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Broadband and Remote Access Technologies Broadband and Remote Access Technologies Broadband cable and DSL technologies are very popular and widely deployed and used in, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, North America, and parts of Central America. Broadband technologies enable faster Internet access, Voice over IP (VoIP) capabilities, and the ability to easily stream video and music, amongst many numerous things. The ISCW exam objectives covered in this chapter are: Describe Cable (HFC) technologies Describe xDSL technologies Configure ADSL (i.e., PPPoE or PPPoA) Verify basic teleworker configurations This chapter is divided in the following sections: . Data Transmission Basics . Cable Technology . The Public Switched Telephone Network . Digital Subscriber Line . Sending Data over DSL Networks . Configuring PPPoE and PPPoA for DSL Data Transmission Basics Data transmission refers to the process of sending data or the progress of the sent data signals after they have been transmitted. It is imperative to have a solid understanding of some of the different technologies and principles pertaining to data transmission in order to completely understand Cable and DSL transmission broadband technologies. Although going into detail on all specifics pertaining to data transmission is beyond the scope of the ISCW, this section covers and briefly describes the following relevant terms and technologies: . Analog and Digital Signaling . Data Modulation . Multiplexing . Baseband and Broadband . Noise (Interference) . Attenuation . Coaxial Cable . Twisted Pair Cable . Fiber Optic Cable Analog and Digital Signaling On data networks, information can be transmitted using either analog signaling or digital signaling. Computers generate and interpret digital signals as electric current, which is measured in volts. The stronger the electrical signal, the higher the voltage. After the signal has been generated, it travels over copper cabling as electrical current; over fiber optic cabling as light pulses (waves); or through the atmosphere as electromagnetic (radio) waves. The following diagram shows a digital signal and illustrates the 1s and 0s in digital communication: 1 1 1 0 0 Amplitude Time Analog data signals are also generated as voltage. However, unlike digital signals, the voltage varies in analog signals and is represented as a wavy line when plotted on a graph. All analog signals are characterized by four main characteristics. These four core characteristics are amplitude, frequency, wavelength, and pulse. The amplitude is a measure of the signals (waves) strength at any given time. The frequency is the number of time the wave’s amplitude cycles from its starting point, through its highest amplitude and its lowest amplitude, back to its starting point over a fixed period of time. Frequency is expressed in cycles per seconds, or hertz (Hz). Wavelength is the difference between the corresponding points on a wave’s cycle, for example, between one peak and the next peak. Wavelengths are expressed in meters or feet. The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency, meaning that the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and vice versa. Finally, the term phase refers to the progress of a wave over time in relationship to a fixed point. If, for example, two waves start at the same time, with both being at their highest amplitude, the two waves would be in phase. However, if both waves started at the same time, with the first wave starting at its lowest amplitude and the second wave starting at its highest amplitude, the waves would be said to be 180 degrees out of phase. These concepts are illustrated in the following diagram showing two different analog waves in red and blue: Degrees 0 90 180 180 360 90 Degree Phase +5V Wavelength Amplitude Voltage (V) -5V Frequency Time (Seconds) Data Modulation Given the advances in technology, data is primarily sent using digital transmission. However, there are still some network technologies, such as telephone lines, that only use analog transmission. The issue arises in the fact that the digital signals must be able to communicate over analog transmission networks, and vice versa. For example, when using dial-up Internet access, the computer uses digital transmission, even though it is connected to an analog transmission network, i.e. the telephone line. In such situations, a modem is required to modulate digital signals into analog signals at the transmitting end, and demodulate analog signals into digital signals at the receiving end. The word modem actually stands for modulator and demodulator, which is a reflection of the functions performed by these devices, which include dial-up modems, cable modems and DSL modems, for example. Data modulation is a technology used to modify analog signals to make them more suitable for carrying data over a communication path. In modulation, a simple wave called a carrier wave is combined with the information or data wave to produce a unique signal that gets transmitted from one node to another. The carrier wave contains preset properties, such as the frequency, amplitude, and phase and when combined with the information wave, any one of the carrier wave properties is then modified resulting in a new blended signal that contains the properties of both the carrier wave and the data wave. When the signal reaches its destination, the receiver separates the data (information) from the carrier wave via demodulation. Multiplexing Multiplexing is a form of transmission that allows multiple signals to travel simultaneously over a single medium. In order to carry multiple signals, the physical media is logically separated or segmented into smaller channels, also commonly referred to as sub-channels. In order to combine and transmit multiple signals over a single medium a multiplexer (mux) is required at the transmitting end of the channel. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer (demux) is required to separate the combined signals and regenerate them in their original form. Multiplexing allows networks to increase the amount of data that can be transmitted in a given amount of time over a given bandwidth. There are many different types of multiplexing available and the type that is used depends on the media, transmission and reception that the equipment can handle. While going into all the different types of multiplexing is beyond the requirements of the ISCW, we are going to describe Frequency Division Multiplexing because of its relevance in Cable and DSL networks. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) assigns a unique frequency band to each individual communications sub-channel. Signals are modulated with different carrier frequencies and are then multiplexed to simultaneously travel over a single channel. Each signal is then demultiplexed at the receiving end. FDM was first used by telephone companies when they discovered that it allowed them to send multiple voice signals over a single cable. That meant that rather than running separate lines for each residence they could send as many as 24 multiplexed signals over a single neighborhood line. Each signal was then demultiplexed before being brought into the home. With recent technological advances, telephone companies can use FDM to multiplex signals on the phone line that enters a home. Voice communications use the frequency band of 300 Hz – 3300 Hz, although the most common representation of this range is 300 Hz – 3KHz. Because everything above the 3 KHz range was simply unused space, telephone companies used FDM to allow them to send data signals in this space without interrupting voice communications, allowing for DSL service over existing telephone lines. In a similar manner to telephone companies, cable operators also use FDM to multiplex signals over a single channel and provide television, voice and data services over cable networks. Baseband and Broadband Baseband is a transmission form in which signals are sent through direct current (DC) applied to the wire. Because DC requires the exclusive use of the wire, baseband systems can only transmit one signal, or channel, at a time and every device on the baseband system shares the same channel. When one node on a baseband system is transmitting data, all other nodes must wait for that transmission to end before they can send any data that they may need to send. A common example of baseband systems is half-duplex Ethernet. Broadband is a form of transmission in which signals are modulated as radio frequency (RF) analog waves that use different frequency ranges. Unlike baseband, broadband technology does not encode information as digital pulses. Broadband systems handle a relatively wide range (band) of frequencies, which may be divided into channels or frequency bins. While broadband is generally more expensive than baseband, it can carry more data and span greater distances than baseband systems. An example of a broadband system is cable television. Noise (Interference) Noise is an undesirable influence that may distort or degrade a signal. While there are many different types of noise, one of the most common is electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is caused by waves that emanate from electrical devices such as televisions, motors, power lines, and fluorescent lights, for example. While EMI greatly affects analog transmissions, it does not affect digital transmissions as much. Additionally, fiber optic cabling (which will be described last in this section) is completely unaffected by electromagnetic interference. Attenuation Attenuation is the loss of the strength of a signal as it travels away from its source. This is one of the most common transmission flaws. Fortunately, however, there are solutions that can be used to rectify this problem. In order to boost the strength of analog signals, an amplifier is used. An amplifier is simply an electronic device that increases the voltage or strength of the signals. Cable operators use amplifiers to boost the strength of signals. It is important to know that amplifiers also increase the strength of any noise that is associated with the signal. In other words, when an analog signal is amplified, the noise that it has accumulated is also amplified, which may actually cause the analog signal to worsen significantly.
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