sign in sign up
<<
Home , Angers Cathedral, Ashkelon National Park, Battle of Ascalon, Domenico Cavalca, Mary of Rome, Maurice Casey

Strong's Greek: 3094. Μαγδαληνή (Magdaléné) -- Magdalene, of Magdal... https://biblehub.com/greek/3094.htm

Enter Reference or Keyword Greek

Ἀ Β Γ ∆ Ἔ Ζ Ἤ Θ ἰ Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ὀ Π Ρ

Summary Nasec Thayer's Strong's Englishman's

Greek Hebrew Interlinear

Bible > Strong's > Greek > 3094 Library • Free Downloads • eBibles

◄ 3094. Magdaléné ► Strong's Concordance Magdaléné: Magdalene, of Magdala, a place on the coast of the Sea of Galilee near Tiberias Original Word: Μαγδαληνή , ῆς , ἡ Part of Speech: Noun, Feminine Transliteration: Magdaléné Phonetic Spelling: (mag-dal-ay-nay') Definition: Magdalene, of Magdala, a place on the coast of the Sea of Galilee near Tiberias Usage: Magdalene, a woman of Magdala. NAS Exhaustive Concordance Word Origin fem. of Magdalénos Definition Magdalene, of Magdala, a place on the coast of the Sea of Galilee near Tiberias NASB Translation Magdalene (12).

NAS Exhaustive Concordance of the with Hebrew-Aramaic and Greek Dictionaries Copyright © 1981, 1998 by The Lockman Foundation All rights reserved Lockman.org

Thayer's Greek Lexicon

1 of 6 5/26/2019, 6:40 PM Strong's Greek: 3094. Μαγδαληνή (Magdaléné) -- Magdalene, of Magdal... https://biblehub.com/greek/3094.htm

Englishman's Concordance Matthew 27:56 N-NFS GRK: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ καὶ Μαρία NAS: them was , and Mary KJV: was Mary Magdalene, and Mary INT: Mary Magdalene and Mary

Matthew 27:61 N-NFS GRK: Μαριὰμ ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ καὶ ἡ NAS: And Mary Magdalene was there, KJV: was Mary Magdalene, and the other INT: Mary Magdalene and the

Matthew 28:1 N-NFS GRK: Μαριὰμ ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ καὶ ἡ NAS: Mary Magdalene and the other KJV: came Mary Magdalene and the other INT: Mary Magdalene and the

Mark 15:40 N-NFS GRK: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ καὶ Μαρία NAS: [were] Mary Magdalene, and Mary KJV: was Mary Magdalene, and Mary INT: Mary Magdalene and Mary

Mark 15:47 N-NFS GRK: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ καὶ Μαρία NAS: Mary Magdalene and Mary KJV: And Mary Magdalene and Mary INT: Mary Magdalene and Mary [mother]

Mark 16:1 N-NFS GRK: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ καὶ Μαρία NAS: Mary Magdalene, and Mary KJV: was past, Mary Magdalene, and Mary INT: Mary Magdalene and Mary

2 of 6 5/26/2019, 6:40 PM Strong's Greek: 3094. Μαγδαληνή (Magdaléné) -- Magdalene, of Magdal... https://biblehub.com/greek/3094.htm

Mark 16:9 N-DFS GRK: Μαρίᾳ τῇ Μαγδαληνῇ παρ ' ἧς NAS: to Mary Magdalene, from whom KJV: first to Mary Magdalene, out of whom INT: to Mary Magdalene from whom

Luke 8:2 N-NFS GRK: ἡ καλουμένη Μαγδαληνή ἀφ ' ἧς NAS: who was called Magdalene, from whom KJV: Mary called Magdalene, out of whom INT: who is called Magdalene from whom

Luke 24:10 N-NFS GRK: δὲ ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ Μαρία καὶ NAS: they were Mary Magdalene and Joanna KJV: It was Mary Magdalene, and Joanna, INT: moreover Magdalene Mary and

John 19:25 N-NFS GRK: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνή NAS: and Mary Magdalene. KJV: and Mary Magdalene. INT: Mary Magdalene

John 20:1 N-NFS GRK: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ ἔρχεται πρωὶ NAS: Mary Magdalene came KJV: Mary Magdalene early, INT: Mary Magdalene comes early

John 20:18 N-NFS GRK: Μαριὰμ ἡ Μαγδαληνὴ ἀγγέλλουσα τοῖς NAS: Mary Magdalene came, announcing KJV: Mary Magdalene came and told INT: Mary Magdalene bringing word to the

Strong's Greek 3094

3 of 6 5/26/2019, 6:40 PM Strong's Greek: 3094. Μαγδαληνή (Magdaléné) -- Magdalene, of Magdal... https://biblehub.com/greek/3094.htm

12 Occurrences

Μαγδαληνὴ — 12 Occ.

4 of 6 5/26/2019, 6:40 PM Strong's Greek: 3094. Μαγδαληνή (Magdaléné) -- Magdalene, of Magdal... https://biblehub.com/greek/3094.htm

About Us | Contact Us | Privacy Policy | Terms of Use | Media Kit

© 2004 - 2018 by Bible Hub

5 of 6 5/26/2019, 6:40 PM Strong's Greek: 3094. Μαγδαληνή (Magdaléné) -- Magdalene, of Magdal... https://biblehub.com/greek/3094.htm

6 of 6 5/26/2019, 6:40 PM Mary (name)

Mary is a feminine given name, the English form of the name Maria, which was in Mary turn a Latin form of the Greek name Μαρία (María), found in the . Both variants reflect Syro-Aramaic Maryam, itself a variant of the Hebrew name [or Miryam.[1 ִמרְי ָם

Contents

Etymology Usage See also References The Glorification of Mary by Botticelli. The reverence for Mary, Etymology the mother of , is in large part responsible for the use of the name The name may have originated from the language; it is likely derivative of Mary and its variants. the root mr "love; beloved" [2] (compare mry.t-ymn "Merit-Amun", i.e. "beloved of Amun"). Pronunciation /ˈmɛəri/ Gender female The name was early etymologized as containing the Hebrew root mr "bitter" (cf. Name day September 12 myrrh), or mry "rebellious". St. (writing c. 390), following Eusebius of Caesarea, translates the name as "drop of the sea" (stilla maris in Latin), from Origin yam "sea". This translation was Word/name Aramaic and ים mar "drop" (cf. Isaias 40:15) and מר Hebrew subsequently rendered stella maris ("star of the sea") due to scribal error, whence Hebrew via Latin Our Lady's title Star of the Sea.[2] Rashi, an 11th-century Jewish commentator on and Greek the Bible, wrote that the name was given to the sister of Moses because of the Meaning "bitter", "beloved," Egyptians' harsh treatment of Jews in . Rashi wrote that the Israelites lived in "rebelliousness," Egypt for 210 years, including 86 years of cruel enslavement that began at the time "wished-for child", Moses' elder sister was born. Therefore, the girl was called Miriam, because the "marine" [mar) for her people.[3 , ַמר) Egyptians made life bitter Other names Usage Related Maria, Marie, (and names variant) Possible use of Maria as a Christian given name is recorded for the 3rd century.[4] The English form Mary arises by adoption of French Marie into Middle English. Wycliffe's Bible still has Marie, with the modern spelling current from the 16th century, found in the Tyndale Bible (1525), Coverdale Bible (1535) and later translations.

The name Maria was also given in Great Britain, with the traditional prounuciation of /məˈraɪə/ (occasionally reflected in the spelling variant Mariah).[5]

Mary is still among the top 100 names for baby girls born in Ireland,[1] common amongst Christians there and also popularised amongst Protestants specifically, with regard to Queen Mary II, co-monarch and wife of William III. Mary was the 179th most popular name for girls born in England and Wales in 2007, ranking behind other versions of the name. In the United States, Mary was consistently the most popular name for girls from 1880 until 1961. It first fell below the top 100 most popular names in 2009. By contrast, the latinate (especially Spanish) form Maria rose into the top 100 in 1944, peaking at rank 31 in the 1970s, but also falling below rank 100 once again in 2012.

The name Mary remains more popular in the Southern United States than elsewhere in the country. Mary was the 15th most popular name for girls born in Alabama in 2007,[6] the 22nd most popular name for girls born inMississippi in 2007,[7] the 44th most popular name for girls in North Carolina,[8] the 33rd most popular name for girls in South Carolina,[9] and the 26th most popular name for girls in Tennessee.[10] Mary was still the most common name for women and girls in the United States in the 1990 census.[11]

Mariah had a short-lived burst of popularity after 1990, when singer Mariah Carey first topped the charts, peaking at rank 62 in 1998.[12] Molly, a pet form, was ranked as the 29th most popular name there and spelling variant Mollie at No. 107; Maria was ranked at No. 93; Maryam was ranked at No. 161 as of 2007.[13]

See also

Biblical Marys:

Mary, the Mother of Jesus of Nazareth Mary Magdalene, a of Jesus of Nazareth Mary of Mary, mother of James aka Mary, mother of James the younger (orlesser ) Mary, mother of Mary All pages with titles beginning withMary Marian (given name) Marion Muire Molly Polly Máire

References

1. Campbell, Mike. "Meaning, origin and history of the name Mary" (http://www.behindthename.com/name/mary). Behind the Name. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 2. A. Maas, "The Name of Mary" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15464a.htm), The Catholic Encyclopedia (1912), citing Fr. von Hummelauer (in Exod. et Levit., Paris, 1897, p. 161) 3. Rashi. "Commentary on Shir Hashirim (Song of Songs)" (http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16446#v13). p. 2:13. "From the time that Miriam was born, the Egyptians intensified the bondage upon ; therefore, she was ".for them ( ַמ)ר called Miriam, because they made it bitter 4. See Iain Gardner, Alanna Nobbs and Malcolm Choat, "P. Harr. 107: Is This Another Greek Manichaean Letter?" (http s://www.jstor.org/stable/20190663) Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 131 (2000), pp. 120f 5. Wallace (2004) 6. OACT. "Popular Baby Names" (http://www.ssa.gov/cgi-bin/namesbystate.cgi). www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 7. OACT. "Popular Baby Names" (http://www.ssa.gov/cgi-bin/namesbystate.cgi). www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 8. OACT. "Popular Baby Names" (http://www.ssa.gov/cgi-bin/namesbystate.cgi). www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 9. OACT. "Popular Baby Names" (http://www.ssa.gov/cgi-bin/namesbystate.cgi). www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 10. OACT. "Popular Baby Names" (http://www.ssa.gov/cgi-bin/namesbystate.cgi). www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 11. Campbell, Mike. "Popularity for the name Mary" (http://www.behindthename.com/top/search.php?terms=mary). Behind the Name. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 12. Campbell, Mike. "Popular Names in the United States" (http://www.behindthename.com/top/lists/1000us2007.php). Behind the Name. Retrieved 8 October 2018. 13. Baby Planners (http://www.babyplanners.co.uk/namebraindata.php?s=f&y=2007)

Rosenkrantz, Linda and Satran, Pamela Redmond (2005).Beyond Jennifer and Jason, Madison and Montana. St. Martin's Paperbacks, Fourth Edition.ISBN 0-312-94095-5 Todd, Loreto (1998). Celtic Names for Children. Irish American Book Company. ISBN 0-9627855-6-3 Wallace, Carol (2004). The Penguin Classic Baby Name Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-200470-7 Wood, Jamie Martinez (2001).¿Cómo te llamas, Baby? Berkley. ISBN 0-425-17959-1

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_(name)&oldid=896440008"

This page was last edited on 10 May 2019, at 14:05 (UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Mary Magdalene

Mary Magdalene,[a] sometimes called simply the Magdalene or the Madeleine, Mary Magdalene was a Jewish woman who, according to the four canonical , traveled with Jesus as one of his followers and was a witness to his crucifixion, burial, and resurrection.[2] She is mentioned by name twelve times in the canonical gospels, more than most of the apostles. Mary's epithet Magdalene most likely means that she came from the town of Magdala, a fishing town on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee.

The of Luke 8:2–3 lists Mary as one of the women who traveled with Jesus and helped support his ministry "out of their resources", indicating that she was probably relatively wealthy. The same passage also states that seven demons had been driven out of her, a statement which is repeated in the longer ending of Mark. In all four canonical gospels, she is a witness to the and, in the Synoptic Gospels, she is also present at his burial. All four gospels identify her, either alone or as a member of a larger group of women, as the first witness to the [2] [3] empty tomb, and the first to testify to Jesus's resurrection. For these reasons, The Penitent Magdalene (c. 1598) she is known in many Christian traditions as the "apostle to the apostles". Mary is a by Domenico Tintoretto central figure in later apocryphal Gnostic Christian writings, including the Dialogue Apostle to the Apostles of the Savior, the Pistis Sophia, the , the Gospel of Philip, and the Gospel of Mary. These texts, which scholars do not regard as containing accurate Venerated in Eastern Orthodox historical information, portray her as Jesus's closest disciple and the only one who truly understood his teachings. In the Gnostic gospels, Mary Magdalene's closeness Oriental Orthodox to Jesus results in tension with the other disciples, particularlySimon Peter. Church During the Middle Ages, Mary Magdalene was conflated in western tradition with Anglican Communion Mary of Bethany and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus's feet in Luke Lutheranism 7:36–50, resulting in a widespread but inaccurate belief that she was a repentant other Protestant [4][2] prostitute or promiscuous woman. Elaborate medieval legends from western churches Europe tell exaggerated tales of Mary Magdalene's wealth and beauty, as well as her Bahá'í Faith alleged journey to southern . The identification of Mary Magdalene with Canonized pre-Congregation Mary of Bethany and the unnamed "sinful woman" was a major controversy in the Feast July 22 years leading up to the Reformation and some Protestant leaders rejected it. During the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church used Mary Magdalene as a symbol of Attributes Western: alabaster penance. box of ointment Eastern: container of In 1969, the identification of Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and the "sinful ointment (as a woman" was removed from the General Roman Calendar, but the view of her as a myrrhbearer), or former prostitute has persisted in popular culture. Mary Magdalene is considered to holding a red egg be a by the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran churches— (symbol of the with a feast day of July 22. Other Protestant churches honor her as a heroine of the resurrection); faith. The Eastern Orthodox churches also commemorate her on the Sunday of the embracing the feet of , the Orthodox equivalent of one of the Western Three Marys after the traditions. Speculations that Mary Magdalene was Jesus's wife or that she had a Resurrection sexual relationship with him are regarded by most historians as highly dubious. Patronage Apothecaries; Kawit, Cavite; Atrani, Italy; Contents Arahal, Spain; Casamicciola Terme, Life Ischia; contemplative During Jesus's ministry life; converts; glove Witness to Jesus's crucifixion and burial makers; Resurrection of Jesus hairdressers; Apocryphal early Christian writings penitent sinners; Dialogue of the Savior people ridiculed for Pistis Sophia their piety; Gospel of Thomas Gospel of Philip perfumeries; Gospel of Mary pharmacists; sexual Borborite scriptures temptation; tanners; Legacy women; Pililla, Rizal; Patristic era Amadeo, Cavite, Early Middle Ages Magdalena, Laguna High Middle Ages Late Middle Ages and Renaissance Reformation and Counter-Reformation Modern era In Western art Religious views Eastern Orthodoxy Roman Catholicism Protestantism Bahá'í Faith Speculations See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links

Life

It is widely accepted among secular historians that, like Jesus, Mary Magdalene was a real historical figure.[5][6][7] Nonetheless, very little is known about her life.[8] Unlike , Mary Magdalene has left behind no writings of her own,[9] nor were any works later forged under her name, as was common for the other disciples.[9] She is never mentioned in any of the Pauline or in any of the general epistles.[10][11] The earliest and most reliable sources about her life are the three Synoptic Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke, which were all written during the first century AD.[12][13][14]

During Jesus's ministry Mary Magdalene's epithet Magdalene (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally "the Magdalene") most likely means that she came from Magdala,[15][16][1][b] a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town.[15][20][21] Mary was, by far, the most common Jewish given name for females during the first century,[15][c] so it was necessary for the authors of the gospels to call her Magdalene in order to distinguish her from the other women named Mary who followed Jesus.[15] Although the , the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus's crucifixion,[26] the Gospel of Luke 8:2–3 provides a brief summary of her role during his ministry:[27]

Soon afterwards he went on through cities and villages, proclaiming and bringing the good news of the kingdom of God. The twelve were with him, as well as some women who had been cured of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna, the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and , and many others, who provided for them out of their resources. Photograph taken c. 1900 of the ruins of — Luke 8:1–3 Magdala, Mary Magdalene's hometown[15][16][17] The statement that Mary had been possessed by seven demons is repeated in Mark 16:9,[31] part of the "longer ending" of that gospel – this is not found in the earliest manuscripts, and is actually a second-century addition to the original text, possibly based on the Gospel of Luke.[31][32] In the first century, demons were widely believed to be the cause of physical and psychological illness.[33][28][29] Bruce Chilton, a scholar of early , states that the reference to the number of demons being "seven" may mean that Mary had to undergo seven exorcisms, probably over a long period of time, due to the first six being partially or wholly unsuccessful.[30] Bart D. Ehrman, a New Testament scholar and historian of early Christianity, contends that the number seven may be merely symbolic,[29] since, in Jewish [29] tradition, seven was the number of completion, so the The Conversion of Mary Magdalene (c. 1548) by Paolo statement that Mary was possessed by seven demons may Veronese. According to Gospel of Luke 8:2, Jesus simply mean she was completely overwhelmed by their exorcized "seven demons" from Mary [28][29][30] power.[29] In either case, Mary must have suffered from severe Magdalene. emotional or psychological trauma in order for an exorcism of this kind to have been perceived as necessary.[28][29] Consequently, her devotion to Jesus on account of this healing must have been very strong.[15][34][35] The gospel-writers normally relish giving dramatic descriptions of Jesus's public exorcisms, with the possessed person wailing, thrashing, and tearing his or her clothes in front of a crowd.[36] The fact that Mary's exorcism is given so little attention may indicate that it was either done in private or that it was not seen as particularly dramatic.[36]

Because Mary is listed as one of the women who were supporting Jesus's ministry financially, she must have been relatively wealthy.[15][37] The places where she and the other women are mentioned throughout the gospels strongly indicate that they were vital to Jesus's ministry[38][39][40][41] and the fact that Mary Magdalene always appears first, whenever she is listed in the Synoptic Gospels as a member of a group of women, indicates that she was seen as the most important out of all of them.[42][43][44] Carla Ricci notes that, in lists of the disciples, Mary Magdalene occupies a similar position among Jesus's female followers as Simon Peter does among the male apostles.[44] The fact that women played such an active and important role in Jesus's ministry was not entirely radical or even unique;[39][41] inscriptions from a synagogue in Aphrodisias in Asia Minor from around the same time period reveal that many of the major donors to the synagogue were women.[39] Furthermore, it is highly improbable that the ever advocated complete equality between the sexes,[45][46] especially considering that one of the best-attested facts of his life is that all twelve of his chosen apostles were male.[47] Nonetheless, Jesus's ministry did bring women greater liberation than they would have typically held in mainstream Jewish society.[48][41] Jesus taught that, in the imminent kingdom of God, there would be a reversal of roles and those who had been oppressed would be exalted.[49] According to Ehrman, this idea would have probably been particularly appealing and empowering to women of the time, such as Mary Magdalene, who may have felt oppressed by traditional attitudes to gender roles.[50]

Witness to Jesus's crucifixion and burial All four canonical gospels agree that Mary Magdalene, along with several other women, watched Jesus's crucifixion from a distance.[52] Mark 15:40 lists the names of the women present as Mary Magdalene; Mary, mother of James; and Salome.[52] Matthew 27:55–56 lists Mary Magdalene, Mary mother of James and Joseph, and the unnamed mother of the sons of (who may be the same person Mark calls Salome).[52] Luke 23:49 mentions a group of women watching the crucifixion, but does not give any of their names.[52] John 19:25 lists Mary, mother of Jesus; her sister Mary, wife of ; and Mary Magdalene as witnesses to the crucifixion.[52]

Virtually all reputable historians agree that Jesus was crucified by the Romans under the orders of .[53][54][55][56][57] Nonetheless, the gospels' accounts of Jesus's crucifixion differ considerably[58] and most secular historians agree that some of the details in the accounts have been altered to fit their authors' theological Detail of Mary Magdalene weeping at [58] agendas. Ehrman states that the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other the crucifixion of Jesus, as portrayed women at the cross is probably historical because Christians would have been in The Descent from the Cross (c. unlikely to make up that the main witnesses to the crucifixion were women[59] and 1435) by the Flemish artistRogier [51] also because their presence is independently attested in both the Synoptic Gospels van der Weyden and in the .[60] Maurice Casey concurs that the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other of Jesus may be recorded as a historical fact.[5] According to E. P. Sanders, the reason why the women watched the crucifixion even after the male disciples had fled may have been because they were less likely to be arrested, because they were braver than the males, or because of some combination thereof.[61]

All four canonical gospels, as well as the apocryphal , agree that Jesus's body was taken down from the cross and buried by a man named .[52] Mark 15:47 lists Mary Magdalene and Mary, mother of as witnesses to the .[52] Matthew 27:61 lists Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" as witnesses.[52] Luke 23:55 mentions "the women who had followed him from Galilee", but does not list any of their names.[52] John 19:39–42 does not mention any women present during Joseph's burial of Jesus,[52] but does mention the presence ofNicodemus , a Pharisee with whom Jesus had a conversation near the beginning of the gospel.[52] Ehrman, who previously accepted the story of Jesus's burial as historical, now rejects it as a later invention on the basis that Roman governors almost never allowed for executed criminals to be given any kind of burial[63] and Pontius Pilate in particular was not "the sort of ruler who would break with tradition and policy when kindly asked by a member of the Jewish council to provide a decent burial for a crucified victim."[64]

