ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
A REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND INFRASTRUCTURE PROVISIONS OF THE TENTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
DR. S. K. KULSHRESTHA Founder Editor, Spatio-economic Development Record, New Delhi
ABSTRACT The Planning Commission has completed a mid-term appraisal of the Tenth Five Year Plan 2002-2007. It revels that the progress made by most of the states in implementation of the thrust areas is below expectations. Not much headway has been made in the area of urban reforms. State governments have not given full effect to the recommendations of SFCs. State governments and ULBs have been generally reluctant to levy reasonable user charges. Most state governments have shied away from implementing several provisions of the Constitution (Seventy Fourth) Amendment Act, 1992 including urban planning. This paper presents the highlights of the review of three years (2002-203 to 2005-2006) of implementation of the schemes related to urban development and infrastructure provision in the Tenth Plan.
1 INTRODUCTION 243W), the Constitution (Seventy-Fourth) Development planning in India is done through Amendment Act, 1992 (74th CAA) redefines the the Five Year Plans. Since independence, nine such relationship between the states and the municipal plans have been implemented and the tenth is bodies and provides for their functional and currently guiding and financing the development financial autonomy. Following the provisions of this programmes and projects in different sectors of Act, the states have carried out the required the economy. The Planning Commission has amendments to the municipal laws and local body completed a mid term appraisal of this plan. This elections have been held in several states more paper presents some of the highlights of the than once under the supervision of State Election appraisal of three years (2002-2003 to 2005- Commissions. 2006) of implementation of the centrally sponsored schemes related to urban development The objective of political decentralization has been and infrastructure provision in the Tenth Five Year accomplished to a substantial degree but the Plan. existing institutional framework for urban planning has not been realigned in accordance with the The stress of the 10th Plan in the context of urban provisions of the 74th CAA. Most state development included improving the functional governments have shied away from implementing and financial autonomy of urban local bodies several provisions of the Act. (ULBs); strengthening of their finances through smooth implementation of State Finance The Twelfth Schedule (Article 243W) lists 18 Commissions (SFC) awards; rationalization of the functions to be transferred to the ULBs. However, property taxation system; levying of user charges; only six states (Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal and encouraging public-private-partnership (PPP) Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Tripura) in order to improve the efficiency and delivery of have devolved all these functions. Only 21 states services (Planning Commission: 2006: 365). The following sections give the highlights of the mid- have set up District Planning Committees and only term appraisal under each of the above thrust two states - West Bengal and Maharashtra - have areas. established Metropolitan Planning Committees. The devolution of functions to ULBs is incomplete and 2 FUNCTIONAL AND FINANCIAL the financial resources with ULBs are inadequate. AUTONOMY OF URBAN LOCAL State governments are unwilling to provide BODIES autonomy to ULBs. Functional and financial With a view to firmly establishing the elected ULBs autonomy of ULBs remains a distant dream as the institutions of self-government (Article (Planning Commission: 2006: 366). Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12
2.1 Implementation of State Finance 2.3 Public Private Partnerships Commissions’ Awards The appraisal indicates that a number of cities in The 73rd CAA (Article 243-I) provides for setting Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra up of the SFCs and Article 243-Y of 74th CAA Pradesh and Gujarat have involved the private extends its functions to review and recommend sector in the provision of urban services such as sharing of revenue between state government water supply, sanitation and garbage collection / and municipalities. Most SFCs have recommended disposal, composting of organic waste, and street a proportionate share of state tax and non- tax lighting. PPP projects also include collection of local revenue to be devolved to the ULBs but the actual taxes, development and maintenance of gardens transfers are much less and uncertain. This has and parks, bus terminus, land development and led to a precarious situation for the ULBs, which market development. Lack of properly designed have also suffered because of the abolition by most PPP models and the absence of a regulatory state governments of octroi, which was their main framework to govern such arrangements have source of revenue. inhibited the full utilisation of the PPP arrangements for urban development. 2.2 Rationalization of the Property Taxation System and Levying of User 3 URBAN DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES Charges Table 1, presents the performance of Urban Reform of property tax has been included in the Development Schemes of the Ministry of Urban 10th Plan with a view that it becomes a major Development during the first three years of the source of revenue for ULBs and arrangements Tenth Plan. It includes schemes such as Integrated for its effective implementation with collection Development of Small and Medium Towns efficiency of 85 per cent by the end of the Plan (IDSMT), Mega City, National Capital Region (NCR) period. Similarly, it has been expected that the Plan, Mission Mode on Information Technology (IT), levy of reasonable user charges be introduced in Urban Mapping, and Research in Urban and such a way that the full cost of operations and Regional Planning. maintenance (O and M) is collected by the end of the Tenth Plan period. However, during the first 3.1 Integrated Development of Small three years of the Tenth Plan, the methods of and Medium Towns property taxation are outdated and, in general, With a view to making the small and medium size the attitude towards levy of user charges is towns capable of generating economic growth and indifferent (Planning Commission: 2006: 366). employment and slow down migration to larger
Table 1 Outlays of Ministry of Urban Development during First Three Years of the Tenth Five Year Plan for Urban Development (Rs. in crore) Scheme 10th Plan AP(2002-03) AP(03-04) AP (04- First 3 years of Balance Outlay 05) 10th Plan Alloc. Exp. Alloc. Exp. Alloc. Amt. % Ut. IDSMT 1,304.65 105 86 100.0 108.1 200.00 394.57 30.24 888.4 Mega City 1,050.00 125 119.9 120.0 196.7 220.00 536.59 51.10 436.7 NCR Planning Board 350.00 55 55.0 50.0 52.0 55.00 162.00 46.29 191.0 Mission Mode on IT 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.00 5.00 - 0.0 Urban Mapping 20.00 To be merged with NUIS Scheme 20.0 Research in Urban and Regional Planning 15.00 8 0.0 1.0 0.9 1.00 1.93 12.87 12.1 Source: Planning Commission: 2006, Annexure 11.2 p.381 Index: AP: Annual Plan Alloc: Allocation Exp.: Expenditure Amt.: Amount % Ut.: Percentage Utilisation
2 Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12 cities, the Integrated Development of Small and 3.3 NCR Plan Medium Towns (IDSMT) scheme was initiated in With a view to containing the pressure of 1979-1980. Accordingly, it included improvement population on Delhi and to attain balanced and of the economic and physical infrastructure in harmonious development of the National Capital selected small and medium towns in the country. Territory (NCT) of Delhi and adjoining areas the The scheme is applicable to cities with population National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB) up to 500,000. The ratio of Central assistance to was established in 1985. An outlay of Rs.350 crore state assistance is 60:40 and there is a loan has been earmarked for this scheme in the Tenth component of 20 to 40 per cent (depending on Plan. During the first three years of the Plan, 46 the size of the city) from financial institutions. percent (assuming full utilization of 2004-05 allocations) of Tenth Plan allocation is expected to An outlay of Rs.1,304.65 crore was approved for be utilized. However, the objectives of arresting the Tenth Plan to assist 925 new and on-going the migration to NCT Delhi and achieving the towns under IDSMT scheme. During the first three dispersal of economic activities are yet to be met. years of the Plan period, only 30 per cent (assuming full utilization of 2004-05 allocations) 3.4 National Mission Mode on IT of Tenth Plan allocation is expected to be utilized. The Tenth Plan laid emphasis on transparency and In terms of physical achievements, 67 per cent right to information. Both of these require support towns (621 towns) are expected to be assisted of information technology (IT). IT can also bring during the same period. This thinning of resources about improvement in the service delivery has led to a lack of appreciable results on the mechanism and the revenue base of ULBs. ground (Planning Commission: 2006: 371-372). The appraisal reveals that some municipalities, with 3.2 Mega City active assistance and guidance from the National The Mega City Scheme, applicable to Mumbai, Informatics Centre (NIC), have adopted e- Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore and Hyderabad, was Governance initiatives for property tax, grievances initiated in 1993-94 with the objective of redressal, e-procurement, tap connection status, undertaking infrastructure development projects double accounting system, collection of water of city-wide / regional significance. The projects charges, service tendering, issue of birth / death cover a wide range of components like water certificates, and building plan status. supply and sewerage, roads and bridges, city Ministry of Urban Development is in process of transport, solid waste management, etc. The preparing a National Mission Mode Project on e- Central Government and respective state Governance in Municipalities. The main objectives government share 25 per cent each of the project of the Mission are: cost with the balance 50 per cent being met through institutional finance. • to improve efficiency and effectiveness in interaction between local government and its An outlay of Rs.1,050 crore was approved for citizens and other stakeholders; the Tenth Plan. During the first three years of the • improve quality of internal local government Plan period, 44 per cent (assuming full utilization operations to support and stimulate good of 2004-05 allocations) of the Tenth Plan allocation governance; and is expected to be utilized. It is evident that the • bring about transparency and accountability amount provided is grossly inadequate to take in the governance of ULBs. care of the problems of these cities. It has also been observed that the institutional finance is A sum of Rs.5 crore was allocated during the 2004- invariably short of the required 50 per cent share. 05 for this Mission. There is need to re-evaluate the resource requirements, if any, serious attempt is to be made 3.5 Urban Mapping to deal with the problems of mega cities (Planning Base maps of cities and city-level data are generally Commission: 2006: 372). not available or are out dated. These are the two
3 Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12 of the most important tools of urban planning, As mentioned earlier, under section 3.5, the development and management. A scheme to National Urban Information System (NUIS) was derive data and city maps from satellite imagery introduced to generate city-level data and base was to be implemented during the Tenth Plan. maps from satellite imagery. A sum of Rs.20 crore was allocated and Rs 6.05 crore has been utilized Considering the fact that digitised maps have not indicating a performance of 30.25 per cent. been generated from satellite data and little work has been done on ground-truth surveys and also As indicated in Table 2, the performance of other that basic urban data relating to planning, two schemes has not been encouraging (utilization development and management of settlements are of funds in first three years only 2.5 and 2.0 per lacking, a new scheme - National Urban Information cent respectively) and the state governments / System (NUIS) has been proposed by the Ministry local bodies have not utilized the fund. of Urban Development and it remains to be finalized. Urban mapping will be merged with NUIS. 4 URBAN REFORMS INCENTIVE FUND A sum of Rs.20 crore was allocated which remains Given the emphasis on urban reforms in the Tenth unutilized. Plan, An Urban Reforms Incentive Fund (URIF) was launched for providing incentive to state 3.6 Research in Urban and Regional governments to carry out reforms in the following Planning thrust areas identified in the 10th Plan: Emphasis on the research in urban and regional • Reform of property tax so that it becomes a planning appears to be insignificant as only Rs. 15 major source of revenue for ULBs, and crore have been allocated during the Tenth Plan. arrangements for its effective implementation The research efforts are even more insufficient as with collection efficiency of 85 per cent by only Rs.1.93 crore (just 12.87 per cent) have the end of the Tenth Plan period; been utilized. • Levy of reasonable user charges, with full cost 3.7 New Schemes of operations and maintenance (O and M) Table 2 presents the performance of the new being collected by the end of the Tenth Plan schemes introduced in the Tenth Plan. These period; schemes include: • Repeal of the Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act; • National Urban Information System; • Rationalization of stamp duty in phases to • Pooled Finance Development Fund; and bring it down to no more than 5 per cent by • City Challenge Fund. the end of the Tenth Plan period;
Table 2 New Schemes’ Outlays of Ministry of Urban Development during First Three Years of the 10th Five Year Plan (Rs. crore) Scheme 10th Plan AP(2002-03) AP(2003-04) AP (04- First 3 years of Balance 05) 10th Plan Alloc Exp. Alloc Exp. Alloc Amt. % Ut. National Urban 20.0 0.5 0.4 5.0 0.65 5.00 6.05 30.25 13.7 Information System Pooled Finance 400.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.00 10.00 10.00 2.50 390.0 Development Fund City Challenge Fund 500.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.00 10.00 10.00 2.00 490.0 Source: Planning Commission: 2006, Annexure 11.2 p.381 Index: AP: Annual Plan Alloc: Allocation Exp.: Expenditure Amt.: Amount % Ut.: Percentage Utilisation
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Table 3 Status of Urban Reforms Under URIF
Description ( Number of states/Uts that have) No. of states / UTs Signed the Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with the Ministry of Urban 28 Employment and Poverty Alleviation Agreed to repeal the Urban Land Ceiling Act 20 Agreed and rationalise the Stamp Duty 20 Agreed to reform the Rent Control Act 22 Agreed to computerise the registration process 27 Agreed to levy of reasonable user charges 27 Agreed to adopt the double entry system of accounting 28 Agreed to reform the property tax 28 Source: Based upon text in Planning Commission: 2006: pp.367-368
• Reform of rent control laws to stimulate • Nearly 46 percent of urban households have private investment in rental housing schemes; water toilets, but only 36 percent of the urban households are connected to the public • Introduction of computerized process of sewerage system; registration; and • Average per capita generation of waste is • Introduction of double entry system of estimated at 0.4 kg per capita per day in cities accounting. ranging from 1 lakh to 50 lakh population and The status of urban reforms under URIF agreed the garbage collection efficiency ranges by different state governments is given in between 50 to 90 percent of the solid waste Table 3. generated; and • City roads are inadequate for traffic According to the URIF guidelines, the first requirements, leading to congestion and fast installment of assistance is released on the MoA deterioration in quality of roads due to excess being signed and subsequent releases are based loads. on the achievement of the prescribed milestones. While Rs.188.15 crore was released as first In the Tenth Plan, an outlay of Rs.11,510 crore installment on signing MOA, an amount of as gross budgetary support (GBS) for the Rs.68.18 crore only was released as second ministries of Urban Development and of Urban installment, which indicates that all the milestones Employment and Poverty Alleviation under Central have not been carried out in line with in the MoA. Plan and Rs.43,138.67 crore under states Plan has been provided. This represents an increase of 5 URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE AND 121 percent in Central Plan and 107 per cent in HOUSING the state Plan over the Ninth Plan realization but Considering the availability of basic infrastructure, the present level of funding is not even tackling urban areas in India present a grim picture: the fringes of the problem.
• About 21 percent of the urban population is 5.1 Urban Transport living in squatter settlements, where access In the urban transport sector, the mid-term to basic services is extremely poor; appraisal reveals that there is no coherent urban • Although 89 per cent of the urban population transport plans in most cities and the urban is reported to have access to safe drinking transport infrastructure is grossly inadequate. water but there are severe deficiencies with According to the 2001 Census, there are 35 regard to equitable distribution of water; metropolitan cities in the country. Except for
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Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi, none of the Indian cities governments and ULBs to restructure water has a Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS). The Delhi supply organizations, levy reasonable water rates, Metro Project is progressing according to schedule. take up reforms in billing, accounting and collection and become credit-worthy in order to have access The only Central scheme under way since 1996 is to market funding. the Delhi MRTS project executed by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) Ltd. The revised Urban water supply and sanitation is being handled cost of the Delhi Metro is Rs.10,571 crore. The mostly under the state Plan, except for the requirement of funds during the Tenth Plan, Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme estimated by the Ministry, was to the tune of (AUWSP), which is a centrally sponsored scheme Rs.8,927.65 crore. (CSS) for small towns with population less than 20,000. There is no Central scheme or CSS in During the first two years of the Tenth Plan, an operation relating to sewerage / sewage treatment amount of Rs.1,050 crore was provided and except under National River Conservation Plan Rs.3,339.30 crore was utilized, the additional funds (NRCP), which is meant for towns / cities located being provided by means of supplementary at the banks of important rivers. The Tenth Plan budget by the Ministry of Finance. Further, in the outlay for urban water supply and sanitation was Annual Plan of 2004-05, Rs.480 crore has been Rs.18,749.20 crore (excluding the states of provided against the requirement of Rs.2,030 Arunachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and crore. There is a provision of Rs.200 crore for the Union Territory of Lakshadweep) under state other schemes of Urban Transport in the Tenth /Union Territory Plans. Plan but there has been progress only in case of the Bangalore MRTS. While, the Bangalore MRTS As seen from Table 4, utilization of allocated funds has got the Planning Commission’s in-principle under urban water supply and sanitation, during approval, the funding aspects and the role of the the first three years of 10th Plan, had been Government of India as an equity partner are yet between 20 percent and 45 percent. to be finalized by the Ministry of Urban Development (Planning Commission: 2006: 370). 5.3 Solid Waste Management India produces about 42 million tons of urban solid 5.2 Water Supply and Sanitation waste annually. There has been a decline in the The Tenth Plan envisaged the augmentation of standard of services in collection and disposal of water supply in urban areas in order to: household, industrial and hospital waste. In most cities, nearly half the solid waste remains • reach the prescribed norms; unattended. Lack of financial resources, • higher degree of reliability; inadequate manpower, and fragmentation of administrative responsibility, non-involvement of • assurance of water quality; community and lack of awareness are major • a high standard of operation and constraints in solid waste management. management; Bird hits are among the major causes of air crashes • accountability to customers; in the country. An Inter-Ministerial Joint Sub- • special arrangements to meet the needs of Committee constituted by the Ministry of Defense the urban poor; and recommended proper sanitation facilities, including • levying and recovery of user charges to solid waste management and drainage, to finance the maintenance functions and to overcome the bird menace in the towns where facilitate further investment in the sector. Indian Air Force (IAF) airfields are located. A Central scheme has been formulated to cover ten selected These achievements are to a large extent, IAF airfield towns at a cost of Rs.99.34 crore. The dependent on the willingness of the state O and M of the scheme would be borne by the
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Table 4 Scheme-wise Outlays of Ministry of Urban Development During First 3-years of the 10th Five-year Plan: Water Supply and Sanitation (Rs. crore) Scheme 10th Plan AP(2002-03) AP(2003-04) AP (04- First 3 years of Balance 05) 10th Plan Alloc Exp. Alloc Exp. Alloc Amt. % Ut. Extension of AUWSP 900.0 120.0 122.0 140.00 136.3 150.00 408.24 45.36 477.4 to Small Towns Low Cost Sanitation* 200.0 40.00 20.00 160.00 Solid Waste Manage- 99.4 0.0 0.0 5.00 1.0 40.00 41.0 41.25 58.4 ment and drainage in selected airfield towns Training in Public 10.0 1.1 1.1 1.82 1.61 1.25 3.96 39.60 5.5 Health Engineering Equity to HUDCO for 100.0 20.0 20.0 5.00 5.0 5.00 30.00 30.00 85.0 Water Supply Source: Planning Commission: 2006, Annexure 11.2 p.381 and Table 11.1 p.368 Index: AP: Annual Plan Alloc: Allocation Exp.: Expenditure Amt.: Amount % Ut.: Percentage Utilisation AUWSP: Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme * This scheme was transferred to M/o UEandPA respective ULBs/state governments. An sections and the low-income category. In this expenditure of Rs.99 lakh during 2003-04 and context, the Housing and Urban Development Rs.40 crore during 2004-05 was incurred. The Corporation (HUDCO) has earmarked 55 per cent percentage utilization of this scheme is 41.25 of its housing portfolio to weaker sections and low- (Table-4). income groups, with differential interest rates, higher loan component and longer repayment In October 2000, the Ministry of Environment and period. The Government of India provides equity Forests notified the Municipal Solid Wastes support to HUDCO with a view to leveraging more (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, which funds from the market. Under the Two Million lay down the procedures / guidelines for collection, Housing programme of the Government of India, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, which was started in 1998-99, HUDCO, has been and disposal of municipal solid waste. The rules entrusted with the responsibility of providing require that all cities should set up suitable waste annual loan assistance for the construction of 6 treatment and disposal facilities by 31 December lakh houses in rural areas and 4 lakh houses in 2001.The rules also specify standards for compost urban areas. Till now, Government of India has quality, leachate control, and management and been extending equity support to HUDCO, which closure of landfill sites. The Ministry of Urban has been stopped since August, 2004 on Development has also brought out a declaration of HUDCO as Mini Ratna. comprehensive manual on municipal solid waste management for the guidance of ULBs. For the Tenth Plan, an outlay of Rs.1,000 crore was approved for providing equity support to 5.4 Urban Housing HUDCO. During the first three years of the Plan, The Working Group on Housing, constituted for Rs.620.60 crore i.e. 62 per cent (assuming full formulation of the Tenth Five Year Plan, had utilization of 2004-05 allocations) of Tenth Plan observed that around 90 per cent of housing allocation is expected to be utilized. The financial shortage pertained to the weaker sections. achievement during the first two years of the Therefore, there was a need to increase the supply Tenth Plan has been only 24.29 per cent (in 2002- of affordable housing to the economically weaker 03) and 33.25 per cent (in 2003-04), which is far
7 Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12 below the target. However, in terms of numbers • The systems at the city level are not financially over 90 percent loans for housing are going to viable; EWS / LIG categories. Under the Two Million • Existing schemes are patchy and the allocated Housing Programme, 8.87 lakh dwelling units in resources are grossly inadequate to the the urban areas and 9.53 lakh dwelling units in magnitude of the problems; the rural areas were sanctioned by HUDCO in the first two years of the Tenth Plan. • Issues are not addressed in a holistic manner; and The CSS, Night Shelter Scheme, which is funded • There are many schemes with similar / on the basis of 50:50 between centre and the states, aims to provide construction of composite overlapping objectives. night shelters with community toilets and baths Observing these, a two-track strategy is for urban shelter-less with 50 per cent subsidy recommended with the focus on urban reforms from the Government of India and 50 per cent as and e-governance: contribution from implementing agencies or through HUDCO as loan. During the first three • Convergence of urban development years of the Tenth Plan, Rs.8 crore i.e. 26 per schemes; and cent (assuming full utilization of 2004-05 • National Urban Renewal Mission. allocations) of Tenth Plan allocation of Rs.30.97 crore is expected to be utilized under the scheme. A single comprehensive scheme – Urban This shows that the problem of urban shelterless Infrastructure Development Scheme (UIDS) - and pavement dwellers has not been given the needs to be evolved for providing assistance for consideration it deserves. Since the land is a state improving urban infrastructure. The proposed subject, on the recommendation of the Ministry scheme should have the following features: of UEPA, the scheme of Night Shelter has been transferred to state sector from 2005-2006. • Central sponsorship; Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY) was • Financial assistance under the proposed introduced in 2001-02 to meet the long-standing scheme should be in the ratio 80:10:10 gap in programmes for slum-dwellers, viz. (Centre state financial institutions/own provision of a shelter or upgrading the existing resources); shelter of people living below the poverty line in urban slums. Under the VAMBAY, the Government • Grants from the Government of India and of India provides 50 per cent subsidy while the state governments need to flow to a special States have the option of mobilizing their matching revolving fund at the state level, with a portion of 50 per cent from other sources, such stipulation that at least 25 per cent of such as their own budget provision, resources of local grants (Centre and state) released to ULBs bodies, loans from other agencies, contributions should be ploughed back to this revolving fund from beneficiaries or non-government for sustainable development; organizations (NGOs), etc. Under this scheme, 20 • The allocations available under IDSMT, Mega per cent of the total allocation is provided for sanitation and community toilets to be built for City, City Challenge Fund, Pooled Finance the urban poor and slum dwellers. During the first Development Facility and AUWSP should be three years of the Tenth Plan, Rs.727.58 crore subsumed under the new scheme; i.e. 36 per cent (assuming full utilization of 04-05 • Areas like, water supply, sanitation, drainage, allocations) of the Plan allocation of Rs.2,040 crore sewerage and solid waste management, roads, is expected to be utilized. street lighting, urban transport and other civic 6 FUTURE STRATEGY amenities will be covered under the new scheme; and The mid-term appraisal of the Tenth Plan indicates that the urban development sector is suffering • The state governments would execute from the following general deficiencies: Memoranda of Agreement (MoAs) with the
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Government of India and ensure that the category. The state governments and the urban reforms prescribed in the scheme are identified city would execute MoA with the undertaken by the ULBs. Government of India and ensure that such
2 reforms are actually undertaken. This tripartite The National Urban Renewal Mission (NURM) MoA would be submitted along with the DPRs; would be a reforms-driven, fast track, planned and development of identified cities with focus on efficiency in urban infrastructure / services delivery • There would be two set of reform - mandatory mechanism, community participation and reforms and optional reforms that have been accountability of ULBs towards citizens. The broad specified in the appraisal (Planning framework proposed for the Mission is: Commission: 2006: pp.373-375).
