CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study
The environmental public health has become a prominent, but complex and multi- dimensional issue on the public policy agenda of states and international organizations. This transformation after a long period of benign neglect, began in Rio in 1992.The issue of the environment is today perceived not simply as a narrow ecological problem of how to ensure a symbiotic and congruent inter-face between man and the environment. It is more than that. Its inner core has psychological, political, developmental, sociological and scientific ramifications, all of which are anchored to the new concept.
The metaphor sustainable development emanated from the Report tiled “Our Common
Future” prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).
This report, also known as the Brundtland Report, recognized that many development activities in many nations, especially in developing countries, were leaving growing numbers of people poor and vulnerable, while at the same time degrading their environment. The report then concluded that a new path for development would be needed to sustain human progress not just in a few places for a few years but globally in the future. This conclusion led the Report to focus on issues such as, population, energy, industry, human settlement and quality of life as contained in Agenda 21.
Throughout history, the environment and natural resources have played a defining role in social, political and economic transformations. They have also being a major contention in characterizing Africa as a continent in crisis(Opara,2008a,Opara and Gerhard,2008).The environment has been at the receiving end and over burdened with aftermath of the excesses of humans in their struggle for survival. Environment is a complex weave of physical,
1 chemical and biotic factors that interact with each other and impact upon all living things and their surroundings. It is a life supporting system for human existence and survival as well as provides required for socio-economic progress (UNDP, 2001). Environment is the source of global economy that must be protected and managed sustainable. All efforts directed at managing and administering the environment is to ensure the continued existence of the biological diversity entities on the earth of which humans are the prime species and without it, which humans cannot exist (Aluko, 2001). Nigeria is a country with productive and diverse ecosystems including mangroves, rainforest, savanna as well as wetlands.
Nigeria is a country with productive and diverse ecosystems including mangroves, rainforest, savanna as well as wetlands. Port Harcourt, the study area is the capital of Rivers
State Nigeria, with area coverage of about 12,000Ha (NDDC, 2003). The population of the area is estimated at 1,200,000 million using a projection of 2.8 percent growth rate of the
1991 population figure (NPC, 1991).
The area is an important industrial and commercial center with a number of flourishing industries such as National Fertilizer Company of Nigeria (NAFCON), Eleme
Petrochemicals Company Limited, Port Harcourt Refining Company Limited etc. The presence of potential energy from oil and natural gas has made Port Harcourt to become one of Nigeria’s most important industrial cities.
Gobo (1998) reveals the average atmospheric temperature to be 25.50 oC in the rainy season and 30.0 oC in the dry season. The daily relative humidity values range from 55.50 percent in dry season to 96.00 percent in rainy season. Rainfall in the area averages 2500mm annually. The rainfall pattern shows two identifiable seasons; the rainy season (April to
October) and the relatively short dry season (November to March).Port Harcourt lies along the Bonny River and is located in the Niger Delta.
2 The Niger Delta area is the hardest hit of environmental destruction arising from oil production. Port Harcourt Metropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is the fourth largest urban centre of the country. It possesses substantial natural resources prominent among which are major oil and gas deposits in the Niger Delta region of the country, a variety of solid minerals, good agricultural land and water resources, a large labour force and a vibrant private sector. Average daily waste (refuse) generated in Port Harcourt ranged between 900 to 1350 metric tons (RSESA, 2005).
The agency charged with the responsibility of solid waste management in Port
Harcourt is Rivers State Environmental Sanitation Authority (RSESA). The agency created refuse collection centers / points within the metropolis and evacuate it to designated government approved dumpsites. Composition of waste generated include; Garbage (41%), paper and plastics (35%), scrap metal and glass (15%), construction waste (4%), sludge (3%) and expired chemical wastes and drugs (2%) (RSESA, 2005).
The Niger Delta environment, as a resource and a system, is threatened. Unsuitable large-scale exploitation of ecosystems for strictly economic ends is resulting in disastrous outcomes in which the environment and agricultural productivity is degraded and the benefit proves illusory (Opara, 2003). The most serious of our environmental problems can be found in the Niger-Delta where, as a result of exploration and exploitation of petroleum oil and gas, the surrounding areas have been adversely polluted (Babalola,1985, Onu and Opara,
2001, Opara, 2008b). Apart from problems associated with oil spills there is the problem of gas flaring. Nigeria currently flares 53% of the gas produced and responsible for 28% of the gas being flared in the world (Okebukola, 2001).
Nigerians and the Nigerian environment as a result of gas flaring and oil spills have suffered from acid rain, desertification, chronic health problems, greenhouse effect, and
3 depletion of ozone layer etc (Nosike and Opara, 2003). The trends of environmental abuse in the country suggest that humans are probably heading towards ecological destruction. The concern resonates with the aim of this research which of necessity, critically and frankly reviews the environmental public health implications of indiscriminate waste disposal and its psychological undertone as well as suggest ways of tackling the problem adequately.
However, the metropolis tremendous potential for growth and sustainable development is yet to be fulfilled probably due to the many constraints posed by macroeconomic management. Obviously, damage to the environment as a result of oil and industrial activities is seen as a damage to the quality and quantity of the ecosystem, which is detrimental not only to human health but also to other resources embedded in it. Thus, the various stringent and welfare dissipating macroeconomic management policies put in place have been a key constraint for people to exhibit an environmentally healthy and sustainable development friendly behaviour
Indeed, indiscriminate refuse dumping has become a common feature of most African towns and cities since the recent past. Inhabitants in the urban areas tend to dump refuse
(waste) as if it has no implications on their community health and social welfare. In Port
Harcourt Metropolis, population surges has given rise to a heavily built up environment wherein houses are most closely built than before, which has then resulted in the dumping of more refuse on the streets. Port Harcourt metropolis, the study area has continued to witness an increase in the disposal of household refuse carelessly on the road sides, drains bank of the streams and in public places.
Inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis tend to dump refuse as if it has no implications on their community health and social welfare. Inadequate management of wastes, besides posing severe environmental health risk on human populations, is also
4 capable of inflicting permanent damage on the ecological systems. Considering the magnitude of waste released daily into the environment and, considering the fact that there appears to be no serious organized programme for the efficient management and disposal of these waste, in spite of their environmental effects on human health, there is need for an understanding of the dynamics that are essential for the explanation of the trends and emerging disease epidemics on the human environment, in order to ensure the evolution of effective government and public polices and programmes towards control
To help individuals and groups to acquire an awareness of the total environment and its problems is one of the six cardinal objectives of environmental education. People need to be aware of the implications of their actions on the environment, most especially as it affects their health. Thousands of lives are lost every year to environment-related diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, malaria fever, typhoid fever, river blindness and so on. Majority of people live in filthy, cockroaches, rats, and mosquitoes-infected environment. The air, which is an unavoidable source of life, has been polluted with chemicals, pathogens or offensive odour.
Seepage from refuse dumps often pollutes the underground and surface water. The environment is “sick” and the sicknesses are less than natural but the effect of human activities.
There has been global concern about the quality of environment in which human beings live. Many international conferences, workshops and seminars have been held on the impact of degraded environment on human beings and the need to promote environmental qualities. It is a known fact that human health is contingent among other things, on the quality of air he breathes, the food he eats, the water he drinks and the environment in which he lives. Indeed, Nigeria is not left out among the committee of nations that are showing great concern for environmental matters.
5 Successive governments at Federal and State levels demonstrated their concern for human health and the environment through enactment of laws and promulgation of decrees that compel people to clean and respect the environment. In not too distant past, sanitary inspectors or public health inspectors promoted environmental health among Nigerians. In
1984, there was an introduction of monthly environmental sanitation to ensure clean environment. And people were ‘compelled to clean their environment at least once in a month. The exercise became part of Nigerians, as it was routinely observed.
Thus government rose up to this challenge by setting up a board to handle waste/sanitation matters. We need to assert that the board established to meet this challenge has been up and doing in ensuring that these wastes are properly managed in order to keep the city clean. However, the approaches of the Board in managing these wastes are issues of concern. Without mincing words, there is an organization established by the government to manage this waste. One therefore asks whether the organization handling waste is competent to undertake the task effectively. Solid waste management includes all the activities that seek to minimize the health, environmental and aesthetic impacts of solid wastes (Buckle and
Smith 2000).
Besides, one needs to understand whether the personnel involved in this business understand this principles and techniques of waste management. This is because, most times, while the personnel of the organization are carrying the waste to its destination a large proportion of this waste drops along the road thereby constituting nuisance to the city. More so, the trucks used by these organizations are usually open carriage trucks which are not supposed to be used for disposing waste. The personnel also appear to be at risk, as they do not follow the ethics of waste disposal. All these therefore make it important to appraise the board responsible for disposing waste in the city.
6 Based on these developments it is necessary and important for one to be curious of how the people in government and the general populace are tackling the issue of waste management and disposal in Port Harcourt metropolis. Wastes from these population growth and technological developments gradually constituted problems to the State. This is because the need to control and manage these wastes became an issue that both the people at the helms of government and the citizen must tackle seriously.
The citizens also appear to be making the matter worse. Some of them still defecate or dump refuse on the road sides, some even dump it on nearby streams, while others park waste in cellophane bags and drop it at the middle of the highways. It is now a common phenomenon to see refuse being dumped along the major roads in the State, a behaviour turning the state to a refuse depot. This is an eye sore as these ugly mountains of wastes around the metropolis may likely welcome any individual visiting Port Harcourt.
Furthermore, the health implications of improper waste disposal are enormous and cannot be ignored. There are reports that wastes that are not properly managed can cause water pollution, which may breed diseases like cholera, typhoid and so on (Bartone 2000;
Buckle and Smith 2000). Also, certain waste especially from chemicals if inhaled or touched can equally cause wide spread epidemics (Bartone, 2000 and Klunder, 2000). All these are pointers to the fact that a proper understanding of the disposal and management of waste becomes imperative for this study
In Nigeria, government and individuals spend billions of Naira on heath-related matters. Most of which are caused by poor or dirty environment. Worst still, is the amount of time that is wasted in the hospital by the patients and relatives of victims of environment- related sickness. The environmental, social and health implication of improper waste
7 disposal in this metropolis cannot be forgotten too soon. Port Harcourt metropolis for example has experienced flood, deaths and properties destroyed due to these ugly incidences.
Negative changes in the environment such as housing, sanitation, air and water can lead to poor health. Harmful organisms take delight in heaps of refuse or dirty environments.
Organic wastes provide breeding grounds for microorganisms and disease bearing insects and indents, and where faucal materials mix with other waste, the health dangers are complicated. (Okebukola, 2001). Similarly, National Planning Commission (NPC) and
United Nation Children Education Fund (UNICEF,2001) assert that in most cities, the methods of decomposing rubbish provide breeding grounds for rats, flies, mosquitoes, contributing to the unhealthy living environment. Microorganisms can be spread in the air, water, food and contact with people. It can even be through disease vectors. These organisms cause diseases that may have deadly consequences.
Indiscriminate disposal of wastes is a threat to human health. Okebukola (2001) states that inadequate disposal of wastes is a major factor in the spread of gastrointestinal and parasitic diseases primarily caused by vectors. He further asserted that diarrhea, cholera and typhoid fever are among the major killer diseases due to improper disposal of waste. Healthy people contribute greatly to the health and wealth of nation. Among other factors, the environment in which people live influences their health. A healthy environment remains one source of well-being. It is the responsibility of individuals, households, communities, organizations, and the government to promote healthy environment. However, people can only promote healthy environment only if they are aware of its benefits.
According to Adelakun (2003), promotion of environmental quality depends on how individual and community see themselves in relation to their environment. It is the ways people perceive the environment that they will treat it. And it is the way the environment is
8 treated that it will in turn support life. He believes that illiteracy, ignorance, poverty and greediness are some of the major contributors of environmental degradation because each influences people’s behaviour and attitudes towards the environment. A person who is ignorant of his action on his/her environment will likely have wrong perception about the effect of that action on his health. A community that understands the link between a healthy environment and good health can save time, money and avoidable agonies. Noibi (1992) states that environmental deterioration had arisen to a large extent because people are not aware of the implications of their actions. He further asserts that a person’s level of ignorance of the environment can be said to be positively related to the degree of (his/her) damage to the environment.
Purdom and Anderson (1983) state that the way a person perceives the environment reflects his or her previous experience, education, life style and interest. In other words, the way a person treats the environment depends on his/her knowledge or level of awareness about the environment. Despite the low level of formal education most especially in the villages, various communities managed the waste generated properly. In the past, people lived in harmony with their environment and they enjoyed good health. There were few medical experts, if any, in many towns and villages. They had dumping sites for refuse far away from the hearts of the village where people live, and they occasionally burnt these sites.
Villagers whose environments were dirty were often penalized by elders-in-council. Human fasces at the center of the city were regarded as sacrilege. People immediately removed carcasses of animal from the village any time there was one. Trees were planted to provide fresh air and shades for relaxation. Communities’ sources of water guarded against pollution.
Towns and Cities like Port Harcourt were not left out and people enjoyed relative health. However, things suddenly changed despite the spread of western education.
9 Industrialization and urbanization somewhat made people to overstress the environment.
Uncurbed population growth and rural-urban migration even compound the matter. People have thrown respect for quality environment into the wind. Heaps of refuse have taken over some open spaces, streets and roads in major towns and cities. Human excreta and dead animals litter the environment where people live without anybody taking responsibility for their clearance. Offensive odour and the creation of breeding spaces for pathogens and disease vectors are the resultant effects.
Port Harcourt as an urban center lacks effective refuse/watse management system, many major streets are refuse dumping sites. The population explosion in Port Harcourt metropolis, has contributed seriously to the deposition of solid waste in the city. This demographic factor coupled with other social factors like level of illiteracy, flagrant breach of town planning law and inadequacy /social facilities like public toilet, sewerage facilities etc have led to indiscriminate dumping of solid waste in the city. This assertion lends credence to the position of Fred Luthans who remarked that:
“deteriorating biological ecosystems will lead to a deprived “psychic environment7” The implication of this is that if the ecosystems are poisoned by, for instances, deposition of solid waste or destroyed by the “population bomb”, people will be deprived of decent and neat environment where they obtain oxygen, food and water and this could be detrimental to human race and existence. In essence, in such a situation, the environment has become hostile and to avert such situation there is need to check ever growing population – a source of solid waste. Although government provided refuse receptacles in some areas, people still dump refuse indiscriminately. However, this is not peculiar to Port Harcourt alone. NPC (2001) states that lack of an effective system of refuse collection is a major sanitation problem in the urban areas. Waste management authorities collect refuse from households and public
10 containers on a regular basis in a few urban communities. As a result, most urban households resort to open dumping or refuse, engage refuse collectors, burn or bury wastes.
Nothing is as important as human health, and no wonder it is generally believed that health is wealth. Various authorities have described health. However, the much-criticized definition of health by the World Health Organization (WHO) is still widely acceptable and frequently used. WHO sees health as a state of complete physical, metal and social well- being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. However, this is a utopian definition of health; it describes an ideal state that is hardly amenable. Cunningham and
Saigo (1999) opine that with this definition we are all ill so some extent because it is too broad. They stat that we can improve our health to live happier, longer, more productive and more satisfying live if we pay attention to what we do to the environment.
Although, Payne and Hahn (1995) described WHO’s definition as a multifaceted view of health because it has many dimensions, they however defined health by combining the role of health with the composition of health. They state that health is the blending of individual physical, emotional, social, intellectual and spiritual resources as they assist the individual in mastering his development task necessary for him to enjoy a satisfying and productive life. Good health is the desire of every human as it is the basic determinant of what we can do. The ecological definition of health as put forward by Last is apt and comprehensive. Last as cited by Olaniran (1995) defines health as a state of equilibrium between humans and the physical, biological and social environment, compatible with full functional activity. Ecologically, this definition is all-inclusive. It recognizes the interactions and interdependencies of man and the environment in a complex ecosystem.
The protection of human health and environment from the potential hazard arising from in appropriate waste disposal and its consequential environmental pollution has been a
11 crusade in human history. In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, oil pollution is one of the ways by which petroleum has negatively affected our environment. Oil pollution is a combination of carelessness and outright irresponsibility in oil exploration and exploration.