John Dominic Crossan has controversially argued that Jesus's body was probably eaten by wild dogs.[64][65] Ehrman notes that this was the most common fate for victims of crucifixion,[66] but states that it is impossible to know for certain what actually happened to Jesus's body once it was removed from the cross.[67] Casey argues that Jesus really was given a proper burial by Joseph of Arimathea,[68] noting that, on some very rare occasions, Roman governors did release the bodies of executed prisoners for burial.[69] Nonetheless, he rejects that Jesus could have been interred in an expensive tomb with a stone rolled in front of it like the one described in the gospels,[70] leading him to conclude that Mary and the other women must not have actually seen the tomb.[70] Sanders affirms Jesus's burial by Joseph of Arimathea in the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other female followers as completely historical.[71]

Resurrection of Jesus The earliest

Holy Women at Christ's Tomb (c. 1590s) by Annibale Carracci. In Matthew 28:1–10, Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" encounter an The Deposition (1507) by Raphael, showing a at the tomb, who tells them that Christ has [72][73][74] distressed, reddish-blond-haired Mary risen. Magdalene dressed in fine clothes clutching the hand of Jesus's body as he is carried to the description of Jesus's post-resurrection appearances is a quotation of a tomb[62] pre-Pauline creed preserved by Paul the Apostle in 1 Corinthians 15:3– 8, which was written roughly twenty years before any of the gospels.[75] This passage makes no mention of Mary Magdalene, the other women, or the story of the empty tomb at all,[76][77] but rather credits Simon Peter with having been the first to see the risen Jesus.[76][78][79] Despite this, all four canonical gospels, as well as the apocryphal Gospel of Peter, agree that Mary Magdalene, either alone or as a member of a group, was the first person to discover that Jesus's tomb was empty.[60][80] Nonetheless, the details of the accounts differ drastically.[73]

According to Mark 16:1–8, the earliest account of the discovery of the empty tomb, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome went to the tomb just after sunrise a day and half after Jesus's burial and found that the stone had already been rolled away.[73][74][81] They went inside and saw a young man dressed in white, who told them that Jesus had risen from the dead and instructed them to tell the male disciples that he would meet them in Galilee.[72][73][74] Instead, the women ran away and told no one, because they were too afraid.[72][73][74] The original text of the gospel ends here, without the resurrected Jesus ever actually making an appearance to anyone.[72][74][82] Casey argues that the reason for this abrupt ending may be because the Gospel of Mark is an unfinished first draft.[72]

According to Matthew 28:1–10, Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" went to the tomb.[72][73][74] An earthquake occurred and an angel dressed in white descended from and rolled aside the stone as the women were watching.[72][73][74] The angel told them that Jesus had risen from the dead.[73][74][72] Then the risen Jesus himself appeared to the women as they were leaving the tomb and told them to tell the other disciples that he would meet them in Galilee.[72][73][74] According to Luke 24:1–12 a group of unnamed women went to the tomb and found the stone already rolled away, as in Mark.[73][74][83] They went inside and saw two young men dressed in white who told them that Jesus had risen from the dead.[73][74][83] Then they went and told the eleven remaining apostles, who dismissed their story as nonsense.[73][74][83] In Luke's account, Jesus never appears to the women,[73][74][84] but instead makes his first appearance to Cleopas and an unnamed "disciple" on the road to Emmaus. [73][74][84] Luke's narrative also removes the injunction for the women to tell the disciples to return to Galilee and instead has Jesus tell the disciples not to return to Galilee, but rather to stay in the precincts of .[84][85]

Mary Magdalene's role in the resurrection narrative is greatly increased in the account from the Gospel of John.[80][87] According to John 20:1–10, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb alone when it was still dark and saw that the stone had already been rolled away.[80][86][88] She did not see anyone, but immediately ran to tell Peter and the "beloved disciple",[80][88] who came with her to the tomb and confirmed that it was empty,[80][87] but returned home without seeing the risen Jesus.[87][80] According to John 20:11– 18, Mary, now alone in the garden outside the tomb, saw two sitting where Jesus's body had been.[80] Then the risen Jesus approached her.[80][89] She at first mistook him for the gardener,[87][80] but, after she heard him say her name, she recognized him and cried out "Rabbouni!" (which is Aramaic for "teacher").[80][87] She tried to touch him, but he told her, "Don't touch me, for I have not yet ascended to my father."[82] Jesus then sent her to tell the other apostles the good news of his resurrection.[87][80] The Gospel of John therefore portrays Mary Magdalene as the first apostle, the apostle sent to the apostles.[87][80]

Because scribes were unsatisfied with the abrupt ending of the Gospel of Mark, they wrote several different alternative endings for it.[90] In the "shorter ending", which is found in Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena (1835) very few manuscripts, the women go to "those around Peter" by Andreyevich Ivanov. In John 20:1–13, and tell them what they had seen at the tomb, followed by a Mary Magdalene sees the risen Jesus alone[86][82] and brief declaration of the gospel being preached from east to he tells her "Don't touch me, for I have not yet ascended west.[90] This "very forced" ending contradicts the last verse of to my father."[82] the original gospel, stating that the women "told no one".[90] The "longer ending", which is found in most surviving manuscripts, is an "amalgam of traditions" containing episodes derived from the other gospels.[90] First, it describes an appearance by Jesus to Mary Magdalene alone (as in the Gospel of John),[90] followed by brief descriptions of him appearing to the two disciples on the road to Emmaus (as in the Gospel of Luke) and to the eleven remaining disciples (as in the ).[90]

In a book published in 2006, Ehrman states that "it appears virtually certain" that the stories of the empty tomb, regardless of whether or not they are accurate, can definitely be traced back to the historical Mary Magdalene,[91] pointing out that, in Jewish society, women were regarded as unreliable witnesses and were forbidden from giving testimony in court,[92] so early Christians would have had no motive to make up a story about a woman being the first to discover the empty tomb.[92] In fact, if they had made the story up, they would have had strong motivation to make Peter, Jesus's closest disciple while he was alive, the discoverer of the tomb instead.[92] He also points out that the story of Mary Magdalene discovering the empty tomb is independently attested in the Synoptics, the Gospel of John, and in the Gospel of Peter.[93] N. T. Wright states that "it is, frankly, impossible to imagine that [the women at the tomb] were inserted into the tradition after Paul's day."[94][5]

Casey challenges this argument, contending that the women at the tomb are not legal witnesses, but rather heroines in line with a long Jewish tradition.[5] He contends that the story of the empty tomb was invented by either the author of the Gospel of Mark or by one of his sources, based on the historically genuine fact that the women really had been present at Jesus's crucifixion and burial.[5] In a book published in 2014, Ehrman rejects his own previous argument,[95] stating that the story of the empty tomb can only be a later invention because there is virtually no possibility that Jesus's body could have been placed in any kind of tomb[95] and, if Jesus was never buried, then no one alive at the time could have claimed that his non-existent tomb had been found empty.[95] He concludes that the idea that early Christians would have had "no motive" to make up the story simply "suffers from a poverty of imagination"[96] and that they would have had all kinds of possible motives,[97] especially since women were overrepresented in early Christian communities and women themselves would have had strong motivation to make up a story about other women being the first to find the tomb.[98] He does conclude later, however, that Mary Magdalene must have been one of the people who had an experience in which she thought she saw the risen Jesus,[99] citing her prominence in the gospel resurrection narratives and her absence everywhere else in the gospels as evidence.[99]

Apocryphal early Christian writings

In apocryphal texts, Mary Magdalene is portrayed as a visionary and leader of the early movement whom Jesus loved more than he loved the other disciples.[100] These texts were largely written long after the death of the historical Mary Magdalene[12][9] and are generally not regarded by scholars as reliable sources of information about her life.[12][9][101] Sanders summarizes the scholarly consensus "that very, very little in the apocryphal gospels could conceivably go back to the time of Jesus. They are legendary and mythological. Of all the apocryphal material, only some of the sayings in the Gospel of Thomas are worth consideration."[101] Nonetheless, the apocryphal gospels have been frequently promoted in works addressed to popular audiences as though they were reliable, often to support sensationalist claims about Jesus and Mary Magdalene's relationship.[102]

Dialogue of the Savior The earliest dialogue between Jesus and Mary Magdalene is probably the Dialogue of the Savior,[31] a badly damaged Gnostic text discovered in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945.[31] The dialogue consists of a conversation between Jesus and three disciples: Judas Thomas, Matthew, and Mary.[104] The fact that the author chose Mary over all the other apostles, including Simon Peter, is highly indicative of her importance for early Gnostic Christians.[104] In saying 53, the Dialogue even attributes to Mary three aphorisms that are attributed to Jesus in the New Testament: "The wickedness of each day [is sufficient]. Workers deserve their food. Disciples resemble their teachers."[104] The narrator commends Mary stating "she spoke this utterance as a woman who understood everything."[104]

Pistis Sophia The Pistis Sophia, possibly dating as early as the second century, is the best Fragment of a fourth-century text of surviving of the Gnostic writings.[105] It was discovered in the eighteenth century in the apocryphal Dialogue of the [106] a large volume containing numerous early Gnostic treatises. The document Savior, in which Mary Magdalene is a takes the form of a long dialogue in which Jesus answers his followers' central figure[103] questions.[107] Of the sixty-four questions, thirty-nine are presented by a woman who is referred to as Mary or Mary Magdalene. At one point, Jesus tells Mary, "Mary, thou blessed one, whom I will perfect in all mysteries of those of the height, discourse in openness, thou, whose heart is raised to the kingdom of heaven more than all thy brethren".[105] At another point, he tells her, "Well done, Mary. You are more blessed than all women on earth, because you will be the fullness of fullness and the completion of completion."[107] Simon Peter, annoyed at Mary's dominance of the conversation, tells Jesus, "My master, we cannot endure this woman who gets in our way and does not let any of us speak, though she talks all the time."[107] Mary defends herself, saying, "My master, I understand in my mind that I can come forward at any time to interpret what Pistis Sophia [the divine being who gives wisdom] has said, but I am afraid of Peter, because he threatens me and hates our gender."[107] Jesus assures her, "Any of those filled with the spirit of light will come forward to interpret what I say: no one will be able to oppose them."[107]

Gospel of Thomas The Gospel of Thomas, usually dated to the late first or early second century, was among the ancient texts discovered in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945.[109] The Gospel of Thomas consists entirely of 114 sayings attributed to Jesus.[110] Many of these sayings are similar to ones in the canonical gospels,[111] but others are completely unlike anything found in the New Testament.[110] Some scholars believe that at least a few of these sayings may authentically be traced back to the historical Jesus.[111][101] Two of the sayings reference a woman named "Mary", who is generally regarded as Mary Magdalene.[110] In saying 21, Mary herself asks Jesus the perfectly innocuous question, "Whom are your disciples like?"[112] Jesus responds, "They are like children who have settled in a field which is not theirs. When the owners of the field come, they will say, 'Let us have back our field.' They (will) undress in their presence in order to let them have back their field and to give it back to them". Following this, Jesus continues his explanation with a parable about the owner of a house and a thief, ending with the common rhetoric, "Whoever has ears to hear let him hear".

Mary's mention in saying 114, however, has generated considerable controversy:[112] Simon Peter said to them: Let Mary go forth from among us, for women are not worthy of the life. Jesus said: Behold, I shall lead her, that I may make her male, in order that she also may become a living spirit like you males. For every woman who makes herself male shall enter into the kingdom of heaven.[109]

In the ancient world, it was almost universally believed that women were inferior to men[108] and that they were, in essence, "imperfect men" who had not fully developed.[108] When Peter challenges Mary's authority in this saying, he does so on the widely accepted premise that she is a woman and therefore an inferior human being.[113] When Jesus rebukes him for this, he bases his response on the same premise,[113] stating that Mary and all faithful women like her will become men and that salvation is therefore open to all, even those who are presently women.[113]

Gospel of Philip Last page of the Gospel of Thomas The Gospel of Philip, dating from the second or third century, survives in part from Nag Hammadi, containing the among the texts found in Nag Hammadi in 1945.[114] In a manner very similar to account of Jesus's reaffirmation of John 19:25–26, the Gospel of Philip presents Mary Magdalene among Jesus' female Mary's authority to Peter[108] entourage, adding that she was his koinônos,[115] a Greek word variously translated in contemporary versions as partner, associate, comrade, companion:[116][115]

There were three who always walked with the Lord: Mary, his mother, and her sister, and Magdalene, who was called his companion. His sister,[117] his mother and his companion were each a Mary.[114]

The Gospel of Philip uses cognates of koinônos and Coptic equivalents to refer to the literal pairing of men and women in marriage and sexual intercourse, but also metaphorically, referring to a spiritual partnership, and the reunification of the Gnostic Christian with the divine realm.[118] The Gospel of Philip also contains another passage relating to Jesus's relationship with Mary Magdalene.[115] The text is badly fragmented, and speculated but unreliable additions are shown in brackets:

And the companion of the saviour [was] Mary Magdalene. [Christ] loved Mary more than all the disciples, and used to kiss her often on the mouth. The rest of the disciples [were offended by it and expressed disapproval]. They said to him, "Why do you love her more than all of us?" The Saviour answered and said to them, "Why do I not love you like her? When a blind man and one who sees are both together in darkness, they are no different from one another. Text of the Gospel of Philip from Nag When the light comes, then he who sees will see the light, and he Hammadi who is blind will remain in darkness."[119] [114]

For early Christians, kissing did not have a romantic connotation and it was common for Christians to kiss their fellow believers as a way of greeting.[120][121][d] This tradition is still practiced in many Christian congregations today and is known as the "kiss of peace".[115] Ehrman explains that, in the context of the Gospel of Philip, the kiss of peace is used as a symbol for the passage of truth from one person to another[122] and that it is not in any way an act of "divine foreplay".[121] Gospel of Mary The Gospel of Mary is the only surviving gospel named after a woman[123] and it provides important information about the role of women in the early church.[124][125] The Gospel of Mary was probably written over a century after the historical Mary Magdalene's death.[9] The gospel does not claim to have been written by her and its author is, in fact, anonymous.[9] Instead, it received its title because it is about her.[9] The main surviving text of the gospel comes from a Coptic translation preserved in a fifth-century manuscript (Berolinensis Gnosticus 8052,1) discovered in Cairo in 1896.[126][127][125] As a result of numerous intervening conflicts, the manuscript was not published until 1955, nearly a full lifetime after its discovery.[123] Roughly half the text of the gospel in this manuscript has been lost;[128][129] the first six pages and four from the middle are missing.[128][129] In addition to this Coptic translation, two brief third-century fragments of the gospel in the original Greek (P. Rylands 463 and P. Oxyrhynchus 3525) have also been Papyrus Oxyrhynchus L 3525, a fragment of the Greek text of the discovered, which were published in 1938 and 1983 respectively.[127][125] Gospel of Mary The first part of the gospel deals with Jesus's parting words to his followers after a post-resurrection appearance.[130] Mary first appears in the second part of the gospel,[131] in which she tells the other disciples, who are all in fright for their own lives: "Do not weep or grieve or be in doubt, for his grace will be with you all and will protect you. Rather, let us praise his greatness, for he has prepared us and made us truly human."[131] Unlike in the Gospel of Thomas, where women can only be saved by becoming men, in the Gospel of Mary, they can be saved just as they are.[132] Peter approaches Mary and asks her:[133]

Peter said to Mary, "Sister we know that the Savior loved you more than the rest of woman. Tell us the words of the Savior which you remember which you know, but we do not, nor have we heard them". Mary answered and said, "What is hidden from you I will proclaim to you". And she began to speak to them these words: "I", she said, "I saw the Lord in a vision and I said to Him, Lord I saw you today in a vision".[129]

Mary then proceeds to describe the Gnostic cosmology in depth, revealing that she is the only one who has understood Jesus's true teachings.[134][135] Andrew challenges Mary, insisting, "Say what you think about what she said, but I do not believe the savior said this. These teachings are strange ideas."[136][137] Peter responds, saying, "Did he really speak with a woman in private, without our knowledge? Should we all listen to her? Did he prefer her to us?"[136][137] Andrew and Peter's responses are intended to demonstrate that they do not understand Jesus's teachings[136][137] and that it is really only Mary who truly understands.[138][137] The apostle Levi comes to Mary's defense, giving a sharp rebuke to Peter:[136][137] "Peter, you are always angry. Now I see you arguing against this woman like an adversary. If the savior made her worthy, who are you to reject her? Surely the savior knows her well. That is why he loved her more than us."[139][137]

Borborite scriptures The Borborites, also known as the Phibionites, were an early Christian Gnostic sect during the late fourth century AD who had numerous scriptures involving Mary Magdalene,[140][141][142] including The Questions of Mary, The Greater Questions of Mary, The Lesser Questions of Mary, and The Birth of Mary.[140] None of these texts have survived to the present,[140][142] but they are mentioned by the early Christian heretic-hunter Epiphanius of Salamis in his Panarion.[140][143][142][144] Epiphanius claims that the Greater Questions of Mary contained an episode in which, during a post-resurrection appearance, Jesus took Mary to the top of a mountain, where he pulled a woman out of his side and engaged in sexual intercourse with her.[143][144] Then, upon ejaculating, Jesus drank his own semen and told Mary, "Thus we must do, that we may live."[143][141][144] Upon hearing this, Mary instantly fainted, to which Jesus responded by helping her up and telling her, "O thou of little faith, wherefore didst thou doubt?"[143][141][144] This story was supposedly the basis for the Borborite Eucharist ritual in which they allegedly engaged in orgies and drank semen and menstrual blood as the "body and blood of Christ" respectively.[145][141] Ehrman casts doubt on the accuracy of Epiphanius's summary, commenting that "the details of Epiphanius's description sound very much like what you can find in the ancient rumor mill about secret societies in the ancient world".[143]

Legacy

Patristic era Most of the earliest Church Fathers do not mention Mary Magdalene at all,[149][10][150] and those who do mention her usually only discuss her very briefly.[149][10][150] In his anti-Christian polemic The True Word, written between 170 and 180 AD, the pagan philosopher Celsus declared that Mary Magdalene was nothing more than "a hysterical female... who either dreamt in a certain state of mind and through wishful thinking had a hallucination due to some mistaken notion (an experience which has happened to This fresco from the nave of the Dura-Europos church dates to c. 240 AD[146] and contains the oldest surviving depiction of thousands), or, which is more likely, wanted to impress Mary Magdalene.[147] She is shown alongside two other others by telling this fantastic tale, and so by this cock- women (the third now almost completely missing due to and-bull story to provide a chance for other extensive damage),[146] each holding a lit torch and a bowl of [151] beggars." The Church Father Origen (c. 184 – c. myrrh, as they approach Jesus's tomb, which is still sealed.[148] 253) defended Christianity against this accusation in his apologetic treatise Against Celsus, pointing to Matthew 28:1, which lists Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" both seeing the resurrected Jesus, thus providing a second witness.[152] Origen also preserves a statement from Celsus that some Christians in his day followed the teachings of a woman named "Mariamme", who is almost certainly Mary Magdalene.[153][154] Origen merely dismisses this, remarking that Celsus "pours on us a heap of names".[153]

Mary Magdalene has the reputation inW estern Christianity as being a repentant prostitute or loose woman; however, these claims are not supported by the canonical gospels, which at no point imply that she had ever been a prostitute or in any way notable for a sinful way of life.[2][155][156] The misconception likely arose due to a conflation between Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany (who anoints Jesus's feet in John 11:1–12), and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus's feet in Luke 7:36–50.[2][155][157][157] As early as the third century, the Church Father Tertullian (c. 160 – 225) references the touch of "the woman which was a sinner" in effort to prove that Jesus "was not a phantom, but really a solid body."[152] This may indicate that Mary Magdalene was already being conflated with the "sinful woman" inLuke 7:36–50, though Tertullian never clearly identifies the woman of whom he speaks as Mary Magdalene.[152] A sermon attributed to Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – 235) refers to Mary of Bethany and her sister seeking Jesus in the garden like Mary Magdalene in John 20, indicating a conflation between Mary of Bethany and Mary Magdalene.[158] The sermon describes the conflated woman as a "second Eve" who compensates for the disobedience of the first Eve through her obedience.[149][150] The sermon also explicitly identifies Mary Magdalene and the other women as "apostles".[87][159] The first clear identification of Mary Magdalene as a redeemed sinner comes from Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 – 373).[160][161] Part of the reason for the identification of Mary Magdalene as a sinner may derive from the reputation of her birthplace, Magdala,[162] which, by the late first century, was infamous for its inhabitants' alleged vice and licentiousness.[162]

In one of his preserved sayings, Gregory of Nyssa (c. 330 – 395) identifies Mary Magdalene as "the first witness to the resurrection, that she might set straight again by her faith in the resurrection, what was turned over in her transgression."[163] Saint Ambrose (c. 340 – 397), by contrast, not only rejected the conflation of Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany, and the anointing sinner,[164] but even proposed that the authentic Mary Magdalene herself was, in fact, two separate people:[164][165] one woman named Mary Magdalene who discovered the empty tomb and a different Mary Magdalene who saw the risen Christ.[164] Saint Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) entertained the possibility that Mary of Bethany and the unnamed sinner from Luke might be the same person,[166] but did not associate Mary Magdalene with either of them.[167] Instead, Augustine praised Mary Magdalene as "unquestionably... surpassingly more ardent in her love than these other women who had administered to the Lord".[167]