• Central sponsorship; In order to increase the proportion of household savings to be invested in the housing sector, as • The sector-wise DPRs would be prepared by well as to provide houses to those who cannot the identified cities enumerating projects for afford to have their own, it is recommended that: various components along with their priorities; • The funding pattern would be 35:15:50 • the promotion of rental housing by the private (between Centre, States / ULBs and financial sector, public sector, as well as co-operatives institutions) for mega cities (>40 lakh and individuals needs encouragement; and population), 50:20:30 for cities with million • the existing laws relating to land ceiling, stamp plus but less than four million population and duty, registration of land and properties as 80:10:10 for other cities; well as rent control laws needs to be modified • The grant assistance (both Central and state) to unleash investment in the housing sector would act as seed money to leverage on a large scale, resulting in a positive effect additional resources from financial institutions on employment generation as well. / capital market. In addition, various PPP models with viability gap funding would also For providing affordable housing to the urban be explored to further supplement the poor, states need to earnestly address certain key resources. The scheme would be implemented issues. They need to adopt a three-pronged through a designated state-level nodal strategy involving (a) easy availability of land and agency; transfer of tenure rights, (b) cheap and easy access to credit, and (c) promoting low-cost • Every identified city would prepare planned building material and technology for construction urban perspective frameworks for a period of of houses. 20-25 years (with five-yearly updates) indicating policies, programmes and strategies The various urban development authorities, which of meeting fund requirements. This acquire and develop large tracts of land for the perspective plan would be followed by the growth of the cities, should provide a major part preparation of Development Plans integrating of such land to meet the requirements of the EWS land use with services, urban transport and / LIG categories. States need to formalize a system environment management; of earmarking at least 25 per cent of developed • The menu of urban reforms would include land in all housing projects (both public and private both mandatory and optional items of agencies) for EWS / LIG category with a system reforms. The cities seeking assistance under of cross subsidization. NURM would have to undertake all the mandatory reforms within the prescribed time Sometime back, 100 per cent foreign direct frame, even as they have the freedom to opt investment (FDI) was permitted for development for any five items of reforms from the optional of integrated townships but not much headway
9 Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12 has been made in this regard. This has been mainly private sector should be involved in this effort on account of the problems relating to land to the extent possible; procurement. There is a need to ease the • Considering the constraints on resources, availability of land to check land prices, which have prioritization of various projects to be included been high on account of restrictions on availability. in the slum development programme is More flexible zoning regulations to permit change necessary; of land use, easier subdivision regulations, and • To ensure that viable projects are identified, extension of trunk services to new areas / new an authentic database and a clear-cut townships, would reduce congestion and develop government policy on land where the slum the cities in an orderly fashion. Innovative measures dwellers are squatting (whether to provide for land assembly / land pooling, use of land as a tenure rights / ownership rights) need to be resource to build up infrastructure and adoption evolved; of methods such as vacant land tax and • To provide sustainability to slum development transferable development rights (TDR) need to / upgrading programmes, the contribution of be studied and replicated wherever feasible. beneficiaries has to be ensured and the involvement of public sector / private sector Further liberalization in FDI for integrated township, / financial institutions under the overall housing and construction sector / real estate patronage of the state governments / Central needs to be examined in consultation with various government is necessary to enlarge the stakeholders. The State Governments need to play resource base; proactive role in providing necessary clearances • PPP models for such integrated housing and in a time bound manner to attract FDI. slum development programme need to be evolved; and The National Slum Policy has not yet been finalized. There has, over the years, been a paradigm shift • The issues of livelihood, infrastructure, in the government is slum policy prescriptions. education, health, environment and more Originally, government prescribed the ‘slum free importantly sanitation have to be addressed in a holistic manner as the relocation of slum cities’ policy. However, looking at the social dwellers to the far off areas would prove to dimensions of the whole problem and the various be counterproductive (Planning Commission; economic activities carried out by the slum 2006: pp.376-378). dwellers, this concept has given way to rehabilitation of slum dwellers. The rehabilitation The appraisal recommends that paying adequate involves either relocation or in-situ development attention to operation and maintenance (O and of the slum areas. Most state governments and M) of the created assets for water supply and municipalities prefer in-situ development of slum sanitation could result in a 40-50 per cent areas. In the initial years of the slum development, improvement in their useful life. the focus was on provision of infrastructure in Since water losses in distribution account between slums through the National Slum Development 20 and 50 percent of the total flow in the system, Programme (NSDP) and now there is renewed with the maximum leakage being caused in the stress on provision of shelter to urban slum house service connections. A systematic dwellers through the Valmiki Ambedkar Awas approach to the reduction of wastage of water Yojana (VAMBAY). from leaks and preventive maintenance would obviate the need for augmentation and also help Considering the above, it is recommended that: in increasing revenue.
• For integrated slum development, the existing The urban water supply and sanitation service schemes of NSDP, low cost sanitation and providers are not financially viable and cannot VAMBAY need to be integrated under one maintain the quality of services without large platform and financial institutions and / or subsidies. Their inability to impose a reasonable
10 Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12 user-charge itself is a reflection of political planning for improving urban connectivity. In constraints. In view of the pressure on budgetary developed countries, cities start planning and resources, there is no alternative to making building an MRTS when they reach a population suppliers of these services charge more reasonable level of one million and start operating MRTS by tariffs thus creating an environment in which they the time they are two million strong. By that can access institutional finance with government reckoning, all million plus cities should be either budgetary support limited to meeting viability gap operating an MRTS or at least have one on their drawing board. It is estimated that on an average, requirements. the elevated metro-rail costs Rs.100 crore / km while the underground / underwater metro-rail Two other problems with urban water supply and costs Rs.275 crore / km. Therefore, viability and sanitation service providers are lack of autonomy suitability factors should be kept in mind while and accountability. In many cases, their personnel selecting the modes of transportation for a city. also lack the necessary managerial skills. A shift to The Ministry of Urban Development provides grant professionally managed financially viable bodies will assistance of 40 per cent of the cost of studies help address these problems. for addressing traffic and transportation problems of a city. The Ministry of Urban Development is In view of the urgency and importance of solid also in the process of formulating a National Urban waste management in urban areas, the Tenth Plan Transport Policy to address various issues involved had suggested a new mission-mode state sector in urban transport. programme named ‘Urban Sanitation Mission’, with focus on setting up sanitary land-fills and States need to draw up urban transport plans for composting plants for urban solid waste, and all million plus cities and state capitals, by studying improvement of drainage in urban areas with various modes of public transport. City-specific special Central assistance, subject to availability projects including the BRT system and a rail-based of additional resources. However, no funds could urban transport system need to be critically be tied up so far. Therefore, under the proposed evaluated along with other sustainable modes of National Urban Renewal Mission and Urban transportation whereby the urban transport Infrastructure Development Scheme, solid waste problems need to be considered by the planning management has been accorded priority with agencies as an integral component for land use focus on project based approach. planning.
In view of the poor urban transport facilities in 7 OVERALL PERFORMANCE Indian cities, there is an urgent need for a National Table 5 presents the overall performance of Urban Transport Policy and road-rail network housing and urban development in the state Table 5 Performance of Housing and Urban Development in the States’ Plan (Rs. crore) Description Ninth Plan Tenth Plan 2002- 2002- 2003- 2004- Total in 07 03 04 05 Three Allocation Expenditure Outlay Actual RE BE years Housing including 8,195.37 8,051.14 14,125.35 2,093.75 2,606.27 2,942.34 7,642.36 Indira Awas Yojana (172)* (54)** Urban Development 15,179.83 12,786.86 29,013.32 3,566.10 4,794.45 5,237.29 13,597.84 (191)* (47)** Total 23,375.20 20,838.00 43,138.67 5,659.85 7,400.72 8,179.63 21,240.20 (185)* (49)** Source: Planning Commission (2006), Annexure 11.1 p.380 * Percentage of Ninth Plan allocation ** Percentage of total amount in three years of the Tenth Plan to the Tenth Plan outlay
11 Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 01 - 12
Table 6 Performance of Housing and Urban Development in the Central Plan (Rs. in crore) Description Ninth Plan Tenth Plan 2002-07 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 Total in Allocation Expenditure Outlay Actual RE BE Three years Housing excluding 1,685.50 1,394.37 4,710.00 594.66 641.89 650.00 1,886.55 Indira Awas Yojana (279)* (40)** (M/o UEPA) Urban Development 3,458.50 3,805.64 6,800.00 2,126.41 2,541.66 1,900.00 6,568.07 (M/o UD) (197)* (97)** Total 5,144.00 5,200.01 11,510.00 2,721.07 3,183.55 2,550.00 8,454.62 (224)* (73)** Source: Planning Commission (2006), Annexure 11.1 p.380 * Percentage of Ninth Plan allocation ** Percentage of total amount in three years of the Tenth Plan to the Tenth Plan outlay sector of the Tenth Plan. As compared with the during the first three years of the Tenth Plan, allocation of funds during the Ninth Plan, the allocated to Ministry of Urban Development and allocation for housing including Indira Awas Yojana also the Ministry of Urban Employment and was 172 per cent. For urban development the Poverty Alleviation. It is a financial appraisal and percentage was 191. During the first three years the physical achievement of expected of the Tenth Plan the performance of housing sector had been 54 per cent. For urban performance in some cases, is just touched upon development it has been 47 percent. in a descriptive manner. Appraisal of both fiscal and physical performance is necessary. In this As seen in Table 6, the allocation in housing sector context, there is need to identify representative in the Tenth Plan, as compared with the Ninth physical indicators and quantifiable targets for each Plan was 279 per cent and this percentage for scheme that can be quickly assessed at the time urban development was 197. Urban development of appraisal. It will bring the appraisal nearer to appears to have performed very well with 97 per cent utilization of allocated funds while the the ground-level realities and ensure effective performance of housing sector was only 40 utilization of funds. percent. REFERENCES 8. CONCLUSIONS Planning Commission (2006) Mid-term Appraisal of 10th Plan (2002-2007), Part II, Sectoral and other Issues, Chapter 11, This appraisal presents the performance of Urban Infrastructure, pp.365-382, Planning Commission, New different schemes by the level of utilization of funds, Delhi.
12 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 13 - 16 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT CONTROL REGULATIONS: CASE STUDY KERALA
ELIZABETH PHILIP Former Chief Planner, GCDA, Cochin
ABSTRACT The author argues that there is a need for evolving special regulations for urban core area rejuvenation, for heritage zones and coastal and island zones in Kochi. By incorporating provisions for TDR, plot reconstitution, and other such techniques, the government should modify the existing Town Planning Act in Kerala. It is also proposed that capacity building of enforcement agencies should be undertaken. In metropolitan areas like Kochi, there is a need for creation of Metropolitan Planning Committee as envisaged in the Constitution of India. Development authorities could function as the technical arm of the MPCs for formulating and implementing long term plans as the metropolitan areas.
1 INTRODUCTION coverage , Floor Area Ratio, set backs, open Development control regulations are tools for spaces, height, number of storey, parking guiding and promoting development in an area in requirements, etc; for various developments on order to improve the quality of life of its inhabitants. land, and for various categories of buildings. The definition for ‘development ‘varies with the Town Planning Legislation and the municipal type of development envisaged- spatial, Building Bylaws are the main instruments based economic, social, etc. In urban planning, spatial on which schemes can be notified and development is often given more emphasis and it Development Control Regulations can be is closely linked to social and economic enforced. During the last 40-50 years General development. Regulations are enforced as part Town Planning Schemes, Master Plans, and of the planning strategy ‘to conserve and promote Detailed Development Plans, etc; have been public health, safety convenience and general prepared and implemented in many of the cities welfare of the people and to provide for the future and towns in India. But the extent to which these growth and improvement of the area.’ plans and the regulations forming part of these have influenced in shaping our towns is a matter This paper aims to touch upon the types of of debate. Several reasons can be attributed for development regulations adopted in India, the the success / failure of urban plans. Of late, relevance of such regulations in the present emphasis is being given to Spatial Development context, the need for effective tie up between plans; Perspective Plans and Structure Plans, which the different regulations, the extent to which the are more flexible as far as regulations are regulations can support and promote urban concerned. All urban plans in India are evolved development, the role of existing planning from the basic British System of planning. The time organizations in enforcing the regulations, taken for the preparation, publication, and prevailing planning regulations applicable to Kerala implementation of the above plans within the in general and Kochi in particular and tries to spell framework of the existing Acts is so much that by out the need for regulations in capturing private the time the plan is sanctioned, it becomes investments for public good. redundant.
2 TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT REGULATIONS In Kerala, the Travancore Town Planning Act 1108 Development regulations include master plans, Malayalam Era (1932) and the Madras Town zonal plans, detailed development plans, planning Act 1920 (with some amendments) are regulations regarding land use, usage of buildings, the relevant acts under which Town Planning Elizabeth Philip / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 13 - 16
Schemes are being published. The process of plan cum commercial. It is a common phenomenon formulation and variation, if any, required are also that CBD gets extended into residential zones as very cumbersome. Timely variations are not often the demand for higher order uses increases and undertaken mainly due to the lack of availability as the market forces play a vital role in deciding of proper data. The plans thus become obsolete the locations. Comparatively wider roads and in the fast developing urban scenario. The availability of other infrastructural facilities attract regulations, which form part of the plans also commercial and other uses to these residential become inappropriate. These Acts have to be zones which in turn bring in more traffic and modified if the results of planning are to be evident parking on roads. Laxity in enforcement of and citizen friendly. In order to make the plans regulations can be cited as one of the major more realistic GIS based data should be created reasons. But can we ignore the economic benefit derived by the owner of the residence while letting The building byelaws play a vital role in deciding out part of his house for a shop / office? Should the extent of development especially in areas, we not consider the objections that will be raised which are not covered by the development plans. by his law abiding neighbour? The responsibility A single bye law covering the whole state decides of the institutions that control and regulate the bulk of development in the entire state. In development should be to examine the use Kerala the municipal building bye law permits an change to assess the infrastructural up gradation F.A.R. up to 3 (even up to 4 with the payment of that such change would bring about and follow extra fees) for residential development; when the process of public hearing before deciding on other towns in India like Bangalore, Hyderabad, rezoning. Levying development charges for and Visakhapattanam permit only up to a changes, which necessitate upgradation of services maximum FAR of 1.75 for residential is one way of tapping private investment for public developments. In Ahmedabad, the maximum good. The whole process should be transparent permissible FAR for residential development is and based on sound principles of planning. only1.8. The availability of services and Rezoning is a rigorous and public process and infrastructure facilities should form the basis of hence not attempted at in many of our cities and fixing FAR. In the context Kerala it is necessary to towns. In the absence of this process, which allows have a relook at the building bylaws taking into permissible changes in zoning regulations, gross account the availability of infrastructure facilities. violations take place resulting in the degeneration of our planned areas also. It is for the planning It is imperative that for the major towns in Kerala, and enforcing authorities to decide on the development plans with appropriate development maximum permissible variations in the existing control / promotion regulations should be zoning regulations and makes developers and published and enforced before it is too late. The owners pay for the upgradation of the local bodies, which are vested with powers of infrastructure necessitated additionally. This is planning, should rise to the occasion making use possible only where zoning regulations exist. of the expertise in the development Authority and the Town Planning department. There are situations, especially in old town areas where no regulations ever existed. The process 3 RELEVANCE OF ZONING REGULATIONS of introducing regulations / development controls In spite of the fact that Master Plans and Detailed in such areas amounts to bringing such areas Development plans have been notified for many within urban renewal programs. Imposing of our urban areas, city centres are characterized regulations for promoting developments, where by chaos , congestion, narrow roads, and chaos and congestion prevail, will go a long way dilapidated buildings with out any parking spaces. in bringing about orderliness. This would require In the case of newly developed planned detailed analysis of the existing situations, giving neighbourhoods we find that land use control has due consideration for the Heritage precincts, and not been very effective, with the result that most reconstitution of the plot boundaries using of the residential buildings have become residential techniques like land assembly. Allowing vertical
14 Elizabeth Philip / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 13 - 16 developments are another way to create the of the program, uniformity in transactions and much needed ground open space and parking transparency are essential along with the new spaces. Under ground / multi level parking lots regulatory tools. are essential in most of our city centres as long as we rely on personalized vehicles. Pedestrianisation In Kochi an important inner ring road has been of certain areas within the urban core especially in developed by GCDA by getting almost 90% the places of Heritage value can increase the flow of land required for road by providing alternate land tourists. Urban Renewal programs imposing of a lesser extent. With proper leadership and regulations and implementation with Public initiative, such programs are possible, if there are Participation are the only means to rejuvenate regulations and planning controls. Similar road the city centres. Government of India programs widening projects are initiated by the Kochi like Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Municipal Corporation also. Mission paves way to renew our city centres in a positive manner through public private 4 ROLE OF THE PLANNING AND participation. Special regulations are essential for DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES IN our core areas facing the challenges of ENFORCING DEVELOPMENT CONTROL redevelopment as the market forces operate with The 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Act profit motive only. has empowered the urban local bodies with sufficient powers to undertake planning and In coastal states like Kerala, protection of water participatory development. Kerala has shown a bodies and wetlands that characterize coastal pioneering approach in realizing the constitutional areas call for special regulations. The Coastal Zone vision of transforming the Local bodies into Regulations, which are to guide and restrict institutions of local self-governments by developments in the coastal zones, prohibits strengthening decentralized governance both in development along the coastal belt. In Kerala rural and urban areas. coast, where the density of population is comparatively high, this becomes very restrictive Prior to the amendment of Kerala Municipalities’ with the result that most of the constructions are Act in 1994, Development Authorities were unauthorized. It will be ideal to incorporate enforcing development controls as per the notified provisions that take into account the social General and Detailed Town Planning Schemes. The conditions also along with the environmental local bodies, viz. corporations, municipalities, and parameters. In island zones in backwater areas, first grade panchayats, scrutinized the adherence there is need for regulations that opens up public to Building Bylaws. After the enactment, the access to the water body. Alignment of a public planning and regulatory functions have been road along the water edge will prevent transferred to the ULBs. The ULBs, which were encroachment and filling of water bodies by already burdened with the tasks of provision of developers. It is necessary that water front day-to-day services, are still ill equipped to carry development regulations are enforced in the island out the long term planning functions. The zones. Corporations and the Municipalities are geared to short-term goals. Planning and regulatory process In the development of road network, regulations if subjected to short run considerations, there is a play a vital role. The alignment of roads is to be danger of the whole process losing the focus. The fixed well in advance and notified. Land resource technical capability of the ULBs has to be for road development can be generated by getting strengthened with planning professionals if the the land surrendered for road either free of cost duties vested with them are to be carried out or by giving incentives for surrender or by allowing efficiently. Alternatively the potentials of the certain relaxation from regulations. This can Development Authorities should be utilized and generate the land resource for road formation. Metropolitan Planning Committees are to be Transfer of Development Right is an important constituted as envisaged in the CAA. The ULBs tool in generating urban land. Public acceptance and the Development Authority have to work
15 Elizabeth Philip / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 13 - 16 hand in hand to enforce the regulations in order The regulation enforcing agencies must have the to achieve the results of planning. capability to understand the essence of planning. Development authorities, which were created to 5 CONCLUSIONS undertake model schemes and long term Development Control Regulations are enforced planning, can still play a vital role in planning and with a view to improve the welfare of the people. regulating urban development if they work hand It is necessary to make the whole system of plan in hand with the local bodies. In metropolitan areas formulation and implementation more dynamic like Kochi, there is need for creation of Metropolitan and responsive to changes. For this, the planning Planning Committee as envisaged in the CAA. The legislation will have to be modified updated and development Authority could function as the made more citizens friendly. Taking into account technical arm of MPC in formulating and the rapid urbanization, globalization, increase in implementing the long term plans as the land values, and change in life styles, the land use metropolitan area, transcends the corporation proposals may have to be more flexible. A mechanism has to be evolved for tapping the boundary and comprises of two or more local private benefits for public good, making use of bodies. The planning decisions taken by a team planning regulations. There is need for evolving of experts, and supported by political consensus special regulations for urban core area must be clearly translated to the beneficiaries to rejuvenation, for Heritage zones and for coastal get the necessary support for the plan and the and island zones in Kochi. The prevailing Town regulations. Regulations are only means to an end, Planning Act in Kerala has to modify incorporating the ultimate aim being the enhancement in the provisions for TDR, plot reconstitution, etc. Quality of Life
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16 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
MAKING CITIES SAFER – THE KARNATAKA EXPERIENCE
V. M. HEGDE Director of Town Planning, Karnataka State and Chairman, Karnataka Regional Chapter M. B. MAHENDRA SWAMY Assistant Director of Town Planning R. SUMATHY Assistant Director of Town Planning
ABSTRACT This paper examines why cities have become unsafe in the southern Indian state of Karnataka. In this paper, an attempt is made to explain the urban condition by looking at planning, implementation and enforcement, and provision of infrastructure along with an analysis of urban problems such as pollutions, crimes and commuting in cities. It is found that lack of basic services; pollutions and the problem of housing shortages have made the cities unsafe particularly for the poor and more vulnerable groups of people. It is proposed that enforcement mechanisms and implementation of policies must be speeded up to make cities safer.
