what subsequently became known as the doctrine of ontogenetic recapitulation. He also recognized the expression of this force in the characteristic stages of a man’s lifetime and hoped to extend its power, through analogy with terrestrial magnetism, to the evolution of the earth itself. The concept of a common developmental force satisfied Kielmeyer’s keen ambition to introduce “unity into all human knowledge,” to create “a genealogy of our knowledge” and to do so without the self-deception and arrogance characteristic of contemporary Naturphilosophen [(Ibid., pp. 239-240, 236 3129)]. As for the nature of the developmental force, Kielmeyer shrewdly offered no inflexible opinions. He accepted it as testimony and concomitant to the essential fact of organic existence, the self-sufficient directedness of vital processes. Following Kant, he declared that the “organs stand in a purposeful relationship to one another. . . . Each is the effect and cause of the other – and for us, therefore, the relationship is purposeful” and not mechanical [(Ibid., p. 180. See I. Kant, Critique of Teleological Judgement, translated by J. C. Meredith (Oxford, 1928), § 66 (pp. 24-25) 3130)]. And here the analysis must terminate: the author of force in nature is surely also the source of nature’s purposefulness. On these matters Kielmeyer maintained a spiritualistic, anti-mechanistic, and probably Christian outlook. 3131, [ 3132]

3120 Ibidem, 12, pp. 155b-156a. 3121 Ibidem, 7, p. 368b. 3122 Op. cit. 3123 Ibidem, 7, p. 367a. 3124 Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer — Ibidem, 7, p. 366b. 3125 Ibidem, 5, p. 356b. 3126 Op. cit. 3127 Ibidem, 7, p. 368b. 3128 Op. cit. 3129 Op. cit. 3130 Op. cit. 3131 Ibidem, 7, pp. 367b-368a. 3132 So natural history may well illuminate why human morals evolved into their present form, but humans can transcend their nature. One animal advocate declares: “Killing and eating “[”meat“]” is an integral part of the evolution of human beings. Not killing and not eating “[”meat“]” is the next step in our evolution.”

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• • •

[Paul] Bert’s scientific activity can be divided into three periods: (1) In the 1860’s – as a student of medicine and science, as préparateur for Bernard, and as professor of zoology and comparative physiology at Bordeaux and Paris – he dealt with questions of general physiology, plant physiology, and comparative anatomy and physiology. During that period he published important monographs on animal transplantation and the vitality of tissues, and a comprehensive study on the comparative physiology of respiration. (2) After the Franco-Prussian War, he published his magnum opus, La pression barométrique (1878). (3) A last period of scientific activity, which was a direct offshoot of his barometric work, dealt with the experimental and clinical study of anesthesia and with the properties of blood at high altitude.3133 Bert’s first important work dealt with animal transplantation. This study was not intended to be a contribution to experimental surgery, for transplantation was conceived of as a physiological problem: How can transplanted organs and tissues live in a new environment? Bert succeeded in creating “double monsters,” uniting two rats by suturing their skins together. He also implanted the tip of the tail of a young albino rat under the skin of its back; the proximal end of the tail was then cut, so that it formed the tip of the grafted tail. The transplanted tail grew, formed new bone, and reestablished circulation and sensibility – but the direction of the sensory impulse was reversed. Bert’s investigation of the specific vitality of animal tissues was a pure environmental study. He used the transplantation technique as a means of examining the vital resistance of organs and tissues. Isolated tails of rats were exposed to different temperatures and humidities, and to various gases and chemical agents. After these exposures the tails were transplanted under the skins of rats. The transplantation reestablished a physiological internal milieu and made it possible to test the survival of the tail tissues after they had been subjected to various changes of environment. Bert emphasized that the cells and tissues lived their own lives, growing and differentiating independently of any superior vital force as long as they were in a suitable milieu. During his professorship at Bordeaux, Bert dealt with problems of marine biology and plant physiology. He studied the mechanism of death in marine fishes exposed to fresh water, and he observed the occurrence of Amphioxus lanceolatus on the south-western coast of France. He also published his classic study on the movements of the “sensitive plant” (Mimosa pudica). Using ether, he succeeded in differentiating spontaneous movements from induced ones. The spontaneous movements depended on differences of osmotic pressure, which was regulated by light and darkness.3134 [Along with numerous other studies and findings,] he analyzed the death mechanism of asphyxia caused by lack of oxygen from carbon dioxide poisoning. This work, rich in facts and new views, also provided a critical evaluation of a vast number of problems. 3135

• • •

On both sides…[of Charles Sedgwick Minot’s family] were several distinguished lawyers and public figures. Growing up on his wealthy father’s country estate, he early became interested in natural history and at the age of seventeen published articles on insect and bird life. He graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1872 and then entered the graduate school of Harvard College, where he worked under Henry P. Bowditch, spending a summer with Louis Agassiz at Penikese, Massachusetts. In 1873 he went to Leipzig to work with Karl Ludwig and Rudolf Leuckart. He was also at Paris for a few months with Louis-Antoine Ranvier and at Würzburg. After his return to America in 1876, Minot completed in 1878 the requirements for his Harvard doctorate in science. After two years of private biological research, in 1880 he joined the Harvard faculty, at first in the dental school and, after 1883, in the department of histology and embryology of the school of medicine. There he began what became an outstanding collection of vertebrate embryos. To facilitate the work of sectioning them, he invented in 1886 the automatic rotary microtome, ever since in worldwide use. In 1892 Minot published his chief work, Human Embryology, a masterly summation of an unwieldy literature and a highly original presentation of the major problems of that branch of science. Among his many research accomplishments were an account of the microscopic structure of the human placenta and a description of the blood channels in the liver since known by his term “sinusoids.” 3136 He was one of a small group of biologists and medical scientists who broadened the study and teaching of anatomy in the United States to include not only gross morphology but also embryology, histology, and physical anthropology, and transformed the American Association of Anatomists from a small society with limited interests

— Madhusree Mukerjee, Trends in animal research; increased concern for animals, among scientists as well as the public, is changing the ways in which animals are used for research and safety testing, Scientific American, Feb 1997, 276(2), p. 87. 3133 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 2, p. 61a. 3134 Op. cit. 3135 Ibidem, 2, p. 61b. 3136 Ibidem, 9, p. 416a.

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to its present breadth and strength.3137 [Franklin Paine] Mall and Minot…joined in 1900 in a successful effort to rejuvenate the American Association of Anatomists, which since its foundation in 1888 had represented the older, relatively unoriginal phase of anatomical study in the United States. 3138 Finding himself more interested in anatomical research than in the practice of medicine, [Mall] went in 1884 to Leipzig, where he became a student of Wilhelm His, the greatest embryologist of the time, who admitted him to close association in the laboratory and became a lifelong friend and adviser. During the same year Mall met another American postgraduate student, William H. Welch, who later, as dean of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, invited Mall to be its first professor of anatomy. After completing a study of the development of the thymus gland (which, incidentally, contradicted earlier work by His), Mall moved, on the advice of His, to the laboratory of Carl Ludwig at Leipzig.3139 [Mall] also studied the microscopic structure of connective tissue by highly original methods. 3140 In 1889 he was offered an adjunct professorship of anatomy at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, then being organized by the psychologist G. Stanley Hall.3141 [Mall] remained at Clark University for three years, until the faculty’s growing dissatisfaction with Hall’s administration led to the departure of several young professors, Mall going to the University of Chicago as professor of anatomy at its school of medicine. While at Clark, however, his research led to an important discovery, that of the vasomotor nerves of the portal vein. At this time also Mall constructed a model of an early human embryo by Born wax-plate method, the first to be made in America, and thus began the program of embryological research on which his reputation is chiefly based. 3142 Mall remained in Chicago only one year, for in 1893, when Johns Hopkins University opened its long-planned school of medicine with Welch as dean, Mall was called to head its department of anatomy. Free to plan instruction without constraint of tradition, Mall at once began to reform the teaching of anatomy in the United States by giving few lectures while providing his students full opportunity to learn for themselves by dissection, with the aid of textbooks and atlases and the advice of instructors engaged in research. Mall designed and maintained quiet and scrupulously clean small laboratory rooms in place of the large dissecting halls of the older schools; he also insisted on accurate work, familiarity with the literature of the field, and scientific rather than purely practical aims. The same principles were applied to the teaching of microscopic anatomy and neurology, conducted largely by his staff. The members of his staff were given full freedom to direct their own researches under his lightly imposed leadership, that of an older, more experienced fellow student rather than a taskmaster. 3143 Outstanding researchers who worked with him were Ross G. Harrison, Florence R. Sabin, George L. Streeter, Warrant H. Lewis, and Herbert M. Evans.3144 In 1900, when, with Charles S. Minot of Harvard and George S. Huntington of Columbia University, he founded the American Journal of Anatomy.3145 In 1915 Herbert M. Evans came from Johns Hopkins to Berkely as professor of anatomy.3146 He brought with him from Hopkins another brilliant young anatomist, Gerorge W. Corner. During the first few years of this new departmental regime [Philip Edward] Smith and [Herbert McLean] Evans were the best of friends. But with the passage of time Smith developed rather negative feelings toward Evans. Smith and Corner remained lifelong friends.3147 The famous American endocrinologist and historian of medicine G. W. Corner3148 [and Willard Allen isolated progesterone, the hormone secreted by the corpus luteum, in 1929 3149 which proved] the work of [Pol André] Bouin and [Paul] Ancel on ovarian physiology and especially on the corpus luteum. 3150 Between 1909 and 1911…[Bouin and Ancel] demonstrated irrefutably that in the absence of fertilization the corpus luteum, through an internal secretion, controls the readying of the uterine mucosa for implantation of the ovum as well as the morphogenetic development of the mammary glands. The effect is particularly striking in female rabbits. 3151 [Bouin and Ancel had previously dispelled] the old superstition about the importance of the “seed” in male potency.3152 [Bouin] began working with Paul Ancel in 1903, a collaboration which, developing through thirty years of close friendship and fruitful cooperation, laid the fundamental groundwork for the rapid development of reproductive endocrinology. Bouin and Ancel performed many types of operations on laboratory animals, and to

3137 Ibidem, 9, p. 416b. 3138 Ibidem, 9, p. 57b. 3139 Ibidem, 9, p. 56a. 3140 Op. cit. 3141 Op. cit. 3142 Ibidem, 9, p. 57a. 3143 Ibidem, 9, p. 56b. 3144 Op. cit. 3145 Ibidem, 9, p. 57a. 3146 Ibidem, 12, p. 473b. 3147 Ibidem, 12, pp. 473b-474a. 3148 Ibidem, 5, p. 485a. 3149 Ibidem, 2, p. 345a. 3150 Ibidem, 2, p. 344b. 3151 Ibidem, 2, p. 345a. 3152 Ibidem, 2, p. 344b.

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test their experimental results relied on the morphology of the gonads, the genital tract, and the secondary sexual characteristics.3153 By employing convergent techniques, Bouin and Ancel elucidated the dual function of the testis: in the first place, gametogenesis (the production of semen) in the interior of the seminiferous tubules; and in the second place, the secretion of hormones in the interstitial gland located between the seminiferous tubules. They demonstrated that the interstitial gland controls the secondary sexual characteristics in the male. 3154 [Because their findings contradicted popular opinion,] violent controversies set in reaching their peak between 1920 and 1925, which is to say on the eve of the discovery of male hormones.3155 [During this same period of time, Philip Edward Smith had] designed and constructed a microsyringe which was capable of accurately injecting quantities of less than .002 milliliters. He used this instrument to inject .010 to .013 milliliters of a chromic acid solution into the anterior lobe of the hypophysis [(pituitary gland)]. 3156 In 1912, in the United States, Harvey Cushing [had] “hypophysectomized” dogs and came to the conclusion that survival for more than a few days was impossible without the hypophysis.3157 In 1923, in a little-known paper (“The Production of the Adiposogenital Syndrome in the Rat, With Preliminary Notes Upon the Effects of a Replacement Therapy”), Smith described one single rat in which he had obtained adequate histological evidence of the complete destruction of the anterior lobe and at the same time he could find no evidence of any damage to neural components of the hypophysis or of brain damage. In this single rat, Smith was able to demonstrate that there was ovarian and uterine atrophy with no adiposity. He also showed that the genital atrophy was reversible by replacement therapy with a material derived from anterior pituitary extracts. It may seem strange that Smith should have published a paper which included his findings on a single rat. However, it is typical of the man that his extreme intellectual honesty and his intelligence never permitted any of his intuitive feelings or theories to interfere with the objective realities of an experiment. When one single experimental animal did not fit in with his previous ideas on hypophyseal function, he thought that this was worthy of public comment.3158 Smith continued his studies of the mammalian hypophysis and finally extended this work to the monkey (rhesus). This later work made possible the study of the role of the hypophysis in a primate whose reproductive cycle was very similar to that of the human species.3159 In the late fall and winter of 1939-1940 Smith and his wife spent three months at the School of Tropical Medicine in Puerto Rico. The U.S. Public Health Service maintained a large colony of rhesus monkeys on a small island off the coast of Puerto Rico. Smith thus had access to a supply of monkeys that was far superior to his own colony at [the College of Physicians and Surgeons 3160 at] Columbia and this gave great stimulus to his work on the rhesus monkey, which he continued at Columbia until his retirement. 3161

• • •

[Henry Herbert] Donaldson, scion of a banking family, showed an early interest in science, and after studies at Phillips Andover and Yale stayed on an additional year in New Haven to do research in arsenic detection at Sheffield Scientific school (1879-1880) under Russell H. Chittenden. He then received somewhat reluctant parental approval to study medicine at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York (1880-1881), but after one year became convinced that his true bent lay in research rather than practice. Donaldson was offered, and accepted, a fellowship at Johns Hopkins, where he spent two years (1881-1883) studying the effects of digitalin on the heart and of cocaine on the nerves controlling temperature. The latter work, done under the supervision of G. Stanley Hall, became the theme of his Ph.D. dissertation (1895). Donaldson next spent almost two years (1886-1887) in Europe at the great neurological centers, studying under such masters as Forel, Gudden, Theodor Meynert, and Golgi. Returning briefly to Johns Hopkins as associate in psychology, he soon followed [G. Stanley] Hall, who had become president of Clark University, to Worcester, Massachusetts. Here, while assistant professor of neurology (1889-1892), he carried out his classic study on the brain of Laura Bridgman, a blind deaf-mute. This study, characterized as “probably the most thorough study of a single human brain that has ever been carried out,” determined the theme that was to dominate all of Donaldson’s subsequent research: the growth and development of the human brain from birth to maturity. His earlier papers were incorporated in a monograph, The Growth of the Brain: A Study of the Nervous System in Relation to Education (1895). In 1892 Donaldson moved to Chicago to join the faculty of the recently opened university. Here he served as professor of neurology and dean of the Ogden School of Science until 1898.3162 In 1906 [while head of the Wistar

3153 Op. cit. 3154 Op. cit. 3155 Op. cit. 3156 Ibidem, 12, p. 474a. 3157 Op. cit. 3158 Ibidem, 12, p. 474b. 3159 Ibidem, 12, p. 475a. 3160 Op. cit. 3161 Op. cit. 3162 Ibidem, 4, pp. 160b-161a.