Early Middle Ages The unnamed "sinful woman" in Luke 7:36–50 is never identified as a prostitute[168] and, in Jewish society at the time the gospel was written, "sinful" could have simply meant that she "did not assiduously observe the law of Moses".[168] The notion of Mary Magdalene specifically being a former prostitute or loose woman dates to a claim by ("Gregory the Great") made in an influential homily in around 591,[160][169][156] in which he not only identifies Magdalene with the anonymous sinner with the perfume in Luke's gospel and with Mary of Bethany, the sister of Martha and Lazarus,[156] but also, for the first time, explicitly identifies her sins as ones of a sexual nature:[156] Ascension of Mary Magdalene by Mary Magdalene (c. 1480– Tilman Riemenschneider (1490– 1487), altarpiece in She whom Luke calls the sinful 92) International Gothic style by woman, whom John calls Mary, we A depiction of Mary Magdalene Carlo Crivelli showing her with believe to be the Mary from whom with thick body hair long, blonde hair seven devils were ejected according to Mark. What did these seven devils signify, if not all the vices? It is clear, that the woman previously used the unguent to perfume her flesh in forbidden acts. What she therefore displayed more scandalously, she was now offering to God in a more praiseworthy manner. She had coveted with earthly eyes, but now through penitence these are consumed with tears. She displayed her hair to set off her face, but now her hair dries her tears. She had spoken proud things with her mouth, but in kissing the Lord's feet, she now planted her mouth on the Redeemer's feet. For every delight, therefore, she had had in herself, she now immolated herself. She turned the mass of her crimes to virtues, in order to serve God entirely in penance. — Pope Gregory the Great (homily XXXIII)[169]

In Pope Gregory's interpretation, the seven demons expelled from Mary Magdalene by Jesus are transformed into the seven deadly sins of medieval Catholicism,[157][170] leading Mary "to be condemned not only for lust, but for pride and covetousness as well."[157] The aspect of the repentant sinner became almost equally significant as the disciple in her persona as depicted in Western art and religious literature, fitting well with the great importance of penitence in medieval theology. In subsequent religious legend, Mary's story became conflated with that of Saint Mary of Egypt, a repentant prostitute who then lived as a hermit. With that, Mary’s image was, according to Susan Haskins, author of Mary Magdalene: Myth and Metaphor, "finally settled...for nearly fourteen hundred years,"[171] although in fact the most important late medieval popular accounts of her life describe her as a rich woman whose life of sexual freedom is purely for pleasure.[172] This composite depiction of Mary Magdalene was carried into the Mass texts for her feast day: in the Tridentine Mass, the collect explicitly identifies her as Mary of Bethany by describing Lazarus as her brother, and the Gospel is the story of the penitent woman anointing Jesus' feet.[173]

The "composite Magdalene" was never accepted by the Eastern Orthodox churches, who saw only Mary the disciple, and believed that after the Resurrection she lived as a companion to the Virgin Mary, and not even in the West was it universally accepted. The Benedictine Order always celebrated Mary of Bethany together with Martha and on July 29, while Mary Magdalene was celebrated on July 22.[174] Not only John Chrysostom in the East (Matthew, Homily 88), but also Ambrose (De virginitate 3,14; 4,15) in the West, when speaking of Mary Magdalene after the resurrection of Jesus Christ, far from calling her a harlot, suggest she was a virgin.[175] Starting in around the eighth century, Christian sources record mention of a church in Magdala purported to have been built on the site of Mary Magdalene's house, where Jesus exorcized her of the seven demons.[176]

In an eastern tradition supported by the western bishop and historian Gregory of Tours (c. 538 – 594), Mary Magdalene is said to have retired to Ephesus in Asia Minor with the virgin Mary, where they both lived out the rests of their lives.[177][178] Gregory states that Mary Magdalene was buried in the city of Ephesus.[178] Modestus, the Patriarch of Jerusalem from 630 until 634, describes a slightly different tradition that Mary Magdalene had come to Ephesus to live with the apostle John following the death of the Virgin Mary.[178]

High Middle Ages Starting in early High Middle Ages, writers in western Europe began developing elaborate fictional biographies of Mary Magdalene's life, in which they heavily embellished upon the vague details given in the gospels.[181][182] Stories about noble were popular during this time period;[181] accordingly, tales of Mary Magdalene's wealth and social status became heavily exaggerated.[183][182] In the tenth century, Odo of Cluny (c. 880 – 942) wrote a sermon in which he described Mary as an extraordinarily wealthy noblewoman of royal descent.[184] Some manuscripts of the sermon record that Mary's parents were named Syrus and Eucharia[185] and one manuscript goes into great detail describing her family's purported land holdings in Bethany, Jerusalem, and Magdala.[185]

The theologian Honorius Augustodunensis (c. 1080 – c. 1151) embellished this tale even further, reporting that Mary was a wealthy noblewoman who was married in "Magdalum",[185] but that she committed adultery, so she fled to Jerusalem and became a "public sinner" (vulgaris meretrix).[185] Honorius mentions that, out of love for Jesus, Mary repented and withdrew into a life of quiet isolation.[185] Under the influence of stories about other female saints, such asSaint Mary of Egypt and Saint Pelagia,[185] painters in Italy during the ninth and tenth centuries gradually began to develop the image of Mary Magdalene living alone in the desert as a penitent ascetic.[185][186] This portrayal became so popular that it quickly spread to Germany and England.[185] From the twelfth century, Abbot Hugh of Semur (died 1109), Peter Abelard (died 1142), and Geoffrey of Vendome (died 1132) all referred to Mary Magdalene as the sinner who merited the title apostolorum apostola (Apostle to the Apostles), with the title becoming commonplace during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.[187]

In western Europe, elaborate and conflicting legends began to develop, which claimed that Mary Magdalene had travelled to southern France and died there.[188] Starting in around 1050, the monks of the Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay in Burgundy claimed to have discovered Mary Magdalene's actual skeleton.[189][180] At first, the existence of the skeleton was merely asserted,[180] but, in 1265, the monks made a spectacular, public show of "discovering" it[180] and, in 1267, the bones were brought before the king of France himself, who venerated them.[180] On December 9, 1279, an excavation ordered by Charles II, King of Naples at Saint- Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume, Provence, led to the discovery of another purported burial of Mary Magdalene.[179][180] The was purportedly found intact, with an explanatory inscription stating why the had been hidden.[190] Charles II commissioned the building of a new Gothic basilica on the site and, in return for providing accommodation for pilgrims, the town's residents were exempt from taxes.[191] Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume gradually displaced Vézelay in popularity and acceptance.[190]

The most famous account of Mary Magdalene's legendary life comes from The , a collection of medieval saints stories compiled in around the year 1260 by the Italian writer and Dominican friar Jacobus de Voragine (c. 1230 – In 1279, the monks of Saint-Maximin- [192][180][193] 1298). In this account, la-Sainte-Baume claimed to have Mary Magdalene is, in Ehrman's discovered Mary Magdalene's words, "fabulously rich, insanely skeleton.[179][180] This reliquary, beautiful, and outrageously constructed in the nineteenth century, contains her purported skull. sensual",[192] but she gives up her life of wealth and sin to become a devoted follower of Jesus.[192][194] Fourteen years after Jesus's crucifixion, some pagans throw Mary, Lazarus (who, in this account, is her brother due to her International Gothic Elevation of conflation with Mary of Bethany), and two other Christians named Maximin and Mary Magdalene with angels raising Cedonius onto a rudderless boat in the to die.[192][193] her in SS. Johns' in Toruń Miraculously, however, the boat washes ashore at Marseille in southern France.[192][193] Mary persuades the governor of the city not to offer sacrifices to a pagan god[192] and later persuades him to convert to Christianity after she proves the Christian God's power by successfully praying to Him to make the governor's wife pregnant.[192][193] The governor and his wife sail for Rome to meet the apostle Peter in person,[192] but their ship is struck by a storm, which causes the wife to go into labor.[192] The wife dies in childbirth and the governor leaves her on an island with the still-living infant at her breast.[192] The governor spends two years with Peter in Rome[192] and, on his way home, he stops at the same island to discover that, due to Mary Magdalene's miraculous long-distance intercession, his child has survived for two years on his dead mother's breast milk.[195] Then the governor's wife rises from the dead and tells him that Mary Magdalene has brought her back.[10] The whole family returns to Marseille, where they meet Mary again in person.[10] Mary herself spends the last thirty years of her life alone as a penitent ascetic in a cave in a desert in the French region of Provence.[196][193][197][198][199] At every canonical hour, the angels come and lift her up to hear their songs in Heaven.[193] On the last day of her life, Maximin, now the bishop of Aix, comes to her and gives her the Eucharist.[193] Mary cries tears of joy[193] and, after taking it, she lies down and dies.[193] De Voragine gives the common account of the transfer of Mary Magdalene's relics from her sepulchre in the oratory of Saint Maximin at Aix-en-Provence to the newly founded Vézelay;[200] the transportation of the relics is entered as undertaken in 771 by the founder of the abbey, identified as Gerard, Duke of Burgundy.[201]

The monk and historian Domenico Cavalca (c. 1270 – 1342), citing Jerome, suggested that Mary Magdalene was betrothed to Saint : "I like to think that the Magdalene was the spouse of John, not affirming it... I am glad and blythe that St Jerome should say so".[202] They were sometimes thought to be the couple at the Wedding at Cana, though the Gospel accounts say nothing of the ceremony being abandoned. In the Golden Legend, De Voragine dismisses talk of John and Mary being betrothed and John leaving his bride at the altar to follow Jesus as nonsense.[201] Late Middle Ages and Renaissance The thirteenth-century Cistercian monk and chronicler Peter of Vaux de Cernay claimed it was part of Catharist belief that the earthly Jesus Christ had a relationship with Mary Magdalene, described as his concubine: "Further, in their secret meetings they said that the Christ who was born in the earthly and visible and crucified at Jerusalem was "evil", and that Mary Magdalene was his concubine – and that she was the woman taken in adultery who is referred to in the Scriptures."[208] A document, possibly written by Ermengaud of Penitent Magdalene (c. 1454) by Mary Magdalene (c. 1515), traditionally Béziers, undated and anonymous and Donatello, showing her as "an old, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci's attached to his Treatise against emaciated and toothless woman... student Giampietrino,[205] though now worn down by years of hard solitude in Heretics,[209] makes a similar argued by Carlo Pedretti to, in fact, be her cave".[203] The sculpture is an [206] statement:[210] a work by Leonard himself. This "extreme" example of Mary painting shows very different image of Magdalene's usual portrayal as a Mary Magdalene as "a woman who Also they [the [204][203] penitent ascetic. repents of nothing, who feels no Cathars] teach in shame or guilt."[207] their secret meetings that Mary Magdalene was the wife of Christ. She was the Samaritan woman to whom He said, "Call thy husband". She was the woman taken into adultery, whom Christ set free lest the Jews stone her, and she was with Him in three places, in the temple, at the well, and in the garden. After the Resurrection, He appeared first to her.[211]

In the middle of the fourteenth century, a Dominican friar wrote a biography of Mary Magdalene in which he described her brutally mutilating herself after giving up prostitution,[204] clawing at her legs until they bled, tearing out clumps of her hair, and beating her face with her fists and her breasts with stones.[204] This portrayal of her inspired the sculptor Donatello (c. 1386 – 1466) to portray her as a gaunt and beaten ascetic in his wooden sculpture Penitent Magdalene (c. 1454) for the Florence Baptistery.[204] In 1449, King René d' gave to Cathedral the amphora from Cana in which Jesus changed water to wine, acquiring it from the nuns of Marseilles, who told him that Mary Magdalene had brought it with her from Judea, relating to the legend where she was the jilted bride at the wedding after which John the Evangelist received his calling from Jesus.[212]

Reformation and Counter-Reformation In 1517, on the brink of the Protestant Reformation, the leading French Renaissance humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples published his book De Maria Magdalena et triduo Christi disceptatio (Disputation on Mary Magdalene and the Three Days of Christ), in which he argued against the conflation of Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany, and the unnamed sinner in Luke.[175][214] Various authors published a flurry of books and pamphlets in response, the vast majority of which opposed Lefèvre d'Étaples.[175][215] In 1521, the theology faculty of the Sorbonne formally condemned the idea that the three women were separate people as heretical,[175][215] and debate died down, overtaken by the larger issues raised by Martin Luther.[175][215] Luther and Huldrych Zwingli (1484 – 1531) both supported the composite Magdalene.[216] Luther, whose views on sexuality were much more liberal than those of his fellow reformers,[217] reportedly once joked to a group of friends that "even pious Christ himself" had committed adultery three times: once with Mary Magdalene, once with the Samaritan woman at the well, and once with the adulteress he had let off Christ and the Penitent Sinners (1617) by Peter Paul Rubens is a typical example of so easily.[218] Because the cult of Mary Magdalene was inextricably how Mary Magdalene was portrayed during [219] associated with the Catholic teaching of the intercession of saints, it the era, emphasizing her erotic [219] came under particularly harsh criticism by Protestant leaders. Zwingli allure and blurring the lines between religious demanded for the cult of Mary Magdalene to be abolished and all images of and erotic art.[213] her to be destroyed.[219] John Calvin (1509 – 1564) not only rejected the composite Magdalene,[219][216] but criticized Catholics as ignorant for having ever believed in it.[219]

During the Counter-Reformation, Roman Catholicism began to strongly emphasize Mary Magdalene's role as a penitent sinner.[220][221][222] Her medieval role as a patron and advocate became minimized[220] and her penitence became regarded as her most important aspect, especially in France and in the Catholic portions of southern Germany.[220] A massive number of Baroque paintings and sculptures depict the penitent Magdalene,[220][223] often showing her naked or partially naked, with a strong emphasis on her erotic beauty.[213] Poems about Mary Magdalene's repentance were also popular.[224] Estates of nobles and royalty in southern Germany were equipped with so-called "Magdalene cells", small, modest hermitages that functioned as both chapels and dwellings, where the nobility could retreat to find religious solace.[225] They were usually located away in wild areas away from the rest of the property[226] and their exteriors were designed to suggest vulnerability.[226]

Modern era Because of the legends claiming that Mary Magdalene had been a prostitute, she Not she with became the patroness of "wayward women", and, in the eighteenth century, moral trait'rous kiss her reformers established Magdalene asylums to help save women from “ Saviour stung, ” prostitution.[227] Edgar Saltus's historical fiction novel Mary Magdalene: A Not she denied Him with unholy tongue; Chronicle (1891) depicts her as a heroine living in a castle at Magdala, who moves She, while apostles to Rome becoming the "toast of the tetrarchy", telling she will shrank, could "drink pearls... sup on peacock's tongues".[228][229] danger brave, Last at His cross, The common identification of Mary Magdalene with other New Testament figures and earliest at His was omitted in the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar, with the comment grave. regarding her liturgical celebration on July 22: "No change has been made in the title — Eaton Stannard Barrett, Woman of today's memorial, but it concerns only Saint Mary Magdalene, to whom Christ (1810), Part I, lines 141–145 appeared after his resurrection. It is not about the sister of Saint Martha, nor about the sinful woman whose sins the Lord forgave (Luke 7:36–50)."[230] Elsewhere it said of the Roman liturgy of July 22 that "it will make mention neither of Mary of Bethany nor of the sinful woman of Luke 7:36–50, but only of Mary Magdalene, the first person to whom Christ appeared after his resurrection".[231] According to historian Haag, these changes were a quiet admission from the Vatican that the Church's previous teaching of Mary Magdalene as a repentant whore had been wrong.[232] Mary of Bethany's feast day and that of her brother Lazarus is now on July 29, the memorial of their sister Martha.[233]

Nonetheless, despite the Vatican's rejection of it, the view of Mary as a repentant prostitute only grew more prevalent in popular culture.[234][235][236] She is portrayed as one in Nikos Kazantzakis's 1955 novel The Last Temptation of Christ and Martin Scorsese's 1988 film adaptation of it,[235] in which Jesus, as he is dying on the cross, has a vision from of what it would be like if he married Mary Magdalene and raised a family with her instead of dying for humanity's sins.[235] Mary is likewise portrayed as a reformed prostitute in Andrew Lloyd Webber and Penitent Magdalene (1893) by Adolfo Tim Rice's 1971 rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar.[237][234][238] In Superstar, Mary Tommasi describes her sexual attraction to Jesus in the song "I Don't Know How to Love Him", which shocked many of the play's original viewers.[239][234] Ki Longfellow's novel The Secret Magdalene (2005) draws on the Gnostic gospels and other sources to portray Mary as a brilliant and dynamic woman who studies at the fabledlibrary of Alexandria, and shares her knowledge with Jesus.[240] Lady Gaga's song "Judas" (2011) is sung from Mary's perspective, portraying her as a prostitute who is "beyond repentance".[241]

The 2018 film Mary Magdalene, starring Rooney Mara as the eponymous character, sought to reverse the centuries-old portrayal of Mary Magdalene as a repentant prostitute, while also combating the conspiracy claims of her being Jesus's wife or sexual partner.[242][243][244] Instead, the film portrays her as Jesus's closest disciple[242][243][244] and the only one who truly understands his teachings.[242][243][244] This portrayal is partially based on the Gnostic Gospel of Mary Magdalene.[244] The film, which described as having a "strongly feminist bent",[243] was praised for its music score and cinematography,[245] its surprising faithfulness to the Biblical narrative,[243] and its acting,[243][242] but was criticized as slow-moving,[242][243][245] overwritten,[245] and too solemn to be believable.[242][245] It was also criticized by many Christians, who were offended by the film's use of extracanonical source material.[244]

In Western art The early notion of Mary Magdalene as a sinner and adulteress was reflected in Western medieval Christian art, where she was the most commonly depicted female figure after the Virgin Mary. She may be shown either as very extravagantly and fashionably dressed, unlike other female figures wearing contemporary styles of clothes, or alternatively as completely naked but covered by very long blonde or reddish-blonde hair. The latter depictions represent the Penitent Magdalene, according to the medieval legend that she had spent a period of repentance as a desert hermit after leaving her life as a follower of Jesus.[188][247] Her story became conflated in the West with that of Saint Mary of Egypt, a fourth-century prostitute turned hermit, whose clothes wore out and fell off in the desert.[188] The widespread artistic representations of Mary Magdalene in tears are the source of the modern English word maudlin,[248][249][250] meaning "sickeningly sentimental or emotional".[248]

In medieval depictions Mary's long hair entirely covers her body and preserves her modesty (supplemented in some German versions such as one by Tilman Riemenschneider by thick body hair),[251][252] but, from the sixteenth century, some depictions, like those by Titian, show part of her naked body, the amount of nudity tending to increase in successive periods. Even if covered, she often wears only a drape pulled around her, or an undergarment. In particular, Mary is often shown naked in the legendary scene of her "Elevation", where she is sustained in the desert by angels who raise her up and feed her heavenly manna, as recounted in the Golden Legend.[251]

Mary Magdalene at the foot of the cross during the Crucifixion appears in an eleventh-century English manuscript "as an expressional Mary Magdalene (c. 1524) by Andrea device rather than a historical Penitent Magdalene (c. 1635) by Guido Reni, showing her as a penitent[246] Solari, showing her as a Myrrhbearer motif", intended as "the expression of an emotional assimilation of the event, that leads the spectator to identify himself with the mourners".[253] Other isolated depictions occur, but, from the thirteenth century, additions to the Virgin Mary and John as the spectators at the Crucifixion become more common, with Mary Magdalene as the most frequently found, either kneeling at the foot of the cross clutching the shaft, sometimes kissing Christ's feet, or standing, usually at the left and behind Mary and John, with her arms stretched upwards towards Christ in a gesture of grief, as in a damaged painting by Cimabue in the upper church at Assisi of c. 1290. A kneeling Magdalene by Giotto in the Scrovegni Chapel (c. 1305) was especially influential.[254] As Gothic painted crucifixions became crowded compositions, the Magdalene became a prominent figure, with a halo and identifiable by her long unbound blonde hair, and usually a bright red dress. As the swooning Virgin Mary became more common, generally occupying the attention of John, the unrestrained gestures of Magdalene increasingly represented the main display of the grief of the spectators.[255]

According to Kiely, "No figure in the Christian Pantheon except Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and John the Baptist has inspired, provoked, or confounded the imagination of painters more than the Magdalene".[256] Apart from the Crucifixion, Mary was often shown in scenes of the Passion of Jesus, when mentioned in the Gospels, such as the Crucifixion, Christ Carrying the Cross and Noli me Tangere, but usually omitted in other scenes showing the Twelve Apostles, such as the Last Supper. As Mary of Bethany, she is shown as present at the Resurrection of Lazarus, her brother, and in the scene with Jesus and her sister Martha, which began to be depicted often in the seventeenth century, as in Christ in the House of Martha and Mary by Velázquez.[257]

Noli me tangere fresco Mary Magdalene Noli me tangere (c. 1512) Mary Magdalene (early by Fra Angelico Reading (c. 1500–1510) by Titian 1500s) by Ambrosius by Piero di Cosimo Benson