1 INTRODUCTION paper, an attempt is made to explain status of In India, the two significant phenomena that urban settlements in terms of planning, occurred during recent years are urbanization and implementation and enforcement, provision of metropolitan growth. India has been witnessing infrastructure, urban problems in terms of massive urbanization during the last six decades. pollution, crime and movement required for safer In 2001, the population of India was 1,027 million cities. of which 27.78 percent was urban. The number of urban settlements has gone up by almost 3 2 STATUS OF CITIES IN KARNATAKA times in the period of 100 years (from 1827 in Karnataka is the pioneering State in town planning. 1901 to 5,165 in 2001). As per 2001 census, the City Improvement Trust Board Act was urban population of Karnataka was 18 million or promulgated in the year 1904 for Mysore. The 34.61 percent of the total population of the State Karnataka Town and Country Planning (KTCP) Act and was above the National average. The 1961 has come into force from 15th January, percentage of urban population increased from 1965. So far, the KTCP Act is extended to 100 12.56 percent in 1901 to 34.61 percent in 2001. towns / cities in Karnataka. Bangalore As per 2001 Census there are 237 towns, out of Development Authority Act of 1976 is extended which 24 urban centers are categorized as Class I to the Local Planning Area (LPA) of Bangalore and cities. It is estimated that by 2025, the State will Karnataka Urban Development Authority (KUDA) have about 352 lakh urban population, which will Act, 1987 is extended to 27 urban areas. There be about 42 percent of the State’s total are 28 Urban Development Authorities, 27 population. Planning Authorities and 45 Municipal Planning Authorities in the State. The remaining 137 towns Many urban scientists have opined that are yet to come under the arm of KTCP Act. urbanization is not an evil force in a developing Hence, this has caused deterioration in quality of country like ours. In fact, it is a desirable life of the people and growth of urban areas has phenomenon, as it has many benefits to offer. It been chaotic and unplanned in most places. The brings in economic growth, social changes, Planning process visualized in the various technological innovations and physical enactments has not been adequately enforced developments along with associated problems or implemented. The commonly observed defects mostly like, environmental pollution, lack of basic in growth of our towns are (a) improper land use, services, which have made cities unsafe. Urban in which contours and natural courses are ignored areas of Karnataka are not exception to it. In this in developing roads and buildings. These led to V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 water logging, difficulties in providing essential Regulations which provide for planning and services, preventing further expansion by acting development, it is unfortunate that various as bottlenecks, over crowding, etc; (b) Misuse of provisions of related Acts and Regulations are not land meant for public purposes has made orderly adhered to due to which there is infrastructure expansion difficult; (c) Ignoring minimum crisis in all the towns and cities. Hence cities have requirement of space and set backs has hindered become unsafe for living. movement of vehicles apart from causing unsanitary conditions; (d) Lack of in adequate and The KTCP Act makes provision for preparation of trained manpower for preparation and master plan for orderly development of local enforcement of the plan; and (e) Lack of good planning areas. Out of 100 local planning areas, data base in terms of scientific base maps. Master Plan is prepared or revised for 90 local planning areas. A conservative estimate indicates The haphazard growth of towns has diminished that hardly 22-25 percent of the Master plan the quality of urban life. Serious and urgent proposals are being implemented due to which measures are necessary to prevent this. In the the cities have become unsafe for good living; interest of the public, preventive or remedial measures should be undertaken. The following The provisions of Section 95 (4) of the Karnataka measures are proposed: Land Revenue Act read as follows:
• The KTCP (Karnataka Town and Country • “Conditions may be imposed on diversion in Planning) Act should be extended to cover all order to secure the health, safety and the remaining urban areas; convenience, and in case of land which is to • There should be strict accountability and firm be used as building sites, in order to secure in enforcement of regulations of Master Plans; addition that the dimensions, arrangement • The Government grants and loans and the and accessibility of the sites are adequate for tax revenues of the Urban Local Bodies must the health and convenience of occupiers or be reviewed for improving the revenue are suitable to the locality and do not sources. The local bodies may be encouraged contravene the provisions of any law relating to raise loans from market with the specific to town and country planning act or the understanding that they have to pay the loans erection of building”; out of their revenues. The local bodies must The Section 170(2) of the Karnataka Municipalities be empowered to levy reasonable special Act, 1964 relating to formation or extensions or development charges for improving civic layouts or making new private streets reads as amenities; follows: • The Town Planning Department is required to be strengthened; • “Any person intending to form an extension or layout to make new Private Street, shall • Plan proposal should be implemented by the send to the municipal council a written concerned departments; application with plans and sections showing • Good data base in terms of scientific base the particulars: maps has to be prepared; and - Laying out of sites of the area, upon • Master plan requires being prepared based on streets, lanes, or open spaces; sound town planning principles adopting - The intended level, direction and width of modern technology and emphasizing on the streets; sustainability. - The street alignment, and the building line, 2.1 Neglect of Provisions of various Acts and proposed sites abutting the streets. and Legislations - The arrangement to be made for leveling, Though the country has the long history of good paving, metalling, flagging, channeling, town planning and various related Acts and sewering, draining, conserving and lighting
18 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36
the streets and for adequate drinking • The laying out of the sites of the area, upon water supply”. streets, lands or open spaces; • The intended level, direction, width of the The section 280 and 281 of the Karnataka street; Municipal Corporations Act, 1976 has the similar provision with more emphasis on development • The street alignment and building line and and provision of infrastructure. The Section 280 proposed sites abutting the streets; and which deals with owner’s obligation to make a • The arrangement to be made for levelling, street when disposing of land as building sites reads paving, metalling, flagging, channelling, as follows: sewering, draining, conserving and lighting the streets and for adequate drinking water • “If the owner of any land utilizes, sells, leases supply” or otherwise disposes of such land or any portion or portions of the same as sites for The Zonal Regulations of all master plans also the construction of buildings; he shall, save in prescribes standards for civic amenities like such cases as the site or sites may abut on an education, health, other civic facilities like post and existing public or private street, layout and telegraph and police station, religious buildings, make a street or streets or road or roads filling stations, neighbourhood shopping facility, giving access to the site or sites and connecting park and open spaces, etc. The ZR also prescribes with an existing public or private street”. the sub-division regulations wherein size of the plot, dimensions of various road widths, area to be The Section 281 on making of new private reserved for civic amenities and open spaces, etc. streets reads as follows:- It is due to failure of various Governmental • “(1) Any person intending to layout or make Planning and Developing Agencies to enforce the a new private street must send to the above provisions; the cities have become unsafe Commissioner a written application with plans for living. To quote some of the examples; and sections showing the following particulars namely:- • the lands are being converted under the Revenue Act in violation of land use proposal - the intended level, direction and width of of the master plans; and the street • Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board - the street alignment and the building line; (KIADB) and Karnataka Housing Board (KHB) and are acquiring the lands in violation of the master plan proposals. - the arrangement to be made for levelling, paving, metalling, flagging, channelling, The Government circular issued on 30th June, sewering, draining, conserving and lighting 1997 opened the flood gates for development of the street.” revenue sites wherein provision was made for khata holder. The planning authorities and local The section 17 of the KTCP Act makes provision authorities in majority of the case have failed in for approval of private layout or sub-division of controlling unauthorized development within the the property. city and also in the peripheral areas. In a city like Bangalore it is assessed that there is about 8000 The Section 32 of the KUDA Act deals with ha of unauthorized / informal layouts. With this formation of new extensions, or layouts or making type of development the local bodies have lost private streets. 2000 ha. of land in terms of open spaces and civic amenity (valued at Rs.1,000 crore) sites, The Section 32(2) states that “any person which otherwise would have come to the local intending to form an extension or layout, or to bodies free of cost, provided the layouts are make a new private street shall send to the approved by the BDA which is the local planning Commissioner a written application with plans and authority. The estimate also indicates that the sections showing following particulars; various Government agencies have lost about
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Rs.1,077 crore in terms of various fees. The same unplanned in most places. This has caused is the situation in rest of the cities / towns in the deterioration in quality of life to a large number of State. The BDA and UDAs in the State, who have people. The planning process visualized in the taken up many schemes, have not provided various enactments has not been adequately infrastructure in a desired manner. In many cases enforced or implemented. The Section 17 of the sites have been distributed by the BDA / UDAs / KTCP Act deals with sub-division of land. But it is KHB and sites have been sold by private developers commonly observed up to recently that the after a certain level of development. But houses agricultural land is fragmented which is the root have not been constructed in such areas for long cause for all unplanned development. period due to which developed roads and drains are not found on the ground due to lack of Serious and urgent measures are necessary to maintenance. These things have made the cities prevent problems caused by enforcement failure. unsafe for living and financial burden on the local This has to be undertaken with appropriate bodies for development and maintenance. capacity building both for planning agencies and local bodies. There should be strict accountability There are about 17 Acts and 22 Departments and firm enforcement of regulations. Some of the related to urban planning and land management. important clauses like Section 310 of KMC act, The basic philosophy behind provisions of all acts which makes provision for occupancy certificate is that there should be a plan for all the urban for the usage of the building, have to be strictly settlements, development should take place within followed to restrict deviation from the approved the framework of master plan, all amenities and building plan. Recently an ordinance is brought safety should be provided before housing activity for the Karnataka Land Revenue (KLR) Act which is allowed to come in any settlement so that the restricts registration of fragmented agricultural city becomes safer for living and management land for residential purpose and punishment for function of local bodies are made easier and burden registering authorities also, who register such free. Apart from all these, the records of properties fragmented properties. with dimensions should be made available without any impediment. 3.1 Infrastructure 3 PLAN ENFORCEMENT The key infrastructure components are being In Karnataka State only 100 urban areas have categorized under water supply, sewerage, storm been provided with organizational input to some water drainage, solid waste management, road extent in the form of Urban Development net work and traffic management, slum Authorities, Town Planning Authorities and improvement, environmental and ecological Municipal Planning Authorities to ensure that basic restoration. The State Finance Commission (SFC) principles of town planning are followed in has identified certain basic amenities as being regulating growth or development. Even those necessary for all urban settlements, and has urban local bodies whose areas are not covered adopted norms for these amenities (Table 1). under the jurisdiction of the Act are required to 3.2 Water supply consult the Assistant Director of Town Planning at the district level before undertaking any The problem of inadequate drinking water supply development work. However, in actual practice, is observed in all urban areas of the State. Of the the growth of urban areas has been chaotic and 208 urban local bodies under the Karnataka Urban
Table 1 Norms for Identified Basic Amenities by SFC Water supply For City Corporation 100 lpcd For City Municipal Council 80 lpcd For Town Municipal Council 70 lpcd Roads Based on population criteria Sanitation For city Corporation 1 Pourakarmikas for every 500 population For others 1 pourakarmika for every 700 population Street light 20 lights / km of road
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Water supply and Drainage Board (KUWSandDB), operational and financial implications. In Karnataka in 161 urban local bodies (77%) the drinking water 84% of the southern Karnataka towns and 92 % supply is inadequate. In all major towns of of northern towns suffer from inadequate water Bangalore Urban, Kolar, Tumkur, Udupi, supply. The average number of days of water Chitradurga, Gadag, Haveri, Gulbarga, Belgaum, supply in a week by CMCs and TMCs is 5, and TPs Dharwad and Raichur districts the drinking water is 4. Scarcity of water in urban areas has made supply is less than the accepted norms. Only in water an economic commodity and has led to Mysore and Mangalore the level of water supply is the emergence of unregulated private market. The higher than the norm adopted in KUWSandDB. absence of regulatory mechanism to control this Water supply in Municipal Corporation of Gulbarga, undesirable development is a cause for concern. Hubli-Dharwad and Belgaum is very inadequate. It is suggested that the size of a city has to be A survey conducted in 2002 in 76 towns having decided based on availability of water supply from bore well based water supply, it was found that all the sources. 16 percent had water unfit for drinking, 5 percent of towns reported brackishness, 5 percent 3.3 Sewerage hardness and 3 percent contamination. Very few cities in the State have underground sewerage systems. The large City Corporations The most pressing problem of Bangalore is water of Bangalore and Mysore have sewerage system supply. The main agency to supply water is covering part of the developed area. Other cities Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board and towns like Gulbarga, Hubli-Dharwad, (BWSSB). 100% of Bangalore Mahanagara Palike Mangalore, Davanagere, Udupi and few others area is covered by Water supply and only 20% have only partial coverage. of the City Municipal Councils and Town Municipal Council around Bangalore are covered by water According to Bangalore Water Supply and supply. Bangalore gets a water supply of 862 MLD Sewerage Board (BWSSB), about 80% of the per day of which one third is consumed by water supply in the city gets into sewerage as industries; the remaining is left for domestic waste water which amounts to about 528 million consumption, which works out to 79 LPCD, which litres per day. At present only about 38.6 percent is much below the national norm. For the of geographical area of Bangalore City is covered projected population of 10 million for the year with sewerage system. Some of the sewers in old 2021, the requirement of water is 1495 million areas are overloaded and require immediate litres at the rate of 150 LPCD. In the long run, duplication and or replacement. It is estimated that water surely will be one of the limiting factors for by 2011, the sewage generated will be 940 MLD, development of Bangalore. The distribution which may go up to 1,270 MLD by 2031. The system within the city particularly the core area is capacity of the secondary treatment plant 70 to 100 years old and water quality has been available at present is only 408 MLD. Two years affected by corrosion of pipes. In addition this has back, Bangalore, like many other cities in the resulted in leakage and loss of water to the extent country faced floods. The reasons are: of 35 to 40 percent. In order to reduce the distribution losses and ensure enhanced supply • Insufficient capacity of drains to shoulder of water, the BWSSB has launched unaccounted drains which are not functioning and lack of for, water project. This project is first of its kind in connectivity; India. By the end of the project the water loss is • Lack of regular de-silting of drains; expected to reduce below 10 percent. • Non covering of drains in front of houses; River water constitutes the bulk of surface water • Encroachment of drains, water bodies and in Karnataka, which is increasingly becoming the natural bodies; primary source of drinking water supply utilized • Solid waste dumping; by the most of the ULBs. Since ULBs are normally located far away from the sources of surface water, • Closed drains and culverts some times as far as 120 km, the transportation • Elimination of water bodies and blockage of of water through piped supply has several over flows spillway sections;
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• obstruction in drains; and development parameters. To address the issue of • lack of coordination among various agencies. sustainable development there is an utmost urgency to assess the present environmental Of the total wastewater generated in most cities, pressures and to evaluate the mitigation measures only partial wastewater is collected and only a part so as to minimize the impacts. goes through some form of treatment. In Bangalore, nearly three-fourth of the wastewater Water Pollution: Dirty rivers / water bodies are generated is collected and has primary and reflection of our way of life, decaying testimony secondary treatment facilities. By and large, the and mirror to the rapid urbanization, mode of disposal is on agricultural land and into industrialization and sanitation practices. The rivers. Wastewater management is a serious increasing pollution to the water bodies constitutes problem in major cities of the State. the biggest to public health. We simultaneously abuse and worship over rivers. Municipal sewage 4 SHORTAGE OF CIVIC AMENITIES treatment facilities wherever they exist in the State It is assessed that excepting the municipal markets, do not remove the presence of heavy metals in all other categories like bus terminals, parks and before discharging the effluents into the rivers. play grounds, northern Karnataka is worst Over extraction of water for irrigation and urban compared to southern Karnataka in quality of consumption has led to drying up of several water these services / facilities. There is not even one resources. The demand for water continues to good park or playground in northern Karnataka. escalate. There are eight good bus terminals in northern Karnataka as against 21 in south Karnataka. Good Fourteen districts of the State have more than municipal markets are more in southern Karnataka the admissible limits of 1.5 microgram per milliliter than in northern Karnataka. In the fair category of fluoride, affecting 10 to 67 percent of the also, Northern Karnataka lags behind. However, habitations of these districts. Also, 13 districts are in the poor category south Karnataka seems to affected by brackishness; there is excess nitrate have more in all the three or more facilities in 8 districts and excess iron in 12 districts. These concerned. Table 2 below indicates the number problems related to water quality are not mutually of ULBs below the norm of basic services. exclusive and overall affect 37 percent of the habitations in the state. The study of ground Table 2 Quality of Basic Services in ULBs water in the vicinity of major industrial areas of Attibele, Jigan, Bidadi, Devanahalli, Nanjangud, Quality particulars No. of Towns Total Machenhalli revealed that the ground water Good Fair Poor exceeded the permissible limits for total dissolved Bus Terminals 29 104 9 142 solids. Municipal Markets 4 43 95 142 Air Pollution: Urban air quality has been showing Parks and playgrounds 1 49 92 142 a gradual decline. Air pollution is a cause of major Roads 31 105 31 167 concern. Suspended particulate matter is very high in the commercial areas of Bangalore as well Apart from civic amenities, infrastructure is also as in the Hassan and Davanagere. important for decent living. The residents of bigger cities would like to have international standard civic Most of the locations monitored in Bangalore amenities. registered carbon monoxide levels higher than the standards stipulated. On both the monitoring 4.1 Threat of Pollution occasions, oxides of nitrogen were found to Managing the activities of the people in a way that exceed the standards at commercial locations, conserves the habitats and resources and at the while for sensitive location the levels exceeded same time promotes development is extremely more than 5 times the standard. Other Municipal complex and difficult. To ensure sustainability, Corporation areas such as Mysore, Gulbarga and there is need to integrate the environmental Mangalore have moderately high levels of concerns with the economic, social and suspended particulate matters.
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The major source of high suspended particulate industries). The industries apart from polluting air matter levels is from combustion of fossil fuels. In and water are also responsible for noise pollution. most of the locations monitored for air quality Such industries are power looms, engineering units sulphur dioxide has been below the norms except and DG sets located close to residential areas. in the Baikampady area of Mangalore where it is recorded as moderately high. The small size Traffic and Environment: The relation between particles of respirable particulate matter could be transport and the environment is paradoxical in easily inhaled and are a result of fuel combustion nature. On one side, transportation activities and re-suspension of road dust. support increasing mobility demands for passengers and freight, whereas on the other, Other emissions causing concern are carbon transport activities result in growing levels of monoxide particulate lead, hydrocarbons and motorization, congestion and harmful emissions. other organic carcinogens. The introduction of As a result, the transportation sector is increasingly unleaded petrol, low sulphur diesel and LPG for linked to environmental problems. With a the bi-fuel mode vehicles is likely to bring down technology that is heavily dependent on the these levels in the near future. The most combustion of hydrocarbons to provide important factor causing indoor air pollution is momentum, the impact of the transport sector indoor heating and burning of solid fuel during over environmental systems has increased. In cooking. 97 percent of rural and 73 percent of recent years, this has reached a level where the urban households use biomass fuels. However, spatial accumulation of transportation is a air quality monitoring leaves much to be desired dominant factor behind the emission of most in terms of number of pollutants being monitored, pollutants and their impacts on the environment. selection of monitoring sites and low density of monitoring stations. The environmental problems In India, the total estimated pollution load from associated with the transport sector can be the transport sector increased from 0.15 million attributed to significant growth in vehicular traffic, tonnes in 1947 to 10.3 million tonnes in 1997 (State of Environment Report, India, 1999). Thus, the composition of vehicles, nature of roads and the significance of studying the links between road network, quality of fuel used and inadequate transport and environment cannot be monitoring. Air pollution and noise pollution occurs underestimated. Karnataka has substantial where the density of vehicles is high, especially in transportation in infrastructure that utilizes road, Bangalore, moderate in other major urban centers rail, air, and sea modes, and a pipeline for transport like Hubli-Dharwad, Mysore, Belgaum, Mangalore of petroleum products. and Gulbarga and minimal in other urban centers. Most buses, auto rickshaws, and motorcycles Karnataka’s population of 52.73 million (2001 grossly exceeded the noise level, and on census) is spread over an area of 1,92,000 square Bangalore’s Mahatma Gandhi Road, the levels were kilometers and lives in 27575 inhabited villages and as much as 82.5 dB. 237 towns. These villages and towns are connected by about 1.34 lakh kilometers of road. Karnataka is having too many industries, especially This total road length is exclusive of 10801 in the sectors of iron and steel, pulp and paper, kilometers of road maintained by Panchayats and cement, chemicals, fertilizers, silk, textiles, mining, Municipalities. Details are given in Table 3. machine tools and pharmaceuticals. The environmental problems that arise due to industrial Table 3 Roads length in Karnataka (2003) activities are water pollution, air pollution, generation of hazardous waste and noise pollution. Road Type Length in Km The nature of emissions and traffic effluents from National Highways 3,728 industries are varied and industry specific. The State Highways 9.829 Karnataka State Pollution Control Board has categorized 118 types of industries as highly Major district roads 28.247 polluting in nature. They are identified as ‘Red’ Other district roads, village 92.258 irrespective of their investment level. 51 types of road, irrigation and forest Roads industries are moderately polluting which have TOTAL 134.062 been categorized as orange (18 percent of total Source: Karnataka Road Development Corporation Ltd., 2004
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The total length of railway lines in Karnataka is wheelers are registered in Bangalore. Similarly, a 3,041 Kilometers. Of the 27 districts, only Kodagu large percentage of cars (57.55 percent), cabs has no railway line. The lowest railway length is in (31.36 percent), autos (39.48 percent) buses Chamarajanagar district (18 kilometres). However, (34.75 percent), goods vehicles (30.75 percent) an important railway link between Sakleshpur and are in Bangalore. Mangalore is not in operation due to gauge conversion work. Some new railway lines, like Air pollution problems are severe where the number Hassan-Bangalore and Kadur –Sakleshpur have of vehicles and distance travelled is maximum. been taken up for construction. Increasing two wheeler population leads to enhanced per capita emissions. The problem is Karnataka has four functioning airports handling sever in Bangalore, moderate in other major urban passenger and freight traffic, namely Bangalore, centres like Hubli-Dharwad, Mysore, Belgaum, Hubli, Belgaum and Mangalore. An international Mangalore and Gulbarga, and relatively less in other airport near Devanahalli north of Bangalore would urban centres. Even in these cities, the problem be operational early. There are also plans to will be concentrated in the city centres rather than expand the capacity of Mangalore airport to in the extended suburbs. The main impacts of handle wide bodied aircraft. the air pollution are on the people who reside or work on the sides of arterial roads and in the city The bus system is the main public transport mode centres. The vulnerable parties are typically in urban transportation in Karnataka. There is no pedestrians, traffic police and roadside shop sub-urban railway service being operated owners. anywhere in the State. The pollution load due to vehicles in the state is increasing. Preference for The traffic mix, in the state consists of motorized personalized mode of transport, increasing and non-motorized vehicles and they fight for the commuting hours and lack of efficient traffic same road space. These vehicles with different management measures have all led to traffic space occupancy, ridership characteristics, congestion resulting in longer travel times, extra acceleration and cruising speeds, coupled with fuel consumption, high-level of pollution, insufficient road space, drastically reduce the discomfort to road users, and degradation of the average speed on the roads. Reduction in speed environment. increases the travel time and leads to increased consumption of fuel and emission of carbon The number of vehicles in Karnataka has increased dioxide, hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. from 14.33 lakhs in 1990-91 to 39.96 lakhs in 2001-02 showing almost a threefold increase over From the point of view of road carrying capacity, the twelve years. When examined across the carriageway widths are very important. Carriage districts, the highest growth rate is seen in width may be classified into three categories: Single Bangalore Urban district. Of the total number of lane (3.75 meters), Intermediate lane (5.5. vehicles in Karnataka, nearly 38.22 per cent are meters), and Two lanes (7 to7.5 meters). A large plying in Bangalore Urban area and the problems part of the road network in Karnataka is made up emerging from the traffic in Bangalore are uniquely of single lane roads or narrower and much of the different from that of other districts in Karnataka. network is in poor condition. Nearly 71 percent of state highways are single lane, 22 percent are Among the various types of vehicles plying on intermediate lane and only 7 percent are two lanes the roads, two wheelers constitute 71.81 percent, in width. Among the major district roads 98 followed by cars (9.50 percent) and other vehicles percent are single lane while two percent are wider (9.57 percent.) The highest number of two than single lane. Almost all the village ad rural rods wheelers are seen in Bangalore district (10,49,281) are single lane in width. Narrow carriage width followed by Mysore (1,95,307) and Mandya leads to more congestion and reduced speed. A (45,849). About 39.58 percent of the states’ two study on the volume-capacity in Bangalore reveals
24 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 that 8 roads in the city were congested. These in all these 19 intersections, grade separators roads were handling more traffic than they are would offer economical and optimal solution for designed to handle. Of the overall 1,34,062 the transport problems. Many roads also showed kilometres of road network in Karnataka, only 57 a volume to capacity ratio of more than one in kilometres have medians. The Bangalore- Bangalore. Out of these 19 intersections, Nelamangala stretch of National Highway 4 has construction of flyovers in the priority 10 selected now been converted into a four-lane dual would provide16 percent to 44.29 percent relief carriageway separated by a median and this in terms of delays. This low speed and saturation stretch has seen the accident rate drop down to at traffic signals contributes to air pollution and almost zero. Other improvements, such as also to noise pollution, as many of the two creating bypasses away from population centres wheelers and vehicles with diesel engines are not (e.g., the Narasapur bypass on National Highway switched off. According to a study conducted by 4) have also decreased the rate of accidents. Rail India Technical and Economic Services, average network speed has reduced from 25 Almost all the state highways (99.9 percent) are kilometers per hour in 1989 to 13.3. kilometers surfaced while 65 percent of major district roads per hour in 2000. The average speed of a are only surfaced. The majority of the village and Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation bus rural rods, however, are not surfaced. Often urban in 1997 was 16.02 kilometers per hour whereas, rods and highways have unexpected road humps, the same declined to 14.20 kilometers per hour in many times deliberately and illegally placed due to 2003. some accident in the past. Potholes and wavy road features (resulting from faulty construction Location of centralized bus terminals in major and maintenance), rutting due to constant towns and cities at the heart of the city contribute movement of iron hopped carts, all contribute to to congestion of traffic on the roads leading to poor road quality. Bad quality roads put extra bus terminal. This is experienced in Mysore, stress on the engine, cause more fuel Tumkur, Kolar, Chitradurga, Raichur, etc. Even in consumption and result in wear and tear. In small towns such as Gowribidanur, Tiptur, Harihar, addition, engines produce higher emissions while Chikmagalur, etc; the congestion on the roads accelerating, decelerating and climbing so any leading to bus stands is high. The shifting of the feature that encourage these actions, also bus-stand from the busy commercial area of encourage emissions. Hampankatta in Mangalore has helped in easing the congestion on the roads leading to Bad intersection geometry is one of the main Hampankatta. However, inability to provide causes for low speeds. When the number of separate space for private vehicles is still causing approaches increases, the conflict points increase the congestion in areas around old bus stand in exponentially. Since drivers become watchful for towns such as Doddaballapur, Tumkur, Kolar, etc. approaching traffic parts, speed reduces Faulty location of bus stands lead to congestion drastically. There are many junctions in the urban as, buses stop in the middle of the road and flow centers with five or more approaches. When traffic of traffic is hindered. The location of auto rickshaw volume and geometry are considered together, stands, taxi stands, and bus stops near the degree of saturation becomes a key factor in intersections has caused problems in almost all determining congestion level. For instance, in urban centers in the state. Absence of parking Bangalore, according to Karnataka Road control near intersections has added to the Development Corporation Limited, 19 problem. intersections were over saturated. Out of the 19 important intersections chosen for the study. 17 Location of administrative offices, shopping areas had a congestion index of more than 1 during and service centers on both sides of the main morning peak hours and 16 had more than 1 streets of smaller towns and in district headquarters during evening peak hours. It was concluded that is a contributing factor to air pollution. The