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Institute of Anatomy and Biology in Philadelphia 3163] there appeared the first of a long series of papers in which the white or albino rat (rather than the frog) was used as a research tool.3164 He then proceeded to work out the equivalence in age between man and rodent, and as a result of lengthy genetic studies was able to produce the famous Wistar Institute stock of white rats, which have since then figured into innumerable research projects. The fundamental studies on growth, although primarily directed toward the brain and central nervous system, were later expanded to include the muscles, bones, teeth, and viscera. Among the many distinguished workers associated with Donaldson in Chicago and Philadelphia were Alice Hamilton, John B. Watson, S. W. Ranson, and Frederick S. Hammett. His numerous foreign students included at least twenty Japanese. A member of the American Philosophical Society from 1906, Donaldson served that organization in various important positions until his death. He was also honored with the presidency of the Association of American Anatomists (1916-1918), the American Society of Naturalists (1927), and the American Neurological Society (1937). Both Yale and Clark granted him the honorary D.Sc.3165 From 1888, when he helped to found the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, he kept open house each summer for a host of friends and admirers.3166 His first marriage, to Julia Desboro Vaux of New York, produced two sons, one of whom, John C. Donaldson, served as professor of anatomy at the medical school of the University of Pittsburgh.3167

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[Robert Mearns] Yerkes was one of the first of a new breed of comparative psychologists who worked with their animal subjects in a laboratory setting. He was preceded by only a few years by E. L. Thorndike (whom he assisted one summer at Woods Hole) and was a collaborator (mostly by mail) with a slightly younger man, John B. Watson. Thorndike’s work led him into learning theory and educational psychology. Watson’s researches led him into methodological reformism and antimentalism in general psychology.3168 From 1917 to 1919 Yerkes was in effect largely in charge of psychological testing of U.S. Army personnel in World War I.3169 He headed [National Research Council (N.R.C.)] programs to explore the characteristics of various types of humans who migrate (with immigration-exclusion legislation in mind) and to encourage and support scientific investigation of sexuality.3170 With wide-ranging interest, Yerkes also was responsible for contributions as diverse (with S. Morgulis) publishing the first important American notice on Pavlov’s work (1909) and a discussion of the application of psychological findings to illumination engineering (1911).3171 Jacques Loeb (1859-1924), a physiologist and one of [John B.] Watson’s teachers, must have had some influence on him, although Watson makes little mention of him except to mention Loeb as one of his three most important teachers at Chicago. Watson’s neglect of Loeb may be because of Loeb’s failure to reject completely an appeal to the psychic processes. Loeb had revolted against anthropomorphism and sentimentality in interpreting animal activity, but he did not reject consciousness, which he thought to be associative memory or the capacity of the animal to learn from experience [(J. Loeb, Einleitung in die vergeichende Gehirnphysiologie und vergleichende Psychologie mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der wirbellosen Thiere (Leipzig: Barth, 1899) (English trans. 1900) (Herrnstein and Boring, Excerpt No. 89) 3172)].3173 The apostle of mechanistic conceptions in biology, Loeb was the elder son of a prosperous…importer. 3174 It was Loeb who first succeeded, in 1899,…in achieving artificial parthenogenesis. Although Loeb greatly relished the philosophical implications of artificial parthenogenesis, he also saw it as an addition to the repertory of experimental embryologists.3175 [Loeb also]…establish[ed] a concept of tropisms in animals by which they…could be shown to be irresistibly driven by external stimuli and impotent to interpose their wills. 3176 Loeb thought that he had found the solution to the problem of will by applying the appropriate tropic stimulus, “forcing, by external agencies, any number of

3163 Ibidem, 4, p. 161a. 3164 Op. cit. 3165 Op. cit. 3166 Op. cit. 3167 Op. cit. 3168 Ibidem, 14, p. 549b. 3169 Ibidem, 14, p. 550a. 3170 Op. cit. 3171 Ibidem, 14, p. 550b. 3172 Robert I. Watson, Sr. and Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 495. 3173 Ibidem, p. 473. 3174 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 8, p. 445a. 3175 Ibidem, 8, p. 446a. 3176 Ibidem, 8, p. 445b.

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individuals of a given kind of animals to move in a definite direction by means of their locomotor apparatus.” He showed that certain organisms, thought to be exempt from tropistic behavior, could be oriented in a certain direction 3177…by external stimuli.3178 The classical or narrower theory of tropism conceives of animal behavior as nothing more than a forced movement of a physical-chemical nature. In more general fashion, the theory of tropism has to do with the orientation of the organism in a field of force. According to this view, recourse to such terms as sensation or pleasure is not necessary.3179 As a materialist in philosophy, a mechanist in science, and a socialist in politics, he offended against the prevalent American orthodoxies.3180 Loeb’s principal statement of his basic philosophy for a lay audience was his famous address “The Mechanistic Conception of Life,” delivered before the First International Congress of Monists in Hamburg in September 1911 and published as the title piece of his most widely read book (1912). In this work Loeb argued that the mechanistic conception had made colossal strides in the first decade of the twentieth century, largely through his own researches: the activation of the egg “completely reduced to a physicochemical explanation”; the instincts of men equated with tropisms, and the field of heredity, traditionally “the stamping ground of the rhetorician and metaphysician,” now transformed by Mendelism into “the most exact and rationalistic part of biology.” The one great remaining task was to explain the origin of life, but he did not expect this problem to be insurmountable.3181 In the winter of 1889-1890 at the marine biological station at Naples,…he found himself in an intellectual environment.3182 In this context, he first encountered a group of brilliant young American embryologists and cytologists, including Thomas Hunt Morgan. In 1890 Loeb married an American, Anne Leonard, who had taken a Ph.D. in philology at Zurich; they settled in the United States in 1891. 3183 Loeb taught successively at Bryn Mawr College, the University of Chicago, and the University of California at Berkeley, and from 1910 until his death at the Rockefeller Institute in New York. He spent his summers at the marine biological laboratories at Pacific Grove, California, or Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Two of his three children, Leonard and Robert, became scientists. 3184

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[Leo Loeb took] up medicine at the University of Zurich in 1890-1892. He did his clinical work…[in London,3185] and returned to Zurich to complete his medical studies in 1895-1897. In his work toward the M.D., which required a thesis, he did skin transplantation experiments on guinea pigs under the direction of the pathologist Hugo Ribbert. [Leo] Loeb received the M.D. in 1897, then went to Chicago, where his older brother Jacques was a physiologist at the University. (He had previously visited his brother at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in 1892-1894). During five years in Chicago,…he was physician to John Dewey’s experimental school and was adjunct professor of pathology at Rush Medical College (later affiliated with the University of Illinois). In a rented room behind a drugstore he did experimental research on the healing of skin wounds of guinea pigs; he extended this research during a brief stay at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, where he met William Osler, W. S. Thayer, and L. F. Barker (internal medicine); W. S. Halsted (surgery); W. H. Welch and Simon Flexner (pathology); and [Franklin Paine] Mall and [Ross Granville] Harrison (anatomy). He also did research during summers at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole.3186 In 1884, while experimenting with cocaine hydrochlorate as a surgical anesthetic, [W. S.] Halsted and several of his colleagues and students became addicted. 3187 The illness ended his professional career in New York City, and he moved to Baltimore, Maryland, to work in the laboratory of William H. Welch, professor of pathology at the Johns Hopkins University, in December 1886. When he had apparently regained his health and the authorities of the Johns Hopkins Hospital (and later the Johns Hopkins Medical School) were convinced of his capabilities and reliability, he was appointed surgeon in chief to the hospital in 1890 and professor of surgery in 1892. The question of Halsted’s drug addiction and his apparent cure

3177 Op. cit. 3178 Op. cit. 3179 Robert I. Watson, Sr. and Rand B. Evans, The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought, 5th ed. (NY: HarperCollins Publ., Inc., 1991), p. 473. 3180 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 8, p. 446a. 3181 Ibidem, 8, p. 446b. 3182 Ibidem, 8, p. 445b. 3183 Op. cit. 3184 Op. cit. 3185 Ibidem, 8, p. 447a. 3186 Ibidem, 8, p. 447a. 3187 Ibidem, 6, 77b.

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have been discussed for years. William Osler’s “The Inner History of the Johns Hopkins Hospital” confirms that Halsted was treated for morphine addiction as late as 1898.3188 [Leo] Loeb next held a research fellowship under Adami at McGill University in 1902-1903. He was assistant professor of experimental pathology at the University of Pennsylvania in 1904-1910; directed laboratory research at Barnard Skin and Cancer Hospital, St. Louis, 1910-1915; and was professor of comparative pathology at Washington University, St. Louis, in 1915-1924.3189 Loeb continued to do research during summers at the Marine Biological Laboratory [(Woods Hole)] until 1950, when he nearly died of tuberculosis.3190 Of his contributions to science, his biographer, Ernest W. Goodpasture, wrote, “Although Loeb did not perfect in vitro culture of cells, he conceptually paved the way.” Placing Loeb among the pioneers in studying the compatibility reactions of hosts toward transplanted tissues of the same and different species, Goodpasture wrote, “Loeb’s histological studies of the fate of transplanted tissue, both normal and tumorous, were probably the first, certainly the most detailed, investigations of this kind.” His chief research writings were on tissue and tumor growth, tissue culture, pathology of circulation, venom of Heloderma, analysis of experimental amoebocyte tissue, internal secretions, and the biological basis of individuality.3191 [Leo’s brother, Jacques Loeb,3192] contributed to [Thomas Hunt] Morgan’s growing disaffection with the morphological tradition.3193 Both joined the faculty of Bryn Mawr in the same year (1891) and maintained a lifelong friendship. [Jacques] Loeb was a strong proponent of the mechanistic conception of life. He believed that (1) organisms function in accordance with the laws of physics and chemistry, so that to understand living phenomena, it is necessary to approach them from a physicochemical standpoint; and (2) only quantitative and experimental methods would allow biologists to get at the fundamental chemical and physical processes involved with life. These methods, in contrast with those of descriptive biologists, would yield rigorous and testable conclusions. Loeb believed that biologists should emulate the methods used in the physical sciences. 3194 [A crucial 3195] factor which may have caused Morgan to embrace the experimental approach was his association with Hans Driesch, his colleague in 1894-1895 at the zoological station in Naples 3196…[who] had performed some highly controversial experiments on sea urchin eggs.3197 In the spring of 1891 [Driesch] performed the experiment for which he is now best remembered, the separation of the blastomeres of the cleaving sea urchin egg. 3198 During [Morgan’s] ten months at Naples, he was excited by the work, the constant stream of visitors, the exchange of ideas, and the emphasis on new modes of thought, such as performing experiments in areas of biology, like embryology, previously approached only descriptively. He wrote in 1896: “No one can fail to be impressed “[”at the Naples Station“]” and to learn much in the clash of thought and criticism that must be present where such diverse elements come together” [(T. H. Morgan, “Impressions of the Naples Zoological Station,” in Science, 3 (1896), 16-18 3199)]. [Morgan’s] mother’s maternal grandfather was Francis Scott Key, composer of the national anthem. 3200 In 1916, the first year the [“The Star Spangled Banner”] was sung at a baseball game, 50 black Americans were lynched 3201…according to the official figures from the Library of Congress.3202 It has always been entangled with military themes starting with the bombardment of Fort McHenry during the War of 1812, the event that inspired Francis Scott Key to write it. 3203 [Key] set the “Banner” to the tune of an English pub song he had previously tried out with some other words. In any event, his “Banner” was basically forgotten until the Civil War, when some Yankee soldiers picked it up as a battle tune. It didn’t officially become the National Anthem until [March 3, 3204] 1931, following intense lobbying by Maryland Rep. John Lithicum, backed by 150 self-described “patriotic organizations.” President Hoover signed it into law.

3188 Op. cit. 3189 Ibidem, 8, p. 447a. 3190 Op. cit. 3191 Ibidem, 8, p. 447b. 3192 Ibidem, 8, p. 447a. 3193 Ibidem, 9, p. 516b. 3194 Op. cit. 3195 Op. cit. 3196 Ibidem, 9, pp. 516b-517a. 3197 Op. cit. 3198 Ibidem, 4, p. 187a. 3199 Ibidem, 9, p. 525b. 3200 Ibidem, 9, p. 515a. 3201 Jeff Stein (special to The Baltimore Sun), Oh, say can you see a new anthem?, The Seattle Times, 28 March 1996, p. B5. 3202 Op. cit. 3203 Op. cit 3204 Kim Haub, The flag stands for freedom, The Seattle Times, 10 June 1995, p. F8.