Magdalena Penitente Mary Magdalene Penitent Magdalene (c. Mary Magdalene (1615– (early 1500s) by (1615) by Juan 1576-1578) by El Greco 1616 or 1620–1625) by Giampietrino Bautista Maíno Artemisia Gentileschi

St Mary Magdalene in Mary Magdalene (1641) by Magdalene with the Christ Appearing to Mary Ecstasy (c. 1619– José de Ribera Smoking Flame (c. Magdalene (between 1640 and 1620) by Peter Paul 1640) by Georges de La 1650) by Pietro da Cortona Rubens Tour

The Magdalene (before Mary Magdalene (1858– Christ and Mary 1792) by George Romney 1860) by Frederick Sandys Magdalene (1890) by Albert Edelfelt

Religious views

Eastern Orthodoxy The Eastern Orthodox Church has never identified Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany or the "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus in Luke 7:36–50[258] and has always taught that Mary was a virtuous woman her entire life, even before her conversion.[258] They have never celebrated her as a penitent.[258] Instead, she has traditionally been honored as a "Myrrhbearer" (Μυροφόρος; the equivalent of the western Three Marys)[259] and "Equal to the Apostles" (ἰσαπόστολος).[259] For centuries, it has been the custom of many Eastern Orthodox Christians to share dyed and painted eggs, particularly on Easter Sunday. The eggs represent new life, and Christ bursting forth from the tomb. Among Eastern Orthodox Christians this sharing is accompanied by the proclamation "Christ is risen!" One folk tradition concerning Mary Magdalene says that following the death and resurrection of Jesus, she used her position to gain an invitation to a banquet given by the Roman Emperor . When she met him, she held a plain egg in her hand and exclaimed, "Christ is risen!" The Emperor laughed, and said that Christ rising from the dead was as likely as the egg in her hand turning red while she held it. Before he finished speaking, the egg in her hand turned a bright red and she continued proclaiming the Gospel to the entire imperial house.[260]

Roman Catholicism During the Counter Reformation and Baroque periods (late 16th and 17th centuries), the description "penitent" was added to the indication of her name on her feast day, July 22. It had not yet been added at the time of the Tridentine Calendar of 1569 and is no longer found in the present General Roman Calendar but, once added, it remained until the General Roman Calendar of 1960.[261] The Gospel reading in the Tridentine Mass was Luke 7:36–50 (the sinful woman anointing the feet of Jesus), while in the present version of the of Mass it is John 20:1–2, 11–8 (meeting of Mary Magdalene with Jesus after his resurrection).[262][263][264]

According to Darrell Bock, the title of apostola apostolorum first appears in the 10th century,[159] but Katherine Ludwig Jansen says she found no reference to it earlier than the 12th, by which time it was already commonplace.[265] She mentions in particular Hugh of Cluny (1024–1109), Peter Abelard (1079–1142), and Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) among those who gave Mary Magdalene the title of apostolorum apostola (apostle of the apostles). Jane Schaberg adds Geoffrey of Vendôme (c. 1065/70–1132).[266]

It is claimed that the equivalent of the phraseapostolorum apostola appeared already Eastern Orthodox icon of Mary in the 9th century. Chapter XXVII of the Life of Mary Magdalene claiming to be Magdalene as a Myrrhbearer written by Hrabanus Maurus (c. 780 – 4 February 856) is headed: Ubi Magdalenam Christus ad apostolos mittit apostolam (Wherein Christ sends Magdalene as an apostle to the apostles).[267] The same chapter says she did not delay in exercising the office of apostolate with which he had been honoured (apostolatus officio quo honorata fuerat fungi non distulit).[268] Raymond E. Brown, commenting on this fact, remarks that Hrabanus Maurus frequently applies the word "apostle" to Mary Magdalene in this work.[269] However the work is actually no earlier than the 12th century.[270] Because of Mary Magdalene's position as an apostle, though not one of those who became official witnesses to the resurrection, the Catholic Church honoured her by reciting the Gloria on her feast day, the only woman to be so honoured apart from Mary, the mother of Jesus.[271] In his apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem ("On the dignity and vocation of women", parts 67–69) dated August 15, 1988, Pope John Paul II dealt with the Easter events in relation to the women being Mary Magdalene attributed to Gregor present at the tomb after the Resurrection, in a section entitled 'First Witnesses of the Erhart (d. 1525) Resurrection':

The women are the first at the tomb. They are the first to find it empty. They are the first to hear 'He is not here. He has risen, as he said.'[Mt 28:6] They are the first to embrace his feet.[cf. Mt 28:9] The women are also the first to be called to announce this truth to the Apostles.[Mt 28:1–10] [Lk 24:–11] The Gospel of John (cf. also Mk 16:9 emphasizes the special role of Mary Magdalene. She is the first to meet the Risen Christ. [...] Hence she came to be called "the apostle of the Apostles". Mary Magdalene was the first eyewitness of the Risen Christ, and for this reason she was also the first to bear witness to him before the Apostles. This event, in a sense, crowns all at the Tomb by that has been said previously about Christ entrusting divine truths to Peter Paul Rubens, with Mary women as well as men. Magdalene in red

— John Paul II[272] On June 10, 2016, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments issued a decree which elevated Mary's liturgical commemoration from an obligatory memorial to a feast day, like that of most of the Apostles (Peter and Paul are commemorated with a solemnity). The Mass and Liturgy of the Hours (Divine Office) remained the same as they were, except that a specific preface was added to the Mass to refer to her explicitly as the "Apostle to the Apostles".[273]

Protestantism The 1549 Book of Common Prayer had on July 22 a feast of Saint Mary Magdalene, with the same Scripture readings as in the Tridentine Mass and with a newly composed collect: "Merciful father geue us grace, that we neuer presume to synne through the example of anye creature, but if it shall chaunce vs at any tyme to offende thy dyuine maiestie: that then we maye truly repent, and lament the same, after the example of Mary Magdalene, and by lyuelye faythe obtayne remission of all oure sinnes: throughe the onely merites of thy sonne oure sauiour Christ." The 1552 edition omitted the feast of Saint Mary Magdalene, which was restored to the Book of Common Prayer only after some 400 years.[274]

Modern Protestants honor her as a disciple and friend of Jesus.[275] Anglican Christians refer to her as a saint and may follow her example of repentance;[276] While some interpret the Thirty-Nine Articles as forbidding them to call upon her for intercession,[277] other Anglicans, citing the Episcopal burial service, say they can ask the saint to pray for them.[278] The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America honors Mary Magdalene on July 22 as an Apostle, albeit as a Lesser Festival.[279] Icon of Saint Mary Magdalene depicted as one of the Myrrhbearers Presbyterians honor her as the "apostle to the apostles"[280] and, in the book with the words "Christ is Risen" in Methodist Theology, Kenneth Wilson describes her as, "in effect", one of the "first Greek at the top, depicting her [281] missionaries". discovery of the empty tomb

Bahá'í Faith There are many references to Mary Magdalene in the writings of the Bahá'í Faith, where she enjoys an exalted status as a heroine of faith and the "archetypal woman of all cycles".[282] `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the founder of the religion, said that she was "the channel of confirmation" to Jesus' disciples, a "heroine" who "re-established the faith of the apostles" and was "a light of nearness in his kingdom".[283] `Abdu'l-Bahá also wrote that "her reality is ever shining from the horizon of Christ", "her face is shining and beaming forth on the horizon of the universe forevermore" and that "her candle is, in the assemblage of the world, lighted till eternity".[284] `Abdu'l-Bahá considered her to be the supreme example of how women are completely equal with men in the sight of God and can at times even exceed men in holiness and greatness.[285] Indeed he claimed that she surpassed all the men of her time,[286] and that "crowns studded with the brilliant jewels of guidance" were upon her head.[287]

The Bahá'í writings also expand upon the scarce references to her life in the canonical Gospels, with a wide array of extra-canonical stories about her and sayings which are not recorded in any other extant historical sources. `Abdu'l-Bahá claimed that Mary traveled to Rome and spoke before the Emperor Tiberius, which is presumably why Pilate was later recalled to Rome for his cruel treatment of the Jews (a tradition also attested to in the Eastern Orthodox Church).[288] Bahá'ís have noted parallels between Mary Magdalene and the Babí heroine-poet Táhirih. The two are similar in many respects, with Mary Magdalene often being viewed as a Christian antecedent of the latter, while Táhirih in her own right could be described as the spiritual return of the Magdalene; especially given their common, shared attributes of "knowledge, steadfastness, courage, virtue and will power", in addition to their importance within the religious movements of Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith as female leaders.[289]

Speculations In 1998, Ramon K. Jusino proposed an unprecedented argument that the "Beloved Disciple" of the Gospel of John is Mary Magdalene. Jusino based his argument largely on the Nag Hammadi Gnostic books, rejecting the view of Raymond E. Brown that these books were later developments, and maintaining instead that the extant Gospel of John is the result of modification of an earlier text that presented Mary Magdalene as the Beloved Disciple.[292] Richard J. Hooper does not make the Jusino thesis his own, but says: "Perhaps we should not altogether reject the possibility that some Johannine Christians considered Mary Magdalene to be 'the Christ with Martha and Mary (1886) by Henryk Siemiradzki, showing the conflated "composite Magdalene" sitting at Jesus's feet while her disciple whom Jesus loved'."[293] Esther A. de sister Martha does chores. Many authors have speculated about Boer likewise presents the idea as "one possibility Jesus and Mary's relationship, with some claiming she had an among others", not as a definitive solution to the especially close relationship to him or that they were problem of the identity of the anonymous married.[290][291] disciple.[294] A theological interpretation of Mary as the Magdala, The Elegant Tower and certain churches honor her as a heroine of the faith in their teachings.[295]

Dan Brown's 2003 bestselling mystery thriller novel popularized a number of erroneous ideas about Mary Magdalene,[296][297] including that she was a member of thetribe of Benjamin, that she was Jesus's wife, that she was pregnant at the crucifixion, and that she gave birth to Jesus's child, who became the founder of a bloodline which survives to this very day.[298] There is absolutely no historical evidence, from the canonical or apocryphal gospels, other early Christian writings, or any other ancient sources, to support any of these claims.[298][299] The Da Vinci Code also purports that the figure of the "beloved disciple" to Jesus's right in Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper is Mary Magdalene, disguised as one of the male disciples;[300] art historians maintain that the figure is, in reality, the apostle John, who only appears feminine due to Leonardo's characteristic fascination with blurring the lines between the sexes, a quality which is found in his other paintings, such as St. John the Baptist (painted c. 1513– 1516).[301] Furthermore, according to Ross King, an expert on Italian art, Mary Magdalene's appearance at the last supper would not have been controversial and Leonardo would have had no motive to disguise her as one of the other disciples,[302] since she was widely venerated in her role as the "apostle to the apostles" and patron of the Dominican Order, for whom The Last Supper was painted.[302] There would have even been precedent for it, since the earlier Italian Renaissance painter Fra Angelico had included her in his painting of the Last Supper.[303] Numerous works were written in response to the historical inaccuracies in The Da Vinci Code,[304][305] but the novel still exerted massive influence on how members of the general public viewed Mary Magdalene.[306][299]

In 2012, scholar Karen L. King published the Gospel of Jesus' Wife, a purported Coptic papyrus fragment in which Jesus says: "My wife ... she will be able to be my disciple." The overwhelming consensus of scholars, including King herself, is that the fragment is a modern forgery.[307][308][309][310] If genuine, the papyrus would have dated to sometime between the sixth and ninth centuries AD. Although the fragment does not contain the name of Mary Magdalene, some authors speculated that she was the woman referred to.[311]

Ehrman states that the historical sources reveal absolutely nothing about Jesus's sexuality[312] and that there is no evidence whatsoever to support the idea that Jesus and Mary Magdalene were married or that they had any kind of sexual or romantic relationship.[312] None of the canonical gospels imply such a thing[313] and, even in the late Gnostic gospels, where Mary is shown as Jesus's closest disciple,[313] the love between them is not sexual.[313] The extremely late Greater Questions of Mary, which is not extant, allegedly portrayed Mary not as Jesus's wife or partner, but rather as an unwilling voyeur.[128] Furthermore, Ehrman points out that the Essenes, a contemporary Jewish sect who shared many views with Jesus, and the apostle Paul, Jesus's later follower, both lived in unmarried celibacy,[290] so it is not unreasonable to conclude that Jesus did as well.[290]

Furthermore, according to Mark 12:25, Jesus taught that marriage would not exist at all in the coming kingdom of God.[314] Since Jesus taught that people should live as though the kingdom had already arrived, this teaching implied a life of unmarried celibacy.[315] Finally, Ehrman points out that, if Jesus had been married to Mary Magdalene, the authors of the gospels would definitely have mentioned it, since they mention all his other family members, including his mother Mary, his father Joseph, his four brothers, and his at least two sisters.[316] Casey rejects the idea of Mary Magdalene as Jesus's wife as nothing more than wild popular sensationalism.[291] Kripal writes that "the historical sources are simply too contradictory and simultaneously too silent" to make absolute declarations regarding Jesus' sexuality.[317]

See also

Cathedral of the Madeleine (Salt Lake City, Utah) La Madeleine, Paris New Testament people named Mary Saint Sarah Sainte-Baume St. Mary Magdalene's flood The Magdalen Reading

Notes original Biblical Greek: Μαρία ἡ Μαγδαληνή María hē Magdalēnē, literally ; מרים המגדלית :a. /ˈmæɡdəlɪn, -iːn/; Hebrew "Mary the Magdalene",[1] ,means "tower", "fortress"; inAramaic , "Magdala" means "tower" or "elevated, great (מגדל) b. In Hebrew Migdal magnificent".[18] Interpreters since the time ofSaint Jerome have suggested that Mary was called Magdalene because of her stature and faith, i.e. because she was like a tower: "Mary Magdalene received the epithet 'fortified with towers' because of her earnestness and strength of faith, and was privileged to see the rising of Christ first even before the apostles" (letter of St. Jerome translated by Susan Haskin,Mary Magdalen: Myth and Metaphor, p. 406). Other interpreters have seenMagdalene as referring to a kind of hairstyle. This translation stems from certain passages in uncensored versions of theT almud, where a woman, esoterically identified as Jesus's mother, is called "hamegadela se’ar nasha", which has been translated "Miriam, the dresser of women's hair", possibly a euphemism for "prostitute". See R.T. Herford, Christianity in Talmud and Midrash, pp. 40f. The Talmudic passages are at tractate Sanhedrin 67a and tractate Hagigah 4b of the Babylonian Talmud; cf. tractate Shabbat 104b. The English theologian John Lightfoot (1602–1675) noted these passages and commented: "Whence she was called Magdalene, doth not so plainly appear; whether from Magdala, a town on the lake of Gennesaret, or from the word which signifies a plaiting or curling of the hair, a thing usual with harlots." (Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica, chapter "Exercitations upon the Gospel of St. Matthew".)[19] c. Mary Magdalene's name is mostly given as Μαρία (Maria), but inMatthew 28:1 as Μαριάμ (Mariam),[22][23] both of which are regarded as Greek forms ofMiriam , the Hebrew name for Moses' sister. The name was extremely popular during the first century due to its connections to the rulingHasmonean and Herodian dynasties.[24] In the Gospel of John, Mary Magdalene is also referred to simply as "Mary" at least twice.[25] d. See, for instance, 1 Thessalonians 5:26, :16, 1 Corinthians 16:20, 2 Corinthians 13:12, Mark 14:43–45, Matthew 26:47–50, Luke 22:48, and 1 Peter 5:14

