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2 Background on the Batteries Directive Study in support of evaluation of the Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators Final Report Under the Framework contract on economic analysis of environmental and resource efficiency policies ENV.F.1./FRA/2014/0063 Presented by Trinomics B.V. Westersingel 32a 3014 GS Rotterdam The Netherlands Contact main author Dr. Hartmut Stahl Oeko-Institut e.V. T: +49-6151 8191180 E: [email protected] Date 8 October 2018 Contract details European Commission – DG Environment A.2. Service request “Evaluation of the Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators” (Ref. Ares (2016) 5667354) under framework contract No. ENV.F.1./FRA/2014/0063 Disclaimer This document has been prepared for the European Commission; however, the information and views set out in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the Commission. The Commission does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this report. Neither the Commission nor any person acting on the Commission’s behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein. This report shall use the term ‘batteries’ to include both batteries and accumulators, unless otherwise specified. This report is based on results received by June 2018, unless otherwise specifically mentioned. Rotterdam, 8 October 2018 Client: European Commission – DG Environment A.2 Service request “Evaluation of the Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators” under framework contract ENV.F.1/FRA/2014/0063 Evaluation of the Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators Authors: Hartmut Stahl, Yifaat Baron, Diana Hay, Andreas Hermann, Georg Mehlhart (Oeko-Institut e.V.) Laura Baroni, Koen Rademaekers, Rob Williams, (Trinomics) Sandeep Pahal (Ernst & Young) In association with: Evaluation of the Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators Table of contents Table of contents ...................................................................................... V List of Figures ......................................................................................... IX List of Tables .......................................................................................... XI Abbreviations / Glossary ........................................................................... XIII Abbreviations for Countries ........................................................................ XV Abstract ................................................................................................. 1 Résumé .................................................................................................. 2 Executive Summary ................................................................................... 3 Introduction and background on the Batteries Directive ........................................... 3 Evaluation framework and stakeholder consultation ................................................ 3 Current situation ............................................................................................. 4 Conclusions with regard to the evaluation questions ............................................... 5 Sommaire exécutif ................................................................................... 11 Introduction et contexte de la Directive relative aux piles ...................................... 11 Cadre d'évaluation et consultation des parties prenantes ....................................... 11 Situation actuelle .......................................................................................... 12 Conclusions concernant les questions d'évaluation ................................................ 14 1 Introduction ........................................................................ 21 1.1 Objectives of the study ......................................................................... 21 1.1 Scope of the study ............................................................................... 22 2 Background on the Batteries Directive ....................................... 22 2.1 Basic information ................................................................................. 22 2.2 Intervention logic ................................................................................ 24 3 Evaluation questions ............................................................. 29 4 Consultation and evaluation .................................................... 37 4.1 The evaluation process and its main activities ............................................ 37 4.2 Consultation of stakeholders .................................................................. 38 4.2.1 Mapping stakeholders .............................................................................. 38 4.2.2 Public consultation ................................................................................. 38 4.2.3 Survey for members of the Expert Group on Waste (Batteries Directive) .................. 39 4.2.4 Interviews ............................................................................................ 39 V Evaluation of the Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators 4.2.5 Meetings and Workshops ........................................................................... 40 5 Description of the current situation ........................................... 41 5.1 Batteries – figures and information .......................................................... 41 5.1.1 Results on the battery mass flows for the EU28 ................................................ 43 5.1.2 Chemistry and application of batteries .......................................................... 44 5.1.3 Critical raw materials in batteries ............................................................... 47 5.1.4 Metal recycled from waste batteries contributing to supply: example cobalt ............. 48 5.1.5 Emerging trends .................................................................................... 48 5.1.6 Batteries in municipal waste ...................................................................... 50 5.1.7 Collection of industrial batteries ................................................................. 50 5.1.8 Losses of automotive batteries ................................................................... 51 5.1.9 Export of waste batteries ......................................................................... 52 5.2 Economic conditions for the batteries sector ............................................. 53 5.2.1 Production volume.................................................................................. 53 5.2.2 Profitability of collection, safe transport and recycling of waste batteries ................ 53 5.2.3 Different concepts for EPRs depending on battery classification ............................ 54 5.2.4 Other economic aspects ........................................................................... 55 5.3 Collection rates and recycling efficiencies ................................................. 56 5.3.1 Main findings ........................................................................................ 58 5.3.2 Reliability of the results related to recycling and collection ................................. 59 5.4 Environmental impacts of batteries .......................................................... 60 5.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 60 5.4.2 Overview on battery life cycle and environmental impacts .................................. 61 5.4.3 Lead-acid batteries ................................................................................. 63 5.4.4 Alkaline batteries ................................................................................... 65 5.4.5 Li-ion batteries ...................................................................................... 65 5.4.6 NiCd batteries ....................................................................................... 68 5.4.7 Quantitative environmental impacts of batteries .............................................. 69 5.4.8 Main findings ........................................................................................ 73 6 Reliability of data and results .................................................. 76 6.1 Confidence in our results ....................................................................... 78 7 Results of the evaluation questions ........................................... 78 7.1 Relevance .......................................................................................... 78 7.1.1 Evaluation question: Relevance for environmental objectives (1) ........................... 78 7.1.2 Evaluation question: Persistent problems (2) ................................................... 81 7.1.3 Evaluation question: Technical and scientific progress (3) ................................... 82 7.2 Effectiveness ...................................................................................... 86 7.2.1 Evaluation question: progress towards achieving the objectives (1) ........................ 86 7.2.2 Evaluation question: Impact of the Directive towards achievement of objectives (2) .... 92 7.2.3 Evaluation question: Positive and negative changes (3) ...................................... 95 VI Evaluation of
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