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Even then, though, playing the “Banner” at sports events wasn’t a tradition until World War II broke out. Again, it was hijacked for military purposes…at a time…the Army was still officially segregated. All along, meanwhile, there existed a far superior melody – one that was actually singable – which equated love of country with America’s sheer beauty, and optimistically, “brotherhood.” “Oh beautiful, for spacious skies for amber waves of grain for purple mountain majesties above the fruited plain . . .” “America the Beautiful” was written by Katherine Lee Bates, a professor of English at Wellesley College in the 19th century, after she climbed Pike’s Peak. It was a sweet song – peaceful, reverent, generous in its patriotism. 3205 It still is. But Bates 3206…didn’t have a powerful congressman to lobby for her.3207 [Morgan’s] father had been American consul at Messina, Sicely, in the early 1860’s and had given assistance to Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts.3208 [His uncle 3209] was a colonel and later general in the Confederate Army and leader of his own guerilla band, “Morgan’s Raiders.” 3210 [An embryologist and geneticist,3211 Morgan discovered that] despite alterations in development which could be brought about by various physical constraints, the embryo still displayed a tendency to reach its prescribed goal. It became clear to him that environmental influences might shape the embryo’s development with certain limits, but that the overriding factors determining the sequence of events in development must lie within the embryo itself: the interaction of embryonic tissues and of specific embryonic regions with each other. 3212 In 1901 he published his first major book, Regeneration, a compendium of contemporary information on this subject. More than simply a review of the literature, Regeneration provided a foretaste of Morgan’s writing and analytical skill. He saw that the events in regeneration (regrouping of cells in the wound area, despecialization, and renewed differentiation) were the other side of the coin from those of early embryonic development. In regeneration there was a return to the embryonic state. 3213 In 1903 Morgan published a review of the sex determination problem, criticizing all of the existing theories, including those based on Mendel’s laws. His major argument was that there was relatively little evidence substantiating the claims of either the environmentalists or the hereditarians. Most of the current theories of sex determination tried to explain only the customary 1:1 sex ratio found in most species. Any theory of sex determination, however, had to account for a number of other phenomena, such as the process of parthenogenesis, either natural or artificially induced; the appearance of gynandromorphs, often observed in insects (in gynandromorphs, one half of the organism has male characteristics and the other half female characteristics); and sex reversals, as observed in fowl and other species, especially under the influence of hormonal changes. 3214 In 1927 George Ellery Hale invited Morgan to come to the California Institute of Technology to establish its first division of biology.3215 Although he had doubts about his abilities as an administrator (he wrote to Hale that he was a “laboratory animal, who has tried most of his life to keep away from such entanglements”), [(Morgan to George Ellery Hale, 9 May 1927, G. E. Hale papers, California Institute of Technology Archives, microfilm roll 26, frame 29 3216)] the opportunity of heading a new department seemed to far outweigh the possible administrative problems. 3217 At Caltech, Morgan developed a modern department based on the concept of biology as he thought it should be studied and taught, where the new experimentalism could play a predominant role. Moving to Caltech also provided Morgan with the opportunity of achieving on a permanent basis the kind of scientific interaction and cooperation which he found so productive first at Naples and later during summers at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole. As he wrote to Hale: “The participation of a group of scientific men united in a common venture for the advancement of research fires my imagination to the kindling point” [(Ibid.3218)].

3205 Jeff Stein (special to The Baltimore Sun), Oh, say can you see a new anthem?, The Seattle Times, 28 March 1996, p. B5. 3206 Op. cit. 3207 Op. cit. 3208 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 9, p. 515a. 3209 Op. cit. 3210 Op. cit. 3211 Op. cit. 3212 Ibidem, 9, p. 517b. 3213 Op. cit. 3214 Ibidem, 9, p. 518a. 3215 Ibidem, 9, p. 525a. 3216 Ibidem, 9, p. 526a. 3217 Ibidem, 9, p. 525a. 3218 Ibidem, 9, p. 526a.

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Drosophila became the laboratory animal of choice for studying Mendelian genetics…because the fly is easy to handle and quick to breed in large numbers, making it possible to search through many individual flies for mutants. Studies of mutants have successfully elucidated metabolic pathways and regulatory processes in viruses, bacteria and yeast.3219 Another key advantage of using Drosophila for embryological studies is that during its early development the embryo is not partitioned into separate cells. In the embryos of most animals, when a cell’s nucleus divides, the rest of the cell contents divides with it. Cell membranes then segregate the halves, yielding two cells where there was one. Hence, the embryo grows as a ball of cells. In contrast, the nucleus of the fertilized Drosophila egg divides repeatedly, but membranes do not isolate the copies. Eventually thousands of nuclei lie around the periphery of what is still, in a manner of speaking, a single cell. Only after three hours of cell division, when som 6,000 nuclei have formed, do separate membranes appear.3220 In the Caltech period Morgan’s influence in genetics extended beyond the Drosophila work and the classical chromosome theory. Although he did not pioneer in the newer biochemical and molecular genetics that began to emerge in the 1940’s, he nourished that trend.3221

During his summers at Woods Hole, and especially after his move to California in 1928, Morgan returned to studies of early embryonic development. The cleavage of eggs; the effects of centrifuging eggs before and after fertilization; the behavior of spindles in cell division; preorganization in the egg; self-sterility in ascidians; and the factors affecting normal and abnormal development were some of the problems in experimental embryology.3222 During the academic year 1894-1895 [Ross Granville Harrison] was lecturer on morphology as a substitute for Thomas Hunt Morgan.3223 After a year’s study at Bonn (1895-1896) [Harrison] returned to the Johns Hopkins University in 1896 as instructor in anatomy in the medical school. He was promoted to associate in 1897 and to associate professor in 1899. In 1907 Harrison became the first Bronson professor of comparative anatomy at Yale, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was promoted to Sterling professor of biology in 1927 and became professor emeritus in 1938. From 1907 to 1938 he was head of the department of zoology.3224 He was an officer or member of advisory or administrative boards of many scientific and academic institutions and societies and of a number of government agencies. He was a trustee of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, from 1908, and a member of the board of the Bermuda Biological Laboratory from 1925; he was a member and trustee of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from 1930 to 1959, and his vision and foresight did much to advance oceanography to its present position among modern sciences. Harrison’s most far-reaching administrative contribution was as chairman of the National Research Council during the critical [World War II] years 1938-1946.3225 Harrison’s most important single scientific contribution was the innovation of the technique of tissue culture. It was he who first adapted the hanging drop method to the study of embryonic tissues in order to demonstrate the outgrowth of nerve fiber; the first reports of these experiments, carried out from 1905 to 1907 at the Johns Hopkins Medical School, were published in 1907.3226 He could directly observe with a microscope the formation of the fiber by the nerve cell, and his observations firmly established the validity of the outgrowth theory 3227…which maintained that the fiber is the product of the nerve cell itself. 3228 A contribution of vital significance not only to neurology but also to theoretical embryology, this was the final step in establishing that the cell is the primary developmental unit of the multicellular organism.3229 A number of investigators, including Julius Arnold, Gustav Born, Leo Loeb, and Gottlieb Haberlandt, had been attempting for a decade or more before the publication of Harrison’s results to grow tissues or cells in isolation in vitro or in vivo. Their attempts had not been as successful as Harrison’s, and it was unquestionably Harrison’s experiments…that gave impetus to the further use of tissue and cell culture and that established it as a technique adaptable to the solution of a wide variety of problems in biology and medicine. 3230

3219 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (director of the genetics division of the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen), Gradients that organize embryo development; a few crucial molecular signals give rise to chemical gradients that organize the developing embryo, Scientific American, Aug 1996, 275(2), p. 55. 3220 Op. cit. 3221 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 9, p. 525a. 3222 Ibidem, 9, p. 524a. 3223 Ibidem, 6, p. 131b. 3224 Op. cit. 3225 Ibidem, 6, pp. 133b-134a. 3226 Ibidem, 6, p. 131b. 3227 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 6, p. 132a. 3228 Op. cit. 3229 Op. cit. 3230 Op. cit.

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Another of Harrison’s early contributions that was of great importance to the development of experimental embryology was his adoption of Born’s method of embryonic grafting.3231 In 1896 Born described the results of experiments in which he had successfully joined separated living parts of amphibian larvae. Harrison began similar experiments in 1897 in order to study the growth and regeneration of the tail of the frog larva. Born had shown that it was possible to perform fusion experiments using parts of embryos from different taxonomic families; in 1903 Harrison reported the results of experiments in which he grafted the head of the frog larva of one species to the body of a larva of a species of a different color.3232 These experiments…served to demonstrate brilliantly the possibilities of interspecific (heteroplastic) grafting as an embryological technique. 3233 David M. Hoppe of the University of Minnesota at Morris points to what he calls a “recent, rapid-onset phenomenon” of [amphibian] limb deformities – which include missing or extra legs and digits. 3234 Hoppe notes that in the course of handling thousands of frogs between 1975 and 1995, he saw only two with visible limb defects; in 1996 alone he saw more than 200.3235 An 8-year-old boy who found a five-legged frog…has joined scientists across the country wondering about the cause of such deformities. [The boy] was looking for frogs to show his mother when he spotted the tiny tree frog with a fifth leg extending from its back.3236 Simon Wray, a biologist with the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, 3237…said [the] find was cause for curiosity and some concern, but not for panic. The deformity could have been caused by any variety of reasons.3238 From the fact that a noninverted disk 3239…of mesoderm covered by ectoderm 3240…grafted on the opposite side of the body from which it was taken develops a limb of reversed symmetry (that is, a left limb develops on the right side, or vice versa), while an inverted disk grafted onto the opposite side develops a limb with its symmetry conforming to the side onto which it is implanted (that is, a left limb develops on the left side or a right limb on the right side), Harrison [(1921) 3241] concluded that at the tail bud stage…[a specific] axis of the limb is already determined.3242 Harrison and his students in America shared with [Hans] Spemann and his students in Germany the honors for both the intellectual and the technical advances that brought the science of experimental embryology to full maturity.3243 Hans Spemann, who received the 1935 Nobel Prize for physiology or [ 3244] medicine for his contributions to experimental embryology, acknowledged in 1936 the importance of Harrison’s method of heteroplastic grafting for the experiments that led to his own theories of embryonic induction. 3245 [Spemann] attended the University of Heidelberg as soon as he had completed his year of military service in the Kassel hussars.3246 As a young biologist Spemann began work in 1894 at Würzburg as a doctoral student and teacher, and was the favorite pupil of Theodor Boveri. It was there, just after taking his doctorate, that he married Clara Binder. After fourteen years at Würzburg, Spemann became professor at Rostock (1908-1914). He spent the years of World War I as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Biology in Berlin-Dahlem,3247…retiring in 1938 and…dying in 1941.3248 The newt’s egg, when laid, is enclosed in an oval capsule of jelly. A thin hair – Spemann maintained that it should be from the head of a blond infant less than nine months old – can be tied around it and pulled tight enough to cut the egg in half or compress it to a dumbbell shape. Spemann found that if this constriction is carried out soon after laying, each separate half of the egg may develop into a complete larva; or, alternatively, one may develop into a whole larva and the other only into a more or less formless

3231 Op. cit. 3232 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 6, p. 132a. 3233 Ibidem, 6, p. 132b. 3234 Sasha Nemecek, Amphibians on-line, Scientific American, March 1996, 276(3), p. 18. 3235 Op. cit. 3236 Seattle Times staff, Boy, 8, finds five-legged frog, The Seattle Times, 18 Nov 1996, p. B2. 3237 Op. cit. 3238 Op. cit. 3239 Ibidem, 6, p. 133a. 3240 Op. cit. 3241 Op. cit. 3242 Op. cit. 3243 Ibidem, 6, p. 132b. 3244 Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine — Ibidem, 12, p. 567b. 3245 Ibidem, 6, p. 132b. 3246 Ibidem, 12, p. 567b. 3247 Op. cit. 3248 Op. cit.

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mass of cells. If the constriction is not complete and produces only a dumbbell, one may obtain an embryo with a single tail and two complete heads.3249 A half egg (or half region) never produces a half embryo, but always either a complete embryo (or organ such as the head) or nothing at all. 3250 When a piece of ectoderm is placed in contact with the mesoderm, it is induced to form not a mere mass of neural cells but a part of a neural organ, such as the brain, with a greater or lesser degree of organization.3251 By surgical manipulation of its neighboring cells, it can be determined whether this embryonic part will develop into nerves or into skin.3252 In later experiments, devoted to the study of induction in other regions of the embryo, Spemann again found that what is induced usually is an organ, with its own characteristic shape. [When] fragments from frogs’ eggs were transplanted to newts’ eggs, or vice versa,…the character of the induced organ depends much more on its own intrinsic (presumably genetic) constitution than on that of the inducer. Thus a frog inducer, acting on newt tissues, produces a newt organ.3253 He invented a number of very simple but elegant and refined instruments, mostly made from glass, which made it possible to carry out complicated surgical operations on eggs and embryos only a millimeter or two in diameter. In this way he became almost solely responsible for founding the techniques of microsurgery, certainly one of his greatest contributions to biology. Using such instruments, Spemann could remove the region of ectoderm from which the lens would be expected to form, and substitute some other piece for it before the development of the retina; he found that this foreign ectoderm was induced by the retina to develop into a lens. 3254 At Heidelberg, Spemann formed a friendship that without doubt greatly influenced the direction of his life. Gustaf Wolff, a few years older than he, had begun experiments on the embryological development of newts and had shown that if the lens of the eye is removed, a new lens may be formed – not from the tissue that gives rise to the lens in normal development, but from the edge of the retina. This “Wolffian lens regeneration” intrigued Spemann throughout most of his life, and it still retains some of the air of mystery that originally surrounded it. 3255

3249 Ibidem, 12, p. 568a. 3250 Ibidem, 12, p. 568b. 3251 Ibidem, 12, p. 569a. 3252 Op. cit. 3253 Op. cit. 3254 Ibidem, 12, p. 568a. 3255 Ibidem, 12, p. 567b.

269 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

“Be kind to slugs.”