Oil spillages have caused massive destruction to farmlands, sources of drinking water, mangrove forests and fishing grounds and decimation of fish, crabs mollusks, periwinkles and birds. The Niger Delta area is the hardest hit of environmental destruction arising from oil production (Ogoni and Opara, 2001). To make the oil pollution matter worse, for clean- up operations, the oil companies are reported to use dispersants that are not biodegradable, further compounding the environmental impact of oil spillage.
Port Harcourt is the capital of Rivers State as well as its economic seat. It is densely populated because of concentration of industries, government establishments, higher
Institutions and other commercial activities. The town, till today, is still experiencing influx of people from neighbouring towns and States. Some analysts believed that massive movement had been devasting.This population explosion is however detrimental to the environmental quality of the city.
Waste management is a serious sanitary problem in Port Harcourt metropolis. Virtually all-major streets in the town are becoming dumping sites. The problem seems to be defying solution; heaps of refuse in their environment as a problem. Many sell food items like frozen food, fish, meat, fruits, pepper etc on the heaps of refuse and people still patronize them with swarm of files. Restaurants and canteens are located in those dirty environments and people still but foods eat and it there. Many have not cared to think of how their health can be affected.
Owing to the pace of urbanization in Port Harcourt, public health outcomes are not encouraging. Site planning especially in the city core areas that houses a large concentration
12 of the urban poor is grossly uncoordinated, such that the gains of public health derivable from the link between city planning and environmental health is lost. According to Sa’id
(2001). Environmental / public health have been defined as the ‘control of all those factors in man’s physical environment that exercise or may exercise, deleterious effects on his physical development, health or survival. It is thus the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health (Sa’id, 2001).
In essence, the fact that the essence of waste management is to maintain acceptable environmental quality, sound public health and creation of aesthetic value, the behavioural pattern and awareness of the people dictates how they treat about the environment, and then the solution to the problem of indiscriminate refuse dump will be a mirage. Awareness can be created through mass media. It could be through electronic media, print media or other traditional means of creating awareness.
In order to protect human health and environment from the potential hazards arising from inappropriate waste disposal and its consequential environmental pollution, a systematically supervised and controlled management of the waste is a necessity through
Communication. Communication from the perspective of this study goes beyond the mere provision of information by technical means (telephone, print and electronic media).
Communication as used in this study also includes a way of approaching and explaining processes in society
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Ethically, the beauty of any environment lies on its good sanitary condition. This is so because, when an environment is clean the lives of citizenry are not threatened by illnesses and diseases. Proper refuse disposal management involves the dumping of wastes (solid, liquid or gaseous) from our homes, industries and public outfits for example hotels, hospitals
13 and schools etc at a specific place or in government provided containers and the control and removal of refuse from places where they can cause hazards to a place where they are less hazardous to public health.
Port Harcourt metropolis presents a ghastly picture, the neglect of filled refuse bins in recent time has its effect on the inhabitants. Many areas around the homes are littered with domestic refuse sewage waste, garbage and other wastes from industrial operations.
Industrial operations are characterized by the generation of large volume of wastes in the form of solids, liquids and gases. Some of these wastes are toxic with negative impacts on our environment, land, water and air.
To ensure a clean and safe environment, the Rivers State Government established
Rivers State Environmental Sanitation Authority (RSESA) to monitor the environmental quality and to ensure a refuse-free environment. However, despite the government efforts at making the environment clean in Port Harcourt Metropolis, people seem to be careless about their environment. Despite the provision of refuse receptacles by the government many people still prefer dumping refuse at places they considered convenient to them.
People seem not to be aware of the interrelatedness of dirty environment and diseases.
Victims of environment related disease like malaria fever, typhoid fever, dysentery and others seem to be on the increase.
Indiscriminate refuse dump affects quality of water and air of which the people seem not to be aware. Public Educational Programmes that enlighten the public on the health implications of indiscriminate refuse dump are almost non-existent. Mass media seem not to be doing enough to create awareness about implications of indiscriminate refuse dump. It was against this background that the researcher embarked on this research to appraise the
14 public health awareness of health implications of indiscriminate refuse dump in Port
Harcourt metropolis.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The major objectives of the study is,
1. to find out whether inhabitants of Port Harcourt are aware of the implications of
indiscriminate waste disposal in their environment
2. to evaluate the level of efficiency in the control and management of urban waste
in Port Harcourt metropolis.
3. to investigate whether the techniques/methods used or proffered by
government are adequately creating awareness about the health implications of
indiscriminate waste disposal in Port Harcourt Metropolis
4. to identify various ways the environmentalist/policy makers could help in
changing human behaviour and responses to environmental options that will
promote waste management
1.4 Research Questions
This study was designed to address the following questions:
1. Do the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis aware of the implications of
indiscriminate waste disposal in their environment?
2. What is the level of efficiency of Port Harcourt metropolis urban waste control
and management?
3. Are the techniques/methods used or proffered by government adequately
creating awareness about the health implications of poor urban waste
management in Port Harcourt Metropolis?
15 4. What ways could the environmentalist/policy makers help in changing human
behaviour and responses to environmental options that will promote waste
management.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The collection of refuse is irregular and inefficient in Port Harcourt Metropolis.
Litter and refuse often accumulated along roads and public places, creating breeding
grounds for mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches and rodents responsible for the spread of
many diseases. The vehicles used were open trucks, which exposed their putrefying load
for all to see and smell as they moved through the city. Drains and rivers were choked
with refuse and there was open burning of waste everywhere. The result reveals whether
the publics are aware of the health implications of indiscriminate refuse dump. It also
shows why governmental efforts may not be enough in solving environmental problem
and why individual must be involved.
Governments at all levels are involved in refuse disposal. Local, state, and federal
governments each control a specific part of the process. Refuse disposal is generally seen
as a municipal responsibility because of the landfill and recycling component. While that
is generally true, the citizenship evokes love for and commitment to a state that is why
what is expected of the citizenry is a positive contribution to the development, progress
and wellbeing of the community in which they reside. Though this obligation is more or
less moral or attitudinal in outlook, but a clean environment will impact positively on
Port Harcourt’s socio politico economic wellbeing of the citizens.
The study would be utilized by the government at both Federal and the State
levels through their various Ministries like, Ministry of Environment, Education, Health,
and Information. It will be beneficial for these ministries in the area of policy
16 formulation, most especially in the area of educating public in the schools and out-of-
school. It will assist them when formulating laws that will promote human health and
protect the environment. The citizenry will also benefit greatly from this study, as the
study will reveal how a person’s carefree attitude about the environment can be costly
not only to himself but others. Non-governmental organization (NGO’s) in the areas of
health and environment will also benefit. This study will guide them in the areas of
production and distribution of educational materials to the public.
The information will go a long way in helping the teachers, most especially Adult
educator, environmental educators and health educators will also benefit from the study
in such a way that it would help them to emphasize the link between good health and
clean environment to the school public. Media houses and others who are charged with
the responsible of awareness creation will also benefit from the study. A workable solid
waste management strategy for Port Harcourt Metropolis becomes dependent on a long
term strategy for all citizens.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study is delimited to the waste disposal management in Port Harcourt
metropolis. The study intends to investigate the people’s inability to maintain a sanitarily
clean environment and to emphasize the link between good health and clean
environment. The geographical scope of the study is Port Harcourt metropolis in Rivers
State of the Niger Delta Region(South-South Nigeria). The study covers some known
dirty areas and dumping sites, which included: the Port Harcourt City Local Government
Area. It has Azikiwe Road, Aggrey Road, Eastern Bye-Pass, the beginnings of PHC-Aba
Express Road and Ikwere Road as its major roads and cities. The Port Harcourt
metropolis is made up of the city itself and Obio/Akpor Local Government Area. This
17 includes the major roads and cities extension of Olu Obasanjo Road, Airport Road,
East-West Road, Refinery Road and the Stadium Roads. In addition, Some of Port
Harcourt's more popular and well-known residential areas are included such as Port
Harcourt Township; better known simply as "Town", G.R.A phases 1-5, Abuloma,
Amadi-ama, Amadi Flats, Borokiri, Rumuokoro,Rumodara, Woji, Presidential Housing
Estate, Rumibekwe Housing Estate, Shell Residential Estate, Elekahia Estate and the
Trans Amadi industrial area.
1.7 Definition of Terms
W aste is the leftovers, used products whether liquid or solid having no economic value or demand and which must be disposed or thrown away
W aste M anagement refers to the act to maintain acceptable environmental quality, sound public health and creation of aesthetic value.
Public health is the control of all those factors in human’s physical environment that exercise or may exercise, deleterious effects on their physical fitness, health or survival.
Health: It is a condition of the body, which makes a person to function effectively. It is the absence of sickness or stress of any form.
Environment: It refers to the total surroundings of humans that support life.
Environmental Health: It refers to the health implications of the interaction between individuals and their natural and built environments
18
Environmental Sanitation: This is an intervention to reduce people exposure to disease by providing a clean environment in which to live, with measures to break the cycle of diseases.
Responsible Environmental Behaviour (REB) are actions taken by individuals or a group of individuals to do what is right to protect the environment
Communication is a way of approaching and explaining processes in society.
Behaviour Change can refer to any transformation or modification of human behavior.
19 CHAPTER TW O
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 The Conceptual Framework
Cities in Nigeria, as in most of the developing nations, are among the most rapidly urbanizing and with most rapid urban growth. While Western societies urbanized at a comparatively leisurely pace, this is in marked contrast with what obtains in many developing nations. For example, the United States was 40 percent urbanized in 1900, 70 percent in
1960 and 75+ percent in 1990. Republic of Korea in contrast was 40 percent urbanized in
1970 and 78 percent urban in 1990 (20 years). What took the Unites States 90 years to attain took Korea 20 years and Brazil 30 years (Henderson, 2002). Consequences of such swift transition are monumental, as urbanization even when it is slow, is an adaptive process almost always involving dislocations in social values and conventional patterns of behaviour.
Rapoport (1973) argued that slow change is often preferred to fast changes as it may prevent demoralization caused by fast changes. He also argued that slow changes help arrive at a new synthesis and preservation of cultural identity (Rapoport, 1973). The table below shows growth rates and some projections of urban growth of some countries in Africa.
The urban transition in the 19th century Europe as a process was accompanied with urban environmental health problems as we have it today in Africa, deliberate efforts spanning decades of sanitary reform and economic development were however needed to crash the high urban mortality rates previously prevalent in Europe (Bairoch, 1988). This is the precipice on which we stand in the third world nations – huge environmental health burden.
20 Table 2.1 Urban Growth Rates and Percentage Urbanisation – 1975 - 2025
Country Urban Growth rate Percent Urban 1990 – 1995 (%) 1975 1995 2025 Botsawana 7.0 12 28 56 Burkina Faso 11.2 6 27 66 Kenya 6.8 13 28 57 Malawi 6.2 8 14 32 Nigeria 5.2 23 39 62 Tanzania 6.1 8 13 29 Source: World Resources Institute (1996).
A spatio-temporal analysis of urbanization in Africa or the Third World generally reveals that rural-urban migration was seen as necessary, positive development especially between the 1950s and the 1960s. This was so because it increased agricultural productivity whilst simultaneously enabling the urban economic sector to expand (McGranahan, et al;
1999). Through the 1970s, the bias was to blame urbanization for undermining rural potential, and promoting over-urbanization. The rural-urban dichotomy saw the rural side of the fulcrum being selectively depleted of her vibrant youths. By the 1990s however, the pendulum swung again. The dangers of neglecting urban potential and the rapidly growing population of the poor urban dwellers (urban poor) took the front burners with both researchers and international donors. (Becker et. al, 1994; and SIDA 1995). Whatever the view held on urbanization, a baseline requirement stands - the need for design and urban growth to foster a better, more liveable dwelling environment. This is more so in the case of
Nigerian cities which often showcase a combination of environmental problems of poverty with untamed urban expansion and industrialization. The urban poor are often constrained to live with inadequate local sanitation as well as deteriorating air and water quality; hence the relevance of public health in waste management.
Researches have revealed that issues of public health gained prominence as far back as the early 19th century in a wide rethinking of public and private initiatives. The three
21 massive waves of epidemic diseases of the 1830s and 1840s provided the step board for the intervention. The first outbreak of Asiatic cholera in Britain during the autumn of 1831 claimed over 52,000 lives by the time it had run its course (Haley, 1978).
Chadwick (1842) showed figuratively too that in 1839, for every person who died of old age or violence, eight died of specific diseases. Given this height, there was every need for a change in environmental waste management and public health strategies. In this same vein, issues as these in the United States too might have propelled Corburn (2004) to submit that public health, and urban planning emerged with the common goals of preventing outbreaks of urban infectious diseases.
Waste generated in households, hospitals, industries and commercial centre contribute immensely to environmental obscenity, pollution and nuisance which are hazardous to human existence. Though, it is a settled law of nature that all biological organisms must essentially generate wastes. It follows therefore that regardless of the social and economic status, mankind must of necessity generate wastes of various form-solid and liquid on daily basis. This necessitates waste Management which refers to the act to maintain acceptable environmental quality, sound public health and creation of aesthetic value. Waste management has to do with administration of institution charged with the responsibility of evacuating solid wastes from their sources of generation through storage, collection, transportation, recovery and treatment processes to disposal.
The term “refuse” is an age-long concept, while solid waste as a term is a new concept that is synonymous with refuses. For the purpose of this study, the two terms were used interchangeably, however for balance, the term “refuse” is mostly used as the term of choice.
Refuse is a solid waste that remains as residue or an incidental by-product of the processing of a substance and for which no use can be found by the organism or system that produces
22 it. (Allaby 1988). The fact is that before refuse can be generated, the element must be worthless to its original user. Hence it is thrown away or discarded. A material may be unwanted by a person or its original owner, but it may be a source of raw materials for anther person.
The definition of solid waste by the United States (US) Congress, in the 1976 Resource
Conservation Recovery Act cited by Purdom and Anderson (1983) is confusing and some what contradicting and complexing rather than convincing. It defines solid waste as:
Any garbage, refuse, sludge from a waste treatment plant, or a air pollution control facilities and other discarded materials, including solid, liquid, semisolid or contained gaseous materials resulting from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations and community activities. This definition does not see refuse as the same thing with solid waste; rather refuse is an integral part of solid wastes. Also liquid and gaseous materials are also classified as solid waste in the definition. These concepts in the definition are too ambiguous. Liquids and gases can never qualify as solid. However, since the definition looks at waste from legal angle, it may seem justifiable to all items, including materials that hold liquid or gaseous contents.
For this study, waste is any solid or semi-solid materials which have been discarded by its primary owner or original user, and may or may not be found useful by any other person but constitute nuisance to people’s health and the environment when left untreated. Waste could be explained to mean leftovers, used products whether liquid or solid having no economic value or demand and which must be disposed or thrown away (Oluwande, 2002,
Bartone, 2000; Buckle and Smith 2000). The issue of waste disposal and management were not problems to early humans, due to the fact that there were not population explosion and
23 technological advancement at that time. However with the growing population at alarming rate coupled with technological advancement overtime waste disposal and management began to constitute a serious problem to human race.
Solid waste can be classified according to their sources and basically from the origin of generation with a view of obtaining workable and efficient methods of storage, collection, treatment and disposal. Primarily, solid wastes are classified as garbage (which includes the organic matter that results from the preparation and consumption of food) ashes (residue that result after cooking and heating process), and rubbish (which embraces most solid waste which are included in the other two classes) Adedibu, 1985: Adebayo, 1995; RPDC, 2004).
Wastes could be classified as:
(a) household wastes – municipal wastes;
(b) industrial wastes – hazardous wastes; and
(c) biomedical wastes – infectious wastes.
Municipal solid wastes are made up of household wastes, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue and waste from the streets. Residential and commercial complexes generated the garbage that forms part of the wastes that is classified as municipal/household wastes. With the rising of urbanization in Port Harcourt metropolis and, the change in lifestyles and food habits, the amount of municipal wastes has been increasing rapidly. In the last few years, the consumer market has growth rapidly leading to products being packed in cans, aluminum foils, plastics, nylon and non-biodegradable items that can cause incalculable harm to the environment (Adebayo, 1995; Aribisala, 1997).
Proper handling of biodegradable wastes will lessen the burden of solid waste that each city has to tackle (Hoornweg, 2000; Aribisala, et al, 2004).