References

1. Μαρία η Μαγδαληνή in Matt 27:56; 27:61; 28:1; η Μαγδαληνή" and 24:10 says "η Μαγδαληνή Μαρία". Mark 15:40; 15:47; 16:1; 16:9 replaces "η" with "τη" John 19:25, 20:1 and 20:18 all say "Μαρία η because of the case change.Luke 8:1 says "Μαρία ... Μαγδαληνή". 2. "Mary Magdalene, the clichés". (http://www.bbc.co.uk/r 31. Ehrman 2006, p. 207. eligion/religions/christianity/history/marymagdalene.sht 32. May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New ml) BBC, Religions, July 20, 2011. Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. 3. Thompson, Mary R. Mary of Magdala, Apostle and 33. Kelly 2006, p. 95. Leader. New York: Paulist Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8091- 34. Chilton 2005, pp. 28–30. 3573-6 35. Schaberg 2004, pp. 79–80. 4. Meyers, Carol, ed. (2000). "Named Women: Mary 3 (Magdalene)". Women in Scripture. Boston: Houghton 36. Chilton 2005, p. 26. Mifflin Co. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-395-70936-8. 37. Ehrman 2006, pp. 195, 198. 5. Casey 2010, p. 475. 38. Casey 2010, pp. 192–195. 6. Maisch 1998, p. 9. 39. Ehrman 2006, p. 196. 7. Ehrman 2006, pp. 185–187. 40. Sanders 1993, pp. 124–125. 8. Ehrman 2006, pp. 185–187, 247. 41. Haag 2016. 9. Ehrman 2006, p. 247. 42. Casey 2010, pp. 194–195. 10. Ehrman 2006, p. 185. 43. Sanders 1993, p. 124. 11. Haag 2016, p. 152. 44. Ricci, Carla and Paul Burns.Mary Magdalene and 12. Casey 2010, pp. 543–544. Many Others. Augsburg Fortress, 1994.ISBN 0-8006- 2718-0 13. Ehrman 2006, pp. 185–187, 218. 45. Ehrman 2006, pp. 199–200. 14. Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. 260. 46. Schaberg 2004, p. 84. 15. Casey 2010, p. 193. 47. Ehrman 2006, p. 200. 16. Ehrman 2006, p. 197. 48. Ehrman 2006, pp. 195–196. 17. Maisch 1998, p. 2. 49. Ehrman 2006, pp. 196–200. 18. See Marvin Meyer, with Esther A. de Boer, The 50. Ehrman 2006, pp. 196–205. Gospels of Mary: The Secret Traditions of Mary 51. Campbell 2009, pp. 2–64. Magdalene the Companion of Jesus (Harper San 52. Ehrman 2006, p. 223. Francisco) 2004;Esther de Boer provides an overview 53. Herzog 2005, pp. 1–6. of the source texts excerpted in an essay Should" we 54. Powell 1998, p. 168. all turn and listen to her?': Mary Magdalene in the spotlight". pp. 74–96. 55. Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 p. 339 states of baptism and 19. "New Testament names – some Jewish notes" (http:// crucifixion that these "two facts in the life of Jesus www.oztorah.com/2012/12/new-testament-names-som command almost universal assent". e-jewish-notes/). Oztorah.com. Retrieved May 7, 2013. 56. Crossan 1995, p. 145. 20. Ehrman 2006, pp. 197–198. 57. Levine, Allison & Crossan 2006, p. 4. 21. Maisch 1998, pp. 2–3. 58. Ehrman 2006, pp. 217–223. 22. "Maria or Mariam" (http://biblehub.com/greek/3137.ht 59. Ehrman 2006, pp. 225–226. m). Bible Hub. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 60. Ehrman 2006, p. 226. 23. "SBL Greek New Testament (SBLGNT)" (https://www. 61. Sanders 1993, p. 276. biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A 62. Jones & Penny 1983, pp. 46–47. 1-10&version=SBLGNT). Biblegateway.com. 63. Ehrman 2014, pp. 151–161. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 64. Ehrman 2014, p. 163. 24. Mariam, the Magdalen, and the Mother, Deirdre Good, editor, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN 65. Casey 2010, p. 448. 47404-3797. Pages 9–10. 66. Ehrman 2014, pp. 156–164. 25. John 20:11 and John 20:16. 67. Ehrman 2014, pp. 156–169. 26. Casey 2010, p. 194. 68. Casey 2010, pp. 448–453. 27. Casey 2010, p. 192. 69. Casey 2010, pp. 449–450. 28. Casey 2010, pp. 192–193. 70. Casey 2010, pp. 449–453. 29. Ehrman 2006, pp. 206–207. 71. Sanders 1993, pp. 274–276. 30. Chilton 2005, pp. 25–28. 72. Casey 2010, p. 462. 73. Ehrman 2006, pp. 227–229. 114. The Old and New Testament and Gnostic contexts 74. Sanders 1993, pp. 276–280. and the text are discussed by Robert M. Grant, "The Mystery of Marriage in the Gospel of Philip".V igiliae 75. Ehrman 2014, pp. 137–143. Christianae 15.3 (September 1961:129–140). 76. Casey 2010, pp. 456–457. 115. Ehrman 2006, p. 215. 77. Ehrman 2014, pp. 142–143. 116. Thayer and Smith. "Greek Lexicon entry for 78. Sanders 1993, p. 277. Koinonos". The New Testament Greek Lexicon". 79. Ehrman 2014, pp. 137–140. http://www.biblestudytools.com (http://www.biblestudyt 80. Hinkle 2003, p. 446. ools.com/lexicons/greek/kjv/koinonos.html) 81. Casey 2010, pp. 461–462. 117. This confusing reference is already in the original 82. Ehrman 2006, p. 228. manuscript. It is not clear, if the text refers to Jesus' or his mother's sister, or whether the intention is to say 83. Casey 2010, p. 463. something else. 84. Casey 2010, pp. 463–464. 118. Marjanen, Antti (1996). The Woman Jesus Loved: 85. Ehrman 2006, pp. 226–227. Mary Magdalene in the Nag Hammadi Library and 86. Casey 2010, p. 464. Related Documents (https://books.google.com/books? 87. Ehrman 2006, p. 253. id=TalC9sUIgE0C). Leiden: Brill. pp. 151–60 et passim. ISBN 978-9004106581. 88. Ehrman 2006, pp. 227, 253. 119. Peter Kirby [1] (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/t 89. Ehrman 2006, pp. 253, 228. ext/gospelphilip.html) 90. Casey 2010, p. 477. 120. The Christ Files: How Historians Know What They 91. Ehrman 2006, p. 229. Know About Jesus, John Dinkson, p. 95 (Sydney 92. Ehrman 2006, p. 255. South: Blue Bottle Books, 2006).ISBN 1-921137-54-1 93. Ehrman 2006, pp. 226–227, 255–256. 121. Ehrman 2006, p. 216. 94. Wright 2003, p. 607. 122. Ehrman 2006, pp. 215–216. 95. Ehrman 2014, pp. 164–169. 123. Ehrman 2006, p. 238. 96. Ehrman 2014, p. 166. 124. Ehrman 2006, p. 239. 97. Ehrman 2014, pp. 166–169. 125. "Gospel of Mary" (http://www.earlychristianwritings.co 98. Ehrman 2014, pp. 166–167. m/gospelmary.html). Earlychristianwritings.com. 99. Ehrman 2014, p. 192. Retrieved May 7, 2013. 100. King, Karen L. "Women In Ancient Christianity: The 126. Ehrman 2006, pp. 238–249. New Discoveries". Frontline: The First Christians. 127. Casey 2010, p. 535. Web: November 2, 2009. 128. Ehrman 2006, p. 249. 101. Sanders 1993, p. 64. 129. De Boer, Esther A., The Gospel of Mary Listening to 102. Casey 2010, p. 544. the Beloved Disciple. London: Continuum, 2006 103. Ehrman 2006, pp. 207–208. (2005). 104. Ehrman 2006, p. 208. 130. Ehrman 2006, pp. 239–242. 105. Hurtak, J.J.; Desiree Hurtak (1999). Pistis Sophia: A 131. Ehrman 2006, p. 242. Coptic Text of Gnosis with Commentary. Los Gatos, 132. Ehrman 2006, pp. 242–243. CA: Academy for Future Science. 133. Ehrman 2006, p. 243. 106. Ehrman 2006, pp. 208–209. 134. Ehrman 2006, pp. 243–245. 107. Ehrman 2006, p. 209. 135. Casey 2010, pp. 535–536. 108. Ehrman 2006, pp. 211–213. 136. Ehrman 2006, p. 245. 109. Meyer, Marvin (2004). The Gospel of Thomas: The 137. Casey 2010, p. 536. Hidden Sayings of Jesus. HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0- 138. Ehrman 2006, pp. 245–246. 06-065581-5. 139. Ehrman 2006, p. 246. 110. Ehrman 2006, pp. 210–211. 140. Kim 2015, pp. 37–39. 111. Ehrman 2006, p. 210. 141. DeConick 2011, p. 139. 112. Ehrman 2006, p. 211. 142. Strong & Strong 2008, p. 90. 113. Ehrman 2006, p. 213. 143. Ehrman 2006, p. 235. 144. "Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book 1" (https://ar 169. Carroll, James (June 2006)."Who Was Mary chive.today/20151013103634/http://www.masseiana.o Magdalene?" (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history rg/panarion_bk1.htm%23First). September 6, 2015. -archaeology/magdalene.html#ixzz2PdkNRoyp). Archived from the original (http://www.masseiana.org/ Smithsonian. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved panarion_bk1.htm%23First) on October 13, 2015. May 7, 2013. 145. Ehrman 2006, pp. 234–235. 170. Haskins 2005, p. 14. 146. Haskins 2005, p. 59. 171. Haskins 2005, p. 95. 147. Haskins 2005, pp. 58–59. 172. Johnston, 64; the accounts are the Life in theGolden 148. Haskins 2005, pp. 58–61. Legend, French Passion Plays, and her main subject, the Vie de La Magdaleine by François Demoulins de 149. Schaberg 2004, p. 86. Rochefort, written 1516–17 (see p. 11) 150. Haskins 2005, p. 90. 173. Missale Romanum. New York: Benzinger Brothers. 151. Schaberg 2004, pp. 84–85. 1962. 152. Schaberg 2004, p. 85. 174. "SS Mary, Martha and Lazarus" (http://www.ibenedictin 153. Schaberg 2004, p. 87. es.org/2011/07/29/ss-mary-martha-and-lazarus/). 154. Ehrman 2006, p. 256. Ibenedictines.org. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 155. Doyle, Ken. "Apostle to the apostles: The story of 175. Hufstader, 32–40, and throughout the rest ofthe Mary Magdalene" (https://web.archive.org/web/201204 article 16001954/http://ct.dio.org/comment-and-dialogue/que 176. Pringle 1998, p. 28. stion-corner/apostle-to-the-apostles-the-story-of-mary- 177. Gregory of Tours, De miraculis, I, xxx. magdalene.html). Catholic Times. Archived from the 178. Foss 1979, p. 33. original (http://ct.dio.org/comment-and-dialogue/questi on-corner/apostle-to-the-apostles-the-story-of-mary-m 179. Rebecca Lea McCarthy (January 18, 2010).Origins of agdalene.html) on April 16, 2012. Retrieved the Magdalene Laundries: An Analytical History (http November 29, 2016. s://books.google.com/books?id=GIRJkAbmaiEC&pg= PA50). McFarland. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-7864-5580-5. 156. Ehrman 2006, pp. 189–190. 180. Maisch 1998, p. 48. 157. Morrow, Carol Ann. "St. Mary Magdalene: Redeeming Her Gospel Reputation". Liguori Publications[2] (htt 181. Maisch 1998, p. 46. p://www.liguori.org/st-mary-magdalene-redeeming-her 182. Ehrman 2006, pp. 183–184. -gospel-reputation.html) 183. Maisch 1998, pp. 46–47. 158. Schaberg 2004, pp. 85–86. 184. Maisch 1998, pp. 46–49. 159. Bock 2004, pp. 143–144. 185. Maisch 1998, p. 47. 160. Hooper, Richard J. (2005). Richard J. Hooper, The 186. See Franco Mormando, "Virtual Death in the Middle Crucifixion of Mary Magdalene (Sanctuary Ages: The Apotheosis of Mary Magdalene in Popular Publications 2008 ISBN 978-0-9746995-4-7), p. 81 (htt Preaching", in Death and Dying in the Middle Ages, ps://books.google.com/books?id=t5VDyVgP2TsC&pg= ed. Edelgard DuBruck and Barbara I. Gusick, New PA81). ISBN 9780974699547. Retrieved August 6, York, Peter Lang, 1999, pp. 257–74. 2014. 187. Jane Schaberg, The Resurrection of Mary Magdalene: 161. Althaus-Reid, Marcella (2009).Marcella Althaus-Reid, Legends, Apocrypha and The Christian Testament, Liberation Theology and Sexuality (Hymns Ancient page 88 (New York: The Continuum International and Modern 2009 ISBN 978-0-334-04185-6), p. 86 (htt Publishing Group, Inc., 2002).ISBN 0-8264-1645-4 ps://books.google.com/books?id=IimfR3MWc2AC&pg 188. Witcombe 2002, p. 279. =PA86). ISBN 9780334041856. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 189. See Johnston, 111–115 on the rise and fall of Vézelay as a cult centre 162. Haskins 2005, p. 15. 190. Haskins 2005, pp. 129–132. 163. Schaberg 2004, pp. 86–87. 191. Linda Kay Davidson; David Martin Gitlitz (January 1, 164. Maisch 1998, p. 44. 2002). PilgrFile: From the Ganges to Graceland : an 165. Haskins 2005, p. 93. Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=YV 166. Haskins 2005, pp. 93–94. YkrNhPMQkC&pg=PA562). ABC-CLIO. p. 562. 167. Haskins 2005, p. 94. ISBN 978-1-57607-004-8. 168. Ehrman 2006, p. 189. 192. Ehrman 2006, p. 184. 193. Erhardt & Morris 2012, p. 7. 194. Erhardt & Morris 2012, pp. 7–8. 195. Ehrman 2006, pp. 184–185. 222. See Franco Mormando, "Teaching the Faithful to Fly: 196. Thomas F. Head (2001). Medieval Hagiography: An Mary Magdalene and Peter in Baroque Italy" inSaints Anthology (https://books.google.com/books?id=kDD_0 and Sinners: Caravaggio and the Baroque Image, GztLYkC&pg=PA659). Taylor & Francis Group. Chestnut Hill, MA, McMullen Museum of Art, 1999, pp. pp. 659–. ISBN 978-0-415-93753-5. Retrieved 107–135. November 16, 2012. 223. Haskins 2005, pp. 251–253. 197. Victor Saxer, Le culte de Marie-Madeleine en 224. Maisch 1998, pp. 65–66. Occident, des origines à la fin du Moyen Âge (1959). 225. Maisch 1998, pp. 67–70. 198. Ecole française de Rome, (1992). 226. Maisch 1998, p. 67. 199. Jansen 2000. 227. John Trigilio, Jr., Kenneth Brighenti, Saints For 200. "the Abbey of Vesoul" in William Caxton's translation. Dummies, pages 52–53 (Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2010). 201. Golden Legend ISBN 978-0-470-53358-1 202. Katherine Ludwig Jansen,The Making of The 228. Robert Kiefer Webb, Richard J. Helmstadter(editors), Magdalen: Preaching and Popular Devotion In The Religion and Irreligion in Victorian Society: Essays in Later Middle Ages, page 151, footnote 20 (Princeton Honor of R.K. Webb, page 119 (London: Routledge, University Press, 2000). ISBN 0-691-08987-6. Citing 1991). ISBN 0-415-07625-0 Cavalca, Vita, 329; Life, 2–3. 229. Edgar Saltus, Mary Magdalene: A Chronicle (https://op 203. Haag 2016, p. 231. enlibrary.org/books/OL6738080M/Mary_Magdalen) (New York, Belford company, 1891). Available from 204. King 2012, p. 188. Open Library. 205. Haag 2016, pp. 235–336. 230. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 206. Haag 2016, pp. 235–337. 1969), p. 131 207. Haag 2016, p. 337. 231. Calendarium Romanum (1969), p. 98 208. W. A. Sibly, M. D. Sibly, The History of the Albigensian 232. Haag 2016, pp. 1–2. Crusade: Peter of les Vaux-de-Cernay's "Historia 233. Martyrologium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Albigensis" (Boydell, 1998). ISBN 0-85115-658-4. 2001, ISBN 978-88-209-7210-3), p. 398 209. Christian Churches of God."The Treatise of 234. Haag 2016, p. 2. Ermengaudus (No. B8)" (http://www.ccg.org/english/s/ b8.html). Ccg.org. Retrieved August 13, 2012. 235. Ehrman 2006, pp. 181–182. 210. Anne Bradford Townsend, The Cathars of Languedoc 236. Lang 2003, pp. 33–34. as heretics: From the Perspectives of Five 237. Ehrman 2006, pp. 179–180. Contemporary Scholars (http://proquest.umi.com/pqdli 238. Lang 2003, p. 34. nk?Ver=1&Exp=08-26-2016&FMT=7&DID=152889152 239. Ehrman 2006, pp. 180–181. 1&RQT=309&attempt=1&cfc=1), page 147 (UMI Microform, ProQuest, 2008). Ph.D. dissertation 240. "The Secret Magdalene" (http://www.thesecretmagdal ene.com/index.html). The Secret Magdalene. 211. Walter L. Wakefield, Austin P. Evans, Heresies of the Retrieved May 7, 2013. High Middle Ages: Translated with Notes, page 234 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991). ISBN 0- 241. "Lady Gaga 'Judas' Video Leaked" (https://www.huffin 231-02743-5. The authors speculate on page 230 that gtonpost.com/2011/05/05/lady-gaga-judas-video_n_85 this could have been the source used by Peter of Vaux 8153.html). HuffPost. May 5, 2011. Retrieved April 25, de Cernay. 2018. 212. Katherine Ludwig Jansen, citing Jacques Levron,Le 242. Bradshaw 2018. bon roi René (Paris: Arthaud, 1972). 243. Hailes 2018. 213. Maisch 1998, pp. 63–65. 244. Carr 2018. 214. Haskins 2005, p. 250. 245. Dalton 2018. 215. Haskins 2005, pp. 250–251. 246. "The Penitent Magdalene" (http://art.thewalters.org/det 216. Henderson (2004), pp. 8–14 ail/40183). The Walters Art Museum. 217. Roper 2016, pp. 295–296. 247. Ferguson 1976, pp. 134–135. 218. Roper 2016, p. 295. 248. Lang 2003, p. 33. 219. Haskins 2005, p. 249. 249. Kugelmann 1983, p. 151. 220. Maisch 1998, p. 65. 250. Haskins 2005, p. xi. 221. Haskins 2005, pp. 251–252. 251. Witcombe 2002, p. 282. 252. Ferguson 1976, p. 135. 253. Schiller, II, 116 269. Brown, Raymond Edward (1979).Raymond Edward 254. Schiller, II, 152–154 Brown, The Community of the Beloved Disciple (Paulist Press 1979 ISBN 978-0-8091-2174-8), p. 190 255. Schiller, II, 154–158 (https://books.google.com/?id=oRCdxOJWvcQC&pg= 256. Kiely, Robert (September 6, 2010)."Picturing the PA190&dq=%22apostle+to+the+apostles%22#v=onep Magdalene: How Artists Imagine the Apostle to the age&q=%22apostle%20to%20the%20apostles%22&f= Apostles" (https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/pict false). ISBN 9780809121748. Retrieved August 6, uring-magdalene). Commonweal. Retrieved 2014. November 29, 2016. 270. "Pseudo-Rabanus Maurus' Life of Mary Magdalene 257. Schiller, Gertud, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, and her sister Martha – Magdalen College Oxford" (htt pp. 158–159, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund p://www.magd.ox.ac.uk/libraries-and-archives/treasure Humphries, London, ISBN 0-85331-270-2 -of-the-month/news/pseudo-rabanus/). Magdalen 258. Green 2014, pp. 25–29. College, University of Oxford. July 22, 2014. Retrieved 259. Green 2014, p. 27. November 29, 2016. 260. Abernethy and Beaty, The Folklore of Texan Cultures, 271. Brown (1979), pp. 189–190 Denton University of North Texas Press, 2000, p. 261. 272. "Mulieris Dignitatem, John Paul II, 15 August 1988 – 261. "Deborah Rose, "So, Really ... Who was She?" " (htt Apostolic Letter" (https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-pa p://magdalineage.com/so.html). Magdalineage.com. ul-ii/en/apost_letters/1988/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_150 Retrieved August 6, 2014. 81988_mulieris-dignitatem.html). Vatican.va. August 262. "Patricia Kasten, "A great saint with a big case of 15, 1988. Retrieved November 29, 2016. mistaken identity" " (http://www.thecompassnews.org/c 273. Holy See Press Office (June 10, 2016). "The liturgical ompass/2007-07-20/foundations.shtml). memory of Mary Magdalene becomes a feast, like that Thecompassnews.org. July 20, 2007. Retrieved of the other apostles, 10.06.2016" (http://press.vatica August 6, 2014. n.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2016/0 263. "John Rivera, "Restoring Mary Magdalene" in 6/10/160610b.html). The Holy See. Retrieved June 10, "Worldwide Religious News",The Baltimore Sun, April 2016. 18, 2003" (http://wwrn.org/articles/3488/?§ion=ge 274. "J. Frank Henderson, "The Disappearance of the neral). Wwrn.org. April 18, 2003. Retrieved August 6, Feast of Mary Magdalene from the Anglican Liturgy" 2014. (2004), pp. 1–4" (http://www.jfrankhenderson.com/pdf/ 264. Mclaughlin, Lisa and David Van Biema. "Mary Disappearance_Feast_MaryMagdalene.pdf) (PDF). Magdalene Saint or Sinner?"timeonline.com (http://w Retrieved August 6, 2014. ww.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1005391,0 275. H.D. Egan, An Anthology of Christian mysticism, 0.html), August 11, 2003. Accessed June 7, 2009 Pueblo Publishing Co. (1992), pp.407ff.; cf. also, C. 265. Jansen, Katherine Ludwig (July 22, 2001).Katherine Bourgeault,The Meaning of Mary Magdalene: Ludwig Jansen, The Making of the Magdalen Discovering the Woman at the Heart of Christianity, (Princeton University Press 2001 ISBN 978-0-691- Shambhala Publ. (2010),passim . 08987-4), p. 63 (https://books.google.com/?id=tAxSQ7 276. T. Coletti, Mary Magdalene and the Drama of Saints, O4WogC&pg=PA63&dq=%22apostolorum+apostola% University of Pennsylvania Press (2004); E. De Boer, 22#v=onepage&q=%22apostolorum%20apostola%22 Mary Magdalene: Beyond the Myth, SCM Press &f=false). ISBN 978-0691089874. Retrieved August 6, (1997), pp.94ff. 2014. 277. "39 Articles of Religion – XXII. Of Purgatory" (http://ww 266. Schaberg, Jane (August 31, 2004).Jane Schaberg, w.thirtyninearticles.org/#XXII._Of_Purgatory.). The Resurrection of Mary Magdalene (Bloomsbury Retrieved November 29, 2016. 2004 ISBN 978-1-4411-4175-0), p. 88 (https://books.g 278. "Liturgical Life Principles" (https://books.google.com/?i oogle.com/?id=tNioAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88&dq=Jane+ d=O9_l9FLSKtkC&pg=PT67&dq=Markham+%22ask+t Schaberg+Geoffrey+Vend%C3%B4me#v=onepage&q he+saints%22#v=onepage&q=Markham%20%22as =Jane%20Schaberg%20Geoffrey%20Vend%C3%B4 k%20the%20saints%22&f=false). google.com. me&f=false). ISBN 9781441141750. Retrieved 279. Evangelical Lutheran Worship, Evangelical Lutheran August 6, 2014. Church in America, 2006, p. 57 267. "Patrologia Latina, vol. 112, col. 1474B" (https://archiv 280. Geneva Press 2008, p. 139. e.org/stream/patrologiaecurs22goog#page/n742/mod 281. Wilson 2011, p. 99. e/2up). Archive.org. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 282. Juliet Thompson, I, Mary Magdalene, Foreword 268. PL 112, 1475A 283. `Abdu'l-Bahá, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 420 284. `Abdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'í World Faith – `Abdu'l-Bahá 301. King 2012, pp. 189–191. Section, p. 385 302. King 2012, pp. 187–189. 285. `Abdu'l-Bahá in London, p. 105 303. King 2012, pp. 187–188. 286. `Abdu'l-Bahá, Divine Philosophy, p. 50 304. Ehrman 2004, pp. xiii–xvi. 287. `Abdu'l-Bahá, Tablets of the Divine Plan, pp. 39–40 305. Casey 2010, p. 26. 288. `Abdu'l-Bahá, Tablets of `Abdu'l-Bahá Vol.2, p. 467 306. Ehrman 2004, p. xvi. 289. Mazal, Peter (October 21, 2003)."Selected Topics of 307. Andrew Brown. "Gospel of Jesus's Wife is fake, claims Comparison in Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith" (htt expert | World news" (https://www.theguardian.com/wo p://bahai-library.com/mazal_comparison_christianity_b rld/2012/sep/21/gospel-jesus-wife-forgery). ahai&chapter=2). bahai-library.org. Retrieved June 25, theguardian.com. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 2006. 308. LAURIE GOODSTEIN. "Fresh Doubts Raised About 290. Ehrman 2006, pp. 249–150. Papyrus Scrap Known as 'Gospel of Jesus' Wife' " (htt 291. Casey 2010, pp. 544–545. ps://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/05/us/fresh-doubts-rai 292. Jusino, Ramon K (1998)."Mary Magdalene: Author of sed-about-papyrus-scrap-known-as-gospel-of-jesuss- the Fourth Gospel?" (http://ramon_k_jusino.tripod.co wife.html). The New York Times. m/magdalene.html). Ramon K. Jusino. Retrieved 309. "NT Blog: More evidence of forgery in the Jesus' Wife December 30, 2014. Sister Fragment" (http://ntweblog.blogspot.com.au/201 293. "The Crucifixion of Mary Magdalene" (https://books.go 4/05/more-evidence-of-forgery-jesus-wife.html). ogle.com/?id=t5VDyVgP2TsC&pg=PA223&dq=Hooper Ntweblog.blogspot.com.au. May 1, 2014. Retrieved +%22pure+speculation%22#v=onepage&q=Hooper% August 6, 2014. 20%22pure%20speculation%22&f=false). google.com. 310. Sabar 2016. 294. "The Gospel of Mary" (https://books.google.com/?id=J 311. Sam Masters (April 11, 2014)."Jesus had a wife, say 0-vAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA190&dq=Esther+Boer+%22one scientists, as ancient papyrus scroll verified – +possibility%22#v=onepage&q=Esther%20Boer%20% Americas – World" (https://www.independent.co.uk/ne 22one%20possibility%22&f=false). google.com. ws/world/americas/jesus-had-a-wife-say-scientists-as- 295. "Apostle to the apostles: The story of Mary Magdalene ancient-papyrus-scroll-verified-9255110.html). The – Catholic Times" (https://web.archive.org/web/201203 Independent. Retrieved August 6, 2014. 14224852/http://ct.dio.org/comment-and-dialogue/que 312. Ehrman 2006, p. 248. stion-corner/apostle-to-the-apostles-the-story-of-mary- 313. Ehrman 2006, pp. 248–249. magdalene.html). March 14, 2012. 314. Ehrman 2006, p. 250. 296. Ehrman 2004, pp. xii–xvii. 315. Ehrman 2006, pp. 250–251. 297. Casey 2010, pp. 25–26, 544–545. 316. Ehrman 2006, p. 251. 298. Ehrman 2004, pp. xii–xv. 317. Jeffrey John Kripal, The Serpent's Gift: Gnostic 299. Casey 2010, pp. 25–26. Reflections on the Study of Religion, p. 52 (Chicago: 300. King 2012, pp. 183–184. The University of Chicago Press, 2007).ISBN 0-226- 45380-4 ISBN 0-226-45381-2