Political revolutions come and go, but it is science that has brought about the 20th century’s most startling changes. Partisans will point variously to antibiotics, improved crops and the World Wide Web or to global warming, mass extinction and the Bomb, but nobody can deny that science made these developments possible. 3256 Discoveries and adventures are not the product of an idle mind. Invention is the art of imagining a new world, of redefining old limits, of crossing the tenative border that separates our present from our future. And for the [individual] who invents, that future is always poised on the break of a new day.3257

• • •

Of mice and men: It sounds like something from a carnival side show: “The Mouse With A Human Ear On Its Back.” But it’s real. It’s alive. The mouse, and others of its kind, are at the leading edge of a science known as tissue engineering. 3258 The [hairless 3259] mouse, specially bread to lack an immune system that might reject the human tissue, nourished the ear as the cartilage cells grew.3260 The mouse remains healthy and alive after the ear is removed, the researchers said. The mouse in question, in the laboratory of University of Massachusetts anesthesiologist Dr. Charles Vacanti, is helping researchers refine the technology that someday will allow them to regrow ears and noses for people. Linda Griffith-Cima, an assistant professor of chemical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology who helped Vacanti grow the first ears on mice, said she did it at the request of a plastic surgeon from Children’s Hospital, Dr. Joe Upton.3261

• • •

“The mice were furious.” “The mice were furious?” “Oh yes,” said the old man mildly. “Yes, well, so I expect were the dogs and cats and duckbilled platypuses, but . . .” “Ah, but they hadn’t paid for it, you see, had they?” “Look,” said Arthur, “would it save you a lot of time if I just gave up and went mad now?” 3262 “Earthman, the planet you lived on was commissioned, paid for, and run by mice.” 3263 Slartibartfast coughed politely. “Earthman,” he said,…“These creatures you call mice, you see they are not quite as they appear. 3264 The whole business with the cheese and the squeaking is just a front.” The old man paused, and with a sympathetic frown continued. “They’ve been experimenting on you, I’m afraid.” Arthur thought about this for a second, and then his face cleared. “Ah no,” he said, “I see the source of the misunderstanding now. No, look, you see what happened was that we used to do experiments on them. They were often used in behavioral research, Pavlov and all that sort of stuff. So what happened was that the mice would be set all sorts of tests, learning to ring bells, run round mazes and things so that the whole nature of the learning process could be examined. From our observations of their behavior we were able to learn all sorts of things about our own. . . .” Arthur’s voice trailed off. “Such subtley. . .” said Slartibartfast, “one has to admire it.” “What?” said Arthur. “How better to disguise their real natures, and how better to guide your thinking. Suddenly running down a maze the wrong way, eating the wrong bit of cheese, unexpectedly dropping dead of myxomatosis. If it’s finely calculated the cumulative effect is enormous.” He paused for effect.

3256 Tim Beardsly, Eliciting science’s best, Scientific American, June 1997, 276(6), p. 142. 3257 Janet Stites, The resuscitator, Omni, Aug 1994, 16(11), p. 46. 3258 Newsmakers, The Seattle Times, 25 Oct 1995, p. A2. 3259 Op. cit. 3260 Op. cit. 3261 Op. cit. 3262 Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (NY: Pocket Books, 1981(1945)), p. 163. 3263 Op. cit. 3264 Ibidem, p. 164.

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“You see, Earthman, they really are particularly clever hyperintelligent pandimensional beings. Your planet and people have formed the matrix of an organic computer running a…research program. . . . Let me tell you the whole story. It’ll take a little time.” 3265 In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 3266 And lo, the star which they had seen in the East went before them, till it came to rest over the place where the child [(the Alpha Christ)] was.… 3267 “They are here.” 3268 The Fourth Turning, due between about 2005 and 2020, is a crisis time in which old orders are overthrown by new ones.3269 “Every Fourth Turning in history has involved total war,” [historian Neil] Howe says. 3270 • Society is undergoing tumultuous change, and a conflit is occurring that has many parallels with the changes in a world view that took place during the Renaissance, when Nicolaus Copernicus was branded a heretic for displacing the Earth from the center of the universe. Although scientific empiricism backed him up, it still took 300 years before his theory was widely accepted.3271 • [Sir Isaac] Newton,…proved that gravity, not God, made the arrow arc towards its target. 3272 • Charles [Robert] Darwin was so terrified when he discovered that mankind had not been specially separated from all other animals by God that it took him two decades to find the courage to publish the work that forever altered the way humans look at life on Earth [(On The Origin of the Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) 3273)].3274 • Albert Einstein, so outwardly serene, once said that after the theory of relativity stormed into his mind as a young man, it never again left him, not even for a minute.3275 In the words of Roger Walsh, Ph.D., professor of psychiatry and philosophy at the University of California at Irvine, “Science enlarged the scope of our known universe from leagues to light years, but paradoxically we ended up as meaningless blobs of protoplasm adrift on a little speck of dust in some uncharted galaxy. In response to this we’re seeing a real thirst for direct spiritual experience.” 3276 How good you are does not dictate how rich you are or how happy you are or how successful or well loved. Those are all different avenues that need to be worked on simultaneously in a carefully balanced web of personal multi-tasking, and it’s horrendously difficult, and there’re no super-clear guidelines, although people will say it’s in the Bible or the Koran 3277…[or the Bhagavad Gita or Buddha’s teachings or on “Star Trek” or in] artificial intelligences (“sophotects”) 3278…or what have you.3279 You only have to go to a local aquarium or zoo to know that there could never be anything so wondrous as the proliferation of life on Earth, the incredibly complex and interdependent matrix of nature that is already right here. If you’re not stoned on the ecology that exists in your own back yard, no Garden Planet full of custard pastries and dimpled cherubim and talking rabbits is going to rock your world, either. This place is a fixer-upper, at this point, but fer gosh sakes, there’s so much stuff here worth preserving. Those who bail out are cheating the zebras and the water rats and the manatees [ 3280, 3281] of their rightful champions and spokespersons. Only absolute Wimps would

3265 Ibidem, pp. 164-165. 3266 Genesis 1.1, The Bible, Revised Standard Version (NY: American Bible Society, 1970). 3267 Ibidem, Matthew 2.9. 3268 Peter Davenport of the National UFO Reporting Center in Seattle, Wash.,…brands most UFO reports “hogwash,” but not this one. “What we have here,” he says with conviction, “is the real thing.” — Richard Price, Arizonians say the truth about UFO is out there; on March 13 hundreds of people reported an enormous object, or objects, in the night sky, USA Today, 18 June 1997, 15(194), p. 4A. 3269 Fred Tasker (Knight-Ridder Newspapers), Futurists offer varying forecasts for 21st century, The Seattle Times, 30 March 1997, p. A4. 3270 Op. cit. 3271 Anne Ramsey Cuvelier, The truth is still out there; cult tragedy shouldn’t taint all UFO research, San Francisco Chronicle, 11 April 1997, p. A25. 3272 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 54. 3273 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 153. 3274 Michael Specter with Gina Kolata, After decades and many missteps, cloning success, The New York Times, 3 March 1997, CXLVI(50, 720), p. A1. 3275 Op. cit. 3276 Jill Neimark, Do the spirits move you?, Psychology Today, Sep/Oct 1996, 29(5), p. 54. 3277 Cintra Wilson (Special to the Examiner), Heaven’s Gate; a twee paradise of wimps, San Francisco Examiner, 13 April 1997, 132(15), p. C-15. 3278 Poul Anderson, The Stars Are Also Fire, In Robert K. J. Killheffer, Writing with the net up: emphasizing the “science” in science fiction, Omni, Sep 1994, 16(11), p. 13. 3279 Cintra Wilson (Special to the Examiner), Heaven’s Gate; a twee paradise of wimps, San Francisco Examiner, 13 April 1997, 132(15), p. C-15.

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sucker out in a blaze of barbiturates, instead of hanging around and helping and seeing how interesting this place gets in the next handful of years.3282

3280 Rescuers are looking for a 600-pound, 2-year-old manatee that has become ensnared in a cable. As he grows to his maximum 3,000 pounds, the wire could strangle him. — Florida, Across the USA: news from every state, USA Today, 5 March 1997, 15(120), p. 9A. 3281 Manatees, already endangered, had a bad year. Some 400 of the big aquatic mammals died in 1996, the largest death toll in 22 years and nearly double the previous record. Although they are routinely run over by powerboats, last spring they fought a subtler enemy: a red tide – an explosive bloom of toxic algae – killed at least 158 of them.… The total manatee population now stands at around 2,200. — Michael M. Abrams, Bad tidings for manatees, Discover, Jan 1997, 18(1), p. 71. 3282 Cintra Wilson (Special to the Examiner), Heaven’s Gate; a twee paradise of wimps, San Francisco Examiner, 13 April 1997, 132(15), p. C-15.

272 Kevin Crosby 30 June 1997

Tacks

If the name ends in -barbital, it may well be a barbiturate, like amobarbital, [aprobarbital, butabarbital, mephobarbital,] phenobarbital, pentobarbital, and secobarbital. 3283 [Additional barbiturates include butalbital, metharbital, talbutal and thiopental sodium.] All sedative drugs depress the central nervous system. 3284 The benzodiazepines, short-acting barbiturates, pentobarbital, secobarbital, and amobarbital are detoxified by the liver, as is methaqualone. 3285 A withdrawal syndrome consisting of tremulousness, agitation, and sometimes delirium and convulsions can develop after prompt withdrawal from chronic exposure to any of the hypnotic sedatives. Convulsions are a particular problem after withdrawal from barbiturates, mephobamate, and methaqualone. 3286 Amytal; sodium amytal: 1. proprietary name for one of the barbiturates used extensively as a sedative and hypnotic. 2. “truth serum,” so-called because under the influence inhibitions may be lowered with the result that the individual will discuss his problems more freely. Contrary to popular opinion, criminals do not confess against their will when given hypnotic drugs.3287 Barbiturates, or “downers,” are powerful,3288…nonselective central nervous system depressants which are primarily used as sedative hypnotics 3289…[that] block[] the transmission of nerve impulses…by impeding the transfer of sodium and potassium across cell membranes. 3290 Barbiturates are weak acids 3291…derived from barbituric acid or thiobarbituric acid 3292…that are absorbed and rapidly distributed to all tissues and fluids with high concentration in the brain, liver, and kidneys.3293 [Barbiturates are] classified into long-, intermediate-, short-, and ultrashort-acting classes.3294 The long-acting barbiturate phenobarbital 3295…has the lowest lipid solubility, lowest plasma binding, lowest brain protein binding, the longest delay in onset of activity.3296 At the opposite extreme is secobarbital which has the highest lipid solubility, plasma protein binding, brain protein binding, the shortest delay in onset of activity, and the shortest duration of action.3297 Butabarbital is classified as an intermediate barbiturate. 3298

• • •

[Benzodiazepines,] barbiturates and methaqualone are popular as street drugs, because they relax the muscles and produce a mild euphoric state.3299 People taking such substances feel calm and relaxed. They may also become

3283 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 185. 3284 Cecil Textbook of Medicine, eds. James B. Wyngaarden, M.D, Lloyd H. Smith, Jr., M.D., & J. Claude Bennett, M.D., 19th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1992), 2, p. 2054. 3285 Op. cit. 3286 Op. cit. 3287 James P. Chaplin, Dictionary of Psychology: Revised Edition, (NY: Laurel, Dell Publ. Co., Inc., 1982(1968)). 3288 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 296. 3289 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 439c. 3290 James J. Rybacki, Pharm.D., & James W. Long, M.D., The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs (NY: HarperPerennial, 1997), p. 795. 3291 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 442a. 3292 Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1988). 3293 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 442a. 3294 Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1988). 3295 Op. cit. 3296 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 442b. 3297 Op. cit. 3298 Op. cit. 3299 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 186.

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sociable and open because of lowered interpersonal inhibitions.3300 Barbiturates lead rapidly to physiological and psychological dependence,3301…[and they are derived from urine].

“Barbs” Trickle Down: “More than 1 million persons – primarily the middle-aged and elderly – are now estimated to be barbiturate addicts.” 3302

In 1856, after a year’s military service, [Adolf Johann Friedrich Willhelm von Baeyer] decided to study experimental chemistry with R. Bunsen in Heidelberg, where the emphasis was on applied physical chemistry. 3303 In 1858…[he] receive[d] his doctoral degree from Berlin for work on arsenic methyl chloride. 3304 Most of Baeyer’s contributions to science were widely recognized during his lifetime. He received the Liebig Medal of the Berlin Chemists Congress, the Royal Society’s Davy Medal, and in 1905 the Nobel Prize for his work on dyes and hydroaromatic compounds.3305 Most of Baeyer’s scientific interest grew out of work he began at the technical institute in Berlin.3306 He prepared various derivatives [of uric acid,3307] including barbiturates.3308 [Emil Hermann] Fischer’s purine research was [also] of interest to the German drug industry. His laboratory methods became the basis for the industrial production of caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine. In 1903 he synthesized 5,5-diethyl-barbituric acid.3309 This compound proved to be a valuable hypnotic. Another commercially valuable purine was phynl, ethyl-barbituric acid, prepared by Ficher in 1912 and known as…phenobarbital. 3310 Before the 1950s barbiturates were often prescribed to relieve anxiety. 3311 During the 1940s and 1950s, the propanediols (meprobamate compounds) and benzodazepines took over as the preferred medications. 3312 They are considered safer than barbiturates; and there is little doubt that they effectively reduce anxiety and the behavioral symptoms of anxiety disorder ([Rickles, K. (1966). Drugs in the treatment of neurotic anxiety. In P. Solomon (Ed.), Psychiatric drugs. New York: Grune & Stratton 3313]).3314 The major problem of the minor tranquilizers is the great potential for overuse and overreliance. For example, about one in ten adults uses antianxiety drugs at least once a year ([Uhlenhuth, E. H., Balter, M. B., Mellinger, G. D., Cisin, I. H., & Clinthorne, J. (1983). Symptom checklist syndromes in the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1167-1173 3315]), and people are becoming more receptive to their use in relieving psychological problems ([Clinthorne, J. K., Cisin, I. H., Balter, M. B., Mellinger, G. D., Uhlenhuth, E. H. (1986). Changes in popular attitudes and beliefs about tranquilizers: 1970-1979. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 527-532 3316]). Almost everyone feels anxious at one time or another, and the antianxiety drugs are effective, readily available, low in cost, and easy to administer.3317 Psychologists generally oppose using barbiturates and methaqualone for anxiety, tension, and insomnia. They…do nothing to teach the individual how to alter disturbing patterns of behavior.3318 They are a quick, easy alternative to developing personal coping skills, 3319…and using them does nothing to help a person change sources

3300 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 295. 3301 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 185. 3302 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 296. 3303 Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. in chief Charles Coulston Gillispie (NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 1, 389b. 3304 Op. cit. 3305 Op. cit. 3306 Op. cit. 3307 Op. cit. 3308 Op. cit. 3309 Ibidem, 5, p. 2b. 3310 Op. cit. 3311 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 541. 3312 Ibidem, pp. 541-542. 3313 Ibidem, p. A-69. 3314 Ibidem, p. 542. 3315 Ibidem, p. A-81. 3316 Ibidem, p. A-28. 3317 Ibidem, p. 542. 3318 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), pp. 185-186. 3319 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 542.