25 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 problem is complicated as these roads act as both • In Bangalore and in many towns and cities of local access roads as well as regional arterials. As Karnataka, a large numbers of petrol bunks a local access road, there is lot of crisscrossing are located at the intersections of roads leading movement due to pedestrians and local traffic. to accidents and congestion of roads; As a regional arterial they also carry quite a bit of • Multiple approaches to intersections (circles) through traffic. This high traffic and the many interruptions have caused severe speed are contributing to accidents in Bangalore and reductions. This phenomenon is experienced in in other cities; Mandya, Shimoga, Mysore, Chikmagalur, etc; and • Road designations (main road and cross other district headquarters and in smaller towns roads) are unrelated to road importance, road such as Tiptur, Koratagere, Madhugiri, Bangarpet, width and plying of public transport; and Kolar Gold Fields, Anekal, Ramanagaram, Sindhanur, etc. • Insufficient parking space compared to the demand generated by public places such as Land use and the transport system have not temples, shopping centers, cinema halls, developed in an integrated manner in urban areas function halls, etc; again leads to congestion. of Karnataka. Adequate consideration has not been given by the development authorities to the Public transit represents an alternative that delivers provision of land for bus stand and bus terminus low energy use per passenger kilometer, low locations wider roads for bus routes, and land emissions per passenger kilometer, and consumes reservation at junctions (for flaring of lanes with low road space per passenger kilometer. In signal systems and for grade separation). Multi Bangalore, the Bangalore Metropolitan Transport nodal city development to minimize travel has not Corporation operates 3116 buses (45000 work developed in the cities. Junction treatment is trips per day) and moves around 26.25 lakh especially bad with insufficient space for traffic people a day. However, according to a study by movement, and is further aggravated by location the Energy and Resource Institute, its contribution of petrol bunks, bus stands and taxi / auto stands to the total pollution load in the city is not more and road humps. than 0.02 percent. The share of Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation buses Indeed, intercity roads that pass right through registered to the total vehicle population is nearly the settlements (leading to deteriorating air quality 0.17 percent. in populated areas) are common in Karnataka. When bye-passes have been planned, they are Efficient and reliable public transit, priced marginally often located too close to the city and soon below the private cost (not including development begins around the bye pass turning environmental costs such as pollution and it into an inner arterial road. congestion) of making the same trip to work or school, would provide an incentive to people to Inadequate land use control and regulation is avoid private transportation alternatives in favour found more near railway lines where slums develop to the approach of railway stations and also along of public transport options The benefits of mass railway lines. The impact of these types of land transport system become apparent when one use development results in congestion, higher air looks at the economics of transporting people and noise pollution and adversely affects safety. across distance. A car would require nearly 400 Other land use related deficiencies that lead to liters of fuel to transport 10000 people across a transport related environmental problems include: distance of 1 kilometer compared to 34 liters consumed by a bi-articulated bus for the same. • No specific areas are served for bus terminuses, especially for city buses in many In the absence of an efficient and affordable mass localities of Bangalore. Consequently, parking transit system, people increasingly turn to private of buses on the road affects the traffic flow vehicles both during peak and non-peak hours. and contributes to congestion; In Bangalore, people are opting for personalised
26 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 mode of transit inspite of the huge fuel costs. The petrol. Adulteration of fuel especially in diesel consequence of increased vehicle usage gets vehicles is directly related to the price difference reflected in high air pollution (higher emission per between diesel and kerosene. capita with the growth in private vehicles), noise pollution, and accidents. Bangalore airport is another source of noise pollution particularly from night flights. One study Rail-based mass transport systems are highly reported noise levels of 86-102 decibels (A) at the efficient both in terms of energy efficiency per airport, which exceeds the level permitted by the passenger kilometer and pollution emitted per Environment Protection Act in industrial areas, passenger kilometer compared to any other road which is 75 decibels in the day and about 70 based petrol or diesel transport system. They decibels at night. Earlier airports were located far are also efficient in terms of land requirement for from the city. But with the growth of the city, movement and parking. However, the high initial localities have sprung up near airports. Most of capital cost involved is a significant negative factor. the international flights from Bangalore take off No urban area in Karnataka has a rail-based mass during night time and this creates nuisance for rapid transport system operating at present. All the people residing near the airport. The transport the mass transit systems operating in the larger sector, especially road and air transport, contribute urban centers of Bangalore, Mysore, Hubli- to air pollution. Vehicular air pollution is a very Dharwad, Mangalore, Gulbarga, etc; are bus- complicated phenomenon that depends on many based, including both government-run networks factors. and private sector operated networks consisting of buses and cabs (sometimes operating in The emission is determined by fuel composition, contravention of rules regarding stage carriage). engine maintenance (filters, pollution control devices, fuel systems), vehicle age (older vehicles The provision of a mass transport system like a have higher emissions), engine temperature bus system can definitely wean away a substantial (catalytic converters do not work before the number of private transport users (mainly two engine reaches normal operating temperature), wheeler users) to the bus system in all major road geometry ( decreasing and increasing the urban centers. The traffic volumes and speed causes higher emissions), type of vehicle investment can be justified from the (large engines pollute more; petrol engines emit environmental benefits alone. However, a mass more carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons diesel rapid transit system, such as a suburban railway engines emit more particulate matter, oxides of system, can be economically justified only in the sulphur and nitrogen). Carbon monoxide is the Bangalore region where the traffic intensity is very single biggest pollutant emitted by automobiles. high. Vehicle speed and congestion are other important factors as vehicles are most efficient at speeds Though it may not be economically and financially between 80 and 100 kilometers per hour. The feasible to provide such a system for other cities quality of fuel affects engine performance and use in Karnataka such as Mysore, Hubli-Dharwad, of adulterated fuel results in higher emissions. The Mangalore, etc; it is possible to take an approach age of the vehicle fleet is important since older of reserving land in these cities which can be vehicles contribute more to air and noise pollution. currently used by a road based mass transit system such as bus to be upgraded later to a rail Activities of the transport sector cause surface based system. and groundwater flow modifications, as well as degradation of water quality. Modifications in the Fuel adulteration not only affects engine flow of surface waters are due to diversion of water performance, it also leads to higher emissions. flow, which contribute to soil erosion. These While systematic evidence is difficult to obtain, impacts often happen far from the place of there is concern that there is a high probability of diversion and the road itself. Transport of adulterated fuel being used in vehicles consuming hazardous wastes, refined petroleum products
27 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 pose significant risk in terms of soil contamination, and air transport, is very damaging to lightly built water pollution and adverse effects on eco- structures along the road, as well as cultural systems. Till recently, petroleum products destined heritage monuments. Vibration can also have for Bangalore were transported from Mangalore negative impacts on people, causing sleeping in trucks, which crossed the ecologically sensitive problems and general disturbance of normal living Western Ghats. Another area of concern is that patterns. of marine pollution from shipping vessels carrying petroleum products. The annual oil production in There are three ways in which the transport sector the world over is 3452 million tons, out of which contributes to biodiversity loss: direct damage, 2026 million tones are transported to different fragmentation, and disturbance. Loss of habitat parts of the world. The Arabian Sea is a major is an inevitable consequence of land use change route for oil tankers to South East Asia, and during the construction of the transport beyond, probably accounting for the tar like infrastructure. However, by careful planning, it is residue deposits found on the West coast of India. possible to keep the damage at an acceptable level. This chronic problem is however a seasonal feature If the construction is not carefully planned, and is largely regulated by the monsoons and especially in sensitive areas, it can destroy or associated winds. seriously damage natural ecosystems, thus causing direct damage through loss of habitats Noise is probably the most obvious impact coming for sensitive plant and animals, which is the main from the transport sector. Vehicular noise pollution cause of biodiversity loss. is related to the number of vehicles, vehicular types, speed and gradients. The basic impacts are Roads cause fragmentation of habitats, preventing felt in terms of speech interference, sleep free movement of animals and exchange of interference and progressive loss of hearing. The genetic material. Habitat fragmentation damages World Health Organization’s guidelines recommend ecosystems’ stability and health. Habitat a night time average level suitable for undisturbed fragmentation in biodiversity rich regions like the sleep from 35 to 30 decibels, including a peak night Western Ghats or national parks, etc; can cause time maximum of 45 decibels. A study by a team corridor restrictions and result in man-animal from Bangalore University to ascertain the levels conflict. In other areas, the emissions and dust of noise in sensitive areas of Bangalore city showed generated by road traffic would settle on crop noise levels ranging from 71-111 decibels (A) in leaves and reduce agricultural productivity. traffic zones, 51-69 decibels (A) in residential areas, 72-98 decibels in industrial zones and 86-102 Road construction also opens the ways for decibels (A) at the airport. The maximum noise intruding species, disrupting in this way the was attributed to vehicular movement in the high ecological balance of the ecosystems. Noise, lights, traffic zones, followed by airways, followed by and runoff of hazardous compounds from roads industries. cause disturbance in the ecosystems, and lower the reproduction rates of flora and fauna. Rail traffic accounts for 10 percent of total noise emissions by transportation. Noise comes from The water-based ecosystems also suffer the engine (mostly diesel), the friction of wheels disruptions caused by the land transport over the rails, and whistle blowing. Furthermore, infrastructure. Erosion leads to accumulation of when trains are moving at high speed, aero fine earth particles downstream, which affects acoustic noise becomes more important than habitats for fish spawning. The changes in water other sources. Depending on the train flow caused by diversions during road aerodynamics, noise emissions are from 50 to 80 construction work often have negative effects on times the logarithm of train speed. Another plankton, upsetting eventually food chains in the negative effect related to transport is vibration. ecosystem. Roads can also cut through the Vibration, mostly caused by road freight transport migration routes of fish, causing disruptions in the
28 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 spawning cycle. Avenue plantations along Bangalore, the construction of flyovers has roadsides can go a long way in reducing the impact reduced congestion at some junctions however; of road construction on the environment. the entry and exit points to these flyovers continue to be congested. When long route vehicles pass A substantial amount of economic growth in the through cities and towns they contribute to state is centered in and on Bangalore. It is likely increased pollution levels as the overall speed on that the trend in vehicular growth will continue, the roads is reduced. This was one of the key perhaps even at an accelerated pace. Rising problems in Bangalore before the construction of incomes are likely to induce people to purchase ring road. Traffic on the Mangalore-Bangalore and utilize personalized transport options. Statistics National Highway is expected to reduce following reveal that around 38.22 percent of the vehicles the commissioning of the Mangalore-Hassan- are in Bangalore and 90 percent of the growth in Bangalore pipeline. vehicles within Bangalore Urban Area already represents personalized models of transport (two- Further the adoption of measures like wheelers and cars). The annual growth rate in synchronized traffic signals, land use planning, etc; traffic on the road system, has exceeded the may improve the traffic situation, in the long term annual growth rate of road network in the past comprehensive traffic management measures two decades. On the national highways there has have to be evolved and implemented to deal with been 20 percent increase in traffic each year and problems like congestion, longer commuting hours on the state highways the annual growth has been and low speed of vehicles. 25 percent, but in the past two decades the road network has expanded to an average rate of 2.6 Vehicles driven by electricity may gain more percent per year only. acceptance in the coming years due to changes in technology. Currently, the automobile The absence of a Rapid Transit System in manufacturers are working on advanced lead acid Bangalore Urban Area has also contributed to high batteries, lithium ion and nickel metal hydride private transport systems in terms of two wheelers batteries, which will increase the range to over and cars. This trend is likely to pose a tremendous 150 kilometers on a single charge and issues challenge to policy makers to manage the concerning integration and thermal and electric expected fallouts in the form of traffic congestion, management are currently being addressed. The accidents, air pollution, and decreased quality of batteries are still expensive, but volume and time life. will bring this technology within the reach of Bangalore’s population has grown from 12.06 lakh consumer and solar charging is also a possibility, in 1961 to 41.3 lakh in 1991 to 456.86 lakh in which will increase the range by 10-15 percent. 2001, and is about 60 lakh currently. At the same Thus, more research and development work is time the area of the city has grown rapidly over needed to develop cost effective and eco-friendly the years, from 101.21 square kilometers in 1961 vehicles running from sources like battery and fuel to 445.91 square kilometers to 531 square cells. kilometers in 2001. While the city has grown radially over the decades and added more roads By 2008, Bangalore City will witness a new era in as a result, it is important to note that the core urban transportation with the launch of the areas of the city have essentially stayed the same Bangalore Mass Rapid Transit system. With this, in terms of road infrastructure. According to the Bangalore will join the list of few cities in India having Bangalore Traffic Police, the vehicle population in such a system in place. The project is expected Bangalore City is expected to touch the five million to cater to about 8.20 lakh passengers per day in mark by the year 2011. Thus, the huge growth the initial phase. The number of commuters is in vehicles has only seen more congestion, expected to rise to 10.20 lakh per day by the alleviated somewhat by the construction of a few year 2011. This initiative of the state government flyovers and grade separators, and also the is expected to reduce the number of private introduction of one-ways on various roads. In vehicles plying on the city roads. In order to
29 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 reduce the air pollution due to transport it is As regards municipal waste, on an average 40 to proposed to adopt usage of CNG fuel as an 50 percent of the total municipal waste is alternative auto fuel. generated in the six municipal corporations of Karnataka and more than 70 percent of municipal Other solutions proposed are: Mandatory waste is generated by the residential and market conversion of three-wheelers registered after areas. The domestic waste generated by 1.04.1991 to bi-fuel mode (such as LPG and household comprises mainly of organic, plastic and petrol) and by promoting use of cleaner fuels. paper waste and small quantities of other wastes. Plastic and glass are segregated at the household Solid Waste Management: Rapid urbanization level or by rag pickers and sold. The remaining and industrial diversification has led to generation waste is disposed in community bins, which, also of considerable quantities of municipal, plastic, contains household hazardous wastes such as hazardous and biomedical waste. Improper batteries, bulbs, discarded ointments and medicines. In addition, about 1 to 2 percent of disposal of waste often results in spread of diseases biomedical waste also gets mixed with municipal and contamination of water bodies and soils. The solid waste in the community bins. impacts of these wastes on the economy cannot be ignored and managing them has become a Though, door-to-door collection has been major problem. Under the provisions of the introduced in a few wards of Bangalore and Environment Protection Act, 1986, the Mysore, the bulk of the municipal solid waste is still Government of India has brought into force the collected in community bins and the waste that Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 1989, the reaches disposal sites is usually mixed, containing Biomedical Waste (Handling and Management) plastic, glass, metals, etc. Many times segregated Rules, 1998, the Recycled Plastics (Manufacture waste gets mixed up while transporting. Of the and Usage Rules), 1999, the Municipal Waste total waste generated, each day about 500-600 tons of municipal waste is generated from (Handling and Management) Rules, 2001, for residential, city market and other commercial proper management of these wastes. In areas. Table 4 and 5 indicate the waste generated Karnataka, amongst the 3 types of waste and waste collected in six major cities. generated in 2003, the largest amount generated is municipal solid waste at 21,43,280 metric tons In Bangalore city waste is collected and followed by hazardous waste at 86,137 metric transported to the sites maintained by Karnataka tons and biomedical waste at 27,095 metric tons. Compost Development Corporation, for
Table 4 Municipal Solid Waste generation per day in 6 City Corporations of Karnataka during 2002. City Corporations Population Waste Waste Per capita (2002) generated Collected waste* generated (tones/day) (tons/day) (grams/day) Bangalore 5,882,162 2,500 1,400 425 Mangalore 551,701 250 200 453 Hubli / Dharwad 801,442 250 200 311 Mysore 794,677 230 183 289 Belgaum 5l6,155 120 100 232 Gulbarga 452,944 120 100 264 Total 8,999,081 3,470 2,183 386 ·Per Capita Waste generated = Waste generated/Population Source: Respective city corporations
30 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36
Table 5 Source wise physical composition of municipal waste in Bangalore in the year 2001
Composition % by weight Waste Residential Commercial Hotelsand Markets Slums Street All Sources Type Restaurents Sweeping Putre-scible 71.5 15.6 76 90 29.9 90 72 Paper 8.4 54.6 17 3 2.5 2 11.6 Plastics 6.9 16.6 2 7 1.7 3 6.2 Glass 2.3 0.7 0.2 - 8.4 - 1.4 Metals 0.3 0.4 0.3 - 0.2 - 0.2 Dust and Ash 8.1 8.2 4 - 56.7 5 6.7 Clothes, Rags 1.3 4 0.4 - 0.5 - 1 Hazardous 1.2 - - - - - 0.9 composting through mechanical and vermi- In Bangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga, Hubli-Dharwad, composting techniques. Mangalore and Mysore (Table 6) cities solid waste is being dumped on open sites outside the cities The Karnataka Municipalities Act, 1964 and since many years and till now no city or town in Karnataka Municipal Corporations Act, 1976 have the state has an engineered landfill with total waste emphasized the need to collect and dispose recycling system to dispose the non-recyclable ‘rubbish and filth’ in a ‘defined’ manner, so as to municipal wastes. Thus, most of the collected keep public places clean. However, there is no waste is disposed on private lands or municipal reference to scientific collection and disposal of corporation land situated in the outskirts of the the waste. Waste collection and disposal was city. For the disposal of municipal solid wastes, as viewed only as a duty concerning maintenance of November 2003, out of 226 urban local bodies of health and sanitation. With the Municipal Solid in Karnataka, 220 have identified landfill sites and Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, applied for authorization, 6 local bodies are yet to in place, lacunae regarding collection, segregation apply for authorization. 192 local bodies have received the authorization from the KSPCB for and disposal practices have been addressed. An establishment of landfill facilities while 8 sites were amendment to the Karnataka Municipal rejected. Corporations Act, 1976, made during 2000 enables corporations to levy a solid waste The workforce employed for management of solid management cess. Consequently, it is expected waste and the budget allocation made for this that the municipal corporations should be able to purpose vary from one city municipal corporation handle municipal solid waste more efficiently. to other. The ratio between the health workers and the population varies between cities. In The Municipal Solid Waste (Handling and Bangalore, for every 301 persons there is one- Management) Rules, 2000 provide for collection, health workers whereas in Gulbarga, for a segregation, storage, transportation, processing population of 631 persons one worker is available. and safe disposal of municipal solid waste excluding In Mysore, Mangalore, Belgaum and Hubli- hazardous waste generated from industries and Dharwad, one worker is available for a population untreated biomedical waste generated from health of 373,383,430 and 496 persons respectively. care establishments. It is applicable to every The work force is deployed without any scientific municipality involved in management of municipal analysis of the quantum of work involved. There solid waste right from collection to final disposal. are no guidelines stipulating the worker to These rules lay emphasis on environmentally population ratio. Various factors like amount of sound management of municipal solid waste. waste generated, collection mode, availability of
31 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36
Table 6 Current Status of Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in 6 City Corporations City Corporation No. of Area of Distance Period Existing Existing Identified dumpsites dumpsites from city of usage composting landfill landfill site plant site Bangalore 2 10 acres 12 kms 27 yrs Yes No Yes Belgaum 1 8 acres 2 kms 40 yrs No No Yes Gulbarga 1 15 acres 4 kms 4 yrs No No Yes Hubli Dharwad 2 38 acres 3 kms 30 yrs No No Yes Mangalore 1 70 acres 15 kms 50 yrs Yes Yes Yes Mysore 1 4 acres 5 kms 1 yrs Yes No Yes collection bins and trucks, common treatment and are available only for past few years. The Karnataka disposal facilities, decentralized waste processing State Pollution Control Board in 2002-2003 has plants and landfills should determine the adequate identified 1107 working industries generating number of works required in any city corporation. hazardous waste. of these, 937 industries have applied for authorisation for storage of hazardous The key problems of municipal solid waste include: wastes and 928 industries have been granted authorisation considering the infrastructure • Mixing of waste; available. Chemicals, textiles and automobile • Collection and storage of waste; industries are the three largest contributors of • Transportation of waste; hazardous waste. Of the total 86111 metric tons of hazardous wastes generated in 2002-2003, • Indiscriminate burning of waste; and 28366 metric tons is capable of reprocessing, • Illegal disposal of waste 4568 metric tons is possible to be incinerated and 53177 metric tons is disposable in landfills. of the Considering the present annual growth rate of 5 total hazardous waste generated in the State, 33 percent in waste generation in the State, the percent is recyclable and the remaining 5 percent projected municipal solid waste generation by is to be incinerated while the rest 62 percent needs 2011 will be 7424.8 metric ton / day. As all urban to be disposed into a landfill. local bodies are directed to set up waste processing and disposal facilities, it is assumed that The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board has existing practice of illegal waste disposal will be authorised 56 reprocessing to reprocess waste reduced. At present only about 9 percent of the oil, printed circuit board waste, lead, zinc, recyclable material (plastic and paper) is recovered aluminium, spent solvents and spent catalyst / due to non-segregation of waste. By practicing activated carbon. For the safe disposal of segregation, the extent of recyclable material can hazardous waste Government of Karnataka has be increased to 15 percent. It is also estimated taken the initiative in identifying two potential sites that by 2010 the quantity of recyclable wastes in for establishment of treatment, storage and municipal solid waste is expected to increase by disposal facility in Siddlaghatta taluk in Kolar district 10 percent, the construction and demolition and Thimmanayakanahalli near Dobbaspet wastes would increase by 35 percent and the industrial area in Bangalore Rural district. wastes that can be disposed off in landfills would increase by 20 percent. The main issues of hazardous waste are:
Hazardous waste consists of both solid and liquid • Illegal disposal of hazardous waste; residues of different industrial processes, effluent • mixing of municipal solid waste with hazardous treatment plants and expired products. Although waste; many industries have been in existence for the past 15-20 years, records of hazardous wastes • improper management and handling of waste;
32 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36
• absence of disposal sites for hazardous waste; (254 hospitals under Karnataka Health Systems and Development Project) have introduced sharp • generation of hazardous waste by the waste management practices like puncture proof unorganised sector. containers, sharp treatment chemicals and needle pits for sharps disposal, while most of the health The negative environmental effects of growing care establishments in the State lack facilities for consumption of electronic hardware are visible in sharp waste management. The Karnataka State the end-of-life stage of the electronic equipment. Pollution Control Board has identified 5954 health With the increase in usage of electrical and care establishments. During 2002-03 the board electronic goods like refrigerators, televisions, received 2440 authorisation applications for health computers, fax machines, photo copiers, care establishments and provisional authorization telephones, etc; the problem of disposal of such has been granted to 2357 health care waste is a major one. At present, there exists no establishments after inspection by field officers. In information regarding the generation of electronic Karnataka, 131 licensed blood banks (government waste in state. and private) are operating, which generate about 200 kg per day of biomedical waste. Till June 2003, E-waste, as it is generally called, represents a 69 blood banks (government and private) were deadly cocktail of toxic substances such as lead authorised for biomedical waste handling. The and cadmium in circuit boards; lead oxide and expired blood samples in the banks and cadmium in monitor cathode ray tubes; mercury laboratories are pre-treated with 1 to 2 percent in switches and flat screen monitors; cadmium in hypo chloride solution for the required retention computer batteries; polychlorinated biphenyls in time and then drained off in the sewerage channels. older capacitors and transformers; and brominates flame retardants on printed circuit boards, plastic Veterinary clinical wastes include waste from casings, cables and polyvinyl chloride cable veterinary hospitals, dispensaries, primary insulation that release highly toxic dioxins and veterinary centres, artificial insemination centre, furans when burned to retrieve copper from the mobile veterinary clinics and have to be treated wires. It is difficult to recycle these materials in an as per the biomedical wastes rules. Veterinary environmentally sound manner and requires wastes include waste from clinical laboratories, sophisticated technology and processes. animal wastes, sharp wastes, chemotherapeutic wastes, pharmaceutical wastes. Very few The problems of electronic and electrical waste institutions like National Centre for Biological include: Sciences, Bangalore; Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Bangalore and Veterinary • Mixing of e-wastes with municipal solid waste; Hospital, Belgaum treat the biomedical wastes and using incinerators. At present, in Karnataka about • Indiscriminate burning of e-waste 3774 veterinary health care establishments including mobile veterinary clinics and artificial Biomedical waste is the waste generated during insemination centres are available to attend to the diagnosis, treatment, immunization and research livestock population of the states. The Karnataka activities involving human beings and animals. State Pollution Control Board has identified 3203 Biomedical waste comprises of a maximum of 20 veterinary health care establishments (excluding percent infectious, 3 percent hazardous and 77 artificial insemination centres and mobile veterinary percent non-infectious waste. Wastes originating clinics) of which, as on March 2003, 126 have from blood banks and laboratories, veterinary applied for authorization under the Bio-medical institutions and clinics, artificial insemination centres Waste (Handling and Management) Rules. Most also come under the purview of the Biomedical of the veterinary clinics are disposing the wastes waste Rules. The segregation of biomedical waste into municipal bins and partially through onsite is being practiced in most of the major hospitals landfills. by ensuring adequate and proper placement of colour coded waste containers with plastic liners. There are two common bio-medical waste A small proportion of health care establishments treatment and disposal facilities in Bangalore, while
33 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36 there is one each in Belgaum and Mysore which are the causes for improper waste management are functional in the states as on date. Two facilities in the state. one each in Hubli-Dharwad and Gulbarga are under construction. The cost of treatment and disposal of hazardous waste and biomedical waste is high which health The main problems relating to biomedical wastes care small-scale industries and the smaller health include care establishments cannot afford. In the case of urban local bodies, which have resource • Mixing of biomedical waste with municipal solid constraints, the costs of collection, transportation waste; and disposal of wastes is unaffordable resulting in neglect of waste management. In appropriate • Improper management and handling of design of treatment and disposal system, wastes; inadequately trained operators also are some of • Improper management of sharp wastes; and the causes of aggravation of waste problem. • dumping of waste from private health care The cost of treatment and disposal of not establishments. segregated waste are more expensive compared to segregated waste. According to the Karnataka Health care establishments (both private and Compost Development Corporation composting government) in the State have registered a 15 to of not segregated waste needs 30 percent extra 20 per cent growth in the last decade. Same trend cost than the segregated waste. Given the fact is likely to continue for another decade. In view that all urban local bodies have to start treatment of the above, in Karnataka, the amount of and disposal facilities for municipal solid waste the biomedical waste generated for the next decade problem of mixed waste can result in higher is estimated to be around 80 to 85 metric tons / investments for the urban local bodies. only 54 day. authorised waste reprocessing units exist at The main causes include: present in the state and considering the value of recyclable wastes there is a huge economic loss. • changing life-styles; Lack of awareness among untrained workers in • inadequate planning; industries, health care establishments, municipal • inadequate finance and infrastructure in waste corporations and urban local bodies has been the management; and main hurdle in the waste management system. • insufficient training of various stakeholders. In any discussion of Urban Development, housing plays a pivotal role in so far as it has an important Inadequate long-term planning for comprehensive bearing on the quality of life of the people. waste management (waste minimization / Available data show that the shortage of housing reduction possibilities) has resulted in improper reflecting many aspects like overcrowding, Kutcha waste handling practices. Most of the red and houses, slums and the like was covered in a survey orange category industries and health care of the houseless conducted by the State establishments do not have a well-defined waste Government in 1995 when it was found that nearly management system which has affected the 14 lakh households in the State had neither sites environmental quality. Many small scale industries nor houses and another about 8 lakh households and small clinics do not treat their waste mainly had only sites but not houses. Thus, nearly 22 due to lack of common treatment facilities. Also, lakh households were in need of assistance in the most of the industrial premises are too small for matter of housing. It is to be added that most of storing waste or for establishing an individual the shortage of housing in the State relates mainly treatment plant. Various other factors like non- to the unfulfilled housing needs of economically availability of sufficient collection bins and trucks, weaker sections. The housing policy declared by common treatment and disposal facilities, the Government of Karnataka aims at solving this decentralized waste processing plants and landfills problem on a priority basis.