24 Hazardous waste (Industrial) may contain toxic substances. These could be highly toxic to humans, animals and plants; they could be corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive and react when exposed to certain things e.g. gases. Household wastes that can be categorized as hazardous include old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles.
Hospital wastes contaminated by chemicals (formaldehyde and phenols) used in hospitals is considered hazardous. For the industrial sector, the major generators of hazardous waste are metal, chemicals, papers, pesticides, dyes, refining and rubber goods.
Hospital wastes are generated during the diagnosis treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or during research activities. These may include sharps, soiled wastes, disposables, and anatomical wastes, discarded medicines, chemicals wastes etc which could be in form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta etc.
Wastes of this nature are highly infectious. Akpan (1995) cited by Lawal provides the diagrammatic summary of classification of refuse.
Table 2.2: Classification of Solid waste Land Use Category Solid waste types Description Residential, Garbage Waste from the preparation and instrumental and cooking of food, and market refuse, commercial e.g waste from handling, storage and sale of hotels, stories, meat. restaurants and Rubbish Combustible (primarily organic) paper, home. cardboard, carbon, wood, boxes etc. plastics, cloths, building, leather, rubbers, grass, and leaves, yarn trimmings. Non-combustible (primarily inorganic) metal, tin cans, metal foil, bricks ceramics, grocery glass, bottles. Ashes Residue from fire used for cooking. Municipal and Bulk wastes Discarded large motor parts tyres, transportation refrigerators, furniture, large crates trees, branches, palm fronds and stumps. Street sweeping dirt, leaves and contents of litre receptacle.
25 Dead animals Small animals, dogs, cats, etc large animals, cows, donkey etc. Industrial e.g. Industrial refuse Solid waste resulting from industrial factories power plant, processes and manufacturing operation sewage treatment such as food processing waste, boiler, plants, septic tank, house cylinders wood, plastic and metal scraps etc. Construction and Lumber, roofing scrape, rubble broken demolition waste. concrete plastic conduct pipe, wire insulation scraps etc. Sewage treatment Coarse screening grit dewatered sludge, residues etc. Animals and Manures, crop residue Agricultural wastes Special wastes Hazardous waste: pathological wastes explosives radioactive materials, confidential document etc. Source: American public works association (APWA) refuse collection practice cited by Lawal in Akpan(1995) In the early societies, when people were nomadic in nature, wastes were discarded where they were generated as people moved away from them. But this is no longer the case as population increases and people began to live a more settled life. In this regard, waste must be removed from contact with the population. The scene in Port Harcourt metropolis now, is the gradual take over of any available open space as refuse dumps both in the core and periphery areas of the city. The rapid population growth in Port Harcourt metropolis is affecting the amount of solid waste that is generated daily in the city.
The increase in population and socio-economic activities has influenced the volume of waste generated by human beings in the environment (Adebayo, 1995: Aribisala, 1997).
Areas with high population as in the case of in Port Harcourt metropolis, relative to other towns in the State, is likely to have higher level of socio-economic activities and this tends to generate huge amount of garbage within and around the area.
26 The solid waste problem does not have a single solution. At present, comprehensive waste management plans include source reduction, recycling and compositing, waste-to- energy incineration, and, safe environmental landfills (United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 1990). Solid waste management as a branch of public health is associated with the control of generation storage collection, transfer, transportation, processing and disposal of solid waste in accordance with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other engineering considerations (Fantola, 1997).
Table 2 shows the time frame for wastes generated to degenerate as compiled by Tennessee
Solid Waste Education Project (TW-SWEP, 2004).
Table 2. 3: Approximate Time for W astes to Degenerate Types of waste Approximate Time Organic waste vegetable, fruit peels, leftover 1-2 weeks foodstuff etc Paper 10-30 weeks Cotton cloth 2-5 months Wood 10-15 years Woolen items 1 year Tin, aluminum etc 100-500 years Plastic 1 million years? Glass bottles Undetermined Source: TW-SWEP, 2004
Although the time estimated for metals glass and plastics may be doubtful, the fact remains that these objects last longer in the environment than any other items. They are nuisances to human beings while outright classification of refuse is difficult. In order to protect human health and environment from the potential hazard arising from inappropriate solid waste disposal and its consequential environmental pollution, a systematically supervised and controlled management of the solid waste is a must. The type of waste which this study adverts is solid waste generated in households, hospitals, industries and
27 commercial centre. These include degradable food wastes, leaves, dead animals, corpse and non-degradable ones such as bottles, nylon, and medical wastes.
2.2 Nature and M anagement of (Solid) W astes in Nigeria.
The culture of the people in the geographical entity called Nigeria varies from one nationality to the other and their way of life has contributed tremendously to affect their environment. In a densely populated cities in Nigeria as well as small villages, the habit of dumping solid wastes which are mainly domestic, medical and industrial in strategic and commercial centers or near their houses is a common environmental phenomenon.
This happening tends to qualify the environment and perhaps this informed the then
Federal Military Government to promulgate Decree No 58 of 1988.
The Decree created Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) and charged it with the responsibility of maintaining decent environment in Nigerian cities and towns.
The Decree made provisions for the post of a chairman who has the knowledge of environmental matters, four distinguished scientists and one representative from Federal
Ministries of Health, Science and Technology, Works and Housing, Agriculture, Water
Resources and Rural Development, Industries, Mines, Power and Steel, Employment,
Labour and Productivity, Petroleum Resources, Transport and Aviation.
Section 4 of the Decree charged the Agency with the responsibility for the protection and development of the environment. The agency is obliged to:
28 (a) Advise the Federal Military Government on National Environmental Policies
and Priorities and on scientific and technological activities affecting the
environment.
(b) Prepare periodic master plans for the development of environmental sciences
and technology and advice the Federal Military Government on the financial
requirements for the implementation of such plans.
(c) Promote cooperation in environmental science and technology with similar
bodies in other countries and with international bodies connected with the
protection of the environments
(d) Cooperate with Federal, and State Ministries, Local Government Councils,
Statutory bodies and research agencies on matters and facilities relating to
environmental protection and
(e) Carry out such other activities as are necessary or expedient for the full discharge
of the function of the Agency under the Decree.
Specifically Section 5 of the Decree
(i) Empowers the Agency to establish such environment criteria, guidelines,
specifications or standards for the protection of the nation’s air, and inter-state
waters as may be necessary to protect the health and welfare of the population
from environmental degradation and
(ii) Establish such procedures for industrial or agricultural activities in order to
minimize damage to the environment from such activities.
In an attempt to cover effectively the whole country, the agency (FEPA) operates a liaison office in Lagos, zonal offices in Kaduna, Kano, Port-Harcourt, Maiduguri, Akure,
Owerri and Ibadan. These offices are coordinated by the Headquarters in Abuja. The agency
29 has, since its establishment in 1988, produced a national policy on the environment and
guidelines, standards, and regulations for environmental management including pollution
control, natural resources, conservation, industrial and municipal waste management.
However, one of the commonest characteristics of cities in Nigeria has been the
growing disparity between urban populations and level of functional urban infrastructure,
which often times lead to environmental health problems. The urban poor in particular, are
over exposed to preventable environmental risks and life threatening diseases. Hardoy,
Caincross and Satterthwaite (1990) describe this as ‘urbanisation without health’ .The most
severe environmental health problems of urban waste management are tied to overcrowding,
illegal settlements, inadequate supply of drinking water and general sanitation problems.
These are closely interrelated and typical of the low-income core district homes and
neighbourhoods, where the urban centres mass people and also concentrate potentially
health-threatening activities which can best be described as a ‘disaster waiting to happen’.
Given the endemic poverty situation, poor urban governance and general lack of
systematized application of interdisciplinary approach to the administration and management
of the urban environment, local threats to the home environment often become severe.
Common features are tabulated below on table 2.3
Table 2.4: City-Environmental Problems by Context and Nature of the Hazard or Problem Context Nature of Hazard or Some Specific Example Problem Within the house Biological pathogens Water borne, water-washed (water-scarce) and its plot airborne, food borne, vector borne – including some water related vectors such as Aedes mosquitoes where pipe-borne water is lacking. Chemical pollutants Indoor air pollution from fires, stoves, heaters. Accidental poisoning from household chemicals. Occupational exposure for home workers.
30 Physical hazards Household accident – burns and scalds, cuts, falls, physical hazards from home based economic activities. Inadequate protection from rain, extreme temperatures, and so on. Neighbourhood Biological pathogens Pathogen in wastewater, solid waste (if not removed from site) local bodies of water. Diseases vectors – such as Anopheles mosquitoes, in standing water or culex mosquitoes – in blocked drains, pit latrines or septic tanks. Chemical pollutants Ambient air pollution from fires, stoves and burning garbage if there is no regular evacuation. Air pollution and waste from cottage industries and road vehicles. Physical hazards Site related hazards such as housing on slopes with risk of landslides, sites regularly flooding or at risks from earthquakes. Traffic hazards, noise. Health hazards to children especially where open spaces are used as waste dumps. City or Biological pathogens The quality and extent of provision for piped Municipality with water, sanitation, drainage, solid waste larger city collection, disease control and healthcare at city level is a critical influence on extent of problem. Chemical pollutants Ambient air pollution (mostly from industry and motor vehicles, general growth in role of motor vehicles), water pollution, hazardous wastes. Physical hazards Traffic hazards, urban violence, natural disasters and their large impact arising from inadequate attention to prevention and mitigation Heat island effect and Raised temperatures – a health risk especially thermal inversion from the vulnerable groups (the elderly and very young). Pollutants may become trapped increasing their concentration and length of exposure. Citizens’ access to land Important influence on housing quality – for housing and tenural insecure tenure discourages households from system investing in improved housing and discouraging water, electricity and other utilities from being connected to serve them. Source: adapted from Satterthwaite, (1999).
The Federal Government effort to combat environmental hazards was supplemented
by the State government agencies. Rivers State Government for instance enacted an edict
establishing Rivers State Environmental Sanitation Authority (RSESA). Its main functions
31 are to collect, transfer and dispose of solid waste in Port Harcourt city and environs as an authority which admittedly could not cope with the volume of solid and liquid wastes in Port
Harcourt.
2.3 Nature and M anagement of Solid W aste in Port Harcourt
Three government agencies are in charge of managing solid wastes in Port Harcourt. They are:
(i) The Local Government Councils
(ii) The Rivers State Environmental Sanitation Authority (RSESA).
(iii) The newly established Ministry of Environment and Water Resources.
It is settled that one of the main social problems facing Port Harcourt City and which has become an intractable nuisance is open and indiscriminate dumping of refuse, human and lower animal faeces and Solid Wastes. Piles of decaying garbage which are domestic and industrial in nature litter in strategic locations in the heart of the city. Solid Wastes and other wastes in such dumping sites is, unarguably a source of atmospheric and water pollution, land contamination, health hazards, and environmental degradation. The risks that may be anticipated include obnoxious odour, aesthetic nuisance, fire outbreak, water pollution, proliferation of insects – flies, cock roaches, rats and other small and dangerous insects which can endanger public health through breeding of ailments such as dysentery, cholera, diarrhoea, yellow fever, plaque, and filariasis. Furthermore, the fumes, and carbon monoxide from the solid waste, and atmospheric pollution may cause and also aggravate bronchial and asthmatic disorders.
Regrettably, the above condition, that is, indiscriminate dumping of refuse characterizes environmental culture in Port Harcourt city. It is important to note that endangered public
32 health situation can exert excessive pressure on the health budget, curtails productivity and worsen urban condition of health. This ugly situation persisted for few decades (since independence) and even before and far from being pessimistic it may likely continue to be so in Port Harcourt because of the following.
(i) High rate of illiteracy;
(ii) Ignorance;
(iii) Uncivil culture of waste littering i.e. throwing of wastes on bare ground
(iv) People’s inability to maintain a sanitarily clean environment and
(v) Reluctance of people to cooperate with the authority by disposing solid waste in
illegal dumping sites rather than using the means provided by the Government.
Other factors that militate against decent environment in Port Harcourt include:
(i) Pollution through exploration and exploitation of petroleum oil and gas
(ii) Uncontrolled population creating slum condition
(iii) Poor planning of the city and
(iv) Flagrant violation of town planning regulation
Most houses in the heart of the city have no toilet facilities hence human faeces and other wastes are dumped inside streams, especially when it rains.
The resultant effects of the above condition are:
(i) Street littering and depletion of aesthetic value of the urban landscape resulting
from peoples bad habit of throwing solid and liquid wastes carelessly from
moving automobile vehicles and while walking on the street by hawkers
(ii) Flooding is occasioned when people indiscriminately dump solid waste along
drainage channels and rivers which its tributaries traverse the city.
33 (iii) Air pollution is also noticeable in most parts of the dumping sites near residential
premises when set on fire or spontaneously catches fire.
(iv) Water Pollution, on the other hand is a feature in Port Harcourt especially during
the raining season when surface run offs or leaches flow into the rivers. This also
occurs when the liquid resulting from decomposed solid wastes run through an
open dump site and
(v) Environmental pollution of any form reduces property values of land close to
dumpsite.
2.4 Port Harcourt M etropolis W aste M anagement Authority
. With the commencement of the edict, No 8 of 1997 under the 1979 Nigerian
Constitution, the functions of Rivers State Environmental Sanitation Authority (RSESA) and the Local Government Councils in Port Harcourt city and its environs is to collect, transfer and dispose solid waste. The functions of the Authority are stated below. a. Collection, transfer, and disposal of solid wastes, in Port Harcourt b. Collection and registration of private refuse collectors in the city. Each refuse
collection firm has to pay specified amounts to the authority annually c. Leases out and sells its equipment to refuse contractors at profitable rates.
d. Enforcement of all regulations concerning refuse collection, disposal and any other
sanitation laws as obtained or as may be promulgated in Port Harcourt city.
e. Making effective use of sanitary inspectors from Local Government service and
impose sanction on any refuse collector or citizens in form of fines for the
contravention of any of the laws. f. To maintain land fill sites around Port Harcourt and charge economic rate and g. Ensuring proper use of governmental budget allocated for solid waste collection.
34 Table 2.5 Operational M anagement of Solid W aste
Collection Transpiration Disposed
(1) C ontainer Dustbins (1) Trucks (1) Landfill (2) Plant (2) Inceneration (2) Bags (3) Machines (3) Compoting (3) Refuse House (4) Spare Parts (4) Recycling (5) Machinery
Capital cost
The above table demonstrated the capital intensiveness of the operation of waste management in Port Harcourt metropolis. Of recent, the Rivers State House of Assembly passed a law to establish the Ministry of Environment and Water Resources which its responsibilities include:
1) Formulation and enforcements of policies, statutory rules and regulations on waste
collection and disposal, general environmental protection, control and regulation of
the ecological system and all related activities.
2) Advise the Government on the environmental policies and priorities and on
scientific and technological activities affecting the environment.
35 3) Coordinate the activities of the Local Governments and the government agencies on
environmental and ecological matters.
4) Establish and take measure to ensure effective environmental structure in the state
for flood control, solid and liquid waste collection and disposal, water and air pollution
eradication, noise control and general sanitation
5) Prepares master plans for drainage, solid and liquid waste and general aesthetics for
development of environmental technology and ensure the implementation of such
plans.
6) Promotes cooperation in environmental science and technology with bodies whose
main objective is the protection of the environments.
7) Initiates appropriate policy action on the environmental implications of environmental
related activities.
8) Monitors sources of toxic pollution in air, land, and water.
9) Conduct public enlightenment campaign and disseminate vital information on
10) Conduct public enlightenment campaign and disseminate vital information on
environmental and ecological matters.
Section 5 of the Law empowers the Ministry to:
(a) Collect and make available through publications and other appropriate means, the
basic scientific data and other information pertaining to eradication of pollution and
environmental protection matters.
(b) Register the environmental management contractors and to impose such conditions
necessary for carrying on the environmental management business.
36 (c) Enter into contracts with other organizations or companies for the purpose of
executing and fulfilling its functions and responsibilities under the law.
(d) Enter into agreements with organization and companies to develop, utilize,
coordinate and share environmental monitoring programmes research, basic data on
chemical, physical and biological effects of various activities on the environment and
other environmentally related activities as appropriate
(e) Establish such environmental criteria, guidelines, specifications or standards for the
protection of land water and air as may be necessary to protect the health and
welfare of the population from environmental degradation.