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of stress in his or her life.3320 As a result, people tend to choose the short-term relief offered by these drugs, over the long-term but slower gains of developing the ability to manage stress and solve one’s own problems. 3321 Barbiturates…[have] a number of medical uses…including relief of anxiety and tension, deadening of pain, and treatment of epilepsy, high blood pressure, and insomnia.3322 In addition, some of the barbiturates are used as anticonvulsants to help control seizures in certain disorders or diseases, such as epilepsy. 3323 Ultra-short-acting barbiturates are used as anesthetics.3324 [Physicians] now prefer to prescribe minor tranquilizers such as Valium and Librium for anxiety and tension, and other drugs for insomnia.3325 Barbiturates should be administered with caution, if at all, to patients who are mentally depressed, have suicidal tendencies, or a history of drug abuse. 3326

• • •

Elderly or debilitated patients may react to barbiturates with marked excitement, depression, and confusion. In some persons, barbiturates repeatedly produce excitement rather than depression. 3327 Barbiturate intoxication may be confused with alcoholism, bromide intoxication, and with various neurological disorders.3328 Symptoms of acute intoxication with barbiturates include unsteady gait, slurred speech, and sustained nystagmus.3329 [Additional adverse reactions include somnolence (sleepiness),] agitation, confusion, hyperkinesia, ataxia [(failure of muscular coordination; irregularity of muscular action 3330),] CNS depression, nightmares, nervousness, psychiatric distrubance, hallucinations, insomnia, anxiety, dizziness, thinking abnormally, 3331… hypoventilation, [and] apnea.3332 Mental signs of chronic intoxication include confusion, poor judgment, irritability, insomnia, and somatic complaints.3333 High doses of barbiturates result in drowsiness, motor impairment, slurred speech, irritability, and poor judgement. A physiologically dependent person who is withdrawn abruptly may experience severe convulsions and die.3334 The lethal dosage of barbiturates does not increase with prolonged use, so accidental overdoses and death can easily occur.3335 Concurrent use of the barbiturates with other CNS depressants (e.g., alcohol, narcotics, tranquilizers, and antihistamines) may result in additional CNS depressant effects. 3336 For example, when a large dose of barbiturate is taken along with alcohol, death may occur because of a synergistic effect that depresses the central nervous system.3337 With hypnotic doses, respiratory depression produced by barbiturates is similar to that which occurs during physiological sleep with slight decrease in blood pressure and heart rate. 3338 Barbiturate-induced sleep differs from physiological sleep.3339 Barbiturates reduce the amount of time spent in the rapid eye movement (REM) phase of

3320 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), pp. 185-186. 3321 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 542. 3322 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 185. 3323 United States Pharmacopeia, Complete Drug Reference, 1997 ed. (NY: Consumers Union, 1997), p. 335. 3324 Linda Skidmore-Roth, R.N., M.S.N., N.P., Mosby’s Nursing Drug Guide (St. Louis: Mosby, 1996), p. 35. 3325 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), pp. 185-186. 3326 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 442c. 3327 Op. cit. 3328 Ibidem, p. 441b. 3329 Ibidem, p. 443b. 3330 ataxia, Darland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Sanders Co., 1988). 3331 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 441a. 3332 Op. cit. 3333 Op. cit. 3334 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology, 3rd ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987), p. 186. 3335 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 296. 3336 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 442c. 3337 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 296. 3338 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 439c. 3339 Op. cit.

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sleep or dreaming stage. Also, Stages III and IV sleep are decreased. Following abrupt cessation of barbiturates used regularly, patients may experience markedly increased dreaming, nightmares, and/or insomnia. 3340 [In an overdose,] typical shock syndrome (apnea, circulatory collapse, respiratory arrest, and death) may occur.3341 Complications such as pneumonia, pulmonary edema, cardiac arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, and renal failure may occur.3342 Differential diagnosis should include hypoglycemia, head trauma, cerebrovascular accidents, convulsive states, and diabetic coma.3343 In extreme overdose, all electrical activity in the brain may cease, in which case a “flat” EEG normally equated with clinical death cannot be accepted. This effect is fully reversible unless hypoxic damage occurs.3344

• • •

Minor withdrawal symptoms may appear 8 to 12 hours after the last dose 3345…[and] usually appear in the following order: anxiety, muscle twitching, tremor of hands and fingers, progressive weakness, dizziness, distortion in visual perception, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, and orthostatic hypotension.3346 Barbiturates including phenobarbital may cause photosensitivity (skin sensitivity) on exposure to ultraviolet light,3347…[and] barbiturates may produce excitability in children. 3348 This drug is available in many combinations with derivative of belladonna, an antispasmodic commonly used to treat functional disorders of the gastrointestinal tract. It is also available in combination with bronchodilators for the treatment of asthma, and with ergotamine for the treatment of headaches.3349 It is reported that barbiturates can cause fetal damage when taken during pregnancy,3350…[and there are] conflicting reports of cleft palate and skeletal defects in mouse, rat and rabbit studies. 3351 Reports of infants suffering from long-term barbiturate exposure in utero included the acute withdrawal syndrome of seizures and hyperirritability from birth to a delayed onset of up to 14 days.3352

Alcohol (Ethanol)

An estimated 10% of the U.S. population abuses alcohol.3353 It has been found that almost 10 percent of 14-year-olds are already drinking excessively.3354 Current estimates indicate that alcoholism affects at least 22 million people in the United States and causes 200,000 deaths each year, making it one of America’s most serious health problems. As many as 88 million people in the U.S. are adversely affected by an alcoholic parent, family member, friend, or associated. A 1992 Gallup poll, reported in the October 24, 1993, New York Times, found that approximately 81 million Americans have been directly or indirectly hurt by someone else’s drinking problem. 3355 Chronic intake of alcohol (or, more technically, ethanol) is related to 3356…cirrhosis, in which an excessive amount of fibrous tissue develops and impedes the circulation of blood,3357…the nervous system, the cardiovascular 3340 Op. cit. 3341 Ibidem, p. 443b. 3342 Ibidem, p. 441b. 3343 Op. cit. 3344 Ibidem, p. 443b. 3345 Ibidem, p. 441b. 3346 Op. cit. 3347 James J. Rybacki, Pharm.D., & James W. Long, M.D., The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs (NY: HarperPerennial, 1997), p. 1102. 3348 Linda Skidmore-Roth, R.N., M.S.N., N.P., Mosby’s Nursing Drug Guide (St. Louis: Mosby, 1996), pp. 35-36. 3349 James J. Rybacki, Pharm.D., & James W. Long, M.D., The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs (NY: HarperPerennial, 1997), p. 795. 3350 Ibidem, p. 798. 3351 Op. cit. 3352 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 443a. 3353 John Hart, Cheryl Holdren, Richard Schneider, & Christine Shirley, Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 63. 3354 E. Mavis Hetherington & Ross D. Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint, 4th ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 624. 3355 James E. Marti with Andrea Hine, The Alternative Health & Medicine Encyclopedia, (NY: Gale Research Inc., 1995), p. 156. 3356 John Hart, Cheryl Holdren, Richard Schneider, & Christine Shirley, Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 63. 3357 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), pp. 293-294

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system, and the immune system.3358 Chronic alcoholism…is often accompanied by poor nutritional habits and physical deterioration.3359 Alcohol consumption in pregnant women may affect their unborn children: children who suffer fetal alcohol syndrome are born mentally retarded and physcially deformed. 3360 Regular alcohol consumption combined with smoking is also linked to cancer of the head and neck.3361 [Ethonal] is broken down in the body by two sets of enzymes known as alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS).3362 MEOS detoxifies barbiturates. However, the enzyme that detoxifies the drug is more attracted to ethanol. So, when ethanol and barbiturates are taken together, the ethanol rapidly takes over the metabolizing capacity of the MEOS. The bioactive barbiturate is left in circulation to be metabolized after competition from ethanol diminishes. For this reason, the lethal dose of barbiturate is ingested along with ethanol. This process also occurs when exposure to ethanol and toxics are simultaneous. Xylene…[(in air fresheners, degreasing cleaners, glues, lacquers, marketing pens, nail polish, paint, paint remover, pesticides, and solvents 3363)] proves an interesting example of such interaction.3364 It is possible for workers to receive such simultaneous exposures when they drink after leaving a workplace contaminated with xylene because the chemical is stored in body fat.3365

Both The Cause And The Cure

Phenobarbital is the least expensive of the available antiepileptic drugs, [has been in use since 1912, 3366] and has the fewest dangerous side effects. Sedation is common but may not be a problem at lower doses and may subside over time even at higher doses.3367 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)…may increase the effects of phenobarbital.3368 Phenobarbital commonly causes hyperkinetic activity and other undesirable behavioral disturbances in children. Most epileptologists now generally prefer carbamazepine for this age group. Phenobarbital should not be given to patients with depressive tendencies. It can excerbate psychological depression and is the most common instrument of suicide in the epileptic population.3369 [It can also cause drug-induced seizures.3370]

• • •

The development of antidepressants was aided by a fortunate coincidence. During the 1950s, clinicians noticed that patients treated with the antituberculosis drug iproniazid became happier and more optimistic. When tested on depressed patients, the drug was found to be effective as an antidepressant. Unfortunately, liver damage and fatalities caused by the drug were relatively high. Continued interest in antidepressants has led to the identification of two large classes of the compounds: the monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors [(or MAOI),] and the tricyclics. 3371 A recent addition to antidepressant medication that may become the preferred drug of treatment is fluoxetine hydrochloride.3372 It is also used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder.3373 3358 John Hart, Cheryl Holdren, Richard Schneider, & Christine Shirley, Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 63. 3359 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 293. 3360Ibidem, pp. 293-294. 3361 John Hart, Cheryl Holdren, Richard Schneider, & Christine Shirley, Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 63. 3362 Op. cit. 3363 Ibidem, p. 435. 3364 Ibidem, p. 63. 3365 Ibidem, p. 435. 3366 Massimo Avoli, M.D., Ph.D., (Professor in the Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery and of Physiology at McGill University and Head of the Research Group in Cell Biology of Excitable Tissues at the Montreal Neurological Institute), Molecular mechanics of antiepileptic drugs, Science and Medicine, July/Aug 1997, 4(4), p. 58. 3367 Cecil Textbook of Medicine, eds. James B. Wyngaarden, M.D, Lloyd H. Smith, Jr., M.D., & J. Claude Bennett, M.D., 19th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1992), 2, p. 2211. 3368 James J. Rybacki, Pharm.D., & James W. Long, M.D., The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs (NY: HarperPerennial, 1997), p. 799. 3369 Op. cit. 3370 James J. Rybacki, Pharm.D., & James W. Long, M.D., The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs (NY: HarperPerennial, 1997), p. 797. 3371 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. 544. 3372 Op. cit. 3373 United States Pharmacopeia, Complete Drug Reference, 1997 ed. (NY: Consumers Union, 1997), p. 814.

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[Fluoxetine hydrochloride’s] side effects were reported to…include[] nervousness, insomnia, and nausea ([Cole, J. O., & Bodkin, J. A. (1990). Antidepressant drug side effects. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 21-26 3374]).3375 The tricyclics, too, may cause reactions such as drowsiness, insomnia, agitation, fine tremors, blurred vision, [and] dry mouth. 3376 MAO inhibitors have many side effects including insomnia, irritability, [and] dizziness. 3377 [(O.K., those symptoms read just like the sedative hypnotics.)] Anticonvulsants may interact with antidepressants. 3378 Phenobarbital may decrease the effects of…tricyclic antidepressants.3379 MAOI prolong the effects of barbiturates.3380 [(O.K.)]

Closed Injection Systems: “Super-sharp, siliconized needles minimize penetration pressure.” 3381

At least one closed injection system resembles a poster tack – a small prong on one side with a potentially sticky surface on the other – but would prove ineffective for mounting posters.

3374 David Sue, Derald Sue, & Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 4th ed. (Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994), p. A-29. 3375 Ibidem, p. 544. 3376 Ibidem, p. 380. 3377 Ibidem, p. 380. 3378 James J. Rybacki, Pharm.D., & James W. Long, M.D., The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs (NY: HarperPerennial, 1997), p. 420. 3379 Ibidem, p. 799. 3380 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 440c. 3381 Medical Consultants Ronald Arky, M.D., & Charles S. Davidson (Professor of Medicine and Master, Francis Weld Peabody Society, Harvard Medical School), Physicians’ Desk Reference®, 49th ed. (NJ: Medical Economics, 1995), p. 2749.

