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A Brief Overview of Christian Orthodoxy: Trinitarian and Christological Controversies By Charles Williams Last revised: August 9, 2009

The Niceno-Constantinopolitan (381 A.D.) Concerning Against Text the Father & We believe in one God Marcionism The Father Almighty, Maker of and earth, And of all things visible and invisible; God the Son And in one Lord Christ The only-begotten Son of God, Begotten of his Father before all time, God of God, Light of Light, Very God of very God, Begotten, not created, Being of one substance with the Father, By whom all things were made; Who for us and our Came down from heaven, Adoptionism And was incarnate by the Holy Ghost Of the virgin Mary, Apollinarianism And was made man; And was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; And the third day he rose again According to the Scriptures, And ascended into heaven, And sits at the right hand of the Father; Modalism And he shall come again, with glory, To judge both the quick and the dead; Whose kingdom shall have no end. God the Holy Spirit Macedonianism And we believe in the Holy Ghost the Lord And Giver of Life Who proceeds from the Father [and the Son]*; Who with the Father and the Son Together is worshiped and glorified; Marcionism Who spake by the Prophets. The Church And we believe in one holy & Last Things And Apostolic Church; We acknowledge one For the remission of ; Gnosticism And we look for the resurrection of the dead, And the life of the world to come. Amen. *The Filioque Clause [Latin for ‘and the Son’] is used only in the Western Churches.

Definition of Chalcedon (451) Against () Text Therefore, following the holy fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, ; at once complete in Godhead and complete in manhood, Docetism; Gnosticism Arianism truly God and truly man, Apollinarianism; consisting also of a reasonable [that is, a human] soul and body; Docetism; Priscillianism Arianism; Semi- of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, Arianism;Anomeanism Docetism; and at the same time of one substance with us Gnosticism as regards his manhood; Apollinarianism; like us in all respects, apart from ; Docetism Adoptionism as regards his Godhead, begotten of the Father before the ages, Docetism but yet as regards his manhood begotten, for us men and for our salvation, Adoptionism; of Mary the Virgin, the God-bearer; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, ; recognized in two natures, Eutychianism Monophysitism without confusion, Modalism; without change, Seballianism; Eutychianism Nestorianism without division, Nestorianism without separation; Monophysitism the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the union, Monophysitism but rather the characteristics of each nature being preserved Nestorianism and coming together to form one person and subsistence, Monophysitism not as parted or separated into two persons, Nestorianism but one and the same Son and Only-begotten God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ; Marcionism even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, All other and the creed of the fathers has handed down to us. repudiated in the Constantinopolitan Creed

Cultural Trends and the Emergence of Heretical Systems

There were five major centers in early that eventually came to be known as Patriarchates (or ‘sees’). The of these cities were called Patriarchs, and by the 4th century were seen as being the leading rulers of the worldwide (‘ecumenical’) Christian communities. Their joint-rule was known as the Pentarchy, and was seen initially as being a council of elders. Over time, however, some of the Bishops of (who eventually came to be known as the Pope) came to assert their authority as being higher than the other four over time. Ranked in order from highest to lowest importance: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.

During the initial centuries of Christian development, Alexandria and Antioch were the predominant theological centers, both cities approaching Scripture and from radically different philosophical backgrounds. Though not every theologian who came from these two cities were heretics (quite the contrary, in fact), the theoretical underpinnings of these two cities laid the groundwork for different heretical trends. (Some heresies will sound very Alexandrian, others very Antiochian, as you will soon see.)