(f) Establish such procedure for industrial or agricultural, commercial or social activities
in order to minimize damage to the environment from such activities.
(g) Maintain programme of technical assistance to bodies public or private concerning
implementation of environmental criteria, guidelines, regulations, standard and
monitoring enforcement of the regulation and standard thereof. (h) Gives directives to government agencies, authorities and departments on matters
relating to the protection or maintenance of environment, develop and promote such
processes, methods, devices and materials as may be useful or incidental to the
carrying out of the processes and provisions of the law.
2.5 Legal Framework of M anagement of Solid W aste
Related to the above institutional mechanism of managing solid and liquid waste in the environment of Port Harcourt metropolis, i.e State Ministry and Local Government. Solid
37 Waste Board in the promulgation of Decree No 42, 1988 which inter alia highlighted crimes punishable in respect of harmful wastes. Not withstanding the provisions of the Customs and Excise Tariff (consolidation) Decree 1988 or any other enactment, or law, all activities relating to the purchase, sale, importation, transit, transportation, deposit, and storage of harmful wastes are hereby prohibited and declared unlawful. The law went further that, as from the commencement of the decree, any person who without lawful authority:-
(a) Carries, deposits, dumps or causes to be carried or dumped or is in possession for
the purpose of carrying, depositing, or dumping any harmful waste on any land or
any territorial waters or contiguous zone, or exclusive economic zone of Nigeria or
its inland water ways;
(b) Transport, or causes to be transported or is in possession for the purpose of
transporting any harmful waste, or
(c) Imports, or causes to be imported or negotiates or the purpose of importing any
harmful waste or Sells, offers for sale or otherwise deals in any harmful waste, shall
be guilty of a crime under this Decree.
Furthermore, section 3 or the law says that “a person shall be deemed to deposit or
dump harmful wastes under this Decree if he/she deposits or dumps the harmful waste
whether solid, semi-solid or liquid in such circumstances or for such period that he/she may
be deemed;
(a) to have abandoned it where it is deposited, or
(b) to have brought it to the place where it is so deposited or dumped for the
purpose of its being disposed of or abandoned whether by him or any other
person.
38 By implication, an offence is committed if he/she does the act or makes the omission which constitutes the crime or he/she does or omits to do any act for the purpose of enabling or aiding another person to commit the crime or if he/she aids another person in committing the crime or if he/she counsel on procures any other persons to commit the crime.
To a critical mind, as laudable as the law is, the question is that of enforceability. Since its promulgation, how much of the law has been enforced. If it has been enforced effectively, the Port Harcourt metropolis and its environment would have been neater than what it is now.
2.6 The Problems Facing the control and M anagement of Solid W aste in Port Harcourt M etropolis
The problems facing the control and management of Solid Waste in Port Harcourt
Metropolis are multi-faceted. Population surges has given rise to a heavily built up environment in Port Harcourt metropolis wherein houses are most closely built than before, which has then resulted in the dumping of waste on the streets. In few cases where septic tanks are used for collection of sewage the nature of the walls of these tanks encourages microbial contamination of the surrounding soils and subsurface water. The provision and maintenance of solo bins and technologically sophisticated machines for waste disposals are lacking due to insufficient fund.
Ethically, the beauty of any environment lies on its good sanitary condition. This is so because when an environment is clean the lives of the citizenry are not threatened by illnesses and diseases. Many Nigerian citizens have gotten increasingly mindful of the quality of food they eat and the water they drink but less about the dumping of waste from their homes, business premises etc. According to Adegoke (1990), most industries in Nigeria do not treat their liquid effluents before discharging them into open gutters, drains etc. Most
39 industries dump their solid wastes in heaps within their premises and discharge gaseous emissions and particulate matter freely into the atmosphere.
However, for the purpose of this study, five factors were discussed as
1. Poor funding,
2. Culture of the people,
3. Limited technology
4. Social and Political Factors and
5. Poor Strategies for raising environmental awareness
2.6.1 Poor funding
To be successful, every solid waste management program needs funding.
Unfortunately, especially in an era of tightening budgets, it is very difficult to find the needed resources. Essentially, refuse collection and disposal in Port Harcourt metropolis have become complex, capital intensive and expensive project such that it is a futile effort to expect a single institution of local government council or state ministry, talk less of a parastatal to finance it from its own limited resource. The question is, how can an authority performing a very crucial function of making environment decent be effective and efficient when it is grossly under funded?
Unfortunately, the State government is not fully ready to finance the Authority while the Ministry of Environment only issues policy directives that are not backed by financial assistance and the user communities are unwilling to pay for services rendered by the
Authority. The consequential effect is that the Authority increasingly finds it difficult to manage and perform its statutory functions thereby turning residential city into public dust bin and environmental hazard. While, Nigerian Governments are interested in making their cities comparable to those of advanced countries by rolling in decrees and enacting
40 environmental laws but the governments are not sincere to release fund to implement the laws (lack of political will) enacted.
2.6.2 Culture of the people
Another factor that posed great challenges to the management of environmental waste in Port Harcourt metropolis has to do with the culture of the people. The city is not well organized and planned. It has been for long, a commercial centre for marketers of maize, yam, and other food stuff that generate heaps of refuse which are almost unmanageable. The illiterate culture of the people seems not to respect human dignity and decency. Most of the houses are without toilet facilities especially in the core of the city.
People defecate in any available plots of land which are uncleared or along the streams.
Worse still, when toilets are built by the local government councils, they are carelessly and negligently used and within a short period, they get spoilt. The socio-cultural attitude, lack
of awareness and traditional syndrome of dumping refuse very close to their houses constitute a serious environmental degradation and health hazards.
2.6.3 Limited Technology
Since the State government is not fully ready to finance the Authority while the
Ministry of Environment only issues policy directives that are not backed by financial assistance and the user communities are unwilling to pay for services rendered by the
Authority, keeping the range of vehicles [skepeater, bulldozers etc) in good working condition and roadworthy is a difficult task. More so, some of the vehicles spare parts are not manufactured here in Nigeria. Thus, the vehicles spend much longer time under repairs than in actual use. Waste control and management systems designed to be operated technologically are operated manually due to limited technology.
41 Recycling is considered very expensive. it involves processing used materials into new products in order to prevent the waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air (from incineration) and water (from land filling) pollution by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to virgin production. The compactors relatively new are grounded with just minor electrical or mechanical complaints that would only attract little expenditure to repair them. Again, this condition affirms the under funding of the Authority earlier mentioned.
2.6.4 Social and Political Factors
The lack of sustainability of public utilities is a serious problem in management of wastes in Port Harcourt metropolis. The World Bank in the early 1980s assisted the
Authority in the management of Solid wastes in Port Harcourt but as soon as the project period expired, the Rivers State Government could not effectively continue from where the
World Bank stopped, perhaps due to lack of political will. Behold, Port Harcourt lost its glory that previously earned it the name “ the Garden City” of Nigeria.
Furthermore, re-planning of Port Harcourt metropolis has always been a herculean task for the successive governments because of political and social consideration in doing so.
Finally, the policy inconsistency of the governments spells doom on the management of environmental waste in Port Harcourt metropolis. Thus during the Buhari-Idiagbon Military administration monthly sanitary/ environmental cleaning activities was decreed where every member of the public, participated in the cleaning exercise of their surroundings while the evacuation of the refuse was carried out by various local government councils. The policy assisted Port Harcourt metropolis and similar cities and towns in Nigeria in making their environments worth living and proud of. Sadly enough, however, and for best reason known
42 Obasanjo administration, this laudable environmental policy/programme was cancelled by the democratic civilian regime on its inception in mid 1999.
2.6.5 Poor Strategies for raising environmental awareness
The population of Port Harcourt metropolis is heterogeneous, varied and legion consisting of land owners/indegenes (natives) and strangers, children and adults; male and female some of these people are stack illiterates; some are semi-literates while others are literates. However, one thing is common to all of them: they all generate waste, which they dispose of every time. Educating/mobilizing these people need specialized methods that will cater for the various groups at the same time. Adara (2002) states that the setting for teaching / learning of such heterogeneous public would best be described as non-formal which is output-centred. He further states that the method has to embrace the fun-creating techniques, which caters for the variety of learners involved.
Strategies for raising public awareness involved media tools on one side and method on the other side. Akpan (1995) describes media as instruments used in communicating health education to the public, while methods describe the process of communicating. Among the media and tools for public health awareness, according to Akpan (1995) are radio, television, newspapers and posters, loudspeakers and public address system, cinema van, filmstrips, books, pamphlets and leaflets. Methods include the ways in which these channels or media put the message across to the pupils. This could be through dramatization, talk shows, discussion, story telling etc.
Apel and Camozzi (1996) state that one way of raising public awareness and producing measurable results quickly is to use multiple information channels. They grouped these information channels in two: Traditional media and modern media. Traditional media
43 include announcement in the market places; theatre, dances, stories and puppet theatre. They further gave examples of modern media as films and videos, reports in newspapers, music, posters, self-made journals and leaflets, reports on television educational radio, slogans on T- shirts, caps and other clothing items etc. All these are ways by which public awareness about indiscriminate refuse dump could be raised.
Of all the media, electronic and print media are the most widely used. Messages through radio and television have advantages over others in reaching wider target audiences in a very short time. Onabanjo (2002) states that radio is the single most extensive communication devise existing. However, television has the advantage of appealing to both senses of hearing and seeing at the same time. Pictures in television will appeal to the emotions of its viewers, as the television will ‘transfer’ the viewer to the scene of action through their mind’s eyes.
However, it should be noted that each of the media has its own disadvantage (s).
For example, it’s only the awareness of the literate class that can be raised through newspaper journal or leaflets. Radio and television depend on a source of power to operate them. In Nigeria where electricity (power supply) is not constant, health/education/environmental messages are often not heard or viewed by a large section of the population (Akpan 1995). To effectively create or raise awareness, messages should be presented in a simple way and language that people would understand in defining responsible environmental behaviour The use of local language or dialect is very effective in this regard.
2.7 W aste Disposal M ethods
This study identified six methods of Waste collection. They are
1. House to house;
44 2. Communal depot;
3. Kerbsides;
4. Block system of collection;
5. Commercial and industrial Waste Collection and
6. Bulk loading.
House to house collection and the communal deport are usually adopted in an area where skip bins are deposited for people to dispose their refuse therein. Unfortunately members of the public abused this method by turning the bins into means of disposing human foetus arising from illegal abortion and human faeces. On most occasions these bins are set on fire which gives rise to carbon monoxide, a dangerous gas to human lives. The block system is adopted in the core areas of the city where refuse truck has no access.
Wastes are being collected on regular basis by “Block system” i.e bring and dump. This system is effective because it is not labour intensive and allows community participation in keeping the environment clean. However, the inhabitants of the area may wait for days without having access to the service of the trucks.
The bulk loading forms the illegal refuse depots. This method arises from the fact that the very poor who could not afford fees, charged for disposal of their refuse, reside mostly in the core area of, Port Harcourt metropolis. The resultant effect of this is that these poverty stricken people resorted to sporadic and indiscriminate dumping of waste in any available vacant land, sidewalks, roadway, streams (especially in the river), channels and drainages.
This is street sweeping which was innovated to safeguard public health and to beautify the city’s environments is done by the Kerbsides. They sweep the major streets and
Government Reservation Areas that are being covered by the contractor’s staff who were
45 equipped with long broom and basket to collect the wastes which are deposited in the strand by truck for disposal. In addition, registered private refuse collectors were employed by the
Port Harcourt solid wastes management authority. The contractors were to collect refuse in drums in front of each house under their jurisdiction. They collected the refuse and disposed same at the approved disposal sites.
Another noticeable environmental pollution in the city arises from waste products from factories, hotels, hospitals and commercial centres. In Industrial Waste Collection the wastes are usually burnt and constitute atmospheric pollution, where as in Europe and
America, such waste products are recycled and become useful for further consumption. This is not so in Port Harcourt Metropolis.
Perhaps, this is why Adesiyan remarked: “The recycled plastic, metal bottle and organic substance which if recovered at sources can provide income as well as reduce the quantity that will pass to final disposal sites;
Perhaps, one may assert that, at present, the training of wastes generators in the area of recovery is non-existent in Nigeria, For instance, about 20% of the municipal solid waste comes from plastic waste with only 2% being re-cycled. My enquiry with the scavengers and officials of the Ministry of Environment and Water Resource, Port Harcourt confirmed that there is low market for recycled products. In an attempt to encourage recycling business in
Nigeria, twenty-seven (27) States of the Federation gave incentives to re-cycling businesses and establish task forces to encourage and improve recycling markets.
In sustaining Port Harcourt metropolis environment, a practical approach should be put in place in disposing the wastes. The following measures such as;
(a) Sorting and salvaging – is a process by which valuable items are sorted and
salvaged from the bulk of the solid wastes. Some of which can be recycled
46 (constructing waste like aggregates and brick waste) and others could be reused
(glassware).
(b) Pyrolysis – thermal decomposition of the waste in an inert atmosphere. This
leads to the production of a mixture of gaseous products, tars, water, insoluble
oil and an aqueous solution of acetic acid, methanol and other organic
compounds. The product of pyrolysis represent about 50% of the initial volume
of the original waste fed into the system and can be converted into energy either
to sustain the process or produce excess power. One great advantage of this
method is that large quantities of potentially hazardous plastics e.g. PVC can be
burnt without any problem of pollution.
(c) Composition: Controlled aerobic and/or anaerobic degradation of prescribed
material in a warm, moist environment by micro-organisms thus obtaining a
stable product controlled by microbial reaction (Aribisala et al, 2004). The end
product though not fertilizer on its own when applied to soils makes crops to
respond as if a commercial fertilizer has been applied.
2.8 Health and the Environment
Health and the environment are unquestionably interrelated. Poor air quality, contaminated water, exposure to toxic chemicals and some vector-borne diseases affect ecosystem health as well as human health. A healthy environment is a pre-condition for good public health and health issues are key drivers for concrete action on the environment.
Medical Press International (1999) defines public health as the practice and organization of preventive medicine within a community. Preventive medicine is the key phrase in the definition. It involves taken positive action either by the individuals, the community or the government to prevent the onset or anything that can cause disease. This could be through
47 maintenance of clean environment, immunization and others. Public health attempts to prevent diseases and injury by eliminating or modifying health hazards; which include improper handing of refuse. Encyclopaedia Americana (1995) defines public health as the organization and application of resources used to prevent the societal burden that would otherwise result from disease or injury. Public health strives to improve health and maintain viability within a population, by addressing four broad areas:
i) The life style and behaviour of people as it affects their health.
ii) The environment in which people live as it affects their health.
iii) The biological make-up of man
iv) The organization of health programmes which include awareness
creation or health education.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1983) sees public health as the art and science of preventing
disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental efficiency through organized
community efforts. It emphasizes community action in the promotion of health and the prevention of diseases. This recognition is expressed in the concept of public health and by extension, environmental education.
In towns and cities, government or its agencies are mostly responsible for public health activities. In Nigeria, the Federal Government is sometimes responsible for public health services as it is seen in immunization programmes and the activities of the National
Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC). However, at the grassroots level, local government and state government play significant role in waste management, sanitation, water supply and others.
Proper environmental management is the key to avoiding the quarter of all preventable illnesses which are directly caused by environmental factors. This understanding led the
48 United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development to declare in 1992, that "human beings are at the centre of sustainable development” and that “they are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature". In 2001, with a matured understanding of the correlation between health and environment, United Nations Economic and Social Council more forcefully accentuated the link in stating that "population health cannot be maintained without ecologically sustainable development”.
The environment influences our health in many ways — through exposures to physical, chemical and biological risk factors, and through related changes in our behaviour in response to those factors. On the other hand, humans are constantly and gradually polluting themselves to death through their way of life and activities and this has continued to assume an alarming or devastating proportion.
It is on this note that the Nigerian Environment Study Team (NEST, 1991), described the Nigerian environment as “threatened”. This (Faniran and Adeboyejo, 1999) revealed was not the first time that attention has been called to the dangers being faced by
Nigerian’s natural heritage. The question is, has anything seriously been done by the governments( local, State and Federal levels) to reduce the impact of this problems on the citizenry and the natural environment? The model below described human’s relationship with their environment.
49
Table 2.6 Humans-Environment Interaction Model
HUMANS
Preservation uncontrolled & conservation activities of humans of environment on the environment .