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Sodium Pentathol

Sodium pentathol, while lacking a formal medical reference,[ 3382] has been used as an anesthetic in oral surgery, by the Central Intelligence Agency as a “truth serum,” and criminals have “slipped Mickeys” into victims’ drinks for years. A definition for sodium pentathol might be: [ 3383] sodium pentathol — “Sodium P” 1a. ordnance of the Central Intelligence Agency < ~ is also truth serum > b. anesthetic used in oral surgery < [(March 1974)] the oral surgeon administered a hit of IV ~ — Philip K. Dick, Valis (NY: Vintage Books, 1991), p. 108 > 2. DATE RAPE DRUG < Mickey Finns or ~ are the date rape drugs of choice > 3. a constellation and combination of drugs, esp. amnesics, tranquilizers, anticonvulsants, sedative hypnotics, (pre)anesthetics, and narcosynthetics : incl. amobarbital, aprobarbital, butabarbital, butalbital, mephobarbital, metharbital, pentobarbital, pentobarbital sodium, phenobarbital, quinalbarbitone, secobarbital, talbutal, thiopental sodium : sold under brand names: Alubelap; Alurate; Amaphen; Ambien Tablets (Searle); Amidate (Abbot); Aminodrox-Forte, Amytal; Ancalixir; Anolor-300; Anoquan; Antispasmodic; Antrocol Elixir (ECR); Arcet; Arco-Lase Plus Tablets (Arco); Ascomp with Codeine No.3; Axocet (Savage); Axotal (Savage); Azpan; Bancap; Barbidonna; Barbidonna Elixer, Barbidonna No. 2; Barbita; Barbital; Barophen; Belap; Belladenal; Belladenal-S; Belladenal Spacetabs; Bellalphen; Bellatal Tablets (Richwood); Bellergal; Bellergal-S Tablets (Sandoz Pharmaceuticals); Bellergal Spacetabs; Bronchotabs; Bronkolixir; Bucet; Bupap Tablets (ECR); Butalgen; Butibel; Butisol Sodium Elixir & Tablets (Wallace); Busodium, Butabarbital Sodium Elixir USP 30mg / 5mL (Barre- National); Butace; Butalan; Butalbital Compound with Codeine; Butinal with Codeine No.3; Butisol Sodium Elixir & Tablets (Wallace); Cafergot-PB; Chardonna-2; Conten; Dalmane Capsules (Roche Products); Daricon PB, Diclophen; Dilantin w/Phenobarbital; Diprivan Injection (Stuart); Dolmar; Donphen; Donnamor; Donnapine; Donna-Sed; Donnatal Tablets, Capsules, Elixir (Robins Co.); Donnatal Extentabs (Robins Co.); Donnatal No. 2; Donphen; Doral Tablets (Wallace); Dorminal; Endolor; Ergobel; Esgic-Plus (Forest Pharmaceuticals); Esgic Tablets & Capsules (Forest Pharmaceuticals); Eskabarb; Eskaphen B; Ezol; Femcet Capsules (Northampton Medical); Fiorgen; Fioricet Tablets (Sandoz Pharmaceuticals); Fioricet with Codeine Capsules (Sandoz Pharmaceuticals); Fiorinal Capsules, Tablets (Sandoz Pharmaceuticals); Fiorinal with Codeine Capsules (Sandoz Pharmaceuticals); Fiorinal with Codeine No.3; Fiorinal-C ¼, ½; Fiormor; Floramine; Fortabs; Gardenal; Gemonil; Halcion Tablets (Upjohn); Hybephen; Hypnaldyne; Hysophen; Idenal with Codeine; Inapsine Injection (Janssen); Isobutal; Isobutyl; Isocet; Isolin; Isollyl with Codeine; Isopop; Isuprel compound; Kinesed; Laniroif; Lanorinal; Levsin-PB; Levsin with Phenobarbital; Lotusate; Luminal; Malatal; Marnal; Mebaral Tablets (Sanofi Winthrop Pharmaceuticals); Medigesic Capsules (U.S. Pharmaceutical); Mudrane Tablets (ECR); Mudrane GG Elixir, Tablets (ECR); Nembutal Sodium Capsules, Solution and Suppositories (Abbot); Neuro-Spasex; Neuro-Trasentin; Neuro-Trasentin Forte; Nova Rectal; Novalene; Novopentobarb; Novosecobarb; Pacaps Capsules (Lunsco); Pentobarbital Sodium in Tubex (Wyeth-Ayerst); Pentothal; Pentothol; Pharmgesic; Phedral; Phenaphen with Codeine Capsules No. 2, 3, 4 (Robins Co.); Phenergan w/Codeine; Phenobarbital Elixir and Tablets (Lilly); Phenobarbital Elixir & Tablets (Roxane); Phenobarbital Elixir USP 20 mg/5 mL (Barre-National); Phenobarbital Sodium Injection (Elkins-Sinn); Phenobarbital Sodium in Tubex (Wyeth-Ayerst); Phenobarbital Tablets, USP (Warner Chilcott); Phenobarbitone; Phrenilin Forte Capsules (Carnrick); Phrenilin Tablets (Carnrick); Phyldrox; Placidyl (Abbot); ProSom Tablets (Abbot); Quadrinal Tablets (Knoll); Repan (Everett); REPAN-CF Tablets (Everett); Relaxdron; Restoril Capsules (Sandoz Pharmaceuticals), Rexatal Tablets (Rexar); Sarisol No. 2; SBP; Scodonnar; Seconal Sodium Pulvules (Lilly); Secobarbital Sodium in Tubex (Wyeth-Ayerst); Sedacord; Sedapap Tablets 50 mg/650 mg (Mayrand Pharmaceuticals); SK-Phenobarbital; Solfoton Tablets, Capsules (ECR); Spaslin; Spasmolin; Spasmophen; Spasquid; Spazcaps; Susano; Tecnal; Tecnal-C ¼, ½; Tedral Preparations; Tencon Capsules (International Ethical); Tencet; Tencon; T.E.P.; Thalfed; Theocardone; Theocord; Theolixer; Triad; Triaprin; Tuinal; Two-Dyne; Veronal; Vibutal; Vitaphen, et al. — (Physicians’ Desk Reference®, The Essential Guide to Prescription Drugs, Complete Drug Reference, et al.)

3382 Granted, I haven’t searched the Internet for references. 3383My definition of “Sodium P” is based on years of being victimized by my adoptive parental unit who used sedative hypnotics against me and others. For example, I would arrive home from grade school, be told to drink a beverage when strange men were over, and then I’d wake up in the morning with no intervening memories. Sodium P makes roofies and other benzodiazepines seem like candy.

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“Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” 3384

Down a rutted dirt road, past fields where…leaves mellowed in the sun, rode a rangy, rusty-haired man of twenty-seven.3385 Thomas Jefferson was in an exuberant mood.3386 Occasionally he would hum a song, for he loved music.3387 In the fall of 1770,3388…he was on his way to a house called The Forest.3389 Waiting there was someone who listened with special attention to…opinions on slavery, architecture, farming and political rights of… Americans. Martha Wayles Skelton was a…beauty of twenty-two.3390 Jefferson had spent his early twenties adoring Rebecca Burwell, an orphan descended from some of Virginia’s best families, but he could not bring himself to ask the ultimate question. 3391 Once he had hinted to Rebecca that if she would wait a year or two…,3392…but the young lady frowned on this idea.3393 Jefferson had spent hours composing.3394 “I was prepared to say a great deal,”…but face-to-face with Rebecca…“a few broken sentences uttered in great disorder were the too visible marks of my strange confusion!” The blithe mask concealed a deeply sensitive, shy scholar.3395 Jefferson settled down to practicing law and enjoying life. He dated his Williamsburg letters “Devilsburgh,” needled his friends for falling in love, and at the same time placed more and more value on their company, conveniently ignoring the fact that they were married. One day he was writing how much he enjoyed “the philosophical evenings.” 3396 Around this time he became involved in a flirtation that he was later to regret bitterly. An old friend. 3397 Jefferson was a frequent visitor in the[] house,…[and his] visits…became more than casual. Before long he was using his sophistication to persuade [her] that there was nothing wrong with illicit love; but [she]…finally said no, and Jefferson retreated with a badly wounded ego.3398 Fortunately, there now came into his life a far healthier influence. He had another…friend,…who in 1765 had married Jefferson’s younger sister Martha.3399 Their happiness all but reversed his plunge into cynicism. Wonderingly, he wrote…that [his friend,] “in a very small house, with a table…[and] chairs,…is the happiest man in the universe.” 3400 Months after that later, Jefferson was riding blissfully toward The Forest singing love songs. First in a list… was “sweetness of temper.” This Martha Wayles possessed to an extraordinary degree. Among her other qualities were “spriteliness and sensibility.” To be a person of sensibility, to react with strong emotions to the beauties and pleasures of life, to its joy and its sadness, was the newest style. What delight it must have been when Jefferson discovered that 3401…her passion for music equaled his: she played as well on the harpsichord as he on the violin. Add to all this a natural grace, expressive…eyes, luxuriant. 3402 Martha was not only beautiful, she was 3403…a prize whett[ing] the ardor of more than one young scion.3404 But Jefferson…forged ahead of all rivals.3405 There was no doubt that he and Martha were deeply in love. One thing kept him dangling: an unexpected reluctance on the part of John Wayles to accept him as a son-in-law. Perhaps Wayles had higher social ambitions. Jefferson’s lineage was good enough – his mother…– but his home county…

3384 A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress assembled, In A condensation of the book by Thomas Fleming, The Man from Monticello: An Intimate Life of Thomas Jefferson, In Reader’s Digest Condensed Books, Summer 1969 selections, Vol. 3 (NY: The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc., 1969), p. 257. 3385 A condensation of the book by Thomas Fleming, The Man from Monticello: An Intimate Life of Thomas Jefferson, In Reader’s Digest Condensed Books, Summer 1969 selections, Vol. 3 (NY: The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc., 1969), p. 231. 3386 Op. cit. 3387 Op. cit. 3388 Op. cit. 3389 Op. cit. 3390 Ibidem, pp. 231-232. 3391 Ibidem, p. 232. 3392 Op. cit. 3393 Op. cit. 3394 Op. cit. 3395 Op. cit. 3396 Op. cit. 3397 Op. cit. 3398 Ibidem, p. 233. 3399 Op. cit. 3400 Op. cit. 3401 Op. cit. 3402 Op. cit. 3403 Op. cit. 3404 Op. cit. 3405 Op. cit.

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was…backcountry. At any rate, on February 20, 1771, Jefferson was complaining to a friend about how the “unfeeling temper of a parent” could obstruct a marriage. He did not let this discourage him.3406 And he made no secret of his love, as is evident from…[word] he received in the spring of 1771 from an older woman.3407 “Your description “[”of Martha“]” bars all the romantical ones I ever read. Thou wonderful young man, indeed I shall think spirits of an higher order inhabit yr aerey mountain. Persevere; she has good sence, and I hope will not refuse…yr hand, if her heart’s not ingagd allready.” 3408 The “aerey mountain” was a lone…hill about a mile outside Charlottesville. 3409 [Jefferson and a friend] promised each other that if one died young, the survivor would see that he was buried…where they used to sit. 3410 After…a one-room…cottage,…Jefferson moved.3411 In his college days, he had discovered the works of the great…architect,…who had studied…ruins to learn the principles of art. Jefferson responded to the clean lines and careful symmetry of this classic tradition. At the same time, his American instincts set his house on a hill,…where his eye could roam…to the misty [Red, White and] Blue,…where the frontier began. The reconciliation of freedom and order – the theme that was to absorb him all his life – was symbolized here. 3412 Looking ahead, he [had] ordered…a “forte-piano” – the very latest in musical improvements – insisting that it be “very handsome and worthy of the acceptance of a lady for whom I intend it.” 3413 [Jefferson and friends] drew up a protest against the proceedings of Parliament, and moved to create “a standing committee of correspondence and inquiry” to obtain the latest news from sister colonies on matters concerning “their ancient constitutional rights.” 3414 On November 11, 1771, John Wayles finally agreed to surrender his daughter. January 1 was set as the wedding date.3415 What a ride home Jupiter must have had that day, thundering over those atrocious roads, for Jefferson had always been a fearless rider. Instead of letting Jupiter lead his horse across,…he took the ferry. 3416 Time was short and there was much to be done.3417 No doubt everyone devoured a slice of a rich black wedding cake made of pounds.3418 The guests had traveled for days to enjoy the festivities, and enjoy them they did – for the next two and a half weeks. 3419 As a surveyor he had done much to lay out the boundaries of the colony and construct.3420 He had fought his way through the…wilderness, often living…the…game.3421 This same man…read Addison, Swift, Pope and Shakespeare. Though he had died,…[he] had passed on…a vivid heritage, “Never ask another to do for you what you can do for yourself,” he had said, and made sure his son knew how to handle…a gun. He also insisted on the best possible education and the boy had responded with almost incredible industry. [A friend] later recalled that Jefferson was the only one of their rollicking college group who could turn his back on a good time whenever he chose, and retreat for hours of studying.3422 By now it was midnight; the workmen and the slaves had built up their fires and gone to bed. Trying to heat the few,3423…he built a roaring fire.3424 Suddenly he leaped up, remembering a treasure hidden behind a shelf of books.3425 Triumphantly,3426…the evening was complete. With bodies warmed and glasses full they lolled before the fire like a pair of [True American] lovers.3427

3406 Ibidem, p. 234. 3407 Ibidem, p. 234. 3408 Op. cit. 3409 Op. cit. 3410 Op. cit. 3411 Op. cit. 3412 Ibidem, p. 235. 3413 Op. cit. 3414 Ibidem, p. 238. 3415 Ibidem, p. 235. 3416 Op. cit. 3417 Op. cit. 3418 Ibidem, p. 236. 3419 Op. cit. 3420 Op. cit. 3421 Op. cit. 3422 Op. cit. 3423 Ibidem, pp. 236-237. 3424 Ibidem, p. 237. 3425 Op. cit. 3426 Op. cit. 3427 Op. cit.