34 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36
5 SLUMS IN KARNATAKA, 2001 Table 7 Slums in Karnataka, 2001 Rapid urbanization in conjunction with Name of the District Name of Total industrialization has resulted in the growth of City / Town No. of slums. The sprouting of slums occurs due to Slums many factors such as shortage of developed land North Karnataka for housing, high land prices beyond the reach of Belgaum Belgaum 9 the urban poor, a large influx of rural migrants Nippani 2 into city in search of jobs, etc. This has put Gokak 13 tremendous pressure on the existing urban basic Bagalkot Bagalkot 10 services and infrastructure. It is needless to add Rabkavi-Banahatti 24 that living conditions in slums are usually Bijapur Bijapur 28 unhygienic and contrary to all norms of planned Gulbarga Gulbarga 20 urban growth and are an important factor in Bidar Bidar 21 accelerating transmission of air and water borne Raichur Raichur 42 diseases. Koppal Gangavathi 27 Gadag Gadag-Betageri 13 The number of slums in cites and towns in 2001 Dharwad Hubli-Dharwad 65 are given in the Table 7. Uttarakannada Karvar 3 North Karnataka has the largest number of slums. Dhandeli 6 Leaving Bangalore of south Karnataka which has Haveri Ranebennur 8 the highest number of slums (137), city / town Bellary Hospet 69 like Hubli-Dharwad, Hospet and Bellary have 65, Bellary 47 69 and 47 slums, respectively the largest Total North Karnataka 427 concentration. The living conditions, by and large, South Karnataka in the slums of north Karnataka have been Chitradurga Chitradurga 16 observed to be much worse than what obtains in Davangere Davangere 40 the slums of south Karnataka notwithstanding the Harihar 7 work of the Slum Clearance Board for Shimoga Shimoga 29 improvement of living conditions of the slums. Bhadravathi 26 Udupi Nil 00 The big threat faced in the urban areas is that of Chickmagalur Chickmagalur 13 crimes. The analysis of the information collected Tumkur Tumkur 17 on crimes indicate that Bangalore city accounts Kolar Robertsonpet 5 for the largest portion (88.09%) of IPC crimes, Kolar 13 when compared to total IPC crimes in all three Chintamani 14 Commissionerates during 2004 followed by Bangalore Bangalore 137 Mysore City (6.67) and Hubli – Dharwad City (5.24 percent). Bangalore Rural Channapatna 4 Ramanagar 6 Prof. L.R. Vagle, often mentions that Bangalore Doddaballapura 5 along with titles like I.T. City, Garden City, recently Mandya Mandya 14 has attained crime city title. The Table 8 indicates Hassan Hassan 33 increase in number of various crimes over the last Dakshina Kannada Mangalore 6 3 to 4 years. Kodagu Nil 00 Mysore Mysore 34 In order to reduce the crime, initiative is required Chamarajanagar Nil 00 to reduce the disparities between the rich and the poor. Proper planning to locate the Police Station Total South Karnataka 399 is necessary. Application of G.I.S. has to be Total Karnataka 826 attempted to reduce the crimes in urban areas. Source: Census of India, 200
35 V. M. Hegde / M. B. Mahendra Swamy / R. Sumathy / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 17 - 36
Table 8 Crimes in Cities during 2004
Crime Head Karnataka Bangalore Mysore Hubli Share of State City City Dharwad cities to City Karnataka (%) Murder 1,519 214 29 17 17.12 Attempt to commit murder 1,387 285 24 17 23.50 C.H. not amounting to murder 57 2 1 0 50.26 Rape 291 32 4 1 12.17 Kidnapping and Abduction 592 175 7 10 32.43 Dacoity 177 37 1 0 21.47 Preparation and Assembly for Dacoity 109 73 0 0 66.97 Robbery 1,024 455 63 8 51.37 Burglary 6,093 1,874 136 101 34.65 Theft 16,093 8,241 485 251 55.78 Roits 6,237 323 31 67 6.78 Criminal Breach of Trust 423 145 8 11 38.77 Cheating 2,759 1,534 43 143 62.34 Counterfeiting 65 22 3 2 41.54 Arson 248 3 0 3 2.42 Hurt / Grievous Hurt 21,232 3,542 319 201 19.15 Dowry Deaths 259 44 4 3 19.19 Molestation 1,435 151 6 8 11.50 Sexual Harassment 57 35 0 1 63.16 Cruelty by husband or relatives 1,588 227 49 10 18.01 Death by negligence 277 104 0 3 38.63 Other IPC Cases 52,518 11,008 946 841 24.36 Total Cognizable crimes under IPC 114,440 28,526 2159 1698 28.30
6 CONCLUSIONS preparation, enforcement and implementation so In this paper an attempt has been made to assess that the cities become safer place for living. The why cities have become unsafe though they are safer city programme is launched in 1996, which engines of economic growth. The status of supports the implementation of Habitat agenda, Karnataka in terms of planning, legislation, failure wherein the role of local bodies is emphasized. The in terms of plan implementation and enforcement, 74th CAA aims at delegating planning functions infrastructure deficiencies in terms of water supply also to local bodies, which has not been and also UGD, etc; are highlighted. Status of implemented fully. Urban planning has to be pollution of water, air due to various factors is also prepared on sound town planning principles taking explained because of which the cities have into consideration the ground realities and become unsafe for living. The cities face housing aspiration of the people. Emphasis should also be shortage and there are problems of slums and placed on sustainable development and problems associated with crimes also. All the urban implementation, which is environmental friendly problems are due to unplanned and unauthorized so that our cities become safer for better living. urban growth. Most of the problems are created REFERENCES by mankind and hence, finding out solutions Hegde, V.M. (2006) Preparedness of Government. of Karnataka should not be difficult. Cities have become unsafe for Urban Renewal Mission Programme, A paper presented at to live because of the poor management by the the 54th National Town and Country Planners Congress, Amritsar. local bodies. It is needless to say that for the failure Government of Karnataka (2003) State of the Environment of the local bodies, planners are blamed. Hence, Report and Action Plan – 2003, Department of Forest, Ecology planners are required to take utmost care in plan and Environment, Government. of Karnataka, Bangalore.
36 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
DEVELOPMENT CONTROL RULES AND BYELAWS IN TAMILNADU
M. SUBASH CHANDIRA Chief Urban Planner and Member, CMDA; Chairman ITPI TNRC, Chennai
ABSTRACT After setting the discussion in the context of the national debate on unauthorized constructions and misuse of premises, this paper provides a comprehensive discussion on development control rules and building byelaws of Tamilnadu. The author provides critical commentary on the planning and other related statutes, and assesses their impact in controlling and regulating unauthorized constructions and misuse of premises. The author proposes - consolidation of all related organizations under the control of an umbrella organization for effective implementation of building byelaws and regulation of development control rules.
1 INTRODUCTION the prevailing methods of construction are Construction programmes are interwoven in a outmoded; some designs are overburdened with large measure in all sectors of development safety factors and there are other design criteria including housing, transport, industry, irrigation, which, in the light of newer techniques and power, agriculture, education or health. methodologies, could be rationalized; and building Construction, both public and private, accounts byelaws and regulations of municipal bodies which for about fifty percent of the total outlay in any largely regulate the building activity in the country Plan. Half of the total money spent on construction wherever they exist, were outdated. They did not activities is spent on buildings for residential, cater to the use of new building materials and the industrial, commercial, administrative, educational, latest developments in building designs and medical, and municipal and entertainment uses. construction techniques. It also became clear that It is estimated that about half of the total outlay these codes and byelaws lacked uniformity and on buildings would be on housing. In the 4th Five- they were more often than not ‘specification Year Plan, out of, Rs.1, 560 billion, about Rs.780 oriented’ and not ‘performance oriented’. billion would be spent on construction generally, of which about Rs.390 billion would be on buildings These studies resulted in a recommendation that of various types and occupancies. It is imperative a National Building Code be prepared to unify the that for such a large national investment, optimum building regulations throughout the country for returns are assured and wastage in construction use by government departments, municipal is avoided. bodies and other construction agencies. The Planning Commission with the preparation of the Soon after the Third Plan, the Planning National Building Code entrusted the Indian Commission decided that the whole gamut of Standards Institution. For fulfilling this task a operations involved in construction, such as Guiding Committee for the preparation of the administrative, organizational, financial and Code was set up by the Civil Engineering Division technical aspects, be studied in depth. For this Council in 1967. study, the Planning Commission appointed a Panel of Experts in 1965 and its recommendations are This Committee, in turn, set up 18 specialist panels found in the ‘Report on Economies in Construction to prepare the various parts of the Code. The Costs’ published in 1968. Guiding Committee and its panels were constituted with architects, town planners, One of the facets of building construction, namely, materials experts, structural, construction, and controlling and regulating buildings through electrical illumination, air-conditioning, acoustics municipal byelaws and departmental handbooks and public health engineers. These experts were received the attention of the Panel and a study of drawn from the Central and State Governments, these regulatory practices revealed that some of local bodies, professional institutions and private M. Subash chandira / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43 agencies. The first version of the Code was to operate from residential areas. Since, India aims published in 1970. to become knowledge super-power, institutional facilities for providing value added education The National Building Code is a single document in should be allowed to operate from residential areas, which, the information contained in various Indian subject to general public convenience not being Standards is woven into a pattern of continuity jeopardized. and cogency with the interdependent requirements of sections carefully analysed and There is a need for a “grass-roots-up” planning fitted to make the whole document a cogent system for the city rather than a “top-down” continuous volume. A continuous thread of system. The inter-active planning process should ‘preplanning’ is woven which, in itself, contributes actively involve the local community. Cable service considerably to the economies in construction providers should be allowed to operate from particularly in building and plumbing services. residential areas, since their services are provided either for a particular area or a part thereof and The Code as now published is the second version they cannot run their cables over long distances representing the present state of knowledge on from any commercial complex. An overall Central various aspects of building construction. The Parking Authority should be created for process of preparation of the Code had thrown overseeing development of parking complexes up a number of problems; some of them have throughout the city. Building Code regulations been answered fully and some partially. Therefore, may be liberalized in accordance with the a continuous programme is envisaged by which recommendations of V.K. Malhotra Committee additional knowledge that is gained through Report of 2000. technological evolution, user’s views over a period of time pinpointing areas of clarification and Use of Ground floor for commercial purpose should coverage and results of research in the field, would be allowed on “as is where is” basis, irrespective of be incorporated in to the Code from time to time the width of the road. to make it a living document. Periodic updating of byelaws in consultation with end-users is required. Basements may be permitted for professional use, from other than merely for parking and servicing It is needless to emphasis that regulations should the building with the co-users acceptance. be substantially simplified by prescribing only Keeping in view the paucity of accommodation “external” controls while freeing internal layout for tourists, Guest Houses and Offices of Registered details. Qualified registered town planners should Tour Operators, may be permitted to operate make the latter subject to certification that the from residential zones with limited floor area and overall building norms vis-à-vis health; safety and adequate parking facility. development control are being complied with. Inherent planning capacity has to keep pace with Strict action should be taken against builders who the modern developments. Involve stakeholders violate Building Codes. All of them should be in a meaningful way, while evolving its plans for compulsorily registered and the registration of the city. This will match the demand and supply defaulters should be cancelled. Special fast track of constructed areas for different purposes. Courts should be established for setting cases of Residents, need for essential services can be met Building Code violations and stringent punishments by selective commercialization for obtaining daily should be accorded. necessities, dispensaries, doctors’ clinics and Since building materials, such as marble, timber, nursing homes limited to the requirements of each steel, etc; are needed in all parts of the city, the locality, determined in consultation with the concerned traders may be allowed to ply their concurrence of the local residents. trades from existing locations under a flexible land 2 MAGNITUDE OF UNAUTHORIZED use policy, as long as they are not seen to be CONSTRUCTIONS AND MISUSE OF causing inconvenience to the general public. PREMISES Institutions providing professional and vocational Even in the regular planned neighborhoods / learning on a decentralized basis may be allowed colonies, a substantial number of violations of
38 M. Subash chandira / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43
Development Control Norms and Building Bye- people before planning the draft rules. It is more laws have been noticed. Such violations cover one hypocritical and unrealistic or highly optimistic or more of the following breaches: dreaming to achieve such high profile standard.
• Excessive Ground coverage without leaving Every Master Plan starts demographic details, with mandatory setbacks; projection, urbanization but fails to go further into it, to the study of the composition of the people, • Excessive Floor Area Ratio coverage FAR / FSI; their need, living style, consumption pattern, • Violation of height restriction; earning capacity, cultural background, religious • Extension of Building over public streets and need, etc. Any regulation, which touches the pulse other open spaces meant for public utilities; of the people on the above lines, will reach the society. • Shortage of parking requirements; and The Tejendra Khanna Committee Report not only • Land use violations exposed the lacunae in the land-use planning, but The large number of violations involving lack of implementation in a big way. Again, the unauthorized construction and misuse of premises sealing episode in Delhi brought to light the can be attributed to five distinct causes: imbalanced in demand and supply of area for commercial use. The shortage is about 82 percent • Failure of the planning and implementation in Delhi. The Hawkers Committee constituted by process to take account of ground realities Madras High Court directed the Commissioner of and recast the planning guidelines; Corporation to identify suitable place for hawker • Supply-Side shortages in terms of legitimate and pavement traders. spaces for residential, commercial and Demolition of an Unauthorised Buildings institutional use; • Unrealistic and cumbersome regulations including complex Development Control Norms and Building Bye-laws and long drawn approval procedures; • Absence of proper standing institutional mechanism for seeking justifiable modifications / relaxations vis-à-vis the existing Building Code and land-use regulations; • Need of the day is to understand the people and draft the rule and not to draft rules for dream- come true neighborhoods; • New neighborhoods, find no place for common-man markets. They are commercialized, planned to make profit and on service-minded blueprints. Special fast track Courts should be established for setting cases of Building Code violations and stringent punishments should be accorded; and • The old city still has place reserved for markets, no such area earmarked in the modern era. Feedback from the public, are eye-opener to the The Tejendra Khanna Committee Report exposes physical planner and policy makers. Their basic the planners for their indifferent attitude towards requirements are not met, as a result they spill to the needs of various spectrum of the society. over the roads and violate the When the It failed to study and understand the pulse of the environment in Delhi was filled with smoke and
39 M. Subash chandira / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43 dust, rescue measures clamped by judiciary and spectrums of the people only will get a desired when town-planning avenues are based on rails result in sustaining the urban system; by judiciary activism, which exposed the • An integrated approach among various weakness in the enforcement system. agencies will bring out a blueprint to address the urban problems; and • Planning is a continuous process; • Alternative planning or upgrading or revising • Flexibility and adoptability to the cultural and the planning strategy in response to changing socio-economic changes are necessary with will ensure a stable and sustainable trend to out compromising the planning principles; safeguard the interest of the society with • Planning principle insulated with ground reality sustainable environment is need of the today’s and understanding the need of the various planner.
Table 1 Types of Violation in Chennai Metropolitan Area
Nature of violations in multistoried buildings Type of Violation Residential Commercial Others Residential,Commercial Violation in % Violation in % Violation in % Total Violation in % Plot Violation 42.22 Road Width Violation 16.31 12.63 41.16 10.07 Landuse Violation 25.66 44.82 49.98 26.4 FSI Violation 47.67 31.60 5.11 15.68 Setback Violation 10.36 10.96 3.76 5.63
Source: CMDA
Table 2 Types of Violations in CMA in G+3 Buildings Nature of violation in G+3 Buildings Type of Violation Residential Commercial Others Residential, Commercial Violation in % Violation in % Violation in % Total Violation in % Plot Violation 16.33 Road Width Violation 37.07 15.16 3.38 12.33 Landuse Violation 7.90 48.46 2.80 39.20 FSI Violation 34.65 15.93 91.35 15.55 Setback Violation 20.38 20.45 2.47 16.58
40 M. Subash chandira / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43
Table 3 Types of Violations in CMA in Industrial Buildings
Nature of Violations in Industrial Buildings Type of Violation Residential Commercial Others Residential, Commercial Violation in % Violation in % Violation in % Total Violation in % Plot Violation 65.37 Road Width Violation 23.06 8.51 20.09 6.70 Landuse Violation 4.76 53.26 59.19 20.37 FSI Violation 60.44 22.63 14.79 5.30 Setback Violation 11.74 15.60 5.92 2.27
Table 4 Types of Violations in CMA Institutional Areas
Nature of violations in institutional areas Type of Violation Residential Commercial Others Residential, Commercial Violation in % Violation in % Violation in % Total Violation in % Plot Violation 77.28 Road Width Violation 13.86 0.55 20.56 4.65 Landuse Violation 42.30 36.77 70.56 15.99 FSI Violation 6.62 2.83 7.20 1.63 Setback Violation 37.22 59.84 1.68 0.45
41 M. Subash chandira / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43
3 AMENDMENTS TO VARIOUS ACTS this Act in the eyes of the builder as well as the FOR EFFECTIVE ENFORCEMENT courts. No effective enforcement of the Act is The existing provisions under the Act are such possible unless this provision is deleted. It is that they allow enough loopholes for anyone to therefore proposed to delete Section-113. complete an unauthorized structure, sell it to third 3.4 Proposed Amendment in Chennai parties and quit the scene. Following amendments Metro Water Supply and Sewerage to Town and Country Planning Act are meant to Act, 1978 strengthen the hands of CMDA and Local Bodies to enforce the Act effectively. In future it is necessary to deny water supply and sewer connection to buildings, which are 3.1 Section-56 Of Tamilnadu Town And completed in deviation of approved plan are Country Planning Act 1971 unauthorized.
Existing Section 56(4)(a) Section-45 (A) shall be inserted after Section “The notice shall not be of any effect pending the 45 to read as follows final determination or withdrawal of the applicant”. Notwithstanding anything contained, the authorized Authority shall not supply water to the Proposed Section 56(4) (a) building or premises unless a certificate is produced “On receipt of application under Section-49 the to the effect that the building or premises is concerned Authority may stay the operation of completed according to the plan approved by the notice for such time as is deemed reasonable”. appropriate Authority under Town and Country Planning Act. 3.2 Section-57 of Town and Country Planning Act 1971 Section 56(A) shall be inserted after Section Introduction of Section 57 (3) 56 to read as follows: “Where in contravention of notice served under Not withstanding anything contained, the Section-57 (1) any further construction is authorized Authority shall not effect sewer undertaken such construction shall be removed connection to the building or premises unless a without any further notice”. certificate is produced to the effect that the building or premises is completed according to the Section-85 plan approved by appropriate Authority under Introduction of Section-85 (3) Town and Country Planning Act. “The unauthorized reconstruction of the building 3.5 Proposed Amendment in TNEB Rules wholly or partly removed under Section 56(5) (b) Relating to Terms and Conditions or Section 57(3) or 85(2)(a) shall be punishable The terms and conditions of supply of electricity with simple imprisonment for a term not less than was issued by TNEB in a Notification in Tamil Nadu 1 month and not exceeding 3 months”. Government Gazette in Part VI - Section-3 (b), 3.3 Deletion of Section-113 dated February 21, 1996 by exercising their powers under Section 49 of the Electricity Existing provision (Supply) Act 1948 (Central Act 54 of 1948). “Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the Government may, subject to such conditions In S.No.6.08 of TNEB Rules Part - Section 3(b) as they deem fit, by notification, exempt any land TNEB terms and conditions of supply of Electricity or building or class of land or buildings from all or (Approved: B.P. Ms.No.61 (Administrative Branch) any of the provisions of this Act or rules or dated 24th December 1988 and amended up to regulations made there under”. 31st August 1995). TNEB – Abstract (No.IEMC/ EEI/F.TDC/D.302/96). The fact that the Government reserves the power to relax any rule or provision under the Act has The Board has got power to stipulate special terms contributed a great deal in diluting the sanctity of and conditions for extending supply. So we may
42 M. Subash chandira / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 37 - 43 request the TNEB to impose the following terms Authorities, in the interest of sustained and conditions, to give power connection. development in the urban centers have to amend their acts and act together in a well co-ordinated • TNEB can accept the application and deposit manner in the interest of the city development. therefore and proceed with the work with proviso that energy use shall be affected only Even the government may consider bringing all on production of Completion Certificate. these departments under one umbrella for better Applicants requiring power service administration. Registration department, with due connections to any building within CMDA area amendment to its Act deny the registration for should produce completion certificate from unauthorized building / plots. Denial of services the appropriate authority under Town and by EB, Metro Water, for unauthorized buildings Country Planning Act/Local Body Act failing and plots will send a strong message to the violators which power supply shall not be given by Tamil to discipline themselves. Nadu Electricity Board. Financial agencies also need proper screening • During the course of construction, if deviation system for clearing the loans and insist for to the approved plan is detected the Tamil completion certificate of the planning agencies. Nadu Electricity Board at the specific request Perpetual offenders for profit motive have to be of the appropriate Authority shall disconnect booked under economic offence for severe the temporary power connection. TNEB is also punishment. Last but not the least political requested to introduce definition of Ordinary, interference in the enforcement of the laws of the Special and Multistoried Buildings in terms and land needs to be stopped. conditions of supply of electricity. REFERENCES 4 CONCLUSIONS National building code As suggested above all the departments such as Tejendra Khanna committee report EB Metro Water, Municipal corporations, Planning CMDA Regularization data
Call for Papers and News Items
The Editor requests members to send articles for inclusion in the Journal and Newsletter. Chairpersons and Secretaries of the various Regional Chapters and Committees of the Institute are particularly requested to send highlights of their activities for the Newsletter and articles for the Journal on a regular basis. Articles for the Journal may be sent as a soft copy (MS Word) as well as hard copy. Items for the Newsletter can also be e-mailed to : [email protected]
Diagrams and sketches should be neatly drawn, labeled and sent as soft as well as hard copy.