Environment Sustainable Healthy Destruction of Environment the environment
The model portrays a system of dependency of humans on its environment and the impact of its attitude and activities on the same environment. From the Model, humans can either chose to protect or destroy their own environment through his/her actions.
The result of this action is either total destruction or sustainability of the environment. The model also revealed the fact that either humans choose to destroy or protect their environment; the repercussion of their choice goes back to humans. The people’s health is at risk when the environment is not properly managed. Oyaigbevwen
(1988) states that the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste in or on land without careful planning and management can present a danger to human health and the environment. The unrestricted dumping of domestic, industrial, hospital and agricultural waste at the city's main dumping site was cause for concern. The land cannot be used for domestic and agricultural use. The dumpsite occupies about 10 acres, with at least 700 tonnes of waste deposited daily. Indiscriminate dumping of refuse and open dumping of
50 refuse contaminate drinking water from both underground and surface supplies. It also pollutes air and land. Above all it provides easy arena for disease spread.
Many environment-related diseases developed from filthy environments, which are human creation. Many people live and carry out their businesses in these environments without concern for their health. When the waste is burnt, toxic gases are formed and it is very noxious. Many people were suffering from respiratory abnormalities, many had blocked airways. Cases of skin disorders, abdominal problems and eye infections were also common among the people. Malaria is another threat, since blocked drains collected water and became breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
Table 2.7 : Some Vectors and their Potential Health Risks Vectors Risk Files Black-fly Eye infection (onchocerciasis) particularly among infants and children Housefly Diarrheal diseases (gastro-intestinal) e.g choleta, dysentery, typhoid etc Testsefly Sleeping sickness Mosquitoes Malaria fever, dengue fever, filariasis, yellow fever etc. Mites Scabics, scrub typhus Lice Epidemic typhus, relapsing fever Fleas Plague (from infected rats) endemic typhus Ticks Relapsing fever, spotted fever Rats Rat-bite fever, leptospriosis, salmonellosis, lassa fever etc Source: Adapted from Aid Worker Network: http//www.aid workers.net/technical/sanitation.html.
The most serious long-term threat facing the world today is the danger that human actions are producing irreversible harmful changes to the environmental conditions that support life on Earth. If this problem is not overcome, there may be no viable world for our
51 descendents to inhabit. In order to curb the mountain of environmental problems, especially urban solid waste management that is currently threatening the quality of life in most developing countries, environmentalists through various conferences have advocated for a shift from technical and scientific solution to the modifications of human behavioural pattern towards the environment (UNCHE, 1972., UNCED, 1992, DOE, 1994 and
DEFRA, 2002).
Developing responsible environmental behaviour has become one of the tasks of environmentalists’ most especially environmental educators. Several approaches that can be employed to promote environmentally responsible behaviour have been advocated
(Oskamp, 2002, Kurtycz, 2005 and Ayodele, 2005). In Nigeria, evidence abounds, where ordinary citizens have arbitrarily dumped their solid waste refuse into gutters or open drains
(even when hoppers or waste bins are provided). For example, in a study carried out in
Lagos in 2005 to assess the success of Lagos Environmental Sanitation Authority and
Malaria Control Project in six communities of Surulere, Ajeromi and Mushin Local
Government Areas, about 70 percent of the sampled 1403 respondents confirmed that they often dumped their refuse inside the gutters (CPH, 2005)
2.9 Defining Responsible Environmental Behaviour (REB)
What then do we really mean when we talk about responsible environmental behaviour. Cottrell and Graefe (1997) defined responsible environmental behaviour (REB) as actions taken by individuals or a group of individuals to do what is right to protect the environment. Kurtycz (2005) gave a practical definition of REB as the whole of actions of an individual within the society, that take into account, in a conscious way, the perennial and harmonious relationship between these actions and the environment. According to
52 Emmons (1997), REB is a self-determined behaviour aimed at consciously influencing the environment positively.
From these definitions REB is targeted at the whole of actions taken as distinct from positive environmental actions that is aimed at isolated actions. Responsible environmental behaviour is concerned with doing what is right. But to do what is right is not easy if one does not know the value scale of what is right and what is wrong.
2.9 The Role of Communication in Promoting Responsible Environmental Behaviour
The study of the role of communication in influencing the adoption of responsible environmental behaviour dates back to early 1990s, when in Mexico, the need to manage the problem of water shortage arose (Kurtycz, 2005). It was clear then, that in order to develop methodologies to deal with water environmental problems, it was necessary to carry along the populace using the communication perspective. Communication can help individuals to understand the interaction between resources (natural) and the environment.
Communication in this study through Public health awareness, public health education or promotion, and environmental health education are synonymous terms, which are often used interchangeably. Public health awareness is an intervention, which may be directed towards helping individuals, or groups realize and maintain healthful behaviours that are currently practiced. It involves knowledge of the need for personal hygiene, community hygiene, and environmental sanitation. Ross and Mico cited by Akpan (1995) see public health education (awareness) as a process with intellectual, psychological, and social dimensions relating to activities which increase the abilities of people to make informed decisions affecting their personal, family and community well-being. This process, based on scientific principles facilitates learning and behavioural change in people.
53 Public health awareness promotes change in knowledge, attitude and behaviour. The function of public health awareness therefore is to foster the integrity of the individuals and involves only strategies that promote voluntary change. The focus of public health education
(awareness) is on people and on action. World Health Organization cited by Akpan (1995) states that its aims are to use judiciously and wisely the health services available to them, and to make their own decision, both individually and collectively, to improve their health status and environment. Public health awareness is all about making people to know things that can affect their health and how these things can be avoided or prevented.
Awareness is a somewhat broad and vague term yet one that is intuitively widely stood. All awareness-campaigns aim to influence behaviour and hence, they are useful to understand how communication influences behaviour(htt:www.Collinesassoc.ca/water/m).
In awareness campaigns, policy makers and other interested groups ail for behavioural changes based on new social norms and attitude towards a particular course. Awareness influences people’s attitude. A person’s attitude describes the way he or she thinks about the proposed behaviour and its usefulness. The essence of public awareness about the health implication of indiscriminate refuse dump is to change people’s attitudes and behaviour to prevent indiscriminate refuse dump.
Public awareness can be seen as a process by which a community strives to acknowledge the existence of an issue. It constitutes the preliminary phase of political or social change. It is the first step in facing public issue. Change, which results from public awareness could be significant or minor, with general or specific impact. Raising public awareness level about health implication of indiscriminate refuse dump is a way of educating the public. This will make people to see the need for safe disposal of refuse. Public awareness is all about the demand for change. Awareness and being motivated to change are essential in participatory
54 interventions. Participation is based on the idea that people have the right to be involved in issues concerning them.
Awareness raising and education can help stimulate active and informed involvement.
(htt://www/collinsassoc.ca) if indiscriminate refuse dump must be abated there must be collaborative efforts between individual and government. The importance of social norms and attitudes in the management of refuse must be recognized. The main thrust of awareness rising in this regard is to positively influence individuals’ values, attitudes and behaviour towards a cleaner environment. In sanitation and hygiene sector, awareness of hygiene is considered a necessary compliment to various methods of waste management and its technologies. Without an understanding of hygiene-related issues, the use of safe sanitary facilities including municipal refuse receptacles is likely to be sub-optimal.
World Bank (no date) states that for change in solid waste management systems to occur, there must be awareness of both the need and the opportunity for change. Initiatives to raise public health awareness about indiscriminate refuse dump should focus on the desirability of clean environment and the health impact of indiscriminate refuse dump and the direction to follow. Public health awareness raising can also help create social pressure on governments to provide more municipal refuse receptacles; more well-managed dumping sites; build more modern incinerators; and ensure prompt clearance of refuse from the municipal refuse receptacles. Public health awareness can support a drive for policy change in favour of better waste management and build political will. Raising public health awareness today will help in building a more waste-aware new generation. Since school children of today will be leaders and adults of tomorrow, it is wiser to make waste management and invariably environmental education to be part of their school curricular.
55 For us to live in a safe environment, people just need to pay more attention to hygiene- related problems, most especially refuse management. Public awareness could be heightened by effective information and education about hygiene basics (htt://www/hygiene- edu.com/en/learn/everyday).Indiscriminate refuse dumps can only be prevented when children, men and women change behaviours in the households, the school, and the work places. However, these intimate and fundamental changes in behaviour cannot be legislated nor can we rely on simply teaching people good practices. Public education and awareness should focus at least as much on the advantages of sanitation, such as comfort, dignity and health benefits.
Kolsky (no date) states that to accomplish widespread behavioural change, everybody in the society can and does set good example on hygiene and sanitation. He maintains that people of all ages always respond to the reality they see rather than the rhetoric they hear.
Work places, market places and other public locations all set examples of sanitation. In other words, public health awareness programmes and action campaigns could take place in any of those places. And also, if those places are neat, then members of the community are indirectly being educated. The federal government is aware of the importance of public participation in environmental management, most especially waste management. Hence one of its primary assignments is to raise public awareness.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (1988) in its National Policy on Environment states:
“In other to promote (environmental) goals and awareness objectives, actions will be taken to raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development, and to encourage individual and community participation in environmental improvement efforts through”:
56 • Adopting community-based approach to public education and enlightenment
through social groups, voluntary associations and occupational organization.
• Intensifying the use of mass and folk media at Federal, State and Local
Government levels.
• Encouraging the inclusion of environmental awareness and enlightenment
studies in the educational curricular at all levels.
• Campaign for a “safe environment” in conjunction with health for all”
• Provision of information on the appropriate methods and technologies for
the treatment and disposal of waste.
All these are geared towards the promotion of public health awareness through various ways of communication. Communication approach allows us to see environmental practices in the context of a system that goes from the definition of the REB to its translation and implementation. All in all, Communication from the perspective of this study goes beyond the mere provision of information by technical means (telephone, print and electronic media).
Communication as used in this study is a way of approaching and explaining processes in society. Like mathematics or economics it fosters a particular way of describing the world. It is another hole in the box through which we can look at reality. The definition of communication of Lacroix and Tremblay, (1997) as the exchange process among the individual and group members of a given society using codes, rules, and techniques represent our view. REB can be translated using terms of codes, rules and techniques such that it’s dynamics can be understood from a communication perspective.
57 2.11 Factors that Influences Responsible Environmental Behaviour
There is a wealth of evidences to suggest that three categories of factors contribute to REB (Hungerford and Volk, 1990; Hines, et al, 1987 and Kurtycz, 2005). These are; (i) cognitive factors which include the levels of understanding of environmental issues and how to take action (ii) psycho-social factors that include attitude towards environmental issues, and sense of responsibility to do something to reduce environmental degradation and (iii) demographic factors such as gender and the level of educational attainment. Hines et al
(1987) conceptualized the relationship between the factors.
Table 2.8 M odel of Responsible Environmental Behaviour
Action skills
Situational Factors
Knowledge of action strategies
Knowledge of
issues Intention REB Attitudes to act
Locus of Personality factors control
Personal responsibility
M odel of Responsible Environmental Behaviour (Source: Hines et al, 1987)
The central assumption in this study is the need to understand the way people think before we can effectively communicate information for responsible environmental behaviour. From the study, it is evident that awareness, the capacity to act and acceptance
58 of the norm of sound environmental practices are responsible for the responses. A communication model is developed from the standpoint of the study.
Therefore the model is based on the following principles:
(i) Definition of the problem and the need to solve the problem.
(ii) Definition of responsible environmental behaviour.
(iii) Translate REB to the interests and perception of the individual.
(iv) Kind of communication useful to creating the necessary awareness.
Table 2.9 The Communication M odel
Waste Management Problem
Need to solve the problem
REB
Definition
Translation REB
Implementation REB
Actions (communicating) REB awareness
59 The communication model allows us to understand the complex framework in which
environmental awareness practices take place.
2.12 Summary and Conclusion
All biological organisms must essentially generate wastes. It follows therefore that regardless of the social and economic status, mankind must of necessity generate wastes of various form-solid and liquid on daily basis. Solid Waste management has to do with administration of institution charged with the responsibility of evacuating solid wastes from their sources of generation through storage, collection, transportation, recovery and treatment processes to disposal. Due to the low technological know-how syndrome generally affecting development in the third world countries, it was found that many of the equipment of the Authority are already out of use due to minor technical problem whose spare parts ordinarily would have been produced in the country given the right technological development. This low technological condition also manifests in every stage of waste disposal management, such as in operation yard, transfer loading system, land fill site and weighing bridge, which are operated at low level or crude technology.
While the Government had good intention to tackle the problem of environmental waste in Port Harcourt metropolis, it has a very low political will to back up its desire. This has manifested in the poor funding of the institutions charged with this responsibility.
The policy inconsistencies of the Governments spells doom on the management of environmental waste in Port Harcourt metropolis. The political and social conditions which the country passed through for over thirty years does not allow for policy continuity. The military intervention with its policy inconsistency and heavy defence budget did not allow other areas of economy to be paid even attention.
60 In order to improve the efficiency of the operation of Waste Management Authority, the management structures on ground such as laboratory, weigh bridge, vehicles etc need to be technologically overhauled to meet the modern way of evacuation of wastes. The present structure is, to say the least, archaic. Simple technology like compact incinerator should be used if the use of high technology is constrained by paucity of fund. The Authority should be adequately funded not only by the State government that created it but also be given annual subvention by the Federal Government out of the ecological fund. The governments must not only legislate on environmental pollution but must ensure that such laws are enforceable
Every tier of government should also focus on the need to foster educative programmes and awareness activities on environmental issues especially on the need to mange the environment properly and effectively, the consequences of environmental degradation on environmental and public health now and in the future. There should be cultural revolution where awareness is created among the illiterate inhabitants of Port
Harcourt metropolis to desist from dumping refuse indiscriminately and enculturate at least a modest degree of decency and neatness in their ways of life, if not the city will continue to witness heaps of refuse around it. The Government should note as a point of duty the need to allocate more funds to the development control or urban development programmes and the provision of basic infrastructure and services to the urban areas to meet with the prevailing population increase in the urban areas while the rural places should also be given prompt attention to reduce rural – urban drift
61
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH M ETHODOLOGY
The study focused on urban waste management in Port Harcourt metropolis.
The chapter was organized under the following headings:
a. Research design
b. Population of the study
c. Sample and sampling technique
d. Instrument for data collection.
e. Validity of the instrument
f. Reliability of the instrument
g. Method of data collection
h. Procedure for data analysis.
3.1 Research Design
Descriptive research method was used for the study. According to Isaac and
Michael (1978), the method is used to describe systematically, a situation or area of
interest factually and accurately. They further stated that the design could be public
opinion survey, fact-finding surveys, status studies and so on. Hence in a more
specific way, pure descriptive surveys design was used. Nwankwo (1999) describes
pure descriptive survey as a design in which the features or variables being studied
for any sample are never compared for various strata of the sample, which in most
cases are the dependent variable for the study. Survey design is the one in which a
group of items were studied by collecting, analyzing and interpreting data from a few
people considered to be representative of the study population.
62
3.2 Population of the Study
The population of the study is made up of all the inhabitants of Port Harcourt
metropolis. This is because everybody generates and disposes refuse. Port Harcourt,
the study area is the capital of Rivers State Nigeria, with area coverage of about
12,000Ha (NDDC, 2003). The population of the area is estimated at 1,200,000
million using a projection of 2.8 percent growth rate of the 1991 population figure
(NPC, 1991).
3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques
The population sample comprised of 1200 people living very close to noticeable
heaps of refuse or dumping sites in the selected study areas in metropolis. Simple
random sampling technique was used to select respondents for the study. Nzeneri
(2002) states that the technique is unbiased since each persons; event, object or thing
in the population is given equal opportunity of being selected for the study.
3.4 Research Instrument for Data Collection
The study utilizes a questionnaire as its research instrument. Evaluation of
Public Health Impact of Waste Disposal Questionnaire. (EPHIWDQ) developed by
the researcher. The questionnaire was divided into three sections- A., B and C
Section A elicits background information about the respondents. Section B seeks
information about the respondents’ communal behavioural pattern of urban waste
management and C sought for ‘public health awareness of urban waste management
in Port Harcourt metropolis. Each of the research questions has between one and
five statements or items to elicit information from the respondents. Respondents
63 were required to indicate their opinion on each item based on Likert five-point scale
of Strongly Agreed (SA), Agreed (A) Disagreed (D) Strongly Disagreed (SD) and
Undecided (U).