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Jefferson…returned to his…practice, but politics were soon absorbing more of his time. As a member,…he saw the prickly relationship that was developing between…colonies. 3428 Any American who interfered with the…navy’s…smuggling would be punished by death; and, further, that he could be transported…for trial.3429 The [House of Burgesses] reacted with fury to this violation of…rights. Agitation against…taxation had been going on for some years. As long ago as 1765, Jefferson had stood outside the door of the House of Burgesses and heard a backwoods lawyer named Patrick Henry boom a warning to King George III.3430 [Jefferson] spent more time at home, pushing ahead,…planting fruit trees and a vegetable garden. In his garden book these vegetables suddenly took on exotic names: aglio di Toscania for garlic, radicchio di Pistoia for endive. The Italian names mark the arrival of [a]…physician and political philosopher. Banished…for his revolutionary thinking, he had come to settle. 3431 Jefferson had taken him on a long walk around the neighborhood, amazed him by the ease with which he discussed science, literature, politics and religion, and persuaded him to buy land.3432 It is easy to see how this essentially shy, reflective man treasured every hour on his mountain and would have willingly spent the rest of his life there. 3433 But events would force Jefferson to surrender that dream. 3434 A group of Bostonians disguised as Indians dumped 342 chests of…tea into the harbor, to underscore their refusal to pay the tax…on this favorite…brew. On April 22 another group of “Indians” performed a similar operation in New York harbor. An angry Parliament retaliated…through a series of acts which all but annulled the Massachusetts charter. The Virginia burgesses… learned of all this when express riders from the Boston Committee of Correspondence came pounding into Williamsburg on May 22, with a call from Massachusetts for aid from her sister colonies. Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Edmund Randolph and the other Young Turks met to decide how they could persuade the older conservatives to join in a public statement of solidarity with Massachusetts. It was then that Jefferson revealed the intuitive judgment of the born political leader. The only thing likely to “alarm” the popular attention, he said, was a day of general fasting and prayer. The idea was instantly adopted and, in Jefferson’s words, “we cooked up a resolution . . . for a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer to implore heaven to avert from us the evils of civil war, to inspire us with firmness in support of our rights, and to turn the hearts of the King and Parliament to moderation and justice.” 3435 Now…young firebrands…lead a march to the Raleigh Tavern, where eighty-nine burgesses agreed to form a permanent association and ordered the Committee of Correspondence to inform committees. 3436 The association also declared “that an attack on one of our sister colonies is an attack on all . . . and threatens to ruin the rights of all.” 3437 Its effect on the colony, Jefferson wrote, “was like a shock of electricity.” 3438 “His Majesty…has no right to land a single armed man on our shores.” Defending his bold tone, Jefferson said that “freedom of language and sentiment . . . becomes a free people, claiming their rights as derived from the laws of nature, not as the gift of their chief magistrate. Let those flatter who fear: it is not an American art.” Finally, he addressed the…sovereign in this vein: “Open your breast, Sire, to…expanded thought. Let not the name of George III be a blot in the page of history.” Jefferson sent a copy of this outrageously daring declaration to…Virginia,…who laid it on the table for other[s] …to read. The majority thought it “too bold,” but…had it printed…as A Summary View of the Rights of British America. It was reprinted…by sympath[izers].3439 Virginia’s call…won a…response,…and other colonies…joined in a plan to gather. 3440 There were to be… delegates from…colonies. Virginia’s seven delegates included Peyton Randolph, Benjamin Harrison, Patrick Henry and Colonel George Washington, the colony’s most distinguished soldier. Jefferson, years younger than any of these men, was content to be a distant spectator. 3441 The delegates named thirteen acts…which had violated…rights, particularly the recent “coercive acts.” 3442 Events moved slowly in the eighteenth century, especially when the main actors were separated by…miles,…so for several months life…continued its peaceful flow.3443 Like all Virginians, Jefferson kept in touch with the

3428 Ibidem, p. 238. 3429 Op. cit. 3430 Op. cit. 3431 Ibidem, p. 239 3432 Op. cit. 3433 Ibidem, p. 240. 3434 Op. cit. 3435 Op. cit. 3436 Op. cit. 3437 Op. cit. 3438 Ibidem, pp. 240, 242. 3439 Ibidem, p. 242. 3440 Op. cit. 3441 Op. cit. 3442 Ibidem, p. 243. 3443 Op. cit.

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political situation through the Virginia Gazette, and there in early February he read of George III’s ominous speech at the opening of Parliament.3444 A few weeks later, the Gazette reported that the King had received…the petition.3445 In the middle of March 1775, Jefferson departed for another…convention.3446 Jefferson and his friends were astonished to find that a majority were against doing anything that might arouse popular emotions. 3447 Most of the delegates obviously believed that a blizzard of…respectful petitions from…around the world would persuade His Majesty.3448 This mood of moderate optimism was exploded by Patrick Henry. Grimly the…orator rose to call for an independent militia to put Virginia “into a posture of defense.” Richard Henry Lee seconded the resolution. Then one by one the established leaders rose to denounce it. They questioned the wisdom of committing what the British could construe as an act of war. They reminded Henry that Britain had an army and fleet second to none. Henry rose magnificently to the challenge. He insisted war was inevitable. In the First Continental Congress he had declared himself no longer a Virginian, but an American. So he scoffed now at the argument that Virginia was too weak. It wasn’t true, if Virginia was part of an American union. “Three millions of people armed in the holy cause of liberty and in such a country as that which we possess are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us,” he thundered. “. . . I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!” The debate raged on and Jefferson made one of the few public speeches of his career, arguing “closely, profoundly and warmly” on behalf of preparedness. Finally, by a close vote, the assembly agreed to appoint a militia committee. Jefferson was a member, but, as he put it, “we slackened our pace that our less ardent colleagues might keep up with us.” 3449 The delegates approved this…defensive posture.3450 On April 20, Virginia was aroused by a 3451…clash[] with British regulars.3452 The entire colony rose in wrath.3453 Jefferson, no war lover, was filled with dismay by this bloodshed,3454…“this accident.” 3455 On June 1,3456 …the burgesses pressed the question of the stolen gunpowder so angrily that [Lord] Dunmore panicked and retreated with his family to a British man-of-war off Yorktown. With the governor thus abandoning the colony, the Virginians decided to…provide the state with a central government. 3457 On June 22, 1775,3458…[Jefferson] had already heard some shrewd estimates of the leaders from other states: the chief liberty men from Massachusetts – Samuel Adams, with his palsied hands and quavering voice, and his intense cousin John; witty Caesar Rodney from Delaware; fiery Christopher Gadsen of South Carolina; and Pennsylvania’s Benjamin Franklin.3459 Jefferson brought with him Virginia’s reply to…recent…proposals. 3460 Congress seemed to be getting nowhere.3461 Shrewd politicking…did produce one step forward. John Adams nominated Virginia’s favorite solider, George Washington, to take command of the New England militiamen now besieging the…outskirts. 3462 Washington said, “I do not consider myself equal to the command,” but six days later he departed…to assume it. 3463 The Americans had been driven out of their forts…and were priming their guns for another…assault. The news jolted Congress into action.3464 Jefferson…discovered that each…considered himself “a great man, an orator, a critic, a statesman” and was intensely jealous of his imaginary reputation. Amid the animosities that were taking root he displayed a great political gift - an ability to win and hold the friendship of remarkably opposite men, without compromising his own principles. Contentious John Adams wrote later of him that “though a silent

3444 Op. cit. 3445 Op. cit. 3446 Ibidem, p. 244. 3447 Op. cit. 3448 Op. cit. 3449 Op. cit. 3450 Op. cit. 3451 Ibidem, p. 245. 3452 Op. cit. 3453 Op. cit. 3454 Op. cit. 3455 Op. cit. 3456 Op. cit. 3457 Op. cit. 3458 Op. cit. 3459 Op. cit. 3460 Op. cit. 3461 Ibidem, p. 246. 3462 Op. cit. 3463 Op. cit. 3464 Op. cit.

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member in Congress . . . he was so prompt, frank, explicit and decisive upon committees and in conversation . . . that he soon seized upon my heart.” 3465 Jefferson refused to enter into the wranglings of Congress, but in…long evening discussions, he continued to press for a tough stand. Though not yet a revolutionary, he was a realist. His study of history made it clear to him that force was the only answer to those who imposed their politics at gunpoint. 3466 The growth of a nation was a slow process, and of all the lessons Jefferson learned at Philadelphia, perhaps the most important was patience 3467…[in] an era that did not understand germs.3468 [Jefferson,] like most American, had retained the hope that the[] quarrel was with the greedy politicians, and not with George III himself. “It is an immense misfortune to the whole empire to have a King of such a disposition at such a time,” he now wrote. “To undo his empire there is but one truth more to learn, that after colonies have drawn the sword there is but one step more they can take. That step is now pressed upon us. . . .” He meant, of course, independence.3469 On the political front, a new author had exploded into print with Common Sense, a pamphlet that had changed many minds about independence. He was Thomas Paine, a rough, blunt,…freethinker. He called George III a brute, and boldly summoned America to become a nation in her own right. In Philadelphia, Jefferson found a letter from his best friend.3470 “For God’s sake declare the colonies independent at once and save us from ruin.” 3471 [Jefferson] rushed…a draft of the sort of constitution he thought…any future government…should have. It was a remarkable document. It called for wider democracy;…vot[ing];…freedom;… and it abolished…antiquated inheritance laws. It was much too radical for the conservative Virginia Assembly. All they adopted from it was the preamble.3472 On Saturday, June 8, and on the following Monday and Tuesday, debate raged. The moderates…pointed out that the middle colonies…were still undecided about independence. 3473 But… supporters asserted that “the people wait for us to lead the way.” 3474 Meanwhile, a committee was appointed to draw up a possible declaration of independence. The members were: Mr. Jefferson, Mr. J. Adams, Mr. Franklin, Mr. Roger Sherman and Mr. R. R. Livingston. Ben Franklin was incapacitated by an attack of gout. Neither Sherman nor Livingston had any literary reputation, and the question of who was to draft the declaration came to a choice between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Years later Adams recalled that Jefferson had offered him the job and he had replied: “I will not.” “You should do it!” “Oh! No. I will not.” “Why will you not?” “Reasons enough.” “What can be your reasons?” “Reason first – you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second – I am obnoxious, suspected and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third – you can write ten times better than I can.” 3475

• • •

Jefferson had moved.3476 He now set up his…desk, or “writing box,” and went to work.3477 The declaration “was intended to be an expression of the American mind and to give to “[”it“]” the tone and spirit called for by the occasion.” But fermenting in his mind was the fear that he was sacrificing…Martha to this cause. Another worry was the rumor that he was being downgraded by the politicians of his “own country”…because his distaste for political conflict had made him friendly with men on both sides of the conservative-radical gulf. To a friend he wrote: “If any doubt has arisen as to me, my country will have my political creed in the form of a declaration etc., which I was lately directed to draw.”

3465 Op. cit. 3466 Ibidem, p. 247. 3467 Op. cit. 3468 Ibidem, p. 248. 3469 Op. cit. 3470 Ibidem, p. 249. 3471 Op. cit. 3472 Ibidem, pp. 249-250. 3473 Ibidem, p. 250. 3474 Op. cit. 3475 Ibidem, pp. 250-251. 3476 Ibidem, p. 251. 3477 Op. cit.

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Jefferson’s emotion is visible in the dramatic cadences of the declaration. 3478 He was an anguished, deeply involved man who felt the momentous nature of the document he was writing, both for his personal and public self. The rhythms of the opening paragraph throb with a richer timbre than anything else he ever wrote. When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth a separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare causes which impel them to this separation. How hard he worked on the composition has only recently been discovered. A fragment of an early draft was found in 1943. On it, no less than 43 of the 156 words were additions or substitutions. In the text that was for almost two centuries considered the rough draft, all these corrections appear intact. 3479 But even then he continued to polish it.3480 To Jefferson and his audience, by far the most important part of the document was the indictment of George III for creating the crisis.3481 Nineteen times Jefferson repeated…“He has” until the phrase became a bell tolling the death of American affection for George III. As a climax, the final “He has” was for Jefferson the most significant item in this grim bill of particulars; and this tells us more about himself, personally, than anything else in his draft. He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the person of a distant people who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither. This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare of the Christian King of Great Britain. Determined to keep open a market where Men should be bought and sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain this execrable commerce and that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of distinguished dye, he is now exciting those very people to rise in arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he has deprived them, by murdering the people upon whom he also obtruded them; thus paying off former crimes committed against the liberties of one people, with crimes which he urges them to commit the lives of another. Thus Jefferson declared to the world his loathing of slavery. Jefferson submitted his draft on June 28, 1776. Congress ordered it to “lie on the table” until the crucial decision to bring it to life, or consign it to oblivion, had been made. July 1 was that fateful day. Independence and anti-independence men formed up on opposites [sic] sides of the room.3482 John Adams wrote: “The 2nd day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epocha in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it well be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival.” But it was July 4, when the declaration was approved, and not July 2, when independence was voted, that became America’s Independence Day – a fact which testifies to the enormous power of the written word. For those two days Jefferson had to sit…while…critics scrutinized and edited his declaration, word by word. 3483 The best way to see both Jefferson’s draft and what Congress did to it is in the following copy of the finished product. The parts omitted by Congress are crossed out and the parts added are printed [above the omissions]. 3484

A Declaration by the Representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA in General Congress assembled.

When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s god entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator certain un with inherent and inalienable rights; that among these are /\ life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving

3478 Op. cit. 3479 Ibidem, pp. 251, 253. 3480 Ibidem, p. 253. 3481 Ibidem, p. 254. 3482 Ibidem, pp. 254-255. 3483 Ibidem, p. 256. 3484 Op. cit.

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their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. prudence indeed will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light & transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. but when a long train of abuses and usurpations, begun at a distinguished period & pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, & to provide new guards for their future security. such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, & such is now the necessity which constrains alter them to expunge their former systems of government. the /\ history of the present king of Great Britain is a history repeated of unremitting injuries and usurpations, among which appears /\ no solitary fact to contradict the uniform tenor of the having rest, but all have in direct object the establishment of /\ an absolute tyranny over these states. to prove this let facts be submitted to a candid world, for the truth of which we pledge a faith yet unsullied by falsehood. He has refused his assent to laws of the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. he has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate & pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and utterly when so suspended he has neglected utterly to /\ attend to them. he has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a right inestimable to them, & formidable to tyrants only. he has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, & distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. he has dissolved Representative house repeatedly & con- tinually, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. he has refused for a long time after such dissolutions to cause others to be elected whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise, the state remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, & convulsions within. he has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigner; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither; & raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. obstructed he has suffered the administration of justice totally to /\ by cease in some of these states refusing his assent to /\ laws for establishing judiciary powers. he has made our judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount & paiment of their salaries. he has erected a multitude of new offices by a self-assumed power, & sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

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he has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies and ships of war, without the consent of our legislatures. he has affected to render the military independent of, & superior to, the civil power. he has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions and unacknowledged by our laws; given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation for quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; for protecting them by a mock-trial from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states; for cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; for imposing taxes on us without our consent; in many cases for depriving us of the benefits of trial by jury; /\ for transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses; for abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example & fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these states; for taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments; for suspending our own legislatures, & declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. he has abdicated government here, withdrawing his governors by and waging war against us & declaring us out of his allegiance and protection. /\ /\ he has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, & destroyed the lives of our people. he is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to compleat the works of death, desolation & tyranny, already begun with circumstances of scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages and totally cruelty & perfidy unworthy the hand of a civilized /\ nation. excited domestic insurrection amongst us and has he has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers /\ the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, & conditions of existence. he has incited treasonable insurrections of our fellow citizens, with the allurements of forfeiture & confiscation of property. our fellow citizens he has constrained others taken captives on the high seas /\ to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends & brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. “[”The entire passage on slavery, already quoted, was crossed out.“]” [ 3485] In every stage of these oppression, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. a prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a free tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a people who mean to be /\ free. future ages will scarce believe that the hardiness of one man adventured within the short compass of twelve years only to build a foundation, so broad and undisguised, for tyranny over a people fostered and fixed in principles of freedom.