Bibliography Bock, Darrell L. (2004), Breaking The Da Vinci Code, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, pp.143–144, ISBN 978-1-4185-1338-2 Bradshaw, Peter (February 27, 2018),"Mary Magdalene review – toothless attempt to overturn Sunday school myths: Rooney Mara brings her customary intensity to the title role as Jesus' 'favourite pupil', but the result is a bit too solemn to be a convincing reinvention", The Guardian Campbell, Lorne (2009), "The New Pictorial Language of Rogier van der Weyden", in Campbell, Lorne; Van der Stock, Jan (eds.), Rogier Van Der Weyden: 1400–1464 : Master of Passions, Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock, pp. 2– 64, ISBN 9789085261056 Carr, Flora (March 30, 2018),"The Real Reason Why Mary Magdalene Is Such a Controversial Figure", TIME Casey, Maurice (2010), Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and eachingT , New York City, New York and London, England: T & T Clark,ISBN 978-0-567-64517-3 Crossan, John Dominic (1995),Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography, San Francisco, California: HarperOne,ISBN 978- 0-06-061662-5 "Life of Mary Magdalen", William Caxton's English version of the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine Chilton, Bruce (2005), Mary Magdalene: A Biography, New York City, New York, London, England, Toronto, Ontario, Sydney, Australia, and Auckland, New Zealand: Image Doubleday, ISBN 978-0-385-51318-0 Dalton, Stephen (February 27, 2018)," Mary Magdalene: Film Review", The Hollywood Reporter DeConick, April D. (2011),Holy Misogyny: Why the Sex and Gender Conflicts in the Early Church Still Matter, New York City, New York and London, England: Continuum International Publishing Group,ISBN 978-1-4411-9602-6 Ehrman, Bart D. (2004), Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0-19-518140-1 Ehrman, Bart D. (2006), Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0-19-530013-0 Ehrman, Bart D. (2014), How Jesus Became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee, New York City, New York: HarperOne, ISBN 978-0-06-177818-6 Erhardt, Michelle; Morris, Amy (2012), "Introduction",Mary Magdalene: Iconographic Studies from the Middle Ages to the Baroque, Studies in Religion and the Arts, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill,ISBN 978-90-04-23224-2 Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Mary Magdalene",Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 134–135 Foss, Clive (1979), Ephesus After Antiquity: A Late Antique, Byzantine and urkishT City, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978-0-521-22086-6 Geneva Press (2008), The Presbyterian Handbook for Pastors, Louiseville, Kentucky: Geneva Press,ISBN 978-0- 664-50299-7 Green, Mary E. (2014), "Mary Magdalene, the Myrrh Bearer",Eyes to See: The Redemptive Purpose of Icons, New York City, New York, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Denver Colorado: Morehouse Publishing,ISBN 978-0-8192- 2939-7 Haag, Michael (2016), The Quest For Mary Magdalene: History & Legend, London, England: Profile Books, ISBN 978-1847659385 Hailes, Sam (March 6, 2018),"Why Mary Magdalene is the Hollywood film Christians have been waiting for: This new movie paints a clear picture of Jesus, says Sam Hailes", Premiere Christianity Haskins, Susan (2005) [1993],Mary Magdalen: Myth and Metaphor, New York City, New York: Pimplico, ISBN 978- 1-8459-5004-0 Herzog, William R. (2005),Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-22528-5 Hinkle, Mary (2003) [1986], "Mary Magdalene",in Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milič; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Vischer, Lukas; Bromiley, Geoffrey W.; Barrett, David B. (eds.),The Encyclopedia of Christianity, J–O, 3, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Cambridge, England, Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston, Massachusetts: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company and Brill, pp. 446–448,ISBN 978-0-8028-2415-8 Johnston, Barbara, "Sacred Kingship and Royal Patronage in the La ieV de la Magdalene: , Politics, Passion Plays, and the Life of Louise of Savoy" (Florida State), R. Neuman, Dissertation,PDF , 88–93 Jones, Roger; Penny, Nicholas (1983), Raphael, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, ISBN 978- 0300040524 Kelly, Henry Ansgar (2006), Satan: A Biography, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978- 0521604024 Kim, Young Richard (2015), Epiphanius of Cyprus: Imagining an Orthodox World, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, pp. 37–39,ISBN 978-0-472-11954-7 King, Ross (2012), Leonardo and the Last Supper, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0-7475-9947-0 Kugelmann, Robert (1983),The Windows of Soul: Psychological Physiology of the Human Eye and Primary Glaucoma, London, England and Toronto, Canada: Associated University Presses,ISBN 978-0-8387-5035-3 Lang, J. Stephen (2003),What the Good Book Didn't Say: Popular Myths and Misconceptions About the Bible, New York City New York: Citadel Press, ISBN 978-0-8065-2460-3 Levine, Amy-Jill; Allison, Dale C. Jr.; Crossan, John Dominic (October 16, 2006),The Historical Jesus in Context, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 Maisch, Ingrid (1998) [1996],Mary Magdalene: The Image of a Woman through the Centuries, translated by Maloney, Linda M., Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0-8146-2471-5 Powell, Mark Allen (1998),Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee, Louiseville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, p. 168, ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3 Pringle, Denys (1998), "Magdala",The Churches of the Crusader : A Corpus, II: L–Z (excluding Tyre), Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-39037-8 Roper, Lyndal (2016), Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet, New York City, New York: Random House, ISBN 9780812996203 Sabar, Ariel (2016), "The Scholar Who Discovered the 'Jesus's Wife' Fragment Now Says It's Likely a Fake", The Atlantic Sanders, E. P. (1993), The Historical Figure of Jesus, London, England, New York City, New York, Ringwood, Australia, Toronto, Ontario, and Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books,ISBN 978-0-14-014499-4 Schaberg, Jane (2004) [2002],The Resurrection of Mary Magdalene: Legends, Apocrypha, and the Christian Testament, New York City, New York and London, England: Continuum International Publishing Group,ISBN 978-0- 8264-1645-2 Strong, Steven; Strong, Evan (2008),Mary Magdalene's Dreaming: A Comparison of Aboriginal Wisdom and Gnostic Scripture, Lanham, Maryland, Boulder, Colorado, New York City, New York, Toronto, Ontario, and Plymouth, England: University Press of America,ISBN 978-0-7618-4281-1 Wilson, Kenneth (2011), Methodist Theology, Doing Theology, London, England and New York City, New York: Bloomsbury T & T Clark, ISBN 978-0-5670-8135-3 Witcombe, Christopher L. C. E. (June 2002), "The Chapel of the Courtesan and the Quarrel of the Magdalens",The Art Bulletin, 84 (2): 273–292, doi:10.2307/3177269, JSTOR 3177269 Wright, N. T. (March 1, 2003), The Resurrection of the Son of God, Christian Origins and the Question of God,3 , Eugene, Oregon: Fortress Press,ISBN 978-0800626792

Further reading

Acocella, Joan. "The Saintly Sinner: The Two-Thousand-Year Obsession with Mary Magdalene".The New Yorker, February 13 & 20, 2006, p. 140–49. Prompted by controversy surrounding 'sThe Da Vinci Code. Brock, Ann Graham. Mary Magdalene, The First Apostle: The Struggle for Authority. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-674-00966-5. Discusses issues of apostolic authority in the gospels and the Gospel of Peter the competition between Peter and Mary, especially in chapter 7, "The Replacement of Mary Magdalene: A Strategy for Eliminating the Competition". Burstein, Dan, and Arne J. De Keijzer. Secrets of Mary Magdalene. New York: CDS Books, 2006. ISBN 1-59315- 205-1. De Boer Esther A., Mary Magdalene, beyond the Myth(SCM Press London, 1997). Jurgen Moltmann and E. Moltmann-Wendel, Humanity in God (London: SCM, 1984). Jacobovici, Simcha and Barrie Wilson, "The Lost Gospel" (New York: Pegasus, 2014). Jansen, Katherine Ludwig.The Making of the Magdalen: Preaching and Popular Devotion in the Later Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-691-05850-4. Kripal, Jeffrey John. (2007). The Serpent's Gift: Gnostic Reflections on the Study of Religion. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-45380-4 ISBN 0-226-45381-2. Pearson, Birger A. "Did Jesus Marry?".Bible Review, Spring 2005, pp 32–39 & 47. Discussion ofcomplete texts. Picknett, Lynn, and Clive Prince. The Templar Revelation. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. ISBN 0-593-03870-3. Presents a hypothesis that Mary Magdalene was a priestess who was Jesus' partner in a sacred marriage. Shoemaker, Stephen J. "Rethinking the ‘Gnostic Mary’: Mary of Nazareth and Mary of Magdala in Early ". in Journal of Early Christian Studies, 9 (2001) pp 555–595. Thiering, Barbara. Jesus the Man: Decoding the Real Story of Jesus and Mary Magdalene. New York: Simon & Schulster (Atria Books), 2006.ISBN 1-4165-4138-1. Wellborn, Amy. De-coding Mary Magdalene: Truth, Legend, and Lies. Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor, 2006. ISBN 1-59276-209-3. A straightforward accounting of what is well-known of Mary Magdalene. External links

St. Mary Magdalene (pdf) from Fr. Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints "Saint Mary Magdalene". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. St Mary Magdalene, Catholic Encyclopaedia 1911 Convent of Saint Mary Magdalene Legends of Mary Magdalene Gospel of Mary Magdalene Saint Mary Magdalene at Curlie In Our Time on BBC Radio 4, February 25, 2016 "Mary Magdalene" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Magdalene&oldid=898235239"

This page was last edited on 22 May 2019, at 08:12 (UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Coordinates: 32°49′30″N 35°30′56″E

Magdala

/ מגדל :Magdala, meaning "tower"; Hebrew / מגדלא :Magdala (Aramaic Magdala al-Majdal) was an ancient city on the shore of the Sea / اﻟﻤﺠﺪل :Migdal; Arabic מגדלא of Galilee, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Tiberias. In the Babylonian Talmud it is meaning "Tower of the ,מגדלא נוניה :known as Magdala Nunayya (Aramaic Fishes"), and which some historical geographers think may refer to Tarichaea, literally the place of processing fish. It is believed to be the birthplace of Mary Magdalene. Until the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, a small Arab village, al-Majdal, stood at the site of ancient Magdala, while nowadays the modern Israeli municipality of Migdal extends to the area.

Archaeological excavations on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority conducted in 2006 found that the settlement began during the Hellenistic period (between the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE) and ended during the late Roman period (3rd century CE).[1] Later excavations in 2009–2013 brought perhaps the most important discovery in the site: an ancient synagogue, called the "Migdal Synagogue". It is the oldest synagogue found in the Galilee, and one of the only synagogues from that period found in the entire country, as of the time of the excavation. They also found the Magdala stone, which has a seven-branched menorah symbol carved on it. It is the earliest menorah of that period to be discovered outside of Jerusalem.[2]

Contents

History Mary Magdalene Identification Excavations References Further reading Map of Israel External links Location Galilee, Israel Region History Coordinates 32°49′30″N 35°30′56″E Gustaf Dalman writes of Magdala that, "it was the most important city on the western bank of the lake, contributing a wagon-load of taxes [...] until raised up a rival on the lake by building Tiberias."[3] Magdala is also described as "the capital of a toparchy", and is compared to and Tiberias in that it had "administrative apparatus and personnel," though not to the same extent.[4]

The remains of a Roman-period synagogue dated to between 50 BCE and 100 CE were discovered in 2009. The walls of the 120- square-metre (1,300 sq ft) main hall were decorated with brightly colored frescoes, and there was a stone carved with a seven- branched menorah.[5] Recognition of Magdala as the birthplace of Mary Magdalene appears in texts dating back to the 6th century CE.[6] In the 8th and 10th centuries CE, Christian sources write of a church in the village that was also Mary Magdalene's house, where Jesus is said to have exorcised her of demons.[6] The anonymously penned Life of Constantine attributes the building of the church to Saint Helena of Constantinople in the 4th century CE, at the location where she found Mary Magdalene's house.[6][4] Christian pilgrims to Palestine in the 12th century mention the location of Magdala, but fail to mention the presence of any church.[6]

Under the rule of the Mamluks in the 13th century, sources indicate that the church was not destroyed, but was transformed into a stable.[4] In 1283, Burchard of Mount Sion records having entered the house of Mary Magdalene in the village, and about ten years later, Ricoldus of Montecroce noted his joy at having found the church and house still standing.[6]

Mary Magdalene

All four gospels[7] refer to a follower of Jesus called Mary Magdalene, and it is usually assumed [8] that this means "Mary from Magdala". There is no biblical information to indicate whether this was her home or her birthplace. Most Christian scholars assume that she was from Magdala Nunayya, and that this is also where Jesus landed on the occasion recorded by Matthew.[9]

Identification

The New Testament makes one disputable mention of a place called Magdala. Matthew 15:39 of the King James' Version (KJV) reads, "And he [Ha Yeshua] sent away the multitude, and took ship, and came into the coasts of Magdala". However, some Greek manuscripts give the name of the place as "Magadan", and more recent translations (such as the Revised Version) follow this. Although some commentators[10] state confidently that the two refer to the same place, others[11] Layout of excavated town dismiss the substitution of Magdala for Magadan as simply "to substitute a known for an unknown place". The parallel passage in Mark's gospel[8:10] gives (in the majority of manuscripts) a quite different place name, Dalmanutha, although a handful of manuscripts give either Magdala or Magadan[12] presumably by assimilation to the Matthean text—believed in ancient times to be older than that of Mark, though this opinion has now been reversed.

The Jewish Talmud distinguishes between two Magdalas only.[9]

Magdala Gadar—One Magdala was in the east, on theRiver Yarmouk near Gadara (in the Middle Ages "Jadar", nowUmm Qais), thus acquiring the name Magdala Gadar. Magdala Nunayya—There was another, better-known Magdala near Tiberias, Magdala Nunayya ("Magdala of the fishes"), which Photograph taken c. 1900 of the ruins of would locate it on the shore of theSea of Galilee. Al-Majdal, a Magdala on the Sea of Galilee Palestinian Arab village depopulated in the lead up to the1948 Arab-Israeli war was identified as the site of this Magdala. The modern Israeli municipality of Migdal, founded in 1910 and about 6 km NNW of Tiberias, has expanded into the area of the former village. Some researchers think that Josephus refers to Magdala Nunayya by the Greek name Tarichaea, derived from the Greek Τάριχος or tarichos, meaning 'fish preserved by salting or drying',[13] although the matter remains disputed.[14]

Magdala's reference in Matthew 15: 39 is, in some editions, given as"Magadan" ; and in Mark 8: 10 it is "Dalmanutha" .[15]

Excavations

Excavations at Magdala during 2007-8 were calledThe Magdala Project.[16][17]

References 1. Avshalom-Gorni, Dina (11 November 2009)."V olume 121 Year 2009: Migdal" (http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=1236 &mag_id=115). Hadashot Arkheologiyot. 2. Avshalom-Gorni, Dina; Najar, Arfan (6 August 2013). "Volume 125 Year 2013: Migdal" (http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id =2304). Hadashot Arkheologiyot. 3. Schaberg, 2004, pp. 56–57 (https://books.google.com/books?id=tNioAw AAQBAJ&pg=PA56). 4. Schaberg, 2004, p. 58 (https://books.google.com/books?id=tNioAwAAQ BAJ&pg=PA58) Magdala stone with Menorah that 5. Kevin Flower, Sept 11, 2009, "Ancient synagogue found in Israel", CNN was found in the Archaeological site http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/09/11/jerusalem.synagogue/index.htmlinside the Migdal Synagogue area 6. Pringle, 1998, p. 28 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y0tA0xLzwE C&pg=PA28) 7. Matthew 27:56,61,Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:9, Luke 8:2, John 20:1,18 8. [1] (http://www.churchisraelforum.com/Magdala_home_of_Mary_Magdal ene.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110815062410/http:// www.churchisraelforum.com/Magdala_home_of_Mary_Magdalene.htm) August 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine 9. Merk, August. "Magdala."The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910, 31 Oct. 2009 . 10. Jones, 1994 11. Horton, 1907 12. Throckmorton, 1992, p. 96 13. Andrea Garza-Díaz, The Archaeological Excavations at Magdala (http s://www.ancient.eu/article/1219/the-archaeological-excavations-at-magd ala/), Ancient History Encyclopedia, 19 April 2018 14. The location of Tarichaea: north or south of Tiberias? (http://www.magda laproject.org/WP/?p=3782&langswitch_lang=en) 15. Gardner, Laurence (2005). The Magdalene legacy. London: Element (Harper Collins). ISBN 0 00 720186 9. 16. Bussolin, Alfonso. "MagdalaProject.org" (http://www.magdalaproject.org/ WP/?langswitch_lang=en). Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Faculty of Biblical Sciences and Archaeology. Retrieved 3 March 2014. 17. Lena, Anna (2013-12-31)."Magdala 2008; Preliminary Report" (http://w ww.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=5433). ESI (is Israel's oldest scientific journal). 2008. 125. Retrieved 3 March 2014.

Further reading

Achtermeier, P. J. (Ed.) (1996). The Harper Collins Bible Dictionary. San Francisco: Harper Collins. Horton, R. F. (1907). A devotional commentary on St. Matthew. London: National Council of the Evangelical Free Churches. Jones, I. H. (1994). St Matthew. London: Epworth Press. Throckmorton, B. H. (1992).Gospel parallels, 5th edn. Nashville TN: Thomas Nelson.

External links

Catholic Encyclopedia—Magdala, the two possible locations mentioned in the almudT Carmelle Grace Cabaron Major New Excavation Planned for Mary Magdalene’s Hometown, 2007 Ancient Magdala in Israel Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magdala&oldid=890656862"

This page was last edited on 2 April 2019, at 18:23 (UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. 300 | | עברית MY WORDS | LEARN ENGLISH | USER GUIDE | APPS | UPGRADE | CONTACT US

Translate

האזור שלי

מילים שחיפשתי מגדל :English translation results for 11 מִגְדָּלִי Learn English - מגדל מִגְדָּל שֵם ז' מילים מועדפות בניין צר וגבוה מאוד. More מילים שטעיתי בהן tower, turret Reverse Translation

תשבץ חודשי

1. בית הסוהר חבר לו גִּדֵּל פ' פיעל בקלות (2,5) טיפל בילדים וחינך אותם עד שהיו מסוגלים לעמוד ברשות עצמם. More

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

to bring up (children); to rear (animals); to grow (plants); (biblical) to promote, to 9

10 11 12 13

advance 14

15 16

Reverse Translation 17 18 19

20 21 22 23

24

25 26

שמרו על קשר

מְגַדֵּל שֵם מי שעוסק בגידול של צמחים או של בעלי חיים למטרות מסחריות. More

grower, breeder Reverse Translation

מִגְדָּל יישוב חקלאי על הגדה המערבית של הכינרת, מצפון לטבריה. More

Migdal (name of settlement)

Reverse Translation

גֹּדֶל שֵם ז' מידה של משהו. More

size; magnitude, enormity Reverse Translation

מְגֻדָּל תואר גדול במיוחד בממדיו ובמשקלו, מפותח מבחינה פיזית. More

grown, grown up; long (hair); (biblical) nurtured Reverse Translation

מֻגְדָּל תואר שנעשה גדול בממדיו משהיה; שעשוי בצורה גדולה מן הצורה המקורית. More

enlarged

Reverse Translation גָּדַל פ' קל נהיה גדול בשנים, התקדם לגיל הבגרות. More

to grow up, to grow older; to grow (physically); to develop, to flourish; to increase, to multiply; to become stronger Reverse Translation

הֻגְדַּל פ' הופעל

to be enlarged, to be expanded

Reverse Translation

גָּדוֹל תואר שהוא יותר מהממוצע או מהרגיל בגודל, בכמות, במידה, במספר ועוד; More

big, large, great; older; significant, important, serious; strong, powerful; famous, - גדולים ;"influential, successful; (slang) wonderful, marvelous, superb, "out of this world (the Great (e, g, Alexander the Great - הגדול ;euphemism) bowel movement) Reverse Translation

גֻּדַּל פ' פועל

to be grown

Reverse Translation

מה זה מגדל? קיצורי המשמעויות בעברית מוגשים באדיבות מילון רב-מילים המקיף ביותר לשפה העברית, הכולל פירושים מלאים וגם: מילים נרדפות, דוגמאות שימוש, ביטויים קשורים, ניקוד, כתיב מלא תקני, דקדוק ועוד.