Alexandrian Tendencies Antiochian Tendencies Docetism Adoptionist Platonic thought - abstract Aristotelian - empirical Greek Judaic Emphasized Unity of Godhead over Emphasized Diversity of Godhead over Diversity Unity Allegorical interpretation of Scripture Literal interpretation of Scripture Philosophical (metaphysical) Ethical Mystical Rational Gnostic Legalistic No real incarnation No real atonement Spiritual Emphasis Historical

Heresies – In short, heresies are false teachings and assumptions that distort the and harm the believers who adhere to (many times unwittingly) to these false teachings. The major heresies of the first five centuries can be grouped into three main headings: Trinitarian, Christological, and Other. Misunderstandings regarding the fall into one of two main categories: Modalist and Subordinationist. Errors regarding one’s view of Christ (i.e., one’s “”) can be broken into four main categories: Docetic, Adoptionist, Arian, and the Non-Hypostatic Union that for the most part came after the Council of Nicaea. Finally, there were blunders that came about regarding the Church, Predestination, and Scripture. These fall into the ‘Other’ Category that characterize church life, faith, and practice. All the major heresies will fall under one of these three categories (Trinity, Christology, Church faith and practice).

Note: In many cases, heresies will overlap categorically. Keep in mind that the theological implications of a Christological heresy will ultimately bear down on one’s view of the Trinity as being in some way unorthodox as well, and vice versa. For example, Arianism denies both Jesus’ full incarnation (a Christological problem) as well as his (a Trinitarian problem). Regarding its’ Christological category, in many ways Arianism adopts both Docetic and Adoptionist tendencies – hence my reasoning for making Arianism its own separate category.

As you read through the following categories and descriptions, discuss the following questions, and reason to see if any of these errors and misunderstandings are ones you yourself have regarding the Godhead.

Discussion Questions 1. In what ways are each of these heresies cruel to both God and man? In what ways do these heresies affect one’s view of salvation? 2. Which Scriptural passages could heretics use to support these positions? How do you respond? 3. What are some Scriptural passages that counter these heretical teachings? 4. Are there any contemporary movements and ideas floating around in Christianity today that resemble any of these heresies? In what ways can you as an individual or a local congregation counter these false ?