3.5 Validity of the Instrument
Validity refers to data that are not only reliable but also true and accurate Fisher
and Foreit (2002).Validity of an instrument determines the extent an instrument is
able to collect the expected data (Nzeneri, 2002). It connotes the trustworthiness of
an instrument. Nzeneri 2002 and Nwankwo (1996) states that for content and face
validity, the instrument must be passed to experts or specialists for validation. In
addition, Nwankwo (1996) adds that the experts must be provided with the
following: (i) the purpose of the study including all the objectives the researcher
wants to achieve. (ii) the research questions to be answered and hypotheses to be
tested (iii) other things the experts are expected to do to ensure and determine the
suitability or otherwise of the items of the questionnaire.
Based on this, copies of questionnaire were given to experts in the area of
environmental studies, health sciences, urban and regional planning, adult education,
psychology, measurement and evaluation, and educational research methodology for
validation. These experts are practicing lecturers and research fellows from various
universities and research institutes. The experts were requested to check the
suitability of items, the clarity of language, the content coverage and the
appropriateness of the items. Ambiguous items were removed and some were
modified. These experts made some recommendations in which modifications were
made on the instrument. It was finally submitted to the supervisor for final face and
content validity to make it suitable for the research being conducted.
64 3.6 Reliability of the instrument
Reliability refers to the consistency, stability, or dependability of the data (Fisher
and Foreit 2002). The reliability of an instrument implies that the instrument must
consistently measure what it is supposed to measure and also indicates how much
confidence one can place on the result of the test. A reliable measurement is one that
if repeated a second time will give the same result as it did the first time.
After the content validity had been ascertained, the researcher administered the
questionnaire to 10 people within the study population but outside the study sample.
This is done to determine whether some words or phrases of the items are beyond
the respondents’ level of comprehension or too ambiguous as well as whether the
items of the questionnaire are too many to bore the respondents. The measure of
reliability of the instrument was determined by the use of split-half reliability co-
efficient of internal consistency. The thirty-six (36) items of the questionnaire were
split into two halves. The first half consisted of items of the instrument that fell on
all odd numbers between 1-36. (e.g. 1,3,5,--35). The second half consisted of all
items of the questionnaire that fell on even numbers between 1-36 (2,4,6, ---36). For
each group, there were 18 items. Thus each of the twenty respondents had a pair of
scores from the two halves of the questionnaire. “Pearson’s product moment
correlation” technique was adopted to correlate the two sets of scores. A reliability
coefficient of internal consistency of 0.78 was obtained for the half of the instrument
(i.e. the 18 of the 36 items). To obtain the reliability coefficient of the whole
questionnaire of 36 items, the spearman-Brown correlation formula was applied.
Thus a reliability coefficient of 0.88 was obtained for the instrument. This was
considered adequate for the instrument.
65 3.7 Data Collection Procedure
The researcher with the help of four research assistants administered one
thousand two hundred copies of the questionnaire. The research assistants are of
Ikwerre extraction and experts in environmental studies, health sciences and urban
and regional planning. Apart from being experts in these areas they were trained on
how to administer the instrument. However, 1097 questionnaires were retrieved and
97 of this number were found not to be usable. At the end, 1000 questionnaires were
found to be useable. This represents 83.3% of the total questionnaires distributed
and this was found to be adequate for the analysis.
3.8 M ethod of Data Analysis
Frequencies, Percentages, means (X) and standard deviation (SD) were the
statistics used to take decisions on various research questions. The use of means to
answer research questions by accepting or rejecting a statement has been widely
employed by many researchers as cited by Nwankwo (1999) and Olodi (2004)
Since the items were rated on a 5-point scale, the means of each item is 2.5.
However, the mean of 3.0 was used as cut off point for accepting or rejecting each
of the items by the researcher. Furthermore, the item with the mean of 4.0 or
above is regarded as a highly accepted statement. This idea was based on the
assertion of Nwankwo (1999) when he states that researcher should fix a mean
cut-off point higher than the scale mean for accepting the items. He explains that
any mean score higher than the scale mean (X) indicated that the respondents
rated it high because to them it is very true or correct.
66 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS
This chapter presents the data analysis and results of findings. A total number 1000 out
of the distributed 1200 questionnaires, which were found useable, were used the data
analysis. Each questionnaire contains 36 items. These items were grouped on their relevance and relatedness to each of the research questions under examination.
Percentages, means and standard deviation were used for the analysis of research
question.
Table 4. 1: The Distribution of the Demographic Characteristic of the Respondents Demographic characteristics No % Gender Male 404 40.4 Female 596 59.6 M arital status Single 611 61.1
Married 389 38.9 Below20yrs 470 47 Age 21-45 384 38.4 46-65 146 14.6 66 Above - - Total 1000 100 Traders /farmers 195 19.5 Company workers/civil 283 28.3 Occupation Servants Students 484 48.4 Others 38 3.8 Total 1000 100 No formal education 62 6.2 Academic level Primary/High School 492 49.2 education
67 Diploma/Degree 227 22.7 Postgraduate 219 21.9 Total 1000 100 Christianity 796 79.6 Religion Muslim 161 16.1 Traditional 40 4 Others 3 0.3 Total 1000 100
Data from the demographic section yielded information about respondent’s demographic characteristics (Table 1) above. Majority of the respondents were females
(59.6%) while others (40.4%) were males. This implies that a reasonable number of waste managers at the household levels are females. It has been hypothesized that women demonstrate greater enthusiasm in environmental issues than men (Gifford et al, 1982 and
Hampel, et al, 1996). Majority of the respondents were in the age below 20years (47%) and
45years (38.4). Invariably, that may be why many of the respondents were single (61.1%) while (38.9%) were married. Most of the respondents were students (48.4), company workers/civil servant (28.3%), traders/farmers (19.5%) while others are (3.8%). This means that majority of the respondents were young female students who does a reasonable number of waste managers at the household levels as stated with regard to culturally inherited gender stereotypes.
Those with no formal education constitute (6.2%); (49.2%) had primary/secondary education (22.7%) had their diplomas and degrees or equivalent; while (21.9%) had postgraduate. Based on their religion, Christians were (79.6%) Muslims were (16.1%) traditional were (4%) while others were (0.3%). This indicates that Port Harcourt, Rivers state, the Eastern part of Nigeria is dominated by Christianity.
68
Table 4. 2. The Environmental problems as perceived by respondents.
Environmental problems No % Poor waste disposal 897 89.7% Air pollution 772 77.2% Over crowding /population 798 79.8% Noise Pollution 593 59.3% Poor urban housing 654 65.4% Poor sewage disposal 431 43.1% Poor Drinking Water 552 55.2% Deforestation 19 1.9% Climate model 145 14.5% Flooding 406 40.6% Erosion 322 32.2% Water pollution 631 63.1%
When respondents were asked specifically to indicate accordingly the types of environmental problems in Port Harcourt metropolis in the list presented to them, their responses are as presented in Table 2. Interestingly, poor refuse disposal was highly rated while over crowding /population and air pollution was rated second and third respectively.
This finding is consistent with the work of Rim-Rukeh and Ogbemi, (2006).
The table below summarizes the calculated mean (X) and standard deviation (SD)
of the items of questionnaire, which deal with the research question 1, which states: Do
the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis aware of the effects indiscriminate waste
disposal in their environment?
Table 4.3: Effects of Solid W aste in the Environment Items SA A U D SD Total X SD Solid waste is a breeding ground for 4260 496 16 28 6 4806 4.8 0.55 disease vectors Many diseases can be prevented if 3450 1024 36 40 22 4572 4.6 0.81 waste are properly administered and managed
69 Polluted air from refuse dumping sites 2920 976 28 60 346 4330 4.3 0.97 brings out odour and causes respiratory diseases. Sources of water can be contaminated 2690 1424 22 88 120 4344 4.3 0.92 by ‘water’ flowing slowly from refuse dump. Solid waste causes aesthetic Nuisance 1500 1440 90 200 450 3680 3.7 1.25
The table shows a calculated mean (X) of 4.8 and the standard deviation of 0.55 for the item that says ‘Solid waste is a breeding ground for disease vectors .The X of 4.8 > the cut off point of 3.0 Therefore the statement is highly accepted. The highly accepted mean 4.6 and standard deviation of 0.81 were recorded for the item that says many diseases can be prevented if waste are properly administered and managed. A highly accepted of 4.3 and standard deviation of 0.97 were equally recorded for the item that says Polluted air from refuse dumping sites brings out odour and causes respiratory diseases.. That sources of water can be contaminated by seepage from refuse dump sites, a highly accepted of 4.3 and standard deviation of 0.92 were recorded. While a mean of 3.7 and standard deviation of
1.25 were recorded for the statement that Solid waste causes aesthetic nuisance.
The table below shows the percentages of responses on the factors militating against the level of efficiency of Port Harcourt municipal council in terms of refuse disposal on research question 2
Table 4.4: Factors militating against the Level of Efficiency of Port Harcourt M unicipal Council in terms of W aste Disposal. Factors Frequency % Insufficient fund 870 87% Inadequate trained personnel 263 26.3% No financial sacrifices for 371 37.1% environmental protection Lack of proper education by 434 43.4% the people Poor equipment 792 79.2%
70 Negligence of duty 245 24.5% Increasing population 626 62.6% Lack of adequate awareness 531 53.1% on the part of the public on management of wastes Lack of air pollution and 385 38.5% control devices by industries Poor enforcement of the 450 45% waste management regulation Culture of the people seems 79 7.9% not to respect human dignity and decency Increased industrialization 483 48.3% and consumption of fresh raw materials
The table shows that (87%) of the respondents believed that insufficient fund is the major factors militating against the level of efficiency of Port Harcourt municipal council in terms of refuse disposal . Poor equipment with (79.2%) was seen also as a big factor.
Increasing population had (62.6%), Lack of adequate awareness on the part of the public on management of wastes was rated (53.1%) Increased industrialization and consumption of fresh raw materials had (48.3%). Poor enforcement of the waste management regulation was also a factor rated (45%). Lack of proper education (43.4%).Lack of air pollution and control devices by industries was seen as a factor with (38.5%). People’s unwillingness to make financial sacrifices for environmental protection (37.1%).Inadequate trained personnel
(26.3%). Negligence of duty and Culture of the people seems not to respect human dignity and decency had (24.5%) and (7.9%) respectively.
The table below shows the result of the calculated mean (X) and standard deviation
(SD) of the items of the questionnaire to test research question 3, which states: Are the techniques/methods used or proffered by government adequately creating awareness about the health implications of indiscriminate waste disposal in Port Harcourt Metropolis?
71
Table 4.5: Government’s Efforts in Creating Awareness of urban waste M anagement Items SA A U D SD Total X SD
Public environmental 1060 1744 300 320 92 3516 3.5 1.24 education programmes/ methods in Port Harcourt are not adequate to create sufficient awareness of urban waste management. Government is not doing 1330 1568 282 320 88 3588 3.6 1.27 enough to educate the community on urban waste management.
The table stated the calculated mean of 3.5 and a standard deviation of 1.24 for the item that public environmental education programmes/methods in Port Harcourt are not adequate to create sufficient awareness of urban waste management. It also reveals that mean of 3.6 and standard deviation of 1.27 was calculated for the item that Government is not doing enough to educate the community on urban waste management.
The table below present questionnaire items on the three categories that contribute to responsible environmental behaviour (REB) to address the research question 4, the ways of changing human behaviour and responses to environmental options that will promote waste management.
Table 4.6; The Situational Factors, Behavioural Intention, Psychological Variables Regarding Solid W aste M anagement Items SA A D SD U TOTAL X SD I use my own bag / basket when going 1240 1992 196 36 364 3828 3.8 1.02 for shopping
Am aware of the effects of poor waste 1200 1784 236 38 474 3732 3.7 1.07 management I only dispose waste in designated 580 1272 464 228 318 2862 2.9 1.38 collection points / centers I make financial sacrifices for 575 1268 464 222 316 2845 2.8 1.43
72 environmental protection I accept cellophane bag to carry small 1030 1760 268 90 390 3538 3.5 1.27 size products purchased at a store
The table reveals a mean of 3.8 and standard deviation of 1.02 for the item that says I use my own bag / basket when going for shopping. A mean of 3.7 and standard deviation of
1.07 were recorded for the item, Am aware of the effects of poor waste management. For the location of refuse receptacles are sometimes too far to the people for easy dumping of refuse, a mean of 2.9 and standard deviation of 1.38 were calculated. A mean of 2.8 and a standard deviation of 1.43 were calculated for the item that says, I make financial sacrifices for environmental protection. People felt no much need to commit finances towards solving the waste problem. A mean of 3.5 and standard deviation of 1.27 were calculated for the item, I accept cellophane bag to carry small size products purchased at a store.
73 CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOM M ENDATIONS
5.1 Discussion of findings
The discussion of findings is organized according to the result of each of the research questions tested.
Research Question 1
Do the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis aware of the implications of
indiscriminate waste disposal in their environment?
The results of this research question were presented in tables 2 and 3.
When the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis were asked specifically to indicate accordingly the types of environmental problems in the list presented to them, their responses are as presented in Table 2. Interestingly, poor refuse disposal ranked first while over crowding /population and air pollution ranked second and third respectively. This finding is consistent with the work of Rim-Rukeh and Ogbemi, (2006)
The number of respondents indicating that they are aware of the effects solid waste in their environment is a clear indication of the existence of such problems. They accepted that solid waste is a breeding ground for disease vectors also agreed that many diseases can be prevented if waste are properly administered and managed. . They are aware that many diseases can be prevented if solid wastes are properly treated. This finding is in line with the assertion of Olaniran (1995) that the link between environment and health is fairly understood by the average person in most developed and developing nations of the world.
They agreed that polluted air from refuse dumping sites brings out odour and causes respiratory diseases. That source of water can be contaminated by seepage from refuse dump sites, They agree that both underground and surface water could be polluted from refuse
74 dump. Seepage (flowing water) from dumping sites can contaminate water sources. The seepage contains micro-organisms like bacteria, protozoan, viruses and so on, which are injurious to human health. This belief is in line with the fact stated by Olaniran (1995) that apart from cuts and other injuries that can be sustained from open (or indiscriminate) refuse dumps, leakages from such dumps can contaminate ground water with heavy metals like cadmium and lead as well as pathogens. Omolara cited by Opene (2004) states that heavy metals damages kidney.
The people confirm the statement that solid waste causes aesthetic nuisance. The people are also aware that offensive odour emanates from refuse dumps and this diminishes the aesthetic quality of the environment. When these wastes are burnt, human health is affected and respiratory infections may develop. This study did not leave us I doubt that the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis are aware of health implications of indiscriminate refuse dump in the environment. This is in consonance with impression of Akpan (1995) when he advice educationist to note that people know about how their health is affected by the environment, and they sometimes know how they practice environmental protection.
However, it is an established fact that people are aware of the effects solid waste in their environment but table 2 confirms the assertion of Olaniran 1995 that although people are aware of the link between environment and health, their level of basic knowledge and understanding is poor. This assertion is similar to the view of the World Bank (no date) that there is generally much lower awareness of: (i), the environmental and human health impact of inadequate disposal of waste; (ii). How waste can be repositioned as an industrial resources; and (iii) how inadequate waste management impacts other economic sectors, in particular tourism. Apart, from that, Owoh (2003) states that there are about thirty-five
75 different kinds of diseases that can be contacted through poor waste management but the people know few.
Research Question 2
W hat is the level of efficiency of Port Harcourt metropolis urban waste control and management?
Table 4 revealed a lot of factors militating against the level of efficiency of Port
Harcourt municipal council in terms of waste disposal. Such as insufficient fund which is the major factors. This often leads to irregular refuse collection by the city council. While in line with 1989 constitution, section 7, sub section (h) (i) stipulated the fact that proper waste disposal management is indeed one of the statutory functions of the city council and the branch of the council directly responsible for urban waste disposal management is the environmental sanitation. Based on the responses insufficient funds is a major actor crippling the Port Harcourt metropolis bid to achieve excellence in waste disposal management.
To be successful, every solid waste management program needs funding.
Unfortunately, especially in an era of tightening budgets, it is very difficult to find the needed human and material resources. Shortage of waste receptacles is another significant reason identified by the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis for indiscriminate waste dump.