Editor
43 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
OPEN EYES AND OPEN MIND: A VIEW OF URBAN PLANNING IN DELHI
SUSAN GORMAN Principles of PioneerWest, Urban Ecology and Planning, 2226B Wyoming NE Suite 272, Albuquerque, NM 87112 USA BLAIR BROWN Principles of PioneerWest, Urban Ecology and Planning, 2226B Wyoming NE Suite 272, Albuquerque, NM 87112 USA
ABSTRACT After tracing a very brief history of planning and urban development of Delhi, the authors present a hopeful future for the city with a focus on the sub-city of Dwarka. It is argued that with hard work of communities, public agencies such as the DDA, DMRC, Delhi Jal Board and others, it is possible to attain housing, accessibility and potable water for every citizen of Delhi. Hinting at the compact city development debate, authors contend that authorities must also address the question of the maximum size of the city of Delhi urgently. The paper is based on field visits and information collected from the DDA officials.
1 INTRODUCTION creativity, inventiveness and ingenuity of the One of the essential rules for travelers is to always Indian people. The settlement is a lively community keep your eyes and your mind wide open! Of where neighbors watch out for each other. The course, as a traveler, you expect to see new places residents often have jobs and send their kids to and people. That is the essence of travel. The open school if they can possibly afford to do so. Life in mindedness is needed so that you will be able to such a settlement may be just a bit above see these new sights without imposing subsistence, and while we would certainly wish that preconceptions or judgments on what you are these people had better places to live, we know seeing. we must be careful about judging this settlement too harshly. Open eyes and open mind are especially important when you travel to a really different part of the 2 PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF world, such as India. Visually, from the stunning DELHI elegance of the Taj Mahal to the poverty of a Delhi slum, from the solid expanses of red sandstone To learn more about Delhi’s planning and urban wall of the Red Fort to the quilted panorama of development processes, the authors visited with the rice paddies, India offers something new and representatives of the Delhi Development memorable everywhere one looks. Authority (DDA) to explore the work that this organization is doing. We learned that Delhi is The challenge of keeping an open mind comes to determined to be a world class city and is facing life when you visit an “informal community”. the realities of the slums and squatter settlements Imagine a settlement of houses constructed from through institutionalized planning and “found” materials such as sheet metal and scrap implementation. wood or hand made materials like sun-baked clay bricks. Water may be carried from a public well, According to A. K. Jain, DDA Commissioner or caught when it rains, or supplied sporadically (Planning), Delhi has a long history of planning for from pipes at intervals along the lanes. Electricity growth to provide the needed infrastructure and is provided by often illegal connections as improve life for residents. In modern times, Delhi evidenced by snarls of wire around power poles became the focus of government activity in 1911 and junction boxes. To western eyes, this when the British shifted the capital from Kolkata settlement might look shocking or dismal. Its very existence might seem to suggest that India cannot to Delhi. Renowned town planners Edward provide housing for her people. Lutyens and Herbert Baker planned the city of New Delhi in the year 1912, an effort which gave But when viewed with an open mind, this the city its classic government buildings and wide settlement is a living demonstration of the boulevards. In 1922 the first small planning office, Susan Gorman / Blair Brown / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50 with 10 to 12 officials, was set up in the Collectorate Among the reasons for this lack of convergence of Delhi, the first authority to regulate the planned between plan and reality is the population growth development of the city. Then in 1937, the that Delhi has experienced. From a community planning office was upgraded to an Improvement of 700,000 in 1947 to 1,700,00 in 1951, Delhi’s Trust, constituted under the provisions of the population grew to 13,780,000 in 2001. The United Provinces Improvement Act, 1911, to current (2006) population is estimated to be control building operations and regulate land 16,200,000. The population estimates for the usage. National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCTD) is presented in Table 1. India’s Independence in 1947 was followed by large-scale migration that increased Delhi’s Table 1 Five Yearly Estimates of population from 700,000 to 1,700,000 by 1951. Projected Population This tremendous influx of people resulted in Year Population migrant settlements in open spaces and caused a 2001 13,780,000 virtual collapse of civic services. The Delhi Improvement Trust and the Municipal Body, the 2006 16,200,000 two local bodies at that time, were not adequately 2011 18,200,000 equipped to cope with a changing scenario of this 2016 19,900,000 scale. 2021 23,000,000 In order to plan Delhi and to deal with its rapid Source: Census of India and projection by MPD-2021 and haphazard growth, the Government of India appointed a Committee under the chairmanship The National Capital Territory of Delhi is the area of G. D. Birla in 1950. This Committee within the boundaries established by the recommended a Single Planning and Controlling Government of India as the seat of the national Authority for all the urban areas of Delhi. government. The NCTD includes an area 1483 Consequently, the Delhi Development (Provisional) sq. km. It is surrounded by the states of Haryana, Authority (DDPA) was constituted in 1955 and Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). then the Delhi Development Act of 1957 created the Delhi Development Authority with the primary In order to plan for this astounding population objective of ensuring the development of Delhi in increase, the MPD-2021 proposes a three- accordance with a plan. pronged approach:
In the 50 years of its life, the DDA has carried out • To find ways by which the population growth planning and then implemented the plans in in Delhi can be checked; coordination with the other responsible agencies • To increase the population holding capacity and departments of Delhi Government. The first of the area within the existing urban limits Master Plan was published in 1962 and then in through redevelopment, and also deflect part 2001, an updated Master Plan was published. The latest draft of Master Plan 2021 (MPD-2021) was of the population into the nearby regions (the published in March, 2005, which offers this vision: National Capital Region, NCR); “to make Delhi a global metropolis and a world • Extension of the current urban limits to the class city, where all the people are engaged in extent necessary; and productive work with a decent standard of living and quality of life in a sustainable environment. • The National Capital Region (NCR) includes an “At the same time, the plan’s authors candidly area of 30,242 sq. km that incorporates the acknowledge that “The experience of the past two area of the NCTD and also districts in the Master Plans also shows … there has been very surrounding states that are contiguous to the little practical convergence between the Master NCTD. The NCR Planning Board was created Plan and the actual development of infrastructure in 1984 to institute planned development for services”. the region (see Fig. 1).
45 Susan Gorman / Blair Brown / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50
Fig. 1 National Capital Region
Source : NCRPB Act 1985 - Schedule
The 2021 Master Plan includes an analysis of the ensure shelter for all by harnessing the power of “population holding capacity” of Delhi. It assumes the public, private / corporate and household an average density of 250 persons per hectare sectors. (100 persons per acre), redevelopment of already developed areas to enable higher density, Based on the Census 2001, Delhi has 2,550,000 especially along Metro corridors, as well as households but only 2,450,000 houses under the augmentation of infrastructure and increasing the categories of “residence” and “residence cum transportation network capacity. These other uses”. Thus, there is a current shortage of calculations show that the holding capacity is 100,000 residences. In addition, another 300,000 15,300,000, significantly less than the forecast residences are dilapidated and in need of population of 23,000,000 by 2021. So, it is clear replacement for a total current shortage of that additional land must be acquired to 400,000 residences. Based on the population accommodate this population. projections, another 2,000,000 residences will also be needed by 2021, for a total need of 2,400,000 3 SHELTER FOR ALL residences. Of this total, more than 50 percent of Shelter is seen as an essential element in the overall the needed housing will be for the urban poor social, environmental and economic health of and economically weaker sections. Delhi, that is, its sustainability. The MPD, 2021 policy regarding shelter is based on the National The Housing Strategy of the 2021 Master Plan Housing and Habitat Policy, the goal of which is to envisions the approaches like:
46 Susan Gorman / Blair Brown / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50
• Development of new housing in existing that were developed after independence in 1947 undeveloped areas within the National Capital are lower density and the planners estimate that Territory of Delhi (NCTD); the density could be doubled in these areas. Funding for the necessary infrastructure • Upgradation and intensification through enhancement and housing construction will come redevelopment of existing residential areas from private and public sources. including unauthorized colonies, village housing and Special Areas; and 3.1 Sub-Cities of Delhi • Development of new housing in the National The Housing Strategy addresses the need to use Capital Region (NCR) alternative building materials and techniques to enhance cost effectiveness and conserve water Considering the existing undeveloped areas within and energy. It calls for education through building the NCTD, some are more suitable for low income technology parks and mobile expositions for housing due to the proximity to existing builders and developers. Government buildings employment and public transit. Some of these can be demonstration projects for these building areas may have as much as 75 percent low technologies. income housing while other areas will have a broad range of housing categories. During the 1980s it was already becoming clear that the land area within the “Mother City”, the Delhi has plenty of opportunities for restructuring existing built up area of the NCTD, was not and upgradation of existing areas. Many areas are sufficient for the burgeoning population, so DDA old and characterized by buildings in poor initiated the Urban Extension Area Development structural condition with inadequate infrastructure Programme and began to develop plans for three and community facilities as well as areas with poor sub-cities, Narela, Rohini and Dwarka. These three urban form and underutilized land. For example, sub-cities are “Master Planned Communities”, the DDA built flats back 30 to 40 years ago that located in areas along the west side of the “Mother are now old and in need of replacement. Areas City”. Narela, Rohini, and Dwarka (Fig. 2). Each
Fig. 2 Dwarka, Narela and Rohini - Planned Communities
47 Susan Gorman / Blair Brown / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50
Master Plan incorporates provision for housing, sustain a population of about 1,000,000 people. transportation, water, waste water and solid waste The land use distribution of Dwarka is as shown in services, areas of open space and sports Table 2. complexes, space for educational institutions, and retail and commercial development. Emphasis is About 20 percent of Dwarka is green area, enabling on pedestrian friendliness, transit alternatives to residents to recreate and connect with the natural car trips and many services within walking or biking world. There are extensive natural areas along the distance. Najafgarh Canal and in the flight corridors from Indira Gandhi International Airport as well as many The authors visited Dwarka, guided by C. P. neighborhood parks and linear link spaces between Sharma, Joint Director of the Dwarka Program. them to enable residents to walk, bike and play. Sharma has been an instrumental participant on The Sports Complex is a multi-sport facility that the Dwarka Planning Team and now is directing residents may join. the day-to-day operations as Dwarka (Fig. 3) is being built. The total site includes an area of 5,648 Residential areas, comprising 49 percent of the hectares (12,990 acres) and when built out, will sub-city, are composed of sectors of 81 hectares (Fig. 4); with arterial roads on each side. Each Fig. 3 Dwarka Site Plan sector will have a population of 30,000 people or 370 persons per hectare. Assuming an average household size of 5, this is 33 Dwelling Units (DUs) per acre. Retail shops and stores as well as light offices are clustered around the intersections of arterial roads, providing daily needs within walking distance. Schools are located in the interior of a sector along with the neighborhood parks. Housing options include blocks of flats of 4 to 5 stories, complexes of 9 to 10 story apartment buildings and some 7 to 8 story apartment buildings. Special consideration is given to provide
Fig. 4 Sector Plan – 81 Hectares
Table 2 Land Distribution in Dwarka Land Use Percent Area Residential 49 Commercial & Service Center 7 Government & Public Facilities 4 Recreational 20 Transport 14 Other 6 Total 100
48 Susan Gorman / Blair Brown / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50 for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) and opened an extension of 6.5 km to provide service lower income groups (LIG) as well as resettlement through the heart of Dwarka on April 1, 2006. housing. Officials were predicting that the new extension would increase ridership by 50,000 passengers Most buildings have parking on the ground level daily. By providing such a high level of transit and limited outside surface parking areas. The service, it is possible that Dwarka will avoid real need for parking is less than in the US because traffic congestion on its roads as the population many residents do not own a personal vehicle. grows. (See box) But this is changing rapidly and we found ourselves hoping that residents have the wisdom to While touring Dwarka, the authors experienced continue to utilize the transit system and refrain the feeling of other worldliness, beyond the noise, from purchasing cars! dust and press of people one experiences in many areas of Delhi. By the combination of conscious DDA anticipates that employment centers within urban design, planning and oversight of Dwarka will provide jobs for many of the residents, construction, the DDA has been able to create a enabling 60 percent of peak hour trips to be within sub-city that provides for the daily needs of the sub-city. For those who must travel into the residents effectively and conveniently. At the same heart of Delhi or other more distant places, the time the development intensity is very high, more Delhi Metro provides service. than 30 DUs per acre in the residential sectors, The road network within Dwarka has been planned higher than most Americans have experienced. to supplement and compliment the rail based The high rise residential buildings (see pictures system. Buses provide service along the roads so below) reminded us a bit of the housing projects that everyone has a bus stop within 300 meters on the south side of Chicago that have since been (0.2 mile) of home! The mode split for non- razed. We wonder what the residents think about pedestrian trips is as shown in Table 3. their lifestyle here?
The Delhi Metro, which provides rail service into By contrast, the authors walked through the Connaught Place in the heart of the Capital, neighborhoods around Anand Niketan in southwest Delhi. Within a radius of 2 km, there Table 3 Mode Split in Dwarka are blocks of expensive apartments behind gates Mode Percent with security guards, DDA flats for mid and low Transit (bus, Metro) 65 income families, a lively fresh fruit and vegetable Car, taxi, jeep, van, etc; 10 market street, courtyards and streets with retail Scooters, motorcycles, mopeds 17 shops and small factories at street level and flats or offices above, shaded green parks, the local Bicycles 8 trash recycling center where residents who live Total 100 on site, sort the trash and live on the income from
49 Susan Gorman / Blair Brown / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 44 - 50
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGY The population growth experienced within the NCTD has resulted in stifling commuter congestion which has become an economic liability. Delhi has more motor vehicles than Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Calcutta, and Chennai (formerly Madras) put together. In the 20 years from 1981 to 2001, the growth of vehicles and traffic is demonstrated by the following:
Year Non-pedestrian Trips Vehicle population 1981 4,500,000 500,000 2001 11,800,000 3,238,000
Roads in Delhi already occupy 21 percent of the total area in the city!
After more than 40 years of studies into a rail-based mass transit system, the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) began construction on 1 October 1998. Just over four years later, on 25 December 2002, the first section of Line 1 was opened for public services. By 2006 almost 60 km was in service, with three lines and 50 stations. The master plan envisages 241 km of high- capacity rail transit by 2021 and ultimately, Delhi will have 300 km of rail transit service.
The Delhi Metro has been designed to be integrated with other public transport in the city and DMRC has signed an agreement with bus operator Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) to integrate management and through-ticketing. A proposal for integrating the rail transport with bus transport is on its way with about 200 shuttle buses moving people to and from railway stations. This will also allow the seamless journey of passengers without any need for separate tickets for bus and train services. selling the recyclables and an informal community communities for people? Will the Metro provide of squatters in an enclave off the main street. This sufficient high capacity transit to encourage area was not built under the guidance of a plan Delhiites not to buy cars? but rather it evolved organically to meet the needs for shelter and livelihood of an extraordinarily The authors believe that there is a high probability diverse population. The authors found a certain that Delhi will be able to achieve the future it envisions but not without some incredibly hard charm here that is not yet present in Dwarka but work! Part of that work should be to build a strong will hopefully come as more people move in. collaboration with all of the stakeholders, from the 4 CONCLUSIONS residents of the sub-cities, the informal communities, the charming neighborhoods and Looking to the future, Delhi will continue to face all the other residents of Delhi, to the development significant challenges as the population grows. community to the other agencies such as the Delhi Having set its sights on being ‘a global metropolis Metro Rail Corporation and Delhi Transport and a world class city’, it is imperative for the City Corporation, responsible for transport and the to provide shelter and livelihood for all its residents. Delhi Jal Board, responsible for water supply and This means accomplishing the construction of others. Another part of that work will be to honestly sufficient housing to catch up on the backlog and consider the answer to the question, ‘how large then keep up with the demand. Can this be can a mega-city be’? This is the real ultimate accomplished without losing the charming organic question that Delhi, Mumbai, Shanghai and all of diversity of neighborhoods such as Anand the mega-cities of the world must answer in the Niketan? Will the conscious urban design of Dwarka next 50 years. We believe Delhi is up to the and the other sub-cities provide livable challenge.
50 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 51 - 57 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
PATTERN OF SPACE UTILISATION IN A PART OF CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT
DR. SADHANA JAIN Scientist SD, HUSAD, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun AMIT KUMAR Technical Associate, NFDMC, Forest Survey of India, Dehradun SACHIN SHARMA Manager, Sales and Business Development, Lepton Software and Research Private Limited, Delhi
ABSTRACT In this study, an attempt has been made to explore the space use pattern using IKONOS multi-spectral and panchromatic merged product in ward number 36 Dhamawala, which is located in the central part of the Dehradun city. About 25 percent of total area is under residential use while almost 50 percent of the total commercial activities in this ward are associated with residential use. Quantitative determination of space use allows understanding of the distribution pattern of various activities and functional characteristics within urban fabric, which in turn is useful for quantifying the stress on existing infrastructure.
1 INTRODUCTION occurring in each of the categories of space use, Segregation of land use is a common approach in which have an impact on the overall environment. urban planning. But in real world, it is very difficult In most of the Indian cities, land use conversion is to segregate land uses especially commercial taking place due to many factors especially activities from residential areas. After large scale demand of market as well as personal interest of protest against Municipal Corporation of Delhi builders and property owners. Conversion of actions towards demolition and sealing of illegal determined use of the space to any other uses construction and rampant commercialization of results in mixing of land use, which is causing stress residential areas among others, the Union Urban on existing infrastructure. Mixing of the land use Development Ministry set up the Tejendra Khanna has received greater concern in recent time Committee to study the problem of such especially due to conversion of residential units structures and offer its recommendations (see for commercial uses. The size and pattern of mixed Kumar, 2006 for review). Although, Delhi Laws land use today are closely related to the location (Special Provisions) Bill, 2006 notified by Centre of activities, movement patterns and densities in (implemented from 20 May 2006) ceased the the settlement. These factors contribute to the demolitions and sealing drives in the Delhi but it basic elements of the physical form of the has started a debate on the land use pattern in settlement and their functioning. urban areas. It generates the need to review the policy on land use as well as space utilization at Kimaryo (2001) studied the influence of urban different levels within a parcel not only in metro design on space use. This study demonstrated city but also in small and medium towns in India. that the influence of urban design on space use is indeed collective and emanating from all its aspects Land use is a product of activities like residential, i.e. land use pattern, pedestrian movement, zoning commercial, public and semi-public etc. (Jauhari, and set backing of commercial plots. Vasvani 2004) that depicts the spatial distribution of city (2004) explored the emerging pattern of human functions. If a parcel of land is subjected to more settlements in Indore from historical context to than one different activity simultaneously then it present scenario. This study found that mixed will result in mixed land use (Jauhari, 2004). It can land use pattern is very effective in our traditional be segregated through identifying the different cities and still influence our living. Thus, types of uses within a parcel, which is termed as development plans based on single use system space use. Space use is not static but rather a are failing in many modern cities. Landge and Patil dynamic interacting system. Changes are (2004) studied the various issues and imperatives Dr. Sadhana Jain / Amit Kumar / Sachin Sharma / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 51 - 57 related to mixed land use in Maharashtra. District. In this study, detailed inventory of pattern Wheaton (2001) highlights the impact of rent and of space use has been carried out to visualize the travel pattern on mixed land use pattern in modern locations, arrangements and amount of land cities and attempted to model it. Ventura et al. allocated for each functional use. (2003) emphasized role of land use data to provide citizens with an accurate and easy to understand 2 STUDY AREA view of their community, which is helpful to The study area is ward no. 36 Dhamawala, develop various planning scenarios and situated in the central part of the Dehradun city, understand their impacts. The problems of the the capital of newly formed Uttaranchal state and central part of the city are related with one of the major urban centers of the region. Fig. 1 shows the location of ward in Dehradun old developments, traffic congestion in the narrow Municipal Corporation. It comprises a part of main inner streets, parking problems due to high land commercial area, Paltan Bazar. Old Immamualh value as well as social and economic diversity. For building on the main road towards the east side policy making in planning especially for urban and Kotwali towards the western side is the major renewal as well as management, detailed map is landmark of the ward. It consists of a part of old needed on the morphology and functional space city and comprises main market area, Paltan Bazar. use of settlements. Thus, a detailed study of ward This ward is surrounded with three major city level no. 36- Dhamawala, Dehradun Municipal roads viz. Gandhi road towards east, railway Corporation has been carried out to explore the station road towards south and main Paltan Bazar pattern of space utilization in main commercial road towards west. Three major junctions namely area, which is also termed as Central Business Tehsil Chowk towards north-east direction, Prince
Fig.1 Location of study area in Dehradun Municipal Corporation, India.
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Chowk towards south- east direction and Thana 8.6). Methodology adopted in this research Chowk towards south-west direction form includes two basic steps- image fusion and visual boundary of the ward. This ward covers about interpretation. The majority of the highest 26-hectare area with population about 7654 resolution images are presently recorded in persons. It has population density about 300 panchromatic mode only (Donnay et. al, 2001). persons / hectare. It is in very close proximity to Generally, multi-spectral imagery provides more the railway station, which is towards the south land cover information than panchromatic direction of the ward. Old bus stand is also falls imagery, since each spectral waveband provides within the limits of this ward towards eastern specific information about land cover features (Ben direction. Due to its strategic location it comprises Dor et al, 2001; Roessner et al, 2001; Aplin, 2003). big commercial complex and hotels. According to Zhang (2001), for the upcoming very high-resolution satellite data, fusion of 3 DATA USED AND METHODOLOGY multispectral and panchromatic data will be High spatial resolution satellite data are highly necessary to further enhance classification beneficial in the context of complex urban areas accuracy and spatial feature classification will be where relatively small size and complex spatial indispensable. Thus, fusion of IKONOS patterns of the component scene elements (e.g. panchromatic (Fig. 2a) and multi-spectral (Fig. 2b) buildings, roads and intra-urban open space) have imagery has been carried out to enhance the restricted the use of the low-resolution space interpretation capabilities for the preparation of borne sensors. These new images thus increase base map as shown in output pan sharpened the amount of information attainable on urban multi-spectral imagery in Fig. 2c. form at local level. Panchromatic (PAN) and multi spectral (MS) imagery with 1 meter and 4.5 meter currently performed on the basis of visual spatial resolution respectively, of IKONOS satellite interpretation (Bauer and Steinnocher, 2001). has been used to prepare large-scale base map. Identifying urban phenomena and preparation of Remote sensing data acquired for the research base map by means of remote sensing involves was in geotiff format with UTM projection having three key steps - pre field interpretation, field spheroid and datum WGS 84, which is imported verification which includes primary data collection in img format through ERDAS imagine (version and post field updation.