List of Ancient Heresies Type Sub-Type Specific Heresy Description Trinitarian Modalist Modalism The most common type of Trinitarian heresy; claims that God is one person who reveals himself in three different forms or modes – like an actor wearing three different masks. Also known as Modal ; named after a famous 3rd century Modalist teacher named Sabbellius; a form of Modalism that tried to protect the unity/ of Christianity by saying that God reveals himself in three distinct, though temporary manifestations: the Father in Creation, the Son in Redemption, and the Spirit in Sanctification and Regeneration; also known as ‘’ (Father- suffered-ism) among its critics, because of the claim that if God is one, then it is possible to say that the Father was crucified. Subordinationist - Monarchianism Monarchists attempted to protect group heading for the sovereign rule of one God all Trinitarian over creation. Monarchists can heresies that treat be divvied into two main groups: God the Father as Modal Monarchianism (see being superior to Modalism above) and Dynamic Jesus and the Monarchianism (also known as Holy Spirit, either Adoptionism – see below for in , further info.) power, or glory. (Cf. WSC #2) Arianism See Below. Semi-Arianism See Below. Macedonianis; The 4th century Macedonious of Constantinople taught that the Holy Spirit was not divine, and that Jesus was only of similar substance (homoiousion) to the Father, not of the same substance (homoousioun); its’ adherents were then known as the (“combaters against the Spirit”) and Macedonians in Constantinople, and called the Tropici in Alexandria; Christological Docetic – Docetism One of the earliest heresies to No Real emerge (it seems as though Incarnation 1 John is directed against Docetists), Docetism is the belief that Jesus was not a real human, but only ‘seemed’ (Greek, dokeo) human, but was actually incorporeal; thus, Jesus neither suffered nor was crucified, seeing as how a spirit can neither suffer nor be killed. Marcionism Based off the teachings of the twice-excommunicated , who around 144 AD began teaching that Jesus was the son of a good god who came to redeem humanity from the grips of the evil tyrant God of the (thus, Jesus and YHWH were enemies in Marcion’s eyes); as thus, he rejected the whole OT, all but part of Luke’s Gospel, and a few (highly edited) Pauline letters. Gnosticism(s) Not a unified movement, but a definite number of common characteristics shared under this broad umbrella term we call ‘Gnosticism’ (from Greek , meaning ‘special knowledge’); a 2nd-3rd century heresy that saw God of OT as being the lowest of a hierarchy of , and created a material (evil) world; saw Jesus as being a pure spirit (not human) who came to deliver humanity from the clutches of the OT God, and thus, from matter itself; salvation achieved through special knowledge/incantations to ascend through the (some claimed there were 365 heavens); seems to have mixed Persian and Hellenic mystery religions with aspects of Christianity Founded by a Persian mystic named Mani in the middle-3rd century; attempted to synthesize a number of religious systems – Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Babylonian folklore; dualistic (evil matter vs. pure spirit realm); very convoluted cosmogony that involved Jesus being the personified Cosmic Light imprisoned in a human body to save Adam from Eve (women were evil, and sex is evil); the goal is an ascetic lifestyle to transcend the evil physical world. Priscillianism 4th century Spanish Gnostic- Manichaean heresy that propogated by a certain Priscillian, which held to a dualistic view a spiritual kingdom of Light vs. a kingdom of Darkness that was the material world; included a denial of Christ’s humanity and divinity Adoptionist – Adoptionism Also known as Dynamic No Real Monarchianism, this ideology Atonement claimed that there is only one God, and that Jesus (who was not pre-existent prior to his birth) became divine at his baptism by virtue of his ability to keep the law; Jesus was then different from and inferior to God, though still divine; Jesus then becomes moral example for people to follow. Ebionism Means “poor”; a Jewish- Christian sect that emphasized the necessity of keeping the Mosaic law; took vows of poverty; there were several differing groups of with differing views of Jesus (some embraced the virgin birth, for example, while others rejected it); some groups of Ebionites, however, denied the divinity of Jesus, claiming that Jesus was simply a human and prophet (like Moses). Arianism – Arianism Founded by Arius of Alexandria No real (250-336 AD) in the 4th century, incarnation, nor Arianism became one of the any real most fought-over heresies in atonement early Christianity; claimed that Jesus was created at some point before the creation of the world by God to be God’s primary agent in creation, acting as God’s mouthpiece between the Creator and the created; Jesus, therefore, was “similar in essence” (homoiousios) to God, but not “same in essence” (homoousious) with God, and therefore not divine. Semi-Arianism A political party during the Council of Nicaea (325) that tried to compromise between the Nicene and Arian parties (wanted the insertion of homoiousion in , which the Nicene party adamantly refused); considered Arians to be in full communion with the church, and avoided all talks of Jesus’ relationship to the Father; although not unorthodox in doctrine, they grew tired of the uncompromising Nicene party, and voted for Athanasius’ exile in 335 when he refused to accept full-Arians into the Christian communion. Anomeanism Also known as Eunomianism (means “dis-similarism”); a variant of Arianism that claimed that Jesus was in no way like the Father (claimed he was “different/dissimilar” in substance from the Father – Arius had only claimed that Jesus was “similar” in substance). Non-Hypostatic – Apollinarianism Based off the teachings of Errors over the Apollinaris (310-390), who nature of how sought to reconcile in what way Jesus is both fully Jesus could be both God and God and fully human; claimed that Jesus was human. fully God, and mostly man, but had no human mind (the seat of the will); rather, he had no rational soul or human will (located in the mind), but his mind was replaced by the Divine . Nestorianism 5th century heresy that claimed that Jesus consisted of two distinct persons (divine and human) in the Incarnation; overemphasized the humanity of Christ, and claimed it was wrong to refer to Mary as the mother of God (wanted to refer to her as Christotokos – mother of Christ). Monophysitism 5th century heresy that claimed that Jesus had only one nature (mono – one; nature – physis), and that nature was a divine nature that absorbed his human nature; overemphasized the divinity of Christ; arose in reaction to Nestorianism, and in order to defend Jesus’ divinity, was adamant on referring to Mary as the Theotokos (Mother of God) . Eutychianism Similar to Monophysitism; Eutyches of Constantinople (380-456 AD) taught that the two natures of Jesus (human and divine) mixed into one nature, whereby the divine nature absorbed the human nature, thereby making it less-than- human Means “one will”; a 7th century error stemming from Armenia that tried to establish a compromise between Catholic and Monophysites in order to reunite; it taught that Jesus had two natures but only one will identical with the Father’s. Other Church Novationism During the persecutions of the church in the mid-3rd century, many professing Christians lapsed in their faith; some, however, would be deeply repentant for doing so; Novationists began refusing the lapsed reentry into the church, even if they showed deep repentance; named after Novatian, who declared himself to be the new Pope, because he thought the current pope was being too lax in allowing the lapsed to return to the church; considered this the unforgivable sin; began rebaptizing members of their own churches, claiming the baptism of the was insufficient because of their lax standards and compromises regarding the lapsed. Donatism A 4th-5th century idea that mirrors the Novatian errors of the 3rd century; claimed that lapsed Christians could not be forgiven for denying Christ, and that one’s baptism was null and void if the one who baptized you lapsed from the faith; began rebaptizing its converts. Predestination Pelagianism Based off the teachings of the and Good Works British monk Pelagius (354- c.430 AD); taught that original sin did not taint human nature, and that the will was still perfectly capable of choosing good or evil without the need for divine aid; Jesus’ life becomes a good example to follow that counters the bad example of Adam; because humanity is fully responsible to obey God, Pelagius taught that humanity must consequently be fully able to obey God, or else God wouldn’t have commanded it. Anti- Means “lawless”; claimed that if Nomianism salvation is by faith only, then one is under no obligation to uphold any type of moral law; an early form of this was known as Messalianism or Euchitism, and was found in the 4th century; it taught that the Trinity could be experienced through the senses, and contact with God liberated one from one’s necessity to keep the moral law of God (and also from church discipline); also claimed that the church and the were illegitimate means of grace, and that the only legitimate means of grace was through . Scripture 2nd century heresy based out of Phrygia (in modern Turkey) in which Montanus claimed to be the mouthpiece of the Holy Spirit, and that the he received through ecstatic utterances superceded that of Scripture.