Waste receptacle should be easily accessible to the people; this is not the case in Port
Harcourt metropolis. There are many areas without waste receptacles. The few available ones, courtesy of Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) are widely spaced sometimes 3 or more kilometers apart. This can hardly make any significant impact. Hence, people resorted to dumping of waste at the middle of the road in-between the dual carriageway. Drainages have been completely blocked with refuse and the situation continues
76 unabated. Government on its part compounded the problem the refuse accumulates on major roads and streets in Port Harcourt metropolis without clearance. Sometimes waste receptacles are not emptied for days even though they have been filled with wastes. As a result, people dump their refuse on the ground or in the gutters very close to receptacles.
Essentially, waste collection and disposal in Port Harcourt metropolis have become complex, capital intensive and expensive project such that it is a futile effort to expect a single institution of Local Government Council or State ministry or a Parastatal to finance it from its own limited resources. The question is, how can an authority performing a very crucial function of making environment decent be effective and efficient when it is grossly underfunded? Unfortunately, the State government is not fully ready to finance the
Authority while the Ministry of Environment only issues policy directives that are not backed by financial assistance and the user communities are unwilling to pay for services rendered by the Authority. Hence, environmental quality is at the crossroad in this African urban environment.
The consequential effect of the existing anomaly is that the Authority increasingly finds it difficult to manage and perform its statutory functions thereby turning residential city into public dust bin and environmental hazard. While, Nigerian Governments are interested in making their cities comparable to those of advanced countries by rolling in decrees and enacting environmental laws but the governments are not sincere to release fund to implement the laws (lack of political will) enacted including the enforcement of the waste management regulations.
People believed that the government is not effectively enforcing sanitation laws in the state. And this explains why people dump waste at convenient places. People sometimes like to be forced to obey simple rule of sanitation. The era of sanitary inspection in the Colonial
77 era of Nigeria readily comes to mind. People always kept their surroundings clean because of fear of sanitary inspections. Between 1984 and 1985, indiscriminate waste dump was seen as an act of indiscipline and offenders were usually apprehended and punished. This created fear in people and various towns and cities were relatively neat. This is in line with the finding of Uchegbu (2002) who found out that lack of sound judicial set up to try offenders tended to make the populace indifferent to the hues and cries about waste management.
However, the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis believe that if there are enforceable laws that prohibit indiscriminate waste dump, people will be forced to obey. But this general view contradicts the suggestion of Hafen and Peterson (1978) cited by Achalu
(1997) about waste management. They suggested that social control is most effectively guaranteed by the exercise of individual and corporate self-discipline, not punitive legislation.
On the contrary Achalu (1997) and Caldwell (1972) share the view of the people of Port
Harcourt metropolis that environmental laws play an important role, particularly as a tool for preventing abuse of the ecosystem. Based on this fact, it is glaring that lack of effective environmental laws promotes indiscriminate refuse dump in Port Harcourt metropolis
In addition, the control and management of Solid Waste in Port Harcourt Metropolis are multi-faceted. Population surges have given rise to a heavily built up environment in Port
Harcourt metropolis with increased industrialization and consumption of fresh raw materials. Houses are most closely built than before, which has then resulted in the dumping of waste on the streets. In few cases where septic tanks are used for collection of sewage the nature of the walls of these tanks encourages microbial contamination of the surrounding soils and subsurface water.
Ethically, the beauty of any environment lies on its good sanitary condition. This is so because when an environment is clean the lives of the citizenry are not threatened by
78 illnesses and diseases. Many Nigerian citizens have gotten increasingly mindful of the quality of food they eat and the water they drink but less about the dumping of waste from their homes, business premises etc. The culture of the people seems not to respect human dignity and decency. Adegoke (1990) added that most industries in Nigeria do not treat their liquid effluents before discharging them into open gutters, drains etc. Most industries dump their solid wastes in heaps within their premises and discharge gaseous emissions and particulate matter freely into the atmosphere.
Onwuka (1997) in support of this have hinted that lack of adequate awareness of the general public on the management of waste from domestic, commercial and other sources.
Lack of proper education and non-challant attitude of the people are some other reasons identified by people as a factor. This is in agreement with Bustamante (2005) who states that
‘Not in My Backyard Syndrome (NIMBYS) and lack of information and education programme on proper waste management are major factors militating against the level of efficiency of Port Harcourt municipal council in terms of waste disposal.
While Adegoke (1990) observed that even where there seemed to be an organized waste collection, disposal is at open sites without environmental safeguards. This he emphasized the inadequate trained personnel and negligence of duty by these staff. The future of Port
Harcourt metropolis waste management is block and the two stake holders have to nuke enormous efforts to change the terrible sanitary condition of the town. This implies that the citizens must play their roles and the government role is very important too. The onus to preserve and protect the environment for socio political and economic progress lies on both, health and environment are the fundamental precursor for a sound and productive citizenry
79
Research Question 3
Are the techniques/methods used or proffered by government adequately
creating awareness about the health implications of poor urban waste management
in Port Harcourt M etropolis?
Inhabitants of Port Harcourt believe that government’s public environmental education programmes/methods are not making any significant impact in awareness creation about urban waste management. Public enlightenment campaign will go along way in creating sufficient awareness of urban waste management. It will break the chains of ignorance of which Maduwesi (2002) says is the main contributor to environmental degradation. Olaniran (1995) equally states that ignorance and low level awareness which the respondents of this study testified, however, they believe that the government is not doing enough to educate the people.
This implies that government-sponsored programmes may be too theoretical to make any significant impact. If the programmes are not many on radio and television majority of the people may miss the opportunity of listening or viewing. But if the programmes are repeated in different days and hours, people that miss the first broadcast may listen to the repeat broadcast. This is in line with the assertion of Onabanjo (2000) that the message once heard on radio disappears into the atmosphere literally, but to reduce this negative outcome, programme once broadcast must be repeated to make impact.
The presenters of these programmes did not have background in pedagogy or andragogy the way they present community environmental education programmes hardly educate people, most especially the non-literate audience. The result of this study confirms
80 the report of Adelakun (2004) that the present mass environmental education programmes on radio and television are not always directional, they hardly educate ordinary citizens whose behaviors and skills mostly degrade the environment.
The presenters often demonstrate their mastery of technical words and as a result very few people become environmentally educated through the programmes, and its lofty aim is defeated. Most of the programmes of mass environmental education are too abstract and theoretical, and when people do not understand a programme, they easily lose interest. In educating the public, the emphasis should not be on talk shows or lecturing. Adara (2003) state that to impact positively on behavior and attitude of the non-school public, it important to make messages relevant to their need or prior experience, in this way, they will readily assimilate and or accommodate the concept.
Apart from ineffective and inadequate government-sponsored community environmental education programmes via electronics media, government is not making use of other means of communication effectively. For example, billboards could be an effective way of communication. If adverts are placed on billboard in strategy or ‘busy’ centers of the town, it will go a long way in educating people. But sadly, the researcher only noticed two billboard adverts on the need to keep Port Harcourt clean during the course of the study.
By implication, government pays little or no attention to the use of billboard as a means of communicating environmental matters to the people. Unlike a relatively neat metropolis like Calabar, where environmental issues are placed on billboards in strategic places; government (both State and local) are not making use of this medium of communication in
Port Harcourt metropolis. The use of posters is another means of getting environmental messages across to the populace, but government of Rivers State is also not making use of this as well.
81 Although the newspapers carry reports on environmental issues, they however are not efficient in creating awareness in people about urban waste management. This is true because information in newspapers are mostly meant for literate target group. More importantly, very few readers take interest in reading environmental matters in newspapers.
Notwithstanding this fact, throughout the world, the power of mass media in fast dissemination of information to large audience can not be underestimated. Electronic media often relay information to health, and environment.
Ling (1990) affirms that mass media had given ten of millions of people access to new information. Moronkola and Onuoha (1997) buttressed the claim by stating that immunization: oral dehydration therapy and other child travail programme are boosted by media support to the positive effect of communication on health. All these point to the fact that if mass media are properly utilized they will go along way in creating awareness about the harmful effects of solid waste. In the long run, there will be behavioral modifications.
Onabanjo (2000) equally lists some government programmes that wouldn’t have record huge success but for mass media. He listed MAMSER, an acronym for mass mobilization for social and economic recovery, war against indiscipline(WAI), and activities of the National
Orientation Agency(NOA).
Although this study reveals a significant public environmental education programmes by mass media, the thoroughness of those programmes are in doubt. Majority of the respondents agreed that mass media are not doing enough. They opined that mass media are not sufficiently educating the people about health implications of solid waste in the environment. The method or strategies adopted by mass media are not adequate to create sufficient awareness among the multivariate audience of Port Harcourt against indiscriminate waste dump.
82 Hence, change of strategies and focus are required to create meaningful impact on the behavior of the people. Moronkola (1993) affirms that the print and electronic media should educate people on health related issues in their columns, features articles, health sports, panel discussion etc. perhaps this opinion should be summarized that there is urgent need for mass media to intensify their efforts in educating people about health and environmental issues.
Prominent based on observation is the fact that children dump waste indiscriminate more that adults although adults generate refuse than children. In many homes it is the duty of children to empty the dustbin. Their parents hardly find time to instruct or supervise them on this issue of waste management. This means that majority of the respondents were young female students who does a reasonable number of waste managers at the household levels. As stated also with regards to culturally inherited gender role stereotypes.
When one critically observed trend of things, females are mostly cleaners in offices and at homes, they are bound to dispose of waste more than men. Since women often dispose of refuse, it may be rightly assumed that they dump waste indiscriminately than men. This implies that a reasonable number of waste managers at the household levels are females. It has been hypothesized that women demonstrate greater enthusiasm in environmental issues than men (Gifford et al, 1982 and Hampel, et al, 1996).
Research Question 4
W hat ways could the environmentalist/policy makers help in changing human
behaviour and responses to environmental options that will promote waste
management?
The table 6 with regards to psychological factors, attitudes towards reducing the amount of waste generated was tested when respondents were asked on the issue; whether they use their own bag / basket when shopping. They were also asked if they accept
83 cellophane bag to carry small size products purchased at a store. These two questions were accepted based on situational. Taking situational factors into consideration the variable of waste disposal pattern was analyzed. They accepted the awareness of the effects of poor waste management but for the location of refuse receptacles are sometimes too far to the people for easy dumping of waste, they accepted dumping their refuse indiscriminately.
Behavioural intention in this study is described as the willingness to act. The responses of respondents to questions portray this issue though felt no much need to commit finances towards solving the waste problem.
Based on the responses of respondents promoting effective environmental sanitation through communicating responsible environmental behaviour is of necessity. Hence behavioural element of the questionnaire was comprehensive. It could be seen that most individuals do not use their own bags when going for shopping; rather they depend on the ones provided by the seller. This implies that more refuse will be generated after every visit to shops / markets. From this, one may be tempted to conclude that the extent to which individuals were aware of waste reduction through the principle of reuse is shallow. Barr
(2003) observed that greater knowledge of environmental principles and theories of waste reduction through communication enhances individual’s ability to participate.
It is evident that most individuals do not dispose their refuse in designated collection points / centers. Such a finding does imply that acceptance of the norm or behaviour of individuals to always dispose their refuse in designated collection points / centers are low but for the location of refuse receptacles are sometimes too far to the people for easy dumping of waste, they accepted dumping their refuse indiscriminately. Most individuals do accept cellophane bag at a shore, no matter the size of the product they have purchased.
The culture of waste minimization is lacking amongst the respondents.
84 In regard to attitudes towards protecting the environment through the willingness to make financial sacrifices, people were strongly opposed to it because they felt that there is no much need to commit finances towards solving the waste problem. Their perception was that waste or refuse was not a threat to their personal welfare.
The central assumption in this study is the need to understand the way people think before we can effectively communicate information for responsible environmental behaviour. From the study, it is evident that awareness, the capacity to act and acceptance of the norm of sound environmental practices are responsible for the responses. To this point, the development of a communication model from the standpoint of this study was seen necessary. The model is based on the following principles:
(v) Definition of the problem and the need to solve the problem.
(vi) Definition of responsible environmental behaviour.
(vii) Translate REB to the interests and perception of the individual.
(viii) Kind of communication useful to creating the necessary awareness.
Government agencies have to develop effective public environmental education
programmes to help society move towards sustainable practices. According to Opara and
Berchtold(2008) clearly governments need ways to measure whether they are progressing towards sustainable development, and how their progress compares with that of their neighbours. We need to be able to measure the synergies and trade-offs between economic, environmental and social values. But since the concept of sustainable development includes a time element, any measure of progress towards it must also include evaluating the longer- term implications of current decisions and behaviour. And before we can measure progress, we first need to establish the current state of play as regards sustainable development.
85 The sustainability education techniques required for obtaining behaviour change are different to those used to raise awareness. Changing behaviour on a long-term basis is a complex matter, which depends on being able to see 'rewards' from new behaviour, such as increased well-being. Promoting environmental behaviour in urban waste management, has to be addressed simultaneously at all levels, from household and business to society level. A recent study of such environmental policies shows they are more likely to be successful if people are treated as active partners in the process of change and not as passive subjects.
It is suggested that in order to alter behaviour, awareness must be increased, with an associated reduction in situational barriers. Awareness can be altered through the provision of relevant information. Furthermore, although some level of behavioural change may be achieved; additional monitoring and a sustained behavioural change programme over a longer time period is necessary. The study indicates that environmental behaviour has a plethora of determinants that can be changed or influenced by adequate communication.
5.2 Summary
The study aimed at evaluating the communal behavioural pattern and public health awareness of urban waste management in Port Harcourt metropolis. The study has become necessary because the deposition of solid waste has become a perennial and herculean task facing different governments and administration in Port Harcourt. This study assessed the attitudes and action of the citizenry with respect to Port Harcourt metropolitan waste management. In Port Harcourt metropolis the presence of heaps of waste in both residential and commercial areas has become a common feature. This is having serous deleterious effects on the health and environment of the people which is the fundamental precursor for a sound and productive citizenry.
86 In view of the above, the study was designed to assess the communal behavioural pattern and public health awareness of urban waste management in Port Harcourt metropolis. Relevant issues were examined and discussed. Research questions were formulated and tested. Review of the existing body of knowledge on the topic was related.
Issues such as the effects of indiscriminate waste disposal, public health awareness creation, strategies for creating awareness; implications of awareness on attitude and behavior among others were reviewed.
Survey method of research was adopted. A total number of 1200 questionnaires were developed, called (Evaluation of Public Health Impact of Waste Disposal Questionnaire
(EPHIWDQ), which consists of 36 items each were administered and 1000 questionnaires, which were found usable among the returned questionnaires were used.
Frequencies, percentages, mean and standard deviation (SD) were the statistical tools used for the analysis of data. These tools provided the bases for the decision to reject or accept the items that answer the research questions. And based on the results of the statistical analysis, the following are some of the findings of this study:
(a) That the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis are aware of the effects of
indiscriminate waste disposal in their environment
(b) That for the location of refuse receptacles are sometimes too far to the
people for easy dumping of waste, they accepted dumping their refuse
indiscriminately.
(c) That to be successful, every solid waste management program needs funding
(d) That majority of the respondents were young female students who does a
reasonable number of waste managers at the household levels as stated with
regard to culturally inherited gender stereotypes
87 (e) That people dump waste indiscriminately also because laws on refuse
dumping are either non-existent or the existing ones are not enforced.
(f) That public environmental education programmes/method of the
government is not making any impact on the public to the extent of
preventing them from dumping waste indiscriminately.
(g) That adequate public enlightenment or environmental education will prevent
the problem of indiscriminate waste dump in Port Harcourt metropolis.
(h) That promoting effective environmental sanitation through communicating
responsible environmental behaviour is of necessity
(i) That environmental policies are more successful if people are treated as active
partners in the process of change and not as passive subjects.
(j) That in order to alter behaviour, awareness must be increased, with an
associated reduction in situational barriers.
(k) That although some level of behavioural change may be achieved; additional
monitoring and a sustained behavioural change programme over a longer time
period is necessary
(l) That environmental behaviour has a plethora of determinants that can be
changed or influenced by adequate communication.