3485 Men from South Carolina and Georgia were angrily in favor of continuing to import slaves. — Op. cit.

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Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. we have warned them from time to time of attempts an unwarrantable us. by their legislature to extend a jurisdiction over these /\ /\ our states. we have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here, no one of which could warrant so strange a pretension: that these were effect at the expence of our blood and treasure, unassisted by the wealth or the strength of Great Britain: that in constituting indeed our several forms of government, we had adopted one common king, thereby laying a foundation for perpetual league and amity with them: but that submission to their parliament was no part of our constitution, nor have over in idea, if history may be credited: and we appealed to and we have conjured them by /\ their native justice & magnanimity, as well as to the tyes of /\ our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which were would inevitably s likely to interrupt our connection & correspondence. they /\ /\ too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity; and when occasions have been given them, by the regular course of their laws, of removing from their councils the disturbers of our harmony, they have by their free election re-established them in power. at this very time too, they are permitting their chief magistrate to send over not only soldiers of our common blood, but Scotch and foreign merce- naries to invade and destroy us. these facts have given the last stab to agonizing affection; and manly spirit bids us therefore to renounce forever these unfeeling brethren. we must en- /\ deavor to forget our former love for them, and to hold them as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. we might have been a free & a great people together, but a communication of grandeur and of freedom, it seems, is below their dignity. be it so, since they will have it the road to happiness and to glory is open to us too; we will climb it apart from them and acquiesce in the necessity which and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. denounces our eternal separation. /\ We therefore the Representatives of the United States appealing to the supreme judge of the world for the rectitude of America in General Congress assembled, do, in the name /\ of our intentions colonies, solemnly publish & by authority of the good people of these states, reject and /\ and declare, that these united colonies are and of right ought to be free and renounce all allegiance and subjection to the kings of Great independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Britain, & all others who may hereafter claim by, through, or Crown, and that under them; we utterly dissolve all political connection which them state may heretofore have subsisted between us and the people or is & ought to be totally dissolved; /\ /\ parliament of Great Britain; and finally we do assert and declare these colonies to be free and independent sates, & that as free & independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- merce, & to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, /\ and our sacred honor.

On July 4, 1776, Congress voted official approval.3486 According to Jefferson, a copy was signed on July 4. An “engrossed” or parchment copy was signed on July 19.

3486 Ibidem, pp. 257-263.

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Meanwhile, unsigned copies were circulating in the colonies.3487 On July 9, George Washington had it read to the army at New York, and civilian New Yorkers pulled down the leaden statue of George III and melted it. 3488 In Baltimore, patriots burned an effigy of George III “amidst the acclamations of many hundreds.” The declaration had done more to unite the colonies than any other single pronouncement of Congress. At first, Jefferson’s authorship was known only to his fellow congressmen and a few friends. In 1776, everyone was keenly aware that the declaration was no less than an act of treason. For…months, Congress kept even the names of the signers a closely guarded secret. But the author’s identity gradually became known to the common man, who read those phrases about equality and the pursuit of happiness as a promise of a better future, and admired both the words and the man who wrote them. In this August of 1776,3489…Jefferson had to spend the…broiling month in Philadelphia. 3490 He recommended a seal for the United States (his motto, E pluribus unum, was later adopted, but not his artwork), debated the conflicting claims the various states had to western lands and wrote a long report on gold and silver coins. This was a major step toward one of his least recognized achievements, the creation of the American monetary system. In the meantime,…he hoped he could retire completely from politics. To this,…[an] elder statesmen replied with alarm, urging him to “get cured of your wish to retire so early in life . . . and exercise your talents for the nurture of our new constitution.” Finally, he could stand it no longer and…settled his accounts and, on September 3, set out of Monticello.3491 Driven by…[a] sense of public censure, Jefferson plunged into his work at the Virginia Assembly. Where Virginia led, others would follow, so he felt that he was legislating for both his state and for the nation. He began by introducing a series of bills to curb the aristocracy’s power. 3492 He also collided with the aristocrats over another matter crucial to the new nation. 3493 The pioneers and the land companies were…in a state of semiwarfare, with the settlers angrily refusing to surrender land that they had cleared and farmed at the risk of their lives. Jefferson got a bill through the legislature frustrating some of the land companies’ schemes. All this put some of the most powerful men in Virginia against Jefferson. But in his view it was the gentlest and most civilized of revolutions, making “an opening for the aristocracy of virtue and talent . . . essential to a well-ordered republic.” 3494 Jefferson won these fights. But when he tackled the “establishment” of the Church of England, he was rocked back on his heels. Under colonial law, every citizen had not only to contribute to the support of the Anglican church but was liable to prosecution for dissenting beliefs. Jefferson wanted to sever all connection between the state and the church. But he was soon involved in what years later he described as “the severest contests in which I have ever been engaged.” For a great many Virginians were determined to maintain some form of religious establishment. Blocked in the direct approach, Jefferson tried a flank attack. He accepted membership on a committee, with [Edmund] Pendleton and George Wythe, to undertake a general revision of the laws of Virginia – an idea which he himself had proposed.3495 Jefferson’s main motive…surfaced in his bills on religion and education. Both were bold and sweeping visions of how a free society should organize itself. Jefferson believed that his Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom was, with the possible exception of the Declaration of Independence, the most important thing he ever wrote. The preamble contains: 3496 Well aware that the opinions and belief of men depend not on their own will, but follow involuntarily the evidence proposed to their minds; that Almighty God hath created the mind free, and manifested his supreme will that free it shall remain . . . ; that all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments . . . tend only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and are a departure from the plan of the holy author,…who being lord both of body and mind chose not to propagate it by coercions on either…; that our civil rights have no dependence on our religious opinions, any more than our opinions in physics or geometry; that the opinions of men are not the object of…government nor under its jurisdiction; that it is time…for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officers to interfere when principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order; and finally, that truth is great and will prevail. . . .

3487 Ibidem, p. 263. 3488 Op. cit. 3489 Ibidem, pp. 263-264. 3490 Ibidem, p. 264. 3491 Ibidem, pp. 264-265. 3492 Ibidem, p. 266. 3493 Op. cit. 3494 Op. cit. 3495 Ibidem, pp. 266-267. 3496 Ibidem, p. 267.

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Then came the statute itself: We the General Assembly of Virginia do enact that no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, or shall otherwise suffer…; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge or affect their civil capacities. With this declaration of spiritual independence Jefferson coupled his Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge, which called on Virginia to set up a public school system.3497 Jefferson was like a careful gardener. He knew that nations had to mature slowly, gaining the strength which enables a people to use freedom without allowing it to degenerate into license.3498 His vision was too advanced for his contemporaries. The declaration of… freedom caused…a furor in the assembly.3499 He then went on to defend the [True] American:…he was brave; he was “affectionate to his children”; his friendships were “strong and faithful.” 3500 The subject of…[targetted populations] brought out some of Jefferson’s deepest feelings.3501 Slavery threatened the very foundation of American freedom.3502

• • •

[In 1789,3503] men who had formed a new constitutional government 3504…had obviously drawn on many of Jefferson’s ideas,3505…[and he] approved the final document – except for two points. The first was the omission of a bill of rights. The second was the lack of the principle of rotation in office, particularly in the case of the President. Jefferson was sure that the strength of the President’s office guaranteed him reelection for a lifetime unless the Constitution expressly prohibited it. [James] Madison, knowing that Washington would be…first,…was unworried about the possibilities of a dictatorship, but he agreed with the need for a bill of rights. 3506 Jefferson saw the chief danger in a centralized tyranny. There is no doubt that he was deeply influenced by the events in France.3507 Jefferson could only watch helplessly while Congress rammed through some twenty acts – abrogating the French treaty, raising an army, equipping a navy, and putting the nation on a war footing. But when Washington, summoned from retirement to head the army, insisted on [Alexander] Hamilton as chief of staff, Jefferson’s dismay sharpened. Washington had no intention of leading in the field, so this made Hamilton the real commander in chief. Jefferson saw the storm brewing.3508 “One of the War Party,” he told Madison, “in a fit of unguarded passion, declared some time ago they would pass a Citizen Bill, an Alien Bill, and a Sedition Bill.” The chances of stopping them were slight. Their policy was to keep the public in a panic with talk of French invasion or of intended treason, even of an assassination threat to Hamilton – talk often linked with vicious attacks on Jefferson. Jefferson’s fears were well founded. The Alien Act, as passed by Congress, extended the waiting period for citizenship from five years to fourteen years and enabled the President to deport any alien he considered dangerous. The Sedition Act made it a crime to conspire “with intent to oppose the government, to incite riots or insurrections against the laws of Congress” – to attend a [party] meeting would make a man suspect. The law also declared it a crime “to publish false, scandalous or malicious writing against the government, either house of Congress or the President. . . .” The acts, Jefferson said, were “so palpably in the teeth of the Constitution as to show they mean to pay no respect for it.” 3509 Still Jefferson kept calm, trying to restrain seekers after extreme solutions. 3510 But Jefferson did not think the Alien and Sedition Acts should be simply endured.3511 “I know not which mortified me most,” Jefferson…[said,] “that I should fear to write what I think, or my country bear such a state of things.”

3497 Ibidem, pp. 267-268. 3498 Ibidem, p. 297. 3499 Ibidem, p. 268. 3500 Ibidem, p. 277. 3501 Op. cit. 3502 Op. cit. 3503 Ibidem, p. 296. 3504 Op. cit. 3505 Op. cit. 3506 Op. cit. 3507 Ibidem, p. 296. 3508 Ibidem, pp. 325-326. 3509 Ibidem, p. 326. 3510 Op. cit. 3511 Op. cit.

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Jefferson’s next move was made with a stealth worthy of a secret agent. There was no hope of repealing the Sedition Act in Congress, or of seeking protection in the solidly Federalist courts. The[y]…had to fall back to their last line of defense – the states.3512 Popular reaction against the Sedition Act…began creating a host of…martyrs. 3513 [Jefferson] urged everyone who could wield a pen to write for the papers, to reach the people. 3514 The campaign of 1800 was the dirtiest in the nation’s history. Everything that had ever been said against Jefferson by Hamilton and others was embellished and multiplied. 3515

• • •

On the morning of Jefferson’s inauguration, he strolled casually into the dining room…and headed as usual for a seat at the bottom of the table. The wife of a senator…offered him her seat at the head of the table but the President-elect declined it with a smile and took his place below the salt. This incident struck the note which Jefferson maintained throughout his Presidency. He was determined to show that the pomp and ceremony of monarchy were not part of…government. At noon, dressed “like a plain citizen,” 3516…he spoke of “the contest of opinion through which we have passed,” and called on his fellow citizens to “unite with one heart and one mind “[”and“]” restore the social intercourse, that harmony and affection without which liberty and even life itself are dreary things.” “Every difference of opinion,” he pointed out, “is not a difference of principle. We are called by different names brethren of the same principles.” 3517 Thus Jefferson commenced what he afterward called “the second American revolution,” thanks to him, a peaceful one.3518 Newspaper attacks on him were to stoop lower than ever, and they began almost at once.3519 One of Jefferson’s first acts as President was to pardon all the victims of the Sedition Act who were still in jail. Among them was a newspaper editor.3520 On the political front, Jefferson let the detested Alien and Sedition Acts expire, and repealed the whiskey and other internal taxes.3521 He backed the severe economy of his Secretary of the Treasure,…which was soon reducing the national debt by almost $3,000,000 a year. Internationally, the world was at peace. England and the new ruler of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, were regrouping for another death battle.3522 The specter of Napoleon’s growing arrogance was a continuing nightmare.3523 America [then] doubled its size for $12,000,000, picking up a million square miles for about 2¢ an acre. Jefferson was jubilant, and the Louisiana Purchase remains to this day one of the largest peaceful acquisitions of territory in history.3524

• • •

On March 16, 1826, he made his will.3525 Later, he called for Martha and handed her a small casket, in which he had written in his still clear hand a special good-by.

3512 Ibidem, p. 327. 3513 Op. cit. 3514 Op. cit. 3515 Ibidem, p. 329. 3516 Ibidem, p. 335. 3517 Op. cit. 3518 Ibidem, p. 336. 3519 Op. cit. 3520 Ibidem, pp. 336-337. 3521 Ibidem, p. 341. 3522 Op. cit. 3523 Ibidem, p. 342. 3524 Ibidem, pp. 343-344. 3525 Ibidem, p. 366.

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A DEATHBED ADIEU FROM TH. J. TO M. R.

Life’s visions are vanished, its dreams are no more Dear friend of my bosom, why bathéd in tears? I go to my Father’s: I welcome the shore Which crowns all my hopes or which buries my cares. Then farewell, my dear, my lov’d daughter, adieu! The last pang of life is in parting from you! Two seraphs await me long shrouded in death; I will bear them your love on my last parting breath.

The two seraphs were, of course, his wife, Martha, and his daughter Maria. Jefferson slept through the day on July 3 and awoke about seven p.m.3526 “This is the 4th of July,” he said, with evident satisfaction. Thus he revealed his last wish – to die on the fiftieth anniversary of his country’s independence. Regretfully, they told him it was still the third. 3527 Jefferson’s chest continued to rise and fall as the clock passed midnight. He ceased to breath,…“without a struggle, fifty minutes past the meridian,…July 4th, 1826.” 3528 A few hours later, John Adams joined his old friend in eternity. His last strikingly symbolic words have been quoted over the decades: “Thomas Jefferson – still survives.” As the news of the two deaths spread across the land, all but the most hardened skeptics were silenced by a profound awe. Most people agreed with President John Quincy Adams, who noted it in his diary as another sign that America had a special destiny in the world. Humbly the President – and the nation – stood “in grateful and silent adoration before the Ruler of the Universe.” 3529 On his gravestone he had asked his family to chisel the following inscription:

HERE WAS BURIED THOMAS JEFFERSON, AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE STATUTE OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Thus Jefferson, in his last words to the nation, reiterated that first momentous commitment to freedom in 1776.3530

3526 Ibidem, p. 367. 3527 Op. cit. 3528 Ibidem, p. 368. 3529 Op. cit. 3530 Op. cit.

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