Fig. 2 (a) Ikonos multi-spectral image (b) Ikonos panchromatic image (c) merged image using Brovey Transformation
(a) +
(c)
(b)
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3.1 Pre field interpretation available for Dehradun city except the ward Pre field interpretation of fused images has been boundary map, therefore, fieldwork played an carried out on the basis of shape, size, tone and important role in this study. In most of the cases, parcel boundaries were identified directly from the color with special emphasis on the textural and fused image, while actual function was determined structural information. The spatial variations and during the field survey. For this purpose, large scale spectral responses as well as spatial arrangements color printouts of the ward under study were taken of buildings, roads and various types of land in the field. Verification through field visit confirms covers have been used to prepare base map from about 70 %age accuracy of this technology. Most the IKONOS merged product. Land use common form of mixed land use in this part of the classification used in this study comprises about city observe during field is commercial activities 12 categories, which includes residential, associated with residential units. commercial, educational, health, religious, public services, open spaces, vacant land, drainage, road 3.3 Post field updation network, others, etc. It has been used to segregate Changes observed during field survey were the land use at different floors separately. incorporated in the base map prepared and information collected during the field were linked 3.2 Field Verification and Primary Data with the base map. The updated map has been Collection used to visualize the existing scenario related to The identical spectral reflectance values the space use. correspond to very different land uses and diverse functions in urban areas poses limitation in 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS interpretation of high-resolution satellite data – 4.1 Space use on ground floor which demands the use of ancillary information Space use pattern on the ground floor in the as well as field verification in addition to usual central part of the city is governed by the remote sensing data. commercial activities. Accessibility is the dominant factor influencing the location, use and growth of Detailed field verification was carried out to improve space use on the ground floor. Buildings facing the interpretation as well as to collect the the main access roads and major inner roads are information about the space use within individual having commercial activities on the ground floor parcel. Since, large-scale base maps are not as shown in Fig. 3. Statistics related to the space Fig. 3 Pattern of Space Utilizations on Ground Floor in Ward No. 36
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Table 1 Built up Area Under Different Uses percent of built up area of ground floor is still at Ground Floor in Ward No. 36 having residential use. Most of these areas are old developments at the central and eastern part of Ground floor the ward, which are assessed through very narrow Space use Area in Percent lanes. These areas are having potential to convert hectare into commercial uses over a period of time. Residential 6.37 32.10 Commercial 8.75 44.11 4.2 Space use on first floor Commercial and 0.67 3.39 Total 15 hectares area, which is about the 59 Residential percent of ward area occupying built up on first Educational 0.87 4.36 floor (Table 2). Residential is the dominating use on the first floor as it occupies almost 9 hectares Institutional 0.59 2.95 area, which is about 61 percent of the area Health 0.03 0.15 occupied by first floor. In the central part of the Public services 1.35 6.81 ward, first floor is being used for the residential Religious 1.22 6.13 activities. Commercial activities are occupying about 3.2 hectares area, which is about 21 percent Total 19.84 100.00 of area of first floor. Open space 0.63 Vacant land 0.60 Table 2 Built up Area on First Floor Under Road Network 4.29 Different Uses at Ward No. 36 Total ward area 25.42 First floor use pattern on ground floor is given in Table 1. Space use Area in Percent Total built up area is occupying about 19.84 hectare hectares area on ground floor, which excludes Residential 9.08 60.25 open spaces, vacant land and road network. Commercial activities occupy 8.75 hectares built Commercial 3.21 21.27 up area, which is about 44 percent of area Commercial and 0.08 0.54 occupied by ground floor. While, commercial activities associated with the residential area is Residential occupying 0.67 hectares, which is just 3.4% of Educational 0.87 5.73 ground floor area. Land use pattern along the outer main accessible roads strictly consist of Institutional 0.59 3.87 commercial and public use while along the inner Public services 1.11 7.33 roads, it is comprises of mainly commercial and residential use. Gandhi road, railway station road Religious 0.15 1.00 and main Paltan Bazar Road are having commercial Total 15.07 100.00 use on ground floor as well as major roads are also flanked by the commercial activities. Thus, Commercial activities are mainly along the main overall spatial pattern of the area seems to have roads concentrated on southeast and southwest been influenced by the road network. Closeness directions of the ward (Fig. 4). Most of the of buildings with direct access to the street gives commercial activities are in the form of commercial an effect of a compact city center. The facades complex or hotels along the major roads defining and details of buildings more or less reflecting the the ward boundary. About 1.1 hectare area has contemporary modern architecture govern the overall spatial picture of the area. been occupied by public services, 0.9 - hectare area by educational activities and 0.6 - hectare Detailed inventories about the space use reveal area by public institution. It is respectively 7.3 that despite its location in the central part of the percent, 6.0 percent and 4.0 percent of built up city, about 6.4 hectares area, which is almost 32 area of first floor.
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Fig. 4 Residential Use Occupies the Maximum Space on First Floor in Ward No. 36
Fig. 5 Residential and Commercial Uses Occupy Almost Equal Space on Second Floor in Ward No. 36
4.3 Space use on second floor and above activities are occupying almost equal area on the Just 3.6 hectares area is constructed on second second floor. Area under the residential activity is floor or above, which is about 14 percent of the 1.5 hectare while under commercial activity is 1.4 ward area (Table 3). Residential and commercial hectare, which is about 42 percent and 40 percent
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Table 3 Built up Area on Second Floor types of studies are also helpful to quantify the under Different Uses in Ward No. 36 stress on the existing infrastructure.
Second Floor REFERENCES Space use Area in Percent Aplin, Paul (2003) ‘Comparison of Simulated IKONOS and SPOT HRV Imagery for Classifying Urban Areas’, in Victor Mesev (ed.) hectare Remotely Sensed Cities, Taylor & Francis Publications, London Residential 1.5 41.67 and New York, pp. 23-46. Commercial 1.44 40.00 Bauer and Steinnocher (2001) Per –parcel land use classification in urban areas applying a rule-based technique. Public Services 0.66 18.33 GeoBIT/GIS 6(2001), pp. 24-27. Total 3.6 100.00 Ben-Dor, E., Levin, N. and Saaroni, H. (2001) A spectral based recognition of the urban environment using the visible and near infrared spectral region (0.4-1.1 um), A case study over of built up area of second floor. Commercial Tel-Aviv, Israel, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 22, activities are mainly distributed along the main road, 2139-2218. while residential use on the second floor is dispersed Donnay, Jean-Paul, Michael J. Bransley and Paul A. Longley (2001) ‘Remote Sensing and Urban Analysis’ in Jean-Paul inside the ward in small patches towards south Donnay, Michael J. Bransley and Paul A. Longley (eds.) Remote and west direction (Fig. 5). Sensing and Urban Analysis, Taylor and Francis Publications, London, pp. 3-18. 5 CONCLUSIONS Jauhari, S. C. (2004) Experiences of Mixed Land Use in Madhya Pradesh, 53rd National Town and Country Planners Congress, This study highlights that despite strategic location December 27-29, 2004, Indore, India, pp. 200-203. in the central part of the city and high land value, Kimaryo, Jacob L. (2001) Collective Influence of Urban Design about 32 percent of the built up area of ground on Space Use, International Conference on Old World- New Ideas: Environmental and Cultural Change and Tradition in a floor is under residential use only. Space utilization Shrinking World, July 3-6, 2001, Edinburgh, Scotland. on the ground floor is mainly commercial while on Kulshrestha, S. K. (2004) Some Suggestions on the Mixed the first floor residential use is dominating. The Land Use Approach for Madhya Pradesh, 53rd National Town space use pattern in the central part of the city and Country Planners Congress. December 27-29, 2004, Indore, India, pp. 177-181. reveals the interest of general public to stay near Kumar, A. (2006) Condoning Unplanned Development, the work place. The impacts of the space use on Reviewing the Khanna Committee Report, Economic and Political land use pattern are more or less a consequence Weekly, Vol. XLI, No. 39, pp.4105-4108. of its changing requirements and market value. Landge, S. D. and A. B. Patil (2004) Mixed Land Use in Maharashtra: Some Issues and Imperatives, 53rd National Town Thus, flexibility needs to be provided, which ensure and Country Planners Congress. December 27-29, 2004, mixed land uses in the development plan proposal Indore, India, pp. 190-191. with proper infrastructure provisions. This would Roessner, S., Segl, K., Heiden, U. and Kaufmann, H. (2001) provide an effective way for controlling the Automated differentiation of urban surfaces based on airborne hyper spectral imagery, IEEE Transaction on Geoscience and activities functionally, aesthetically, economically Remote Sensing, 39, 1525-32. and environmentally. As highlighted by Kulshrestha Vasvani, R. K. (2004) Emerging Pattern of Human Settlement: (2004), the basic problems of unplanned mixed Mixed Land Use, 53rd National Town & Country Planners land use areas are pollution due to noise, dust Congress. December 27-29, 2004, Indore, India, pp. 190- 191. and odour, which is causing deterioration of quality Ventura, Steve, Tracy Miller and Glen Barry (2003) of life of residential areas as well as stress on existing ‘Community Engagement in Land Use Planning Through Web- infrastructure. Consumption of water supply, Based Technology’, in Stan Geertman and John Stillwell (eds.) electricity etc. also varies according to the land Planning Support System in Practice, Springer Publications, New York, pp. 87-98. uses i.e. residential, commercial, industrial etc. Wheaton, William C. (2001) Dispersed Employment, Water consumption is high in residential use while Commuting and mixed land use in modern cities, Asian Real electricity consumption in high in commercial/ Estate Society, August 1-4, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan. industrial use. Thus, conversion of one use from Zhang, Yun (2001) Detection of Urban Housing Development by Fusing Multisensor Satellite Data and Performing Spatial another in unplanned/unauthorized manner Feature Post Classification, International Journal of Remote affects the supply of basic services. Thus, such Sensing, vol. 22, no. 17, pp. 3339-3355.
57 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 58 - 66 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
TOURISM POTENTIAL AND TOURIST INFRASTRUCTURE IN AMRITSAR
KULDIP SINGH Senior Lecturer, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar RANNDIL SHER J. SINGH Lecturer, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
ABSTRACT In the recent years tourism has grown in India from local economic activity to a major global industry giving employment to a large number of people at various levels. Amritsar is one of the districts of India with a great potential for tourism. Amritsar is home to the holiest shrines of Sikhs including the Golden Temple. Jallianwalla Bagh is testimony to the major role Amritsar played in the freedom struggle of India. Thus Amritsar is rich in historical, religious, and heritage sites. Even though there is great potential for tourism in Amritsar, the city lacks planning for tourism and supporting infrastructure. This paper tries to assess the existing situation vis-à-vis tourism infrastructure in the city at various levels and recommends practical strategies, to boost tourism in the city to its full potential.
1 INTRODUCTION tourists are few and there is a poor development The world tourist organization has estimated that of tourist sites. tourism is the world’s largest industry (Kaul, 1986). 2 AMRITSAR: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Studies prove that an investment of 1 million rupees in tourism industry creates 47.9 jobs as The fourth Sikh Guru Ramdas Ji with the compared to 44 in agriculture, 13.8 in transport foundation of the Golden Temple in 1577, founded and only 2 in railways. However, India’s contribution Amritsar. It symbolizes the spiritual heritage of to world tourism is less than 1 percent but it is people of Punjab. The word Amritsar literally India’s largest domestic generator of foreign means the pool of nectar. Originally, the city was exchange (Smith, 1992). Punjab, located in known as Chak Guru Ramdas and later as Ramdas northwestern part of India is mostly plain. So it Pur. Before independence, it was one of the most does not have much to offer as far as the natural important cities of the North-Western India. The tourism is concerned. However, the state has a city has been under various influences during the long history and culture that its influences reach last four hundred years of its existence. Initially around the world. The state is home to many the city started growing with Golden Temple as its princely states and religious places. It offers a nucleus. From 1665 to 1802 the city was under varied Punjabi culture of dance, music, and cuisine various Sikh rulers in the form of Misls. These Misls that is world famous. Amritsar, located on the were located around Golden Temple and were western side of the Punjab shares its borders with headed by various misldaars. This led to Pakistan. This is known for some of the best- development of various katras, which belonged known religious sites of the world i.e. the Golden to these misldaars. Each katra was a self-contained Temple, Jallianwalla Bagh, which is the most area with distinct character. In 1802 the city saw prominent symbol of India’s peaceful struggle emergence of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Great against the British, is located in Amritsar. Further, Sikh King (Anand, 1988). He was the only king Amritsar has a walled city with its own character who brought these Misls under one rule and found and built heritage. the Sikh kingdom. He ruled from 1802 to 1849.
With this and much more to offer to the tourists, The walled city of Amritsar was developed during the city could have been the envy of any other this period. After the maharaja, from 1849 to tourist destination of India. But the tourist potential 1947 the region came under British rule (Singh, of the city has not been fully realized. To any 1978). This saw the city development outside the tourist the city does not bear an image of being a walled city. In 1947 after independence and tourism paradise. The city lacks quality partition of India the city which was located right accommodation at reasonable prices; facilities for in the centre of Punjab, along a major route Kuldip Singh / Ranndil Sher J. Singh / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 58 - 66
Fig. 1 Walled City of Amritsar, 2005
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CHATIWIND GATE became a border town. This affected its growth architectural features like carved jalis, brackets, potential. Thus, the city has imprints of all these chajjas, jharokhas, and wall paintings in the walled periods. We can see the reflection of these periods city. Most of these are not in a very good physical in the city in its form, street pattern, architectural condition and need immediate attention. Many style and decorative elements, building materials, tourist sites falling within the walled city of Amritsar, and craftsmanship. A look at the names of various which are historically, religiously, or culturally streets and places in the city also reflects its history. important but are not on the list of the most tourists visiting the city. Golden Temple, Jallianwalla The city of Amritsar is a living example of a medieval Bagh, and Wagha Border overshadow all other city with Sikh, British and modern architecture. places of importance in the city. If the tourists The walled city of Amritsar is like many other walled visit all the tourist sites, this could lead to prolonged cities of India. It had organic growth with zigzag stay of tourists. This will lead to the tourism narrow streets. The city is surrounded by a wall, which has several gates such as Lahori Gate, economy to grow. There are several issues, which Khazana Gate, Lohgarh Gate, etc. (refer Fig. 1). lead to this situation. Another important point is Initially the walled city was primarily residential in that the city does not have an approved master character with only a few bazaars (Guru Bazaar, plan. The city has only a draft master plan, which Mai Sewan Bazaar, etc.) in it. But gradually the has no legal sanctity. As a result no binding residential area has converted into main retail and guidelines exist for change in land use and activity wholesale bazaars of Amritsar. Now the walled city around the tourist spots. These issues needs to is hub of all the commercial activities and acts as a be addressed and proper strategies have to be de-facto C.B.D. of Amritsar. The prevailing socio- evolved to rectify it. economic, political and security requirements of those times influenced development of the walled 3 TOURISM TRENDS IN AMRITSAR city. This is reflected in the built environment of Amritsar was one of the most important cities on the city. There are chowks, beautiful buildings with G. T. Road on the way to Lahore before 1947.
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After independence of India it became a border Fig. 2 Monthly Tourist Flow: Amritsar City city. This has reduced its accessibility from the western side. This has reduced its tourist potential. Recently, it has again emerged on the main tourist circuit in the northwestern India. Many people visiting Vaisno Devi and Srinagar also visit Amritsar on their way. Tourism has picked up in Amritsar recently with the improvement in the situation in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
The tourist spots falling within the walled city are some of the most important ones of all the tourist spots in the district. The Golden Temple is one of them and this is world-renowned tourist spot. These are: Tarn Taran Sahib, Goindwal Sahib, Baba Other tourist spots in walled city are Gurudwara Shaheed Baba Deep Singh Ji, Gurudwara Baba Bakala, Wadali Guru, Sandh Sahib, Bir Baba Budha Atal, Gurudwara Ramsar (related to Guru Arjun Sahib, Guru Ka Bagh, Ram Tirath and Wagha Dev Ji), Gurudwara Lohgarh Sahib, Gurudwara Border, etc. Most of these are related to Sikh Gurus Bibeksar (built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh), and have high reverence value among the Sikhs Gurudwara Tahli Sahib (related to Guru Amardas across the world. Tourist flow to the major tourist Ji), etc. These Gurudwaras have high potential for spot in district is as shown below. (refer Table 1) religious tourism and can attract a large number of tourists from India and abroad. However, these 4 TOURIST INFRASTRUCTURE IN are located in some of the most congested part AMRITSAR of the city and so do not have adequate facilities 4.1 Tourist Accommodation for the tourists. There are several other tourist Good and cheap accommodation always gives a spot outside the walled city. These are Gurudwara boost to the tourism in any place (Bhatia, 1971). Peepli Sahib, Gurudwara Cherhata Sahib, Durgiana The city has various types of accommodations Temple, Gobindgarh Fort, Summer Palace and available for various categories of tourists. The Museum of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Khalsa College, tourist accommodation in Amritsar varies from free etc. All of these are within the limits of Municipal stay at Sarais of various gurudwaras up to four- Corporation of Amritsar. All these gurudwaras are star hotels. The Golden Temple complex has related to sikh gurus. Historical places are related to Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Khalsa College is a several Sarais, which can accommodate about unique building of Sikh architecture. In Amritsar, 1800 visitors daily. These are available free or at there has been approximately a four-fold increase nominal charge (refer Table 2). Around 2000 in monthly tourist flow from July 2003 to January visitors can take shelter under covered corridors 2005 (refer Fig. 2). of the Golden Temple complex. However, number of visitors to this holy shrine is much higher as Then there are tourist spots, which are located evident by the monthly tourist flow, which require outside the city limits but fall within Amritsar district. more accommodation facilities.
Table 1 Annual Tourist flow in surrounding spots (in Thousands)
Year Tarn Taran Sahib Goindwal Sahib Khadoor Sahib Ram Tirath Wagha Border 1999 140 210 100 70 810 2000 180 220 110 70 970 2001 180 250 120 80 1120 2002 185 275 130 85 1340 2003 200 300 140 100 1500 Source: Information centre at these spots, year 2005
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Table 2 Accommodation facility within Fig. 3 Hotel Occupancy in Amritsar Golden Temple complex
Name of the Sarai Accommodation Guru Nanak Niwas 110 Rooms Guru Arjun Dev Niwas 100 Rooms and 4 Halls Mata Gangaji Niwas 120 Rooms and 8 Halls Guru Ramdass Niwas 228 Rooms and 18 Halls Akal Takht Rest House 26 Rooms Guru Hargobind Niwas 92 Rooms and 4 Halls
There are 45 small and medium size hotels in the connecting these spots. Accessibility is one of the city, which are catering to the growing number of major factors in a tourists’ decision whether to tourists in the city. A number of budget hotels visit the spot or not. The spots, which are located (cheap hotels) are available near Golden Temple, in very densely populated areas of walled city, bus stand and railway station. The economy hotels have poor accessibility because these are linked are located in civil lines area, Mall road, Albert road with narrow, zigzag, congested roads and have and Ranjit Avenue, etc. After upgradation of low tourist potential. But tourist potential of these Amritsar airport to international level airport, there sites can be increased if issues are addressed in has been a marked increase in the influx of NRI’s proper perspective. to Amritsar. These tourists demand high-end accommodation facilities. But currently there are Almost all the tourist spot in the walled city only three 3 Star hotels and two 4 Star hotels in including Golden Temple fall in this category. Only the city and it still lacks a five star hotel. the Hall Bazaar and few other roads are about 40’ Since 2004 there has been an increase in wide with parking provided on one side of it. This occupancy ratio of medium and large hotels. Some reduces the effective road width to just about of the hotels have reached 100% occupancy ratio, 20’. The other roads are just about 10’ to 15’ which is not a favorable condition for hotel industry wide. These days a majority of the tourists come and shows inadequacy of available rooms in the in their own vehicles. This causes slow traffic, traffic city (Refer Fig. 3). congestion and parking problems. (refer Table 3).
4.2 Tourist Movement pattern in Generally tourists move in closed vehicles from Amritsar spot to spot. In the process tourist miss lively and The railway station, located on G. T. Road, is about built environment in the walled city. This reduces 2 km from the walled city in the northwestern the tourism potential of the walled city. Further direction. The Bus Stand is also located on G. T. there is no major parking facility provided along Road, at about 1 km from walled city in the the outer circular road and the roads leading to northern direction. The Amritsar International walled city. So the tourists have no choice but to airport is located on the northern side of the city take their vehicles all the way upto the tourist spots on Ajnala road at about 11km from walled city. leading to traffic congestion. There is no public The historical G. T. Road is the central spine of the transport in the city and the only intermediate city that divides it into virtually two halves (refer public transport is in the form of auto rickshaws, Fig. 4). This carries the maximum tourist traffic of which is not suitable for tourists moving in larger the city as most of the tourist spots like Khalsa groups. College, Wagha Border, and the entire walled city is connected through it. 4.3 Parking facilities The major tourist spots are located within the This is another requirement for development of walled city. There are very few wide roads any tourist spot particularly in congested areas.
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Fig. 4 Major Roads of Amritsar City
With change in the character of tourist travel Gurudwara Shaheedan. But even this is mode, the requirement of parking is increasing inadequate for these spots. All other spots in the day by day (Bhatia, 1984). Entire walled city is walled city do not have any formal parking facility. short of parking facilities (Refer Table 4). There The major issue here is that the tourists coming are only a few formal parking spots in the walled in their own vehicles discover this problem only city. Most of the vehicles are parked along the after reaching the spot, which increases the roads thereby reducing the effective road width. problem. This causes traffic congestion, time loss, and inconvenience to tourists. The formal parking Parking facility is also missing at other spots in the facility is available only at Golden Temple and city but outside walled city. Same is true at spots Table 3 Congestion index on Major located outside city limits but within Amritsar Tourist Routes district. But it does not pose much problem to the tourists, as these spots are located in smaller Tourist Routes Congestion Index settlements, which usually have open areas in G.T. Road - Putlighar Chowk 20 – 50 there vicinity. Ram Tirath Road Below 20 4.4 Traditional Markets in Amritsar Ajnala Road 20 – 30 The city culture and heritage is reflected through Lawrence Road 20 – 40 its traditional markets (Bovy and Lawson, 1971). Hall Bazaar Road Above 50 These sell traditional items, which always remain Source: Primary Survey, year 2006 major tourist interest. These also give employment
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Table 4 On Street Parking Demand on various road stretches Road Stretch Cars Two-wheelers Cycle Rickshaw Hall Bazaar 193 705 398 175 Jallianwala Bagh to Golden Temple 182 156 173 127 Katra Jaimal Singh 25 193 201 32 Ram Bagh 46 295 506 148 Source: Primary Survey, year 2005 to local artisans and craftsmen. Amritsar is famous facilities, condition of monuments, supporting for food, cloths and blankets in whole of India. amenities and facilities and surrounding There are some of the cheapest and finest eating environment at the spot. The matrix has been joints in the walled city, such as, Kesar Da Dhaba, prepared based upon the weighted index method. Bhrawan Da Dhaba, Kundan Da Dhaba, etc. The various parameters are given weightage on a These offer tourists, good value for their money. 1 to 5 scale to find the overall tourist convenience There are specialized traditional markets within the at the spot (refer Table No.5). From the table it is walled city. These are Guru Bazaar, Bhandianwala clear that only Golden Temple scores high on most Bazaar (utensil market), Papranwala bazaar, etc. of the parameters needed for any site to be a These bazaars not only offer various goods but good tourist potential site. On the other hand also present a medieval character. Traditional certain spots like Ram Bagh, Gobind Garh Fort, etc; are low on most counts. Most of the buildings on both sides of the streets create parameters can be improved immediately, without interesting streetscape. Being along narrow by- much investment, to increase the tourist potential lanes, accessibility is one of the major problems in of these sites. these bazaars. The tourists have not really explored most of these bazaars. Further, there 6 TOURISM ISSUES has been a trend towards modernization of the In the light of the above discussions following building in these bazaars by demolishing the old issues emerge for exploting tourism potentials of ones. The modern architecture of these buildings Amritsar. These issues are of immediate concern does not fit in the traditional setting of the walled to the city in order to make Amritsar an attractive city. tourist destination. The walled city is a special zone due to its heritage • Amritsar is a major tourist destination but value. So it needs special attention to maintain its planning for tourism is completely lacking in medieval character. There are no special byelaws planning and development of the city. The and urban design guidelines to preserve the built city does not have an approved master plan. heritage of walled city. There are no guidelines for The draft master plan only mentions a few use of material or for façade control in the walled tourist spots but does not have any strategy city. The major issue here is to protect the built for their development. Tourism requires heritage of the walled city without compromising systematic planning to assess its requirements, its tourist and economic potential. This demands which are responsive to market, demands and framing of policy towards the development of the integrated into total development process; walled city to find a sustainable use of traditional • Many tourist spots in Amritsar have historical buildings and bazaars. or architectural value. The study shows that the tourist spots known to the outside tourists 5 TOURIST INFRASTRUCTURE AT are limited to Golden Temple, Jallianwalla Bagh VARIOUS SPOTS and Wagha border only. This prevents full The tourist spots have been analyzed on the basis exploitation of the tourist potential of other of parameters so as to judge qualitative and spots. This is due to lack of information about quantitative aspects of tourist infrastructure at these spots at various terminals and these spots. These are accessibility, parking information centers;
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Table 5 Matrix Analysis for Tourist Related Infrastructure in Amritsar
Parameters Golden Jallianwala Gurudwara Durgiana Ram Bagh Gobind Garh Gurudwara Temple Bagh Saheedan Temple Fort Bibek Sar Location Walled Walled Walled Outside Outside Outside Walled city city city city Type Religious Historical Religious Religious Historical Historical Religious Domestic 5 3 3 3 1 1 2 Tourist Interest Foreign 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 Tourist Interest Accommoda- 5 N.A. 3 1 N.A. N.A. 1 tion within Complex Accommod- 4 4 3 2 2 1 2 ation in surr- ounding area Public Trans- portation 4 4 4 3 5 2 3 Parking Facility 3 1 4 2 3 1 1 Congestion 2 2 1 2 3 4 2 (Approach Road) Recreation 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 Facility Luggage Room 5 N.A. 4 3 N.A. N.A. 1 Traditional 4 4 3 2 N.A. N.A. 2 Shopping Information 4 2 2 1 1 N.A. 1 Centre Railway/Air 4 N.A. 1 1 N.A. N.A. N.A. Ticket Booking Centre Bank/ATM/ 5 5 4 3 4 1 3 Money Exchange STD/PCO 5 5 5 5 5 2 4 Water Facility 5 3 5 3 3 1 5 Toilet Facility 5 2 4 3 2 1 3 Landscape 3 4 2 1 4 1 2 Elements Condition of 5 3 4 3 3 1 3 Monument Availability of 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 Guides Source: Primary survey / Observation, year 2005, Scale: 1 (low, poor condition), 5 (High, Good Condition), N.A.: Not Applicable
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• Presently the cultural, traditional, and city. Amritsar needs good quality architectural heritage of the walled city is not accommodation for the tourists; properly projected as a tourist potential. The • Originally the walled city was developed on walled city has various socio-cultural landmarks human scale. It had narrow winding streets, as Akharas, Bungas, Katras, etc., which may which were meant for pedestrian and non- be of tourist interest; motorized mode of traffic. But now with • Incompatible land uses and modern buildings growing number of private vehicles and also are coming up in the walled city those do not lack of public transport has made traffic conform to its medieval character. These break congestion and parking a major issue in the the harmony of the streetscape. There is a walled city. Poor accessibility to tourist sites sense of urgency to preserve the built heritage and to the bazaars within walled city act as but lack of special byelaws and urban design deterrence to tourists; guidelines for walled city has been a great • There are various traditional markets in the weakness; walled city that are famous for jewelry, utensils, Juttis (traditional shoes), Dhabas (traditional Fig. 5 Built Heritage eating places), cloths, etc. These specialized markets form another interesting feature of the rich urban fabric of the medieval town planning. Information and accessibility to these markets is a problem to the tourists. There are not enough parking spaces near these markets; and • Most of the tourist sites such as Jallianwalla Bagh, Ram Bagh, Gobind Garh Fort, Ram Tirath, etc; are not well maintained. Poor maintenance of these tourist sites affects the tourist potential adversely.