Orthodox Christology/Trinitinarianism – Important Concepts/Statements to Remember

There were several maxims used in the early church to help maintain the ‘rule of faith’ and properly judge a correct interpretation of the Scriptures (which included Trinitarian/Christological theology) while the canon was still being hammered out.

The following concepts and statements should be memorized as a guide for maneuvering through the Trinitarian and Christological controversies that we will look at.

Doctrine of Recapitulation (Iraneaus of Lyon, c.180) – God’s action in Christ is seeking a renewal of creation/humanity, not its’ obliteration and destruction. What both creation and humanity lost from the first Adam will be recapitulated by the second Adam, that is, Christ, at the culmination of history.

In what way is Jesus related to God? Nicene Terminology (Orthodox) Arian Terminology (Heretical) Homoousious (“of the same essence/ Homoiousious (“of similar substance”) substance”) Emphasizes unity of the Trinity Makes God the Father and Jesus two different

Trinitarian Formula: One ousia (essence) in three hypostases (persons) Homoousious Emphasizes Unity of Trinity Hypostasis Emphasizes Distinction of Persons within the Trinity Orthodox Trinitarianism must maintain both unity and distinction, without giving into Modalism, , or Tritheism.

What do we mean by “Substance/Essence”? • Trinity shares common essence, but are three distinct persons. • Marriage metaphor as counterexample for Trinitarian/Christological heresies: o Denial of distinction of gender = Modalism o Denial of common humanity = Arianism

How is Jesus both God and Human? • Definition of Chalcedon to counter Christological heresies