New learning games

Image Grammar Grow Your Game and More Vocabulary

Learn English through Learn English grammar, Build vocabulary with pictures common errors and other flashcards & games topics

Word of the day

בעקבות עבודות הרכבת הקלה נחסמו שדרות ירושלים ביפו. איך אומרים 'שְׂדֵרָה' באנגלית?

Hebrew Challange Of The Day יודעים מהו צייצן?

Would you like answers to more questions? Question of the day is brought by Rav-Milim

Idiom of the day Image of The Day as easy as pie Click to see Hebrew translation plus example sentence.

A red-tailed hawk, common in North… America hawk

Rav-Milim Blog ד"ר נגה פורת/ כל הארץ תיירים

לקראת האירוויזיון צפויים להגיע לתל אביב תיירים רבים מכל רחבי אירופה, וההכנות בעיצומן. בלועזית 'תייר' הוא טוּרִיסְט. כעת אתור אחרי מקורותיהן של המילים 'תייר' ו'טוריסט'. By Rav-Milim - the leading online Hebrew dictionary

READ MORE

My Zone

My mistakes My favorites My translated words ריבוד Learn from your mistakes Create your own word list הַחֶבְרָתִי made in the vocabulary game

Registration allows you to practive and save words Yes, I want to register to practice and save words

לייק Rav-Milim | Nakdan Morfix | Our Blog | Home 10K

Nglish - Spanish English Translation This English learning, translation and dictionary site is brought to you by Melingo, an Encyclopaedia Britannica subsidiary

Privacy Policy | User Guide | Terms of use | Hebrew dictionary | About Us | Melingo Word pronunciation and usage examples are provided by Merriam-Webster Coordinates: 31°40′N 34°34′E

Ashkelon aʃkeˈlon]), also] , ַא ְשׁ ְקלן : or Ashqelon (/ˈæʃkəlɒn/; Hebrew known as Ascalon (/ˈæskəlɒn/; Greek: Ἀσκάλων, Askálōn; Arabic: Ashkelon ﻋﺴﻘﻼن · ַא ְשׁ ְקלן ʿAsqalān), is a coastal city in the Southern District of Israel on the , ﻋَ ْﺴ َﻘ َﻼن Mediterranean coast, 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of Tel Aviv, and 13 Hebrew transcription(s) kilometres (8.1 mi) north of the border with the Gaza Strip. The ancient • ISO 259 ʔašqlon seaport of Ashkelon dates back to the Neolithic Age. In the course of its • Translit. Ashkelon • Also Ashqelon, Ascalon history, it has been ruled by the Ancient Egyptians, the Canaanites, the spelled (unofficial) , the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the , the Phoenicians, the Hasmoneans, the Romans, the Persians, the and the Crusaders, until it was destroyed by the Mamluks in 1270.

; اﻟﻤﺠﺪل :The Arab village of al-Majdal or al-Majdal Asqalan (Arabic was established a few kilometres inland from the ( ֵא ִל־מ ְג ַ׳דּל :Hebrew ancient site by the late 15th century, under Ottoman rule. In 1918, it became part of the British Occupied Enemy Territory Administration and in 1920 became part of Mandatory Palestine. Al-Majdal on the eve of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War had 10,000 Arab inhabitants and in October 1948, the city accommodated thousands more refugees from nearby villages.[2] Al-Majdal was the forward position of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force based in Gaza.[3] The village was conquered by Israeli forces on 5 November 1948, by which time most of the Arab population had fled,[4] leaving some 2,700 inhabitants, of which 500 were deported by Israeli soldiers in December Flag Coat of arms 1948.[4] The town was initially named Migdal Gaza, Migdal Gad and Migdal Ashkelon by the new Jewish inhabitants. Most of the remaining Arabs were deported by 1950.

In 1953, the nearby neighborhood of Afridar was incorporated and the name "Ashkelon" was readopted to the town. By 1961, Ashkelon was ranked 18th among Israeli urban centers with a population of 24,000.[5] In 2017 the Ashkelon population of Ashkelon was 137,945.[1]

Contents

Etymology History Neolithic era Coordinates: 31°40′N 34°34′E Canaanite settlement Country Israel Philistine settlement Classical period District Southern Byzantine period Government Crusader era • Type City Islamic era • Mayor Itamar Shimoni Ottoman and Mandate eras Area State of Israel • Total 47,788 dunams Urban development (47.788 km2 or 18.451 sq mi) Economy Population (2017)[1] Education • Total 137,945 Landmarks • Density 2,900/km2 (7,500/sq mi) Ashkelon National Park Website www.ashkelon.muni.il Health care Demographics Culture and sports Photos Twin towns – sister cities Notable residents See also References Citations Bibliography External links

Etymology

The name Ashkelon is probably western Semitic, and might be connected to the triliteral root š-q-l ("to weigh" from a Semitic root .weight") perhaps attesting to its importance as a center for mercantile activities" ﺛِ ْﻘﻞ or Arabic θiql ָש ַקל ṯql, akin to Hebrew šāqal [6] Its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic as ŠQLN () and ʾŠQLN (). Scallion and shallot are derived from Ascalonia, the Latin name for Ashkelon.[7][8]

History

Ashkelon was the oldest and largest seaport in , part of the pentapolis (a grouping of five cities) of the Philistines, north of Gaza and south of .

Neolithic era The Neolithic site of Ashkelon is located on the Mediterranean coast, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) north of Tel Ashkelon. It is dated by Radiocarbon dating to c. 7900 bp (uncalibrated), to the poorly known Pre-Pottery Neolithic C phase of the Neolithic. It was discovered and excavated in 1954 by French archaeologist Jean Perrot. In 1997–1998, a large scale salvage project was conducted at the site by Yosef Garfinkel on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and nearly 1,000 square metres (11,000 sq ft) were examined. A final excavation report was published in 2008. Archaeological site with artifacts In the site over a hundred fireplaces and hearths were found and numerous pits, but no from the Neolithic era solid architecture, except for one wall. Various phases of occupation were found, one atop the other, with sterile layers of sea sand between them. This indicates that the site was occupied on a seasonal basis.

The main finds were enormous quantities of c. 100,000 animal bones and c. 20,000 flint artifacts. Usually at Neolithic sites flints far outnumber animal bones. The bones belong to domesticated and non-domesticated animals. When all aspects of this site are taken into account, it appears to have been used by pastoral nomads for meat processing. The nearby sea could supply salt necessary for the conservation of meat. Canaanite settlement The city was originally built on a sandstone outcropping and has a good underground water supply. It was relatively large as an ancient city with as many as 15,000 people living inside the walls. Ashkelon was a thriving Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BC) city of more than 150 acres (61 ha). Its commanding ramparts, measuring 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long, 50 feet (15 m) high and 150 feet (46 m) thick,, and even as a ruin they stand two stories high. The thickness of the walls was so great that the mudbrick city gate had a stone-lined, 8 feet (2.4 m) wide tunnel-like barrel vault, coated with white plaster, to support the superstructure: it is the oldest such vault ever found.[9] Later Roman and Islamic fortifications, faced with stone, followed the same footprint, a vast semicircle protecting Ashkelon on the land side. On the sea it was defended by a high natural bluff. A roadway more than 20 feet (6.1 m) in width ascended the rampart from the harbor and entered a gate at the top.

In 1991 the ruins of a small ceramic tabernacle was found a finely cast bronze statuette Ashkelon Pre-Pottery Neolithic C of a bull calf, originally silvered, 4 inches (10 cm) long. Images of calves and bulls were flint arrowheads associated with the worship of the Canaanite godsEl and Baal.

Ashkelon is mentioned in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 11th dynasty as "Asqanu."[10] In the Amarna letters (c. 1350 BC), there are seven letters to and from Ashkelon's (Ašqaluna) king Yidya, and the Egyptian pharaoh. One letter from the pharaoh to Yidya was discovered in the early 1900s.

Philistine settlement The Philistines conquered Canaanite Ashkelon about 1150 BC. Their earliest pottery, types of structures and inscriptions are similar to the early Greek Restored Canaanite city gate of urbanised centre at Mycenae in mainland Greece, adding weight to the Ashkelon[9] (2014) hypothesis that the Philistines were one of the populations among the "Sea Peoples" that upset cultures throughout the easternMediterranean at that time.

Ashkelon became one of the five Philistine cities that were constantly warring with the Israelites and the Kingdom of Judah. According to Herodotus, its temple of Venus was the oldest of its kind, imitated even in Cyprus, and he mentions that this temple was pillaged by marauding Scythians during the time of their sway over the Medes (653–625 BC). As it was the last of the Philistine cities to hold out against Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. When it fell in Ashqelon as mentioned on Merneptah 604 BC, burnt and destroyed and its people taken into exile, the Philistine era Stele: it reads /'Asqaluni/ (with was over. two determinatives)

Classical period Ashkelon was soon rebuilt. Until the conquest of Alexander the Great, Ashkelon's inhabitants were influenced by the dominant Persian culture. It is in this archaeological layer that excavations have found dog burials. It is believed the dogs may have had a sacred role, however evidence is not conclusive. After the conquest of Alexander in the 4th century BC, Ashkelon was an important free city and Hellenistic seaport.

It had mostly friendly relations with the Hasmonean kingdom and Herodian kingdom of Judea, in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. In a significant case of an earlywitch-hunt , during the reign of the Hasmonean queenSalome Alexandra, the court of ben Shetach sentenced to death eighty women in Ashkelon who had been charged with sorcery.[11] , who became a client king of Rome over Judea and its surrounds in 30 BC, had not received Ashkelon, yet he built monumental buildings there: bath houses, elaborate fountains and large colonnades.[12][13] A discredited tradition suggests Ashkelon has been his birthplace.[14] In 6 CE, when a Roman imperial province was set in Judea, overseen by a lower-rank governor, Ashkelon was moved directly to the higher jurisdiction of the governor ofSyria province.

The city remained loyal to Rome during theGreat Revolt, 66–70 AD.

Byzantine period Ancient sarcophagus in Ashkelon The city of Ascalon appears on a fragment of the 6th century AD Madaba Map.[15]

The bishops of Ascalon whose names are known include Sabinus, who was at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and his immediate successor, Epiphanius. Auxentius took part in the First Council of Constantinople in 381, Jobinus in a synod held in Lydda in 415, Leontius in both the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Bishop Dionysius, who represented Ascalon at a synod in Jerusalem in 536, was on another occasion called upon to pronounce on the validity of a baptism with sand in waterless desert and sent the person to be baptized in water.[16][17]

No longer a residential bishopric, Ascalon is today listed by theCatholic Church as a titular see.[18]

Crusader era During the , Ashkelon (known to the Crusaders as Ascalon) was an important city due to its location near the coast and between the and Egypt. In 1099, shortly after the Siege of Jerusalem (1099), an Egyptian Fatimid army that had been sent to relieveJerusalem was defeated by a Crusader force at the Battle of Ascalon. The city itself was not captured by the Crusaders because of internal disputes among their leaders. This battle is widely considered to have signified the end of the . Until 1153, the Fatimids were able to launch raids into the Kingdom of Jerusalem from Ashkelon, which meant that the southern border of the Crusader States was Battle of Ascalon, 1099 constantly unstable. In response to these incursions into Outremer, King Fulk of Jerusalem constructed a number of Christian settlements around the city during the 1130s, in order to neutralise the threat of the Muslim garrison. In 1148, during the , the city was unsuccessfully besieged for eight days by a small Crusader army that was not fully supported by the Crusader States.

In 1150, the Fatimids fortified the city with 53 towers, as it was their most important frontier fortress.[19] Three years later, after a five-month siege, the city was captured by a Crusader army led by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem. It was then added to the County of Jaffa to form the County of Jaffa and Ascalon, which became one of the four major seigneuries of theKingdom of Jerusalem.

After the Crusader conquest of Jerusalem the six elders of the Karaite Jewish community in Ashkelon contributed to the ransoming of captured Jews and holy relics from Jerusalem's new rulers. The Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon, which was sent to the Jewish elders of Alexandria, describes their participation in the ransom effort and the ordeals suffered by many of the freed captives.

A few hundred Jews, Karaites and Rabbanites, were living in Ashkelon in the second half of the 12th century, but moved to Jerusalem when the city was destroyed in 1191.[20]

Islamic era In 1187, Saladin took Ashkelon as part of his conquest of the Crusader States following the . In 1191, during the , Saladin demolished the city because of its potential strategic importance to the Christians, but the leader of the Crusade, King Richard I of England, constructed a citadel upon the ruins. Ashkelon subsequently remained part of the diminished territories of Outremer throughout most of the 13th century and Richard, Earl of Cornwall reconstructed and refortified the citadel during 1240–41, as part of the Crusader policy of improving the defences of coastal sites. The Egyptians retook Ashkelon in 1247 during As-Salih Ayyub's conflict with the Muslim pilgrims to the Shrine of Crusader States and the city was returned to Muslim rule. The Mamluk dynasty came Seyid Hussein, April 1943. into power in Egypt in 1250 and the ancient and medieval history of Ashkelon was brought to an end in 1270, when the Mamluk sultan Baybars ordered the citadel and harbour at the site to be destroyed. As a result of this destruction, the site was abandoned by its inhabitants and fell into disuse.

According to Shiite tradition, the head of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of Mohammad, was buried in Ashkelon. In the late 11th century it was moved to a new shrine named Mashad Nabi Hussein (or Sabni Hussein) built for the purpose. In 1153, at the time of the Crusaders' conquest of Ashkelon, the head was moved to Fustat (Egypt). The shrine was described as the most magnificent building in Ashkelon.[21] In the British Mandate period it was a "large maqam on top of a hill" with no tomb, but a fragment of a pillar showing the place where the head had been buried.[22] In July 1950, the shrine was destroyed at the instructions of Moshe Dayan in accordance with a 1950s Israeli policy of erasing Muslim historical sites within Israel.[23]

Ottoman and Mandate eras The Arab village of Majdal was mentioned by historians and tourists at the end of the 15th century.[24] In 1596, Ottoman records showed Majdal to be a large village of 559 Muslim households, making it the 7th most populous locality in Palestine after Safad, Jerusalem, Gaza, , Hebron and Kafr Kanna.[25][26]

An official Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that Medschdel had a total of 420 houses and a population of 1175, though the population count included men only.[27][28] High-rise residential development along The census of 1931 found 6,166 and 41 Christians living there.[29] the beach By 1948, the population had grown to about 11,000.

Majdal was especially known for its weaving industry.[30] The town had around 500 looms in 1909. In 1920 a British Government report estimated that there were 550 cotton looms in the town with an annual output worth 30- 40,000,000 Francs.[31] But the industry suffered from imports from Europe and by 1927 only 119 weaving establishments remained. The three major fabrics produced were "malak" (silk), 'ikhdari' (bands of red and green) and 'jiljileh' (dark red bands). These were used for festival dresses throughout Southern Palestine. Many other fabrics were produced, some with poetic names such as ji'nneh u nar ("heaven and hell"), nasheq rohoh ("breath of the soul") and abu mitayn ("father of two hundred").[32] Ashkelon Marina State of Israel During the 1948 war, the Egyptian army occupied a large part of Gaza including Majdal. Over the next few months, the town was subjected to Israeli air-raids and shelling.[4] All but about 1,000 of the town's residents were forced to leave by the time it was captured by Israeli forces as a sequel to Operation Yoav on 4 November 1948.[4] General Yigal Allon ordered the expulsion of the remaining Palestinians but the local commanders did not do so and the Arab population soon recovered to more than 2,500 due mostly to refugees slipping back and also due to the transfer of Palestinians from nearby villages.[4][24] Most of them were elderly, women, or children.[24] During the next year or so, the Palestinians were held in a confined area surrounded by barbed wire, which became commonly known as the "ghetto".[5][24][33] Moshe Dayan and Prime Minister David Ben- Majdal. Survey of Palestine. 1945. Gurion were in favor of expulsion, while Mapam and the Israeli labor union Scale 1:250,000 Histadrut objected.[4] The government offered the Palestinians positive inducements to leave, including a favorable currency exchange, but also caused panic through night-time raids.[4] The first group was deported to the Gaza Strip by truck on 17 August 1950 after an expulsion order had been served.[34] The deportation was approved by Ben-Gurion and Dayan over the objections of Pinhas Lavon, secretary-general of the Histadrut, who envisioned the town as a productive example of equal opportunity.[35] By October 1950, 20 Palestinian families remained, most of whom later moved toL ydda or Gaza.[4] According to Israeli records, in total 2,333 Palestinians were transferred to the Gaza Strip, 60 to Jordan, 302 to other towns in Israel, and a small number remained in Ashkelon.[24] Lavon argued that this operation dissipated "the last shred of trust the Arabs had in Israel, the sincerity of the State's declarations on democracy and civil equality, and the last remnant of confidence the Arab workers had in the Histadrut."[35] Acting on an Egyptian complaint, the Egyptian-Israel Mixed Armistice Commission ruled that the Palestinians transferred from Majdal should be returned to Israel, but this was not done.[36]

Ashkelon was formally granted to Israel in the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Re-population of the recently vacated Arab dwellings by Jews had been official policy since at least December 1948, but the process began slowly.[5] The Israeli national plan of June 1949 designated al-Majdal as the site for a regional urban center of 20,000 people.[5] From July 1949, new immigrants and demobilized soldiers moved to the new town, increasing the Jewish population to 2,500 within six months.[5] These early immigrants were mostly from Yemen, North Africa, and Europe.[37] During 1949, the town was renamed Migdal Gaza, and then Migdal Gad. Soon afterwards it became Migdal Ashkelon. The city began to expand as the population grew. In 1951, the neighborhood of Afridar was established for Jewish immigrants from South Africa,[38] and in 1953 it was incorporated into the city. The current name Ashkelon was adopted and the town was grantedlocal council status in 1953. In 1955, Ashkelon had more than 16,000 residents. By 1961, Ashkelon ranked 18th among Israeli urban centers with a population of 24,000.[5] This grew to 43,000 in 1972 and 53,000 in 1983. In 2005, the population was more than 106,000.

On 1–2 March 2008, rockets fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip (some of them Grad rockets) hit Ashkelon, wounding seven, and causing property damage. Mayor Roni Mahatzri stated that "This is a state of war, I know no other definition for it. If it lasts a week or two, we can handle that, but we have no intention of allowing this to become part of our daily routine."[39] In March 2008, 230 buildings and 30 cars were damaged by rocket fire on Ashkelon.[40] On 12 May 2008, a rocket fired from the northern Gazan city of Beit Lahiya hit a shopping mall in southern Ashkelon, causing significant structural damage. According to The Jerusalem Post, four people were seriously injured and 87 were treated forshock . 15 people suffered minor to moderate injuries as a result of the collapsed structure. Southern DistrictPolice chief Uri Bar-Lev believed the Grad-modelKatyusha rocket was manufactured inIran .[41]

In March 2009, a Qassam rocket hit a school, destroying classrooms and injuring two people.[42]

In July 2010, a Grad rocket hit a residential area in Ashkelon, damaging nearby cars and an apartment complex.[43] In November 2014, the mayor, Itamar Shimoni, began a policy of discrimination against Arab workers, refusing to allow them to work on city projects to build bomb shelters for children. His discriminatory actions brought criticism from others, including Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Jerusalem mayor Nir Barkat who likened the discrimination to the anti-Semitism experienced by Jews in Europe 70 years earlier.[44][45] Ashkelon is located in the 20–30 seconds run to safety area due to grad rocket range

Panorama of modern Ashkelon

Urban development

In 1949 and 1950, three immigrant transit camps (ma'abarot) were established alongside Majdal (renamed Migdal) for Jewish refugees from Arab countries, Romania and Poland. Northwest of Migdal and the immigrant camps, on the lands of the depopulated Palestinian village al-Jura,[46] entrepreneur Zvi Segal, one of the signatories of Israel's Declaration of Independence, established the upscale Barnea neighborhood.[47]

A large tract of land south of Barnea was handed over to the trusteeship of the South African Zionist Federation, which established the neighborhood of Afridar. Plans for the city were drawn up in South Africa according to the Holiday Inn and 13th-century tomb of garden city model. Migdal was surrounded by a broad ring of orchards. Barnea Sheikh Awad developed slowly, but Afridar grew rapidly. The first homes, built in 1951, were inhabited by new Jewish immigrants from South Africa and South America, with some native-born Israelis. The first public housing project for residents of the transit camps, the Southern Hills Project (Hageva'ot Hadromiyot) or Zion Hill (Givat Zion), was built in 1952.[47]

Under a plan signed in October 2015, seven new neighborhoods comprising 32,000 housing units, a new stretch of highway, and three new highway interchanges will be built, turning Ashkelon into the sixth-largest city in Israel.[48]

Economy

Ashkelon is the northern terminus for the Trans-Israel pipeline, which brings petroleum products from Eilat to an oil terminal at the port. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant is the largest in the world.[49][50] The project was developed as a BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran.[51] In March 2006, it was voted "Desalination Plant of the Year" in the Global Water Awards.[52]

Since 1992, Israel Beer Breweries has been operating in Ashkelon, brewing Carlsberg and Tuborg beer for the Israeli market. The brewery is owned by the Central Bottling Company, which has also held the Israeli franchise forCoca-Cola products since 1968.[53]

Arak Ashkelon, a local brand of arak, is operating since 1925 and distributed throughout Israel.