5.3 Conclusion
It is glaring that people are not ignorant of the effects of indiscriminate waste dumping or general poor sanitation. But for the location of refuse receptacles are sometimes too far to the people for easy dumping of waste, inhabitants considered dumping their refuse indiscriminately. However, based on situational factors people are sometimes forced to do what they knew to be wrong. Refuse receptacles are not enough to serve the people; hence
88 the few available ones are widely spaced, sometimes up to 3 or more kilometers apart. When people can not walk such distance to dispose of the refuse, they result to indiscriminate dumping .Government on its on part has not been living up to its responsibility in the area of waste management. Refuse receptacles are not emptied as at when dew, equally note worthy is the inability of the government to effectively fund and enforce waste management projects and laws in the State.
Public environmental education can go a long way in changing people attitudes and behaviors towards the environment. Government and non-governmental organizations have role to play in enlightening the populace on the need to treat environment with respect and stop indiscriminate refuse dumping. Awareness creation through mass media on the implications of indiscriminate waste dump is a necessity. This should however be done in a clear and simple language.
People should be thought how to convert waste to wealth. This will help in minimizing the volume of waste that are regularly thrown away. Both children and adult are involve in wastes generation and waste disposal but children end to dump refuse at undesignated places than adult. Hence environment education is not only needed for people at home, but in schools for children (the future generation) as well. Places of worship can also assist in educating their adherents on the interrelationship between humans and the environment and the need to be environment-friendly. Adequate public enlightenment is needed in Port Harcourt metropolis to prevent indiscriminate waste dump.
Promoting environmental behaviour in urban waste management, has to be addressed simultaneously at all levels, from household and business to society level. A recent study of such environmental policies shows they are more likely to be successful if people are treated as active partners in the process of change and not as passive subjects. In order to alter
89 behaviour, awareness must be increased, with an associated reduction in situational barriers.
Awareness can be altered through the provision of relevant information.
Furthermore, although some level of behavioural change may be achieved; additional monitoring and a sustained behavioural change programme over a longer time period is necessary. Since the study indicated that environmental behaviour has a plethora of determinants that can be changed or influenced by adequate communication.
5.4 Recommendations
The following recommendations were made for various groups based on the findings of this study.
5.4.1 The Government
1. Government should provide refuse receptacles in large quantity and place them at
interval of not more than 200m apart in both residential and commercial areas
2. Mobile courts should be established to try offenders of indiscriminate refuse
dumping and it found guilty, the offender should be fined a relatively substantial
amount.
3. Monthly environmental sanitation should be reintroduced.
4. “War Against Indiscipline” should be reintroduced to create sense of responsibility
in the people to prevent indiscriminate waste dump.
5. The State assembly should formulate laws on waste management and ensure the
enforcement of the law by government agency.
6. Private sector participation should be allowed in waste collection/management. This
will ensure prompt clearance of solid wasted from the refuse receptacles or dumping
sites.
90 7. State government should institute monthly awards for the neatest area according to
wards.
8. Refuse collection rates should be instituted like tenement rates according to the
nature of the building.
9. Government should sponsor public health education or environmental education
programmes on radio and television stations every week in the state.
10. Bill boards that enlighten people on the need to keep the environment clean, and the
implications of indiscriminate refuse dump should be mounted in strategic places in
Port Harcourt metropolis
11. Make environmental education part of education curriculum at all school level
12. Sanitary/dumping sites should be properly selected and managed by the government.
This should be far away from sources of water.
13. Government should ensure prompt clearance of refuse from refuse receptacles.
14. People should be educated on how to add value to wastes (e.g. composting)
15. Government or health authorities should distribute polythene (plastics) sacks in
which the kind of waste that attracts flies can be put, its mouth tied and later
dumped.
16. Government should employ more active and qualified public health environmental
health inspectors who will be responsible for supervising, inspecting and monitoring
many aspect of public hygiene with emphasis on waste management.
17 Efforts should also be made to recycle some of these waste products. This is being
practiced in some states within Nigeria. This will serve as source of revenue for
the government and also generate employment for the people of Port Harcourt.
18 The Waste Management Board staff should be made to undergo training on modern
91 ways of managing waste. This could be within and outside Nigeria. This will
solve a lot of problems as they will also come back to educate the entire citizenry
19 Government should therefore oblige to be more concerned and committed to the
sustainability of the physical environment and not only the sustainability and
survival of the economy
20 Ensure full compliance with legislation and regulations and standards of the federal environmental protection agency (FEPA) . 21 Promoting environmental behaviour in urban waste management, has to be addressed
simultaneously at all levels, from household and business to society level.
22 People should be treated as active partners in the process of change and not as passive
subjects.
23 It is suggested that in order to alter behaviour, awareness must be increased, with an
associated reduction in situational barriers.
24 Furthermore, although some level of behavioural change may be achieved; additional
monitoring and a sustained behavioural change programme over a longer time period
is necessary.
25. The Government should sponsor the media houses to present:
(a) Public health education/environmental education with the aim of creating
awareness on the implications of poor sanitation
(b) Programmes of environmental education in the language of the people and
simple English language that can be easily understood. To achieve this it is
suggested that presenters of this programme should have background in
environmental studies/education, urban and regional planning, public health
or adult educationthe media houses
92 (c) Campaigns by mass media against indiscriminate waste dump with strategies
that should be diversified to include dramas, documentaries etc.
If the above recommendations are looked into, it is believed that the issue of urban waste management in Port Harcourt metropolis will become an easy tasks and the city will be void of waste even when the population increases beyond this level.
5.4.2 Individuals
1. The community leaders, chiefs, elders, and landlords should encourage better
sanitation practices by formulating community by-laws that prohibits indiscriminate
waste dumping.
2. Every household should have a refuse bin to be deposited at the central refuse bin
for a total collection
3. Financial sacrifices should be made for environmental protection.
4. Individuals should see it as part of their civic responsibility to report the people
dumping waste indiscriminately to the appropriate authority.
5. People should be fined whenever they default the environmental laws.
6. There should be a cultural revolution where awareness is created among the
illiterate inhabitants to desist from dumping refuse indiscriminately and
enculturate at least a modest degree of decency and neatness in their ways of life.
7. Personal efforts should be made by adults to attend literacy classes where simple
rules of hygiene will be taught to enable them to influence their children
8. While there is need to intensify the teaching of heath education in primary and
secondary schools hoping that the children would be able to influence their
illiterate parents in complying with simple environmental habits and laws.
93 9. Sorting of useful’ wastes should be practiced by individuals. This will reduce the
volume of wastes that will be thrown away.
10. The use of Composition should be encouraged. The end product though not
fertilizer on its own when applied to soils makes crops to respond as if a
commercial fertilizer has been applied.
11. Citizens must do things by conscience to justify their citizenship of a state.
5.4.3 Organizations
They should assist the government in creating awareness on the public health
implications of indiscriminate waste dump in Port Harcourt metropolis by:
(a) Participating in community service of cleaning some places in their various
localities. This apart from making the environment clean will go a long way in
creating awareness in the locality.
(b) Donating waste receptacles to their localities, as this will assist the government
and the people.
(c) Producing bill-boards, posters and fliers that will cater for diverse audience
(d) Organizing conferences, workshops, seminar etc on issues about public health
and environmental education.
5.5 Policy Implication of findings
The findings of this study imply that the quality and public health awareness of
urban waste management in Port Harcourt metropolis must have to be raised.
Raising public awareness is dependent on adult and non-formal education, and
targeted teaching as early as pre-primary school, so that hygiene basics become part
of the common knowledge of the publics. This stresses the vital roles of
environmental adult educators in safeguarding public health and promoting
94 environmental quality since the two of them are inextricably intertwined. Providing
adequate information and embarking on public enlightenment campaigns, are very
important in successfully applying personal, domestic and community hygiene.
Public health awareness could be heightened by coercion. This involves the
formulation and enforcement of law that prohibit waste dump. Although, it has been
argued that domestic and environmental cleanliness should be part of People’s
culture, which is observed everyday and therefore should not be legislated or
decreed. But this finding shows that people respect environment when there are
enforceable laws and commensurate punishment for its violation. Hence, threats and
fear will promote public health, as individuals will be afraid of the punishment.
This study also implies that creation of public health awareness should start
from pre-primary school level, as children of today are adults of tomorrow. To
combat the problem of indiscriminate waste dump, there is need for elaborative
efforts among the Ministries of Education, Environment, Science and Technology,
Information and Health. This is a challenge to public policy and require urgent
attention.
5.6 Limitations of the study
The study was limited in the sense that the researcher based judgment on the
responses of subjects through questionnaires. Some of these respondents were
empathetic towards filling the questionnaire. It was difficult to get market women
and some businessmen who lacks formal education as well as desired to respond to
the questionnaire as they mostly considered it a waste of time and a diversion from
their businesses. The strata of the society were not proportionately represented.
Hence, enlightened young people were more involved in the result of the study.
95 Instrument motility was another limitation of this study. One thousand two
hundred (1200) questionnaires were distributed but only one thousand and ninety
seven (1097) were retrieved: out of this number, ninety seven (97) copies were either
not well completed or properly filled. Inadequacy of sample is another limitation. It
is assumed that a study of this magnitude should have been between 2000 to 5000
sample size.
5.7 Suggestions for Further Studies
In view of the limitations the study, a research of the same should be carry out
putting into consideration the sample size and instrument to avoid mortality in
further researches as follows. a. Motivation for environmentally sound behaviour in Nigerian Urban Centres b. Developing better public policy to motivate responsible environmental behaviour c. Teaching approaches and development of responsible environmental behaviour.
d. The Quality of Life in Nigerian Cities e. The Accessibility to Environmental Services in Urban Centres in the Niger Delta
f. Environmental Health Implications of Urban Waste Management in Port Harcourt g. Analysis of the Impact of Mass Media in Urban Public Health Awareness in Port
Harcourt
96
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106
APPENDIX 1
Universidad Central De Nicaragua Managua-Nicaragua
To W hom It M ay Concern
Dear Respondents,
I am a post graduate student of the above mentioned institution carrying out a research on Urban W aste Disposal M anagement in Port Harcourt M etropolis of the Niger
Delta Region in Nigeria.
I would appreciate your cooperation in answering this attached questionnaire to enable
me obtain relevant and accurate information.
I would be grateful if you could complete the questions as soon as possible to enable the researcher collect it back on the spot.
Any information given shall be treated confidentially.
Thanks.
Yours faithfully,
Opara, Jacinta Agbarachi
107 Section A. Personal Data
Please tick in {} the appropriate column that gives true information about you.
Sex: Male { } female { }
M arital status: Single { } Married { }
Age: Below20yrs { } 21-45 { } 46-65 { } 66 above { }
Occupation: Traders /farmers { } Company workers/civil Servants { } Students { }
others { }
Academic level: No formal education { } Primary/Sec education { } Dip/Degree { }
Postgraduate { }
Religion: Christianity { } Muslim { } Traditional { } Others { }
Section B.
(1) On the list indicate the most serious types of environmental problems.
Environmental problems No %
Poor waste disposal 897 89.7%
Air pollution 772 77.2%
108 Over crowding /population 798 79.8%
Noise Pollution 593 59.3%
Poor urban housing 654 65.4%
Poor sewage disposal 431 43.1%
Poor Drinking Water 552 55.2%
Deforestation 19 1.9%
Climate model 145 14.5%
Flooding 406 40.6%
Erosion 322 32.2%
Water pollution 631 63.1%
(2) On the list indicate the most serious factors militating against the level of efficiency of
Port Harcourt municipal council in terms of waste disposal.
Factors Frequency %
Insufficient fund 870 87%
Inadequate trained personnel 263 26.3%
No financial sacrifices for 371 37.1%
environmental protection
Lack of proper education by 434 43.4%
the people
Poor equipment 792 79.2%
Negligence of duty 245 24.5%
109 Increasing population 626 62.6%
Lack of adequate awareness 531 53.1%
on the part of the public on
management of wastes
Lack of air pollution control 385 38.5%
and devices by industries
Poor enforcement of the 450 45%
waste management regulation
Culture of the people seems 79 7.9%
not to respect human dignity
and decency
Increased industrialization and 483 48.3%
consumption of fresh raw
materials
Section:C
Tick {} in the column that represents your opinion in each of the statements below.
Key: SA=strongly Agreed, A=Agreed, U= Undecided, D=Disagreed, SD= strongly
Disagreed.
Items SA A U D SD Total X SD
Solid waste is a breeding ground for 4260 496 17 28 5 4806 4.8 0.55
disease vectors
110 Many diseases can be prevented if 3450 1024 35 40 23 4572 4.6 0.81 waste are properly administered and
managed
Polluted air from refuse dumping sites 2920 976 27 60 347 4330 4.3 0.97 brings out odour and causes
respiratory diseases.
Sources of water can be contaminated 2690 1424 22 88 120 4344 4.3 0.92 by ‘water’ flowing slowly from refuse dump.
Solid waste causes aesthetic Nuisance 1500 1440 90 200 450 3680 3.7 1.25
Public environmental education 1060 1744 300 320 92 3516 3.5 1.24 programmes/ methods in Port
Harcourt are not adequate to create sufficient awareness of urban waste management.
Government is not doing enough to 1330 1568 282 320 88 3588 3.6 1.27
educate the community on urban waste management.
I use my own bag / basket when going 1240 1992 196 35 365 3828 3.8 1.02
for shopping
Am aware of the effects of poor waste 1200 1784 236 38 474 3732 3.7 1.07
management
111 I only dispose waste in designated 580 1272 464 228 318 2862 2.9 1.38 collection points / centers
I make financial sacrifices for 575 1268 464 222 316 2845 2.8 1.43
environmental protection
I accept cellophane bag to carry small 1030 1760 268 90 390 3538 3.5 1.27 size products purchased at a store
Appendix 2
Calculation of Reliability Co-efficient of the instrument
X (Odd) Y (Even) X2 Y2 XY
1 64 55 4096 3025 3520
2 58 62 3364 3844 3596
3 72 69 5184 4761 4968
4 62 63 3844 3969 3906
5 63 69 3969 4761 4347
6 81 75 6561 5625 6075
7 75 79 5625 6241 5925
8 61 65 3721 4225 3965
9 80 75 6400 5625 6000
10 68 65 4624 4225 4420
684 677 47388 46301 4622
112 N∑X2 – (X∑)2 – (X∑) (∑Y) ______(N∑X2 – (∑EX)2 (N∑Y2-(∑Y)2
0 x 46722 – 684 x677 10 x 47388 – 6842) 10 x 46301 – 6772
67220 – 463068 (473880 – 467856)(463010 – 458329)
1152 (6024)(4681)
1152 4152
28198344 = 5310 = 0.78
To get the r for the whole instrument, Spearman-Brown correlation formula
was applied.
rf = 2rh
1 + rh
rf = 2 x 0.78 = 1.56
1 + 0.78 1.78
rf = 0.88
where: rw = reliability coefficient of the whole instrument (questionnaire)
rf = reliability coefficient of the half of the instrument.
113 Appendix 3
Sample of calculated percentages of the item in the
Research instrument
The equation can be put up as follows ;
(Given number/ Total number) x100
Exercise 1
897 x 100 = 89.7% 1000
Exercise 2
772 x 100 = 77.2% 1000 Sample of calculated means (X) and standard deviation (SD) of items in the
Research instrument
Exercise 1
X F FX X-X (X-X)2 F (X-X)2
5 852 4260 0.2 0.04 34.08
4 124 496 0.8 0.64 79.36
3 6 18 -1.8 3.24 19.44
2 14 28 -2.8 7.84 109.76
1 4 4 -3.8 14.44 57.76
Total 1000 4806 300.4
114 Mean (X) = ∑fx ∑f Where ∑fx =4806
∑f = 1000
X = 4806 X = 4.8 1000
SD= ∑f(X-X) 2
∑f
SD = 300.4 = SD = 0.3004 SD =0.55 1000
Exercise 2
X F FX X-X (X-X)2 F (X-X)2
5 690 3450 0.4 0.16 110.4
4 256 1024 0.6 0.36 92.16
3 12 36 -1.6 2.56 30.72
2 20 40 -2.6 6.76 135.2
1 22 22 -3.6 12.96 285.12
Total 1000 4572 653.6
Mean (X) = ∑fx ∑f
115 ∑fx = 4572
∑f = 1000
X = 4.6
SD= ∑f(X-X) 2
∑f
SD = 653.6 = SD = 0.65 SD = 0.81
1000
116