7 CONCLUSIONS • Tourist accommodation is another big issue From the discussion above it is quite clear that in the city. Even though the city is a tourist Amritsar can emerge as an important tourist destination, the availability of hotel rooms in destination as it has potentials to attract domestic the city is both inadequate in number and as well as overseas tourists. However, it is quality. The present occupancy ratio of some imperative to evolve a strategy taking into hotels in city is exceeding 100%. This shows consideration following aspects: that there is demand for more hotels in the • With the increasing number of visitors to the Fig. 6 Incompatible Building city, its anticipated implication on the city will have to be assessed. Tourism should be treated like an industry, which can boost the local economy. In this light the Master Plan of Amritsar should be prepared and tourism should be a main component of it; • There is a strong need to increase the tourism potential of lesser known tourist spots in the city. For this tourism information centers should be located near all terminal points of the city and also near major tourist spots like Golden Temple, Jallianwalla Bagh, and near Wagha Border. These centers should give
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information about all the tourist spots in the around the walled city near entry points. The district with reference to its history, possible parking sites could be vegetable importance, and distance from terminals, and market near Hall Gate, and near Burj Phula available transport, etc. The tourism Singh. Battery operated buses should run department of Punjab should put large between the walled city and these parking lots. hoardings of tourist maps of the city near For tourist spots outside walled city public popular tourist spots; transport facility should be provided in the city; • Municipal Corporation should identify various • The physical character of specialized bazaars routes within walled city connecting important should be maintained. Redevelopment Plan buildings, streetscapes and heritage zones, should be prepared to improve the physical which have historical, architectural, socio- infrastructure of these bazaars. These also cultural or religious value. These areas should require Traffic System Management Plan, for be specially maintained to increase their tourist smooth flow of traffic. Indiscriminate change potential; of built environment should be restricted to maintain the medieval character of these • The walled city of Amritsar needs a bazaars; and comprehensive conservation policy. The • The financial viability of the maintenance of municipal corporation should develop new tourist sites is of utmost importance. Finances byelaws and urban design guidelines to are generally not a problem for the religious maintain and conserve the character of built sites. For non-religious tourist spots charging heritage of the walled city. The byelaws and a small amount of entry fee could be urban design guidelines should be developed considered. Many of these tourist sites can in such a way to facilitate façade control, also be utilized for organizing cultural and social control on use of material, and architectural events. This can promote the site as well as control along with land use control; without earn revenue for its conservation. Suitable affecting the economic potential of the people; sites for this purpose are Gobind Garh Fort, • The municipal corporation of Amritsar should Town Hall, Jallianwalla Bagh, and Ram Bagh, give incentive to the hotel industry in the city. etc. Non-conforming activities such as godowns, REFERENCES wholesale markets, transport agencies, etc; Anand, G. (1988) Amritsar-Study in urban history, ABS should be encouraged to shift outside walled Publications, Jallandhar. city or the same could be changed to tourist Bhatia. A.K. (1971) Tourism in India-History and Development, related activities. This will increase the Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi. accommodation facility with the walled city. Bhatia. A.K. (1984) Tourism in India-prospects and potentials, Oriental Publishers, New Delhi. New hotels can come near Burj Phula Singh, Bovy. M.B. and Lawson (1971) Tourism and Recreation Gobind Garh Fort or along major roads. The Development, The Architecture Press Ltd., London. city also needs a five star hotel possibly at Kaul. R.N. (1986) Dynamics of Tourism, Sharma Publishing House, District Centre or near international airport; New Delhi. Singh, F. (1978) The City of Amritsar, Oriental Publishers and • The traffic and transportation problems of the Distributors, New Delhi. city can be solved in several ways. The walled Smith, S.C.J. (1992) Tourism Analysis, Sterling Publishers Private city needs to be decongested from the Limited, New Delhi. vehicular traffic. This can be done by providing Reddy K.A. (1994) Planning for Tourism Development: Some emerging issues, A paper presented on 42nd ATCP seminar, large parking spaces, may be multistoried, all Coimbatore, (3-5 Jan, 1994).
66 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 67 - 69 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
RURAL MIGRATION TO THE INDIAN METROPOLIS: CASE STUDY BANGLORE
SRI SIDDE GOWDA Research Scholar, Research Centre, PESCE, Mandya, Karnataka DR. G.P. SHIVASHANKARA Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering, PESCE, Mandya, Karnataka
ABSTRACT Bangalore, the silicon valley of India is the fifth largest metropolis. It has a population of 6.52 million by 2001 census, which is expected to grow 7.2 million by 2011. Considerable proportion of migrated population particularly in large and metropolitan cities lives in marginal settlements, slums and squatter areas with limited infrastructure services threating health and environmental degradation of urban areas. The study describes factors contributing towards rural urban migration. In rural areas, less employment opportunities, low wages, drought, lack of basic amenities, landlessness, social factors act as push factors and employment opportunities with attractive income, better wages, better facilities act as pull factors towards rural to urban migration.
1 INTRODUCTION slums and squatter areas with limited infrastructure Indian urban population rose from a small figure services. This is a great threat of health and of 25.6 million in 1901 to 285 million in 2001 that environmental degradation. The main objective is 27.8 percent of the total population. India’s total of this paper is to study the various reasons of urban population in absolute terms (285 million) immigration for rural to urban area. is close to American’s total population. The net addition to the population over 1991-2001 was 2 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 113 million in rural areas and 68 million in urban This study has been carried out with the help of areas. Percent decadal growth of population in collection of both primary and secondary data. rural and urban areas in the decade ending 2001 Primary survey is mainly composed of was 17.9 and 31.2 percent in the urban population observations and interviews through of the country during the preceding decade questionnaire method. Twelve main questions are (Census of India, 2001). considered including particulars of households, housing details, demographic characteristics, The most significant phenomenon at present in reasons for migration, utility services, health and the Bangalore region is massive urbanization. medical facilities, markets and recreation facilities, Bangalore is the fifth largest metropolis. It is the disposal of garbage and sewage, solid wastes, capital city of the state and also has become a drainage system and latrine facilities, space index major industrial, commercial and educational (AESP, 1995). Since there are 473 declared slums centre of south India. It is also the silicon valley of in 2004 in Bangalore metropolitan city (KSSCB, India. Bangalore Metropolitan Area covers less than 2004), it is very difficult to interview all the 0.5 percent of the total land mass of Karnataka households and conduct socio-economic surveys but accomodates more than 7.8 percent of the to collect information on all slums. For study total population of the state and 29.3 percent of purposes, the city have been spatially stratified its urban population. Population of Bangalore into three ecological zones i.e. core, intermediary which was 16.64 lakh in 1971, increased to 29.13 and periphery, on the basis of population density lakh in 1981 and has registered the highest rate of growth of population 1971 to 1981, the characteristics. In all 120 slums were selected and population of the city as per 2001 census as 65.23 10 percent random sampling adopted in slum lakh (BDA 2003). areas. With the help of structured interview schedules, relevant information was gathered from Considerable proportion of migrated population migrants’ respondents. A few details were also from rural to urban, particularly in large and collected through personal observations. metropolitan cities lives in marginal settlements, Fieldwork was carried out during the period - Sri Sidde Gowda / Dr. G.P. Shivashankara / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 67 - 69
Fig. 1 Bangalore Metropolitan city Table 1 Origin Percentage of Migrants in (Spatial Distribution of Sample in Slums) Slum Areas in Bangalore.
S.No. Origin(States) Slum areas% 1. Karnataka 32.20 2. Tamilnadu 39.56 3. Andhra Pradesh 28.13 4. Others 0.01 Total 100
from dry areas like some parts of Chitradurga, Tumkur, Mysore, Mandya, Hassan, Kolar, Chamarajanagar because of poverty, low wages, failure of monsoons, food security, social Zone Core Interm- Periphery disparities, caste based discrimination. Remaining ediary 1,282 households (28.10 percent) came from Size of the 928 1531 2101 Andhra Pradesh and 15 households from Kerala sample migrated due to poverty, low wages, etc.
Number of 42 43 35 3.2 Reasons for Migration Sample slums Reasons for migration to Bangalore metropolitan city can be analyzed under the heads as cited in August 2004 to April 2006. The spatial distribution Table 2. of sample slums is shown in Fig. 1. 59% of migrants moved because of poverty and 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 20.98% of the migrants moved in search of jobs 3.1 Origin of Migrants Fig. 2 shows that a majority of migrants come Table 2 Reasons for Migration in from Tamilnadu that is 1,804 (39.56 percent) Percentage. because of poverty, non-availability of jobs, natural calamities such as droughts, cyclones and Sl.No. Reasons %ge also low wages. Landlessness also made them to 1. Due to drought, cyclone, 17.39 come to Bangalore Metropolitan Area. Here more flood and other natural employment opportunities exist; wages are higher calamities that pull rural migrants. Next group of migrants 2. Better Employment 20.98 come from within the state that is 1,459 households (32.2 percent). Here migrants 3. Poverty 59.01 generally come from northern districts of Bidar, 4. Others 2.62 Raichur, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Koppal, Haveri and also Total 100 Fig. 2 Origin of Migrants Fig. 3 Reasons for Migration
68 Sri Sidde Gowda / Dr. G.P. Shivashankara / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 67 - 69 in the city such as construction labor, industries Fig. 5 Duration of Stay in Slums or workshops and trading tracks, flowers, vegetables and petty shops, etc. 17.39% of the households migrated due to droughts, floods and other natural calamities and remaining 26.2% of the households for other reasons like landless, social disparities, etc; (Refer Fig. 3).
3.3 Reasons for Settling in Slums Reasons for settling in slums can be analyzed under the heads as cited in Table 3. However, 52.13% of the households migrated to slums due to proximity of workplace, 4.75% of households 3.4 Duration of Stay in Slums migrated to slums because of low rents. Only The change in growth pattern of slums can be 5.26% of the households migrated to slums seen in Table 4 and Fig.5 on the basis of stay period because of they could not get rented houses of slum dwellers. (Refer Fig.4). 4 CONCLUSIONS Table 3 Reasons for Settling in slums. The study derives that rural to urban migration is Sl.No. Reasons %ge a function of push and pull factors that is in rural 1. Near to work place 52.13 areas increasing population did not add much to 2. High Rent 14.75 employment opportunities with attractive income, 3. Low income 27.86 educational and medical facilities, better basic 4. Did not get rented house 5.26 amenities, high wages acted as pull factors to attract rural people to urban areas. TOTAL 100 However, to avoid rural-urban migration, certain Fig. 4 Reasons for Settling in Slums vital preventive measures ought to be taken at government level. Notable among these are:
• Setting up small scale industries in rural areas on a large scale; • Providing loans to young educated persons for installation of such industries under self- employment schemes; and • Creation of better educational centers in rural areas for imparting quality education to rural children. Table 4 Change in Growth Pattern on the
basis of Period of Stay REFERENCES Sl.No. Duration of Stay %ge Aligarh Environment Study Project Reports, 1995 1. Below 10 years 10.16 Bangalore Developmental Authority (2004) Master Plan Reports 2. 11 to 15 years 27.22 2004-2005, Bangalore Developmental Authority, Bangalore. 3. 16 to 20 years 57.05 Government of India (2001) Census of India, 2001, Government of India, New Delhi. 4. 20 years and above 5.57 Karnataka Slum Clearance Board (2003) Annual Reports 2003- TOTAL 100 2004, Karnataka Slum Clearance Board, Bangalore.
69 ITPI ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 1 (2007) 70 - 72 JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in
BASIC CONCEPTS OF URBAN DESIGN - A RESEARCH REVIEW SANJAY S. JADON Reader, Department of Architecture, MITS, Gwalior
ABSTRACT This paper is a brief review of research studies in the field of urban morphology with respect to human perceptions. It briefly overviews the elements and concepts of urban morphology with specific reference to imageability in perception studies. The author is of the opinion that primary research studies in the field of image perception in Indian cities are marginal denying conclusive research proof to urban design concepts and superimposing western concepts of urban planning and theories without acknowledging ground realities of socio-cultural patterns and racial differences in perception, globalization notwithstanding, is self defeating. 1 INTRODUCTION psychological and philosophical approach to Vitruvius described urban design as essentially an perception of form and space. Paul Zucker (1959) ethical endeavor inspired by the vision of public emphasized space and its representation as central art and architecture. Every town, city or urban to understanding architecture and urbanism. He region whatever its inherent natural characteristics focused on the urban square as central to urban of site and terrain and man made problems has a space and has done a thorough spatial analysis potential which stems from its own natural form, and categorization of squares. His analysis of sense of place, sense of history, spirit and ethos. traditional squares as space and squares in It urges us never to forget man’s fundamental modernistic planning as voids shows the lacunae yearning for the beauty of nature and a respect in urban design in modern planning. when he reshapes it for his use (Blessing, 1966). Generally, the approaches in architecture and People perceive a city in different ways and each urban design have been more speculative than city has a public image which is the overlap of based on a scientific approach. Kevin Lynch (1960) many individual images. Imageability in a city may pioneered a scientific approach to urban design be said to be more a perceptual concept than a studying and analysed the components of urban physical or visual entity. It is the interpretation of design parameters and human evaluation. He put various layers of a city’s images - its form, profile forth the image of the city as a concept which and experiences over a period of time. Imageability can be perceived, evaluated and changed. His refers to the probability that an environment will seminal work lay in identifying basic elements of evoke a strong image from observers. Imageability an image of a city and in introducing a technique is probably the single most important factor in of image analysis as the basis of a plan for a future the identity of a place (Lynch, 1960). visual form of the city. His work was based on American cities. In his words, the image analysis 2 PIONEER STUDIES IN URBAN may differ with other cultures or other races. Later DESIGN work in architectural research, landscape Urban design as a specialized branch of architecture, environmental psychology has dealt architecture emerged from the pioneering works with specific studies in perception studies and especially since the 1960s. Imageability is a prime cognitive maps in America and Central America factor of study in urban morphology, urban (Potter, 1984). Ulrich Neisser (1967) in laying the geography and urban design. Camillo Sitte (1843- ground of cognitive psychology defined iconic 1903) can be said to be the pioneer of a memory as the visual sensory memory. humanistic approach to urban design in the modern age. His text (1889) based on a rigorous Jane Jacobs (1961), one of the most serious critics analytical study of the perception of urban space of modernist planning, defended traditional can be said to be the best text of modern urban neighborhoods, lively street life and crowded design theory. The concepts of proportions, vista pedestrian sidewalks. She emphasized the need in public squares were analytically dealt with the to understand cities in terms of combinations or documentation of numerous examples in history. mixtures of uses rather than separate land uses. It opposed the technocratic attitude of the She stressed on diversity as a measure of urban engineers and traffic planners and emphasized the vitality and put forth some indispensable Sanjay S. Jadon / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 70 - 72 conditions to generate diversity in urban space. building in the urban design theory. Alice Coleman’s Gordon Cullen (1961) in townscape brought forth (1985) work on Design Dis-advantagement the relationships between the building and external carried forward Oscar Newman’s premises on spaces in the urban context. He stressed on the crime and architectural design. Wayne Attoe subjective values in relationships of elements vis- (1989) has discussed the catalyst theory in terms à-vis the observer. Tricart (1963) deals with the of urban elements in practical urban design. Spiro concept of scale and place in the study of social Kostof (1992) has provided a detailed content of the city. Spreiregen (1964) has documentation of elements of urban design in expanded the work of Lynch in terms of detailing world history. Scheer B.L. has reviewed the issues a methodology of visual survey and building a of perception of citizens with respect to physical vocabulary of working terms in urban design. He surroundings. Lalli Marco (1992) has developed a extended the vocabulary of urban form to aspects framework for urban related identity and such as landform, natural verdure, climate, size introduced a urban identity scale. Nasar J.L. and density, pattern grain and texture and their (1997) has dealt extensively with methodological classification. The concepts of optics, relative place issues in evaluative studies of spaces. He has dealt and content are highlighted. Hall (1966) developed extensively with evaluation of the image of the his theory of proxemics with the precept that city with particular application to open spaces and human perceptions of space are molded and crime prevention. Ramadier Thierry and Moser G. patterned by culture. He defined personal space (1998) studied the field experimentation the and social distance which varies widely with cultural concept of legibility within an urban space with origins. respect to two cultural groups. Their results have shown that the characteristics of environmental 3 FURTHER ANALYTICAL STUDIES meanings depend upon cultural origins of the Robert Venturi et al (1972) through the study of perceiver. The New Urbanism (2001) movement the image of Las Vegas analysed the vitality of advocated since 1993 espouses re-establishing the Main Street. Their studies on Las Vegas throw up relationship between art of building and interesting aspects of image - the value of community building through participatory symbolism and allusion in an urban environment planning and design. Nahoum Cohen (2002), of vast space and speed. Rob Krier (1975) working with heritage precincts, proposes a redefines the elements of urban space and its conservation potential matrix as a tool. He classification. Shadrach Woods (1975), a practicing espousing urban conservation has worked on architect known for mega projects, has attempted creating an urban profile assessment. in his writings as well as his projects to maintain the cultural continuities of the city while addressing 4 IMAGE AND PERCEPTION a large canvas of transformations in modern city. Perception is a process that uses our previous Christopher Alexander et al (1977) have woven knowledge together, and interprets the stimuli that in elements of urban design as a pattern language our senses register. It is a constant process that which can be used by an individual, a operates between man and his environment. The neighbourhood, a designer or a city planner. process of perception is responsible for selecting William Whyte’s (1980) detailed study on small stimuli and arranging them into meaningful urban plazas brought forth characteristics of patterns. This process is influenced by the internal successful urban plazas which showed how or factors of learning, motivation and personality. The when people used urban common spaces. His framework of response to sets of stimuli is called studies on urban open spaces and urban plazas the perceptual set (Buchanan and Hucyznski, in New York brought forward some interesting 1985). Each individual has a personal perceptual observations on how people use public spaces and set and with it a personal and unique vision of measure of vitality of urban spaces in terms of what is out there in the environment. However, user density. groups within the society share features of the perceptual sets and it is this shared set that urban Aldo Rossi’s (1984) analysis on urban structure is designers address. Cognitive maps are the internal important to the history of urban design. He has representations of the way our spatial environment stressed the urban themes such as memory and is arranged (Ormrod et al, 1988). Most researches monumentality taking the city as a whole than have raised the issue that cognitive maps are both
7171 Sanjay S. Jadon / ITPI Journal 4 : 1 (2007) 70 - 72 analog and propositional in nature, which means concepts necessary to back up design decisions that there is a picture like image of streets as also in urban planning; and (ii) superimposing western information such as turn left at the next junction concepts of urban planning and theories without and that building is next to the pink building. acknowledging ground realities of socio-cultural patterns and racial differences in perception, It has been seen that cognitive maps are globalization notwithstanding, is self defeating. reasonably accurate and variations of such maps from reality stem from a rational or logical strategy. REFERENCES For example, we think of places in terms of road Alexander C. (1977) A Pattern Language, New York, Oxford University Press. route distance rather than physical proximity Attoe, W. and Don, L. (1989) American Urban Architecture: (Mcnamara 1984, 1986), our mental maps are Catalysts in Design of Cities, Berkeley, University of California more regular or symmetrical than reality (Maar Press. Dongre, R. (1992) Citizen Perception and Urban Planning, A+D, and Bower, 1983, Tversky and Schian, 1989). Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 63--72. Franklin and Twersky (1990) have shown in their Cohen, N. (2002) Urban Conservation, McGraw Hill, London. research how we create mental maps from verbal Cullen, G. (1961) Townscape, Architectural Press, London. descriptions. Their study concluded with the Fellman, J.G. and Getis, A. J. (1990) Human Geography, W C precept that humans follow the spatial framework Brown Publishers, New York. Hall, E.T. (1966) The Hidden Dimension, New York. model in which our conceptions of space is different Jacobs, J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities, from our perceptions of space and certain spatial Random House, New York. directions are especially prominent in our thinking Kostof, S. (1991) The City Shaped, Bullfinch Press Boston. such as the above or below, front or behind or Kostof, S. (1992) The City Assembled, Bullfinch Press, Boston. left or right come later. These studies are based Krier, R. (1979) Urban Spaces, Rizzoli, New York. on space models rather than street models. Halt Krier, R. (1984) Elements of Architecture, A+D Press, London. Lalli, M. (1992) Urban Related Identity: Theory, Measurement E.D. (1966) developed his theory of proxemics and Empirical Findings, Journal of Environmental Psychology, with the precept that human perceptions of space Vol. 12 No 4. pp. 283-303. are molded and patterned by culture and that Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City, MIT Press, Massachusetts. there are differences in the way spaces are Martin, M.W. (1995) Cognition, India, Prism Books. perceived among different races. Mohan, I. (1992) Environmental Issues and Urban Development of the Walled Cities, Mittal Publications, Delhi. In the Indian context primary research studies Morris, C. (1981) Townscape Images: A Study in Meaning. on the concept of urban space design have been Nasar, J.L. (1998) The Evaluative Image of City, Sage, Oak, marginal. Traditional urban spaces have been California. studied in the documentation studies under National Institute of Urban Affairs (1980) Urban Conservation- Safeguarding India’s Dying Heritage, National Institute of Urban various heritage areas of Ahmedabad, Jaipur, Affairs, New Delhi. Mumbai, Jaiselmer, etc. under the aegis of INTACH, Potter, R. (1985) Urbanisation and Planning in the Third World: etc. Eminent professionals have discussed the Spatial Perceptions and Public Participation, Croom Helm, London. images of urban India. I (1992) have explored Ramadier, T. and Moser, G. (1998) Social Legibility, the Cognitive concepts of urban space, serial vision and skyline Map and Urban Behavior, Journal of Environmental Psychology, within the walled city of Delhi. Dongre (1992) has Article no ps 980099. Rossi, A. (1984) The Architecture of the City, MIT Press, explored image perception within a small Indian Massachusetts. town as a database towards planning process. Scheer, B.L. Urban Design, A Place in Planning, Planning Shirodkar V.A. (2005) has analysed Commissioners Journal, Article no. 481. transformations of specific streetscapes of Goa Shirodkar, V.A. (2005) Transformations in the Streetscape of Mapusa, Goa, ITPI Journal, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 59-68. over a historical period of time. All general studies Short, J.R. (1984) An Introduction to Urban Geography, and researches have emphasized that Indian Routledge, London. spaces have certain intrinsic characteristics such Sitte, C. (Ed.) (1945) The Art of Building Cities, Reinhold as mixed land-use, multi-functional use of urban Publishing Corporation, London. Spreiregen, P. (1966) Urban Design, McGraw Hill Book Company, elements, and community as identifying factors. New York. Venturi, S. and Izenour (1972) Learning from Las Vegas, MIT 5 CONCLUSIONS Press, Massachusetts. The basic conclusion drawn from this review are Whyte, W. (1980) The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, (i) primary research studies in the field of image Conservation Foundation, Washington D.C. Woods, S. (1975) The Man in the Street, A Polemic on Urbanism, perception in Indian cities are marginal denying Penguin Books, Baltimore. conclusive research proof to urban design Zucker, P. (1970) Town and Square, MIT Press, Massachusetts.
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