Education

The city has 19 elementary schools, and nine junior high and high schools. The Ashkelon Academic College opened in 1998, and now hosts thousands of students.Harvard University operates an archaeological summer school program in Ashkelon.[54] Landmarks

Ashkelon Khan and Museum contains archaeological finds, among them a replica of Ashkelon's Canaanite silver calf, whose discovery was reported on the front page of The New York Times.[55] The Outdoor Museum near the municipal cultural center displays two Roman burial coffins made of marble [55] depicting battle and hunting scenes, and famous mythological scenes. The Ashkelon Academic College remains of a 4th-century Byzantine church with marble slab flooring and glass mosaic walls can be seen in the Barnea Quarter.[55] Remains of a synagogue from this period have also been found.[56] A domed structure housing the 13th-century tomb of Sheikh Awad sits atop a hill overlooking Ashkelon's northern beaches.[57] A Roman burial tomb two kilometers north of Ashkelon Park was discovered in 1937. There are two burial tombs, a painted Hellenistic cave and a Roman cave. The Hellenistic cave is decorated with paintings of nymphs, water scenes, mythological figures and animals.[55]

There was an 11th-century mosque, Maqam al-Nabi Hussein, a site of pilgrimage by both Sunnis and Shiites, which had been built under the Fatimids by Badrul’jamali and where tradition held that the head of Ashkelon marina breakwater Mohammad's grandson Hussein ibn Ali was buried, was blown up by the IDF under instructions from Moshe Dayan as part of a broader programme to destroy mosques in July 1950.[58] The area was subsequently redeveloped for a local Israeli hospital, Barzilai. When his remains were later discovered on the hospital grounds, funds from the Shi'ite Ismaili sect in India were used to construct a marble prayer area, and it is visited by Shiite pilgrims from India and Pakistan.[58][59]

In 1986 ruins of 4th- to 6th-century baths were found in Ashkelon. The bath houses are believed to have been used for prostitution. The remains of nearly 100 mostly male infants were found in a sewer under the bathhouse, leading to conjectures that prostitutes had discarded their unwanted newborns there.[60] The Ashkelon Marina, located between Delila and Bar Kochba beaches, offers a shipyard and repair services. Ashkeluna is a water-slide park on Ashkelon beach.[55]

Ashkelon National Park The ancient site of Ashkelon is now a national park on the city's southern coast. The walls that encircled the city are still visible, as well as Canaanite earth ramparts. The park contains Byzantine, Crusader and Roman ruins.[61] The largest dog cemetery in the ancient world was discovered in Ashkelon.[62]

Health care

Ashkelon and environs is served by the Barzilai Medical Center, established in 1961.[59] It was built in place of Hussein ibn Ali's 11th-century mosque, a center of Muslim , destroyed by the Israeli army in 1950.[63] Situated six miles (9.7 km) from Gaza, the hospital has been the target of numerous Qassam rocket attacks, sometimes as many as 140 over one weekend. The hospital plays a vital role in treating wounded soldiers and terror victims.[64] A new rocket and missile-proof emergency room is under construction. Barzilai Medical Center Demographics

Historical population In the early years, the city was primarily settled by Mizrahi Jews, who fled to Israel Year Pop. ±% after being expelled from Muslim lands. Today, Mizrahi Jews still constitute the 1955 16,600 — majority of the population. In the early 1950s, many South African Jews settled in 1961 24,300 +46.4% Ashkelon, establishing the Afridar neighbourhood. They were followed by an influx 1972 43,000 +77.0% of immigrants from the United Kingdom.[66] During the 1990s, the city received 1983 52,900 +23.0% additional arrivals of Ethiopian Jews and Russian Jews. 1995 83,100 +57.1% 2008 110,600 +33.1% 2010 114,500 +3.5% Culture and sports 2011 117,400 +2.5% Source: The Ashkelon Sports Arena opened in 1999. The "Jewish Eye" is a Jewish world film festival that takes place annually in Ashkelon. The festival marked its seventh year in [65] 2010.[67] The Breeza Music Festival has been held yearly in and around Ashkelon's amphitheatre since 1992. Most of the musical performances are free. Israel Lacrosse operates substantial youth lacrosse programs in the city and recently hosted the Turkey men's national team in Israel's first home international in 2013.[68]

Im schwarzen Walfisch zu Askalon ("In Ashkelon's Black Whale inn") is a traditional German academic commercium song and describing a drinking binge staged in the ancient city.[69]

Photos Ashkelon arena

Park Afridar, Ashqelon Night view from Marina

Beach of Ashqelon View on sea from the city Street "Ha-Tayassim" View on Ashkelon in the time of khamsin

Twin towns – sister cities

Ashkelon is twinned with:

Côte Saint-Luc, Quebec, Canada Grodno, Belarus Xinyang, China Iquique, Chile Aix-en-Provence, France[70][71] Vani, Georgia[72] Kutaisi, Georgia Aviano, Italy Berlin-Pankow, Germany Sopot, Poland Entebbe, Uganda Portland, Oregon, United States Baltimore, Maryland, United States[73] Sacramento, California, United States

Notable residents

Yael Abecassis (born 1967), actress and model Yitzhak Cohen (born 1951), politician Avi Dichter (born 1952), Israeli politician Shlomo Glickstein (born 1958), professional tennis player Boris Polak (born 1954), world champion and Olympic sport shooter

See also

Antiochus of Ascalon

References

Citations 1. "Localities File" (https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2019/ishuvim/bycode2017.xls) (XLS). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2019. 2. Masalha, Nur (2012). The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory. London: Zed Books, Limited. pp. 115–116.ISBN 1848139705. 3. Morris, Benny (1 October 2008).1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War (https://books.google.com/books?id=C C7381HrLqcC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331&dq=majdal+egyptian+expeditionary+northernmost&source=bl&ots=wlmgnJG 9Ua&sig=P1JDvozg_m-LHvD-A2Rx6kZzdWk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP55HtqsrPAhVE6WMKHQD_BjAQ6AEI OzAE#v=onepage&q=majdal%20egyptian%20expeditionary%20northernmost&f=false). Yale University Press. p. 331. ISBN 0300145241. 4. B. Morris, The transfer of Al Majdal's remaining Palestinians to Gaza, 1950, in1948 and After; Israel and the Palestinians. 5. Golan, Arnon (2003). "Jewish Settlement of Former Arab ownsT and their Incorporation into the Israeli Urban System (1948–1950)". Israel Affairs. 9: 149–164. doi:10.1080/714003467 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F714003467). 6. Huss (1985), p. 560 (https://books.google.co.kr/books?id=NvEK7kc3qnQC&pg=PA560). 7. "shallot". New Oxford American Dictionary (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. 2005.ISBN 978-0-19-517077-1. 8. shallot (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/shallot). CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved 30 September 2012. 9. Lefkovits, Etgar (8 April 2008)."Oldest arched gate in the world restored" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130814034 938/http://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/Around-Israel/Oldest-arched-gate-in-the-world-restored). Jerusalem: The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original (http://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/Around-Israel/Oldest-arched-gate-in-th e-world-restored) on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2018. 10. "Ashkelon, Jewish Virtual Library" (https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0002_0_01460.ht ml). Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110717053009/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary. org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0002_0_01460.html) from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 11. Yerushalmi Sanhedrin, 6:6. 12. "Ashkelon" (http://pace-ancient.mcmaster.ca/york/york/placePopup?id=24&descOnly=). Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement/Brill. 13. NEGEV, A (1976). Stillwell, Richard.; MacDonald, William L.; McAlister, Marian Holland (eds.). The Princeton encyclopedia of classical sites. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press– via Perseus Digital Library. 14. Eusebius (1890). "VI" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/ecf/201/2010033.htm). In McGiffert, Arthur Cushman (ed.). The Church History of Eusebius. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series II. §2, notes 90-91. 15. Donner, Herbert (1992). The Mosaic Map of Madaba (https://books.google.com/books?id=XbGEngEACAAJ&dq=Do nner+%28The+Mosaic+Map+of+Madaba&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gB-DVILLNsbyUtj_gbgN&redir_esc=y). Kok Pharos Publishing House. pp. 64–65.ISBN 978-90-3900011-3. quoted in The Madaba Mosaic Map: Ascalon (http://198.62.7 5.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/103discuss.html) 16. Bagatti, Ancient Christian Villages of Judaea and Negev, quoted in The Madaba Mosaic Map: Ascalon (http://198.62. 75.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/103discuss.html) 17. Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae (http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=65 154&dirids=1), Leipzig 1931, p. 452 18. Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), p. 840 19. Gore, Rick (January 2001)."Ancient Ashkelon" (http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/features/world/asia/israel/as hkelon-text). National Geographic. 20. Alex Carmel, Peter Schäfer and Yossi Ben-Artzi (1990). The Jewish Settlement in Palestine, 634–1881. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients : Reihe B, Geisteswissenschaften; Nr. 88. Wiesbaden: Reichert. p. 24,31. 21. Moshe Gil, A , 634–1099 (1997) p 193–194. 22. Canaan, 1927, p. 151 (https://archive.org/details/MohammedanSaintsAndSanctuariesInPalestine/page/n161/mode/1 up) 23. Meron Rapoport, History Erased, Haaretz, 5 July 2007. [1] (http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/878851.html) 24. Orna Cohen (2007). "Transferred to Gaza of Their Own Accord" The Arabs of Majdal in Ashkelon and their Evacuation to the Gaza Strip in 1950. The Harry S. Truman Research Institute forthe Advancement of Peace, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. 25. Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 144 26. Petersen, Andrew (2005).The Towns of Palestine under Muslim Rule AD 600–1600. BAR International Series 1381. p. 133. 27. Socin, 1879, p. 157 (https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde01deut#page/157/mode/1up) 28. Hartmann, 1883, p. 131 (https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ#page/n939/mode/1up), noted 655 houses 29. Palestine Office of Statistics, Vital Statistical Tables 1922–1945, Table A8. 30. Palestinian costumes 31. "H.M. Stationery Office (1920) and Palestine" — Viewer — World Digital Library" (https://www.wdl.org/en/item/ 11774/view/1/1/#q=Israel). www.wdl.org. 32. Shelagh Weir, "Palestinian Costume". British Museum Publications, 1989.ISBN 978-0-7141-1597-9. pages 27–32. Other fabrics produced includeShash (white muslin for veils), Burk/Bayt al-shem (plain cotton for underdresses), Karnaish (white cotton with stripes), "Bazayl" (flannelette),Durzi (blue cotton) and Dendeki (red cotton). 33. Morris, 2004, pp. 528 (https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA528) –529. 34. S. Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (1968), p.57 35. Kafkafi, Eyal (1998). "Segregation or integration of the Israeli Arabs – two concepts in Mapai".International Journal of Middle East Studies. 30 (03): 347–367. doi:10.1017/S0020743800066216 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS00207438 00066216). 36. "Security Council". International Organization. 6 (1): 76–88. 1952. doi:10.1017/s0020818300016209 (https://doi.org/1 0.1017%2Fs0020818300016209). ?http://jpress.org.il/Olive/APA/NLI_Heb/SharedView.Article.aspx) ",מגדל־גד בהתפתחותה,בחירות ב־26 בפברואר - דבר" .37 parm=o9Sbi1WIsHdoejWFtHsh3QLn0DMAzo4d0FWipSdDt34n%2BE0l6hHZL8hFphABg7HQYw%3D%3D&mode=i mage&href=DAV%2f1950%2f02%2f10&page=9&rtl=true). jpress.org.il (in Hebrew). 38. BENZAQUEN, JOHN. "Neighborhood Watch: Ashkelon's 'Anglo quarter' " (https://www.jpost.com/Local-Israel/Around -Israel/Neighborhood-Watch-Ashkelons-Anglo-quarter). The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 39. "Israeli City Shocked As Rockets Hit". Associated Press. 3 March 2008. 40. Bassok, Moti (16 May 2007)."Ashkelon, Sderot residents file 1,000 damage claims over recent rocket attacks" (htt p://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/business/ashkelon-sderot-residents-file-1-000-damage-claims-over-recent-rocket- attacks-1.240800). Haaretz. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 41. "Iranian made rocket strikes Ashkelon – Ashkelon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110511145843/http://fr.jpost.com/ servlet/Satellite?cid=1210668639052&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull). Jeruselum Post. Archived from the original (http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1210668639052&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2008. 42. " 'Improved' Kassam slams into Ashkelon school" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110727053047/http://www.jta.org/n ews/article/2009/03/01/1003355/kassam-slams-into-ashkelon-school). Jta.org. 1 March 2009. Archived fromthe original (http://jta.org/news/article/2009/03/01/1003355/kassam-slams-into-ashkelon-school) on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 43. "Israel hit by rockets and mortars" (http://newsblaze.com/story/20100730163925zzzz.nb/topstory.html). Newsblaze.com. 30 July 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 44. "Jerusalem Mayor: We cannot discriminate against Arabs" (https://www.jpost.com/Breaking-News/Jerusalem-Mayor- We-cannot-discriminate-against-Arabs-382504). The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 45. HO, SPENCER. "PM, senior ministers pan Ashkelon mayor for barring Arab workers" (http://www.timesofisrael.com/r ights-group-to-sue-ashkelon-mayor-for-barring-arab-workers/). www.timesofisrael.com. 46. Khalidi, 1992, p. 117 47. Margalit, Talia. "Periphery without a center" (http://www.haaretz.com/general/periphery-without-a-center-1.107172). Haaretz. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 48. Media, JNi. "With 32,000 New Housing Units Ashkelon to Become Israel's 6th Largest City" (http://www.jewishpress. com/news/breaking-news/with-32000-new-housing-units-ashkelon-to-become-israels-6th-largest-city/2015/10/30/). www.jewishpress.com. 49. Israel is No. 5 on Top 10 Cleantech List (http://www.israel21c.org/briefs/israel-is-no-5-on-top-10-cleantech-list) in Israel 21c A Focus Beyond (http://www.israel21c.org/technology/archive) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010 1016013525/http://www.israel21c.org/technology/archive) 16 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2009-12-21 50. Desalination Plant Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Plant (http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/Ashke lon) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150713125053/http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/Ashkelo n) 13 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine 51. "Ashkelon desalination plant – A successful challenge".Desalination . 203: 75–81. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.525 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.desal.2006.03.525). 52. "Ashkelon Seawater Reverse Osmosis" (http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/). Water-technology.net. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110724181500/http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/) from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 53. "The Central Bottling Company Group – Company Profile" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120301080555/http://ww w.duns100.com/ts.cgi?tsscript=comp_eng&duns=600057582). Dun & Bradstreet Israel – Dun's 100 Israel's Largest Enterprises 2009. Archived from the original (http://www.duns100.com/ts.cgi?tsscript=comp_eng&duns=600057582) on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2009. 54. summer school program in Ashkelon (http://www.summer.harvard.edu/programs/abroad/ashkelon/Harvard) 55. "Places to see in Ashkelon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110713063744/http://www.israel-a-la-carte.com/israelcity _view.asp?id=7). Israel-a-la-carte.com. Archived fromthe original (http://www.israel-a-la-carte.com/israelcity_view.as p?id=7) on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 56. Cecil Roth (1972). Encyclopaedia Judaica (https://books.google.com/books?id=ua4KAQAAIAAJ). Encyclopaedia Judaica. p. 714. Retrieved 10 June 2011. 57. Israel and the Palestinian territories: The rough guide, Daniel Jacobs, Shirley Eber, Francesca Silvani (https://books. google.com/books?id=JXoY2vCZ5AEC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=sheikh+awad+ashkelon&source=bl&ots=wOXh kOhIZC&sig=kmKutlWg6XyVQsnZbfbPMhp_08o&hl=en&ei=DwrETKruFcaCOoS08Z0M&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r esult&resnum=2&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false). Google Books. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 58. Meron Rapoport, 'History Erased,' (http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/history-erased-1.224899) at Haaretz 5 July 2007. 59. "Shiites in Ashkelon?" (http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/05/israel--surpris.html). Latimesblogs.latimes.com. 20 May 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 60. Claudine M. Dauphin (1996)."Brothels, Baths and Babes: Prostitution in the Byzantine Holy Land" (http://www.ucd.i e/cai/classics-ireland/1996/Dauphin96.html). Classics Ireland. 3: 47–72. doi:10.2307/25528291 (https://doi.org/10.23 07%2F25528291). 61. "Ashkelon National Park" (https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vie/Ashkelon.html#Ashkelon). Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110717104733/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/j source//vie/Ashkelon.html) from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 62. Stager, Lawrence. "Why were dogs buried at Ashkelon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110907092241/http://www.bi b-arch.org/e-features/dogs-buried-at-ashkelon.asp). Bib-.org. Archived fromthe original (http://www.bib-arch.org/ e-features/dogs-buried-at-ashkelon.asp) on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 63. Rapoport, Meron (5 October 2014)."History Erased" (http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/history-erased-1.2 24899). Haaretz.com. Retrieved 4 October 2014. 64. "Steady rain of missiles strains Israeli hospital" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110722031630/http://njjewishnews.co m/njjn.com/041008/sxSteadyRain.html#). Njjewishnews.com. 8 April 2008. Archived fromthe original (http://njjewish news.com/njjn.com/041008/sxSteadyRain.html) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 65. "Statistical Abstract of Israel 2012 - No. 63 Subject 2 - ableT No. 15" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131020040546/ http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_15&CYear=2012). .cbs.gov.il. Archived from the original (http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_15&CYear=2012) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013. 66. "Nefesh b'Nefesh community guide" (http://www.nbn.org.il/communities/template/community/152). Nbn.org.il. 27 March 2006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110718153013/http://www.nbn.org.il/communities/template/co mmunity/152) from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 67. "Jewish Eye world film festival" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110721150812/http://www.jewisheye.org.il/en/about). Jewisheye.org.il. 18 October 2010. Archived fromthe original (http://www.jewisheye.org.il/en/about) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 68. cite web|url=http://laxallstars.com/an-israel-lacrosse-experience-rob-berkenblit/ |title=An Israel Lacrosse experience |publisher=laxallstars.com |date=19 August 2013 |accessdate=2013-13-09| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://laxallstars.com/an-israel-lacrosse-experience-rob-berkenblit/%7C archivedate= 19 August 2013 69. Introduction to German Poetry: A Dual-Language Book, Gustave Mathieu, Guy Stern Courier Dover Publications, 31.05.2012, including as well a translation 70. "Association of twinnings and international relations of Aix-en-Provence" (http://www.aix-jumelages.com/). Aix- jumelages.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110707100515/http://www.aix-jumelages.com/) from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011. 71. Mairie of Aix-en-Provence – Twinnings and partnerships (http://www.mairie-aixenprovence.fr/article.php3?id_article= 2981) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090113162049/http://www.mairie-aixenprovence.fr/article.php3?id_ar ticle=2981) 13 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine 72. Vani.org.ge — Twinned Cities (http://vani.org.ge/files/upload-file/pdf/sisters.pdf) 73. "Baltimore City Mayor's Office of International and Immigrant Affairs – Sister Cities Program" (https://web.archive.or g/web/20080807173931/http://www.baltimorecity.gov/government/intl/sistercities.php). Archived from the original (htt p://www.baltimorecity.gov/government/intl/sistercities.php) on 7 August 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2009.

Bibliography

Canaan, T. (1927). Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine. London: Luzac & Co. Garfinkel, Y.; Dag, D.; Hesse, B.; Wapnish, P.; Rookis, D.; Hartman, G.; Bar-Yosef, D.E.; Lernau, O. (2005). "Neolithic Ashkelon: Meat Processing and Early Pastoralism on the Mediterranean Coast".Eurasian Prehistory. 3: 43–72. Garfinkel, Y.; Dag, D. (2008). Neolithic Ashkelon. Qedem 47. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University. OCLC 494272503. Golan, Arnon (2003). "Jewish Settlement of Former Arab ownsT and their Incorporation into the Israeli Urban System (1948–1950)". Israel Affairs. 9: 149–164. doi:10.1080/714003467. Hartmann, M. (1883). "Die Ortschaftenliste des Liwa Jerusalem in dem türkischen Staatskalender für Syrien auf das Jahr 1288 der Flucht (1871)". Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins. 6: 102–149. Huss, Werner (1985), Geschichte der Karthager, Munich: C.H. Beck. (in German) Hütteroth, Wolf-Dieter; Abdulfattah, Kamal (1977). Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century. Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: orstandV der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft.ISBN 3-920405-41-2. Kafkafi, Eyal (1998). "Segregation or Integration of the Israeli Arabs: Two Concepts in Mapai". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 30 (3): 347–367. doi:10.1017/S0020743800066216. Khalidi, W. (1992). All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948. Washington D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 0-88728-224-5. Mills, E., ed. (1932). Census of Palestine 1931. Population of Villages, Towns and Administrative Areas. Jerusalem: Government of Palestine. Morris, . (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0- 521-00967-6. Petersen, Andrew (2001).A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine (British Academy Monographs in Archaeology). 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 210-213. ISBN 978-0-19-727011-0. Socin, A. (1879). "Alphabetisches Verzeichniss von Ortschaften des Paschalik Jerusalem". Zeitschrift des D eutschen Palästina-Vereins. 2: 135–163. Townsend, Christopher (2006).God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Penguin Books ltd. ISBN 978-0-7139- 9220-5.

External links

Ashkelon City Council "Ashkelon, ancient city of the sea", National Geographic, January 2001 Ancient Ashkelon—University of Chicago Pictures of Ashkelon—Holy Land Pictures

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ashkelon&oldid=896259881"

This page was last edited on 9 May 2019, at 09:46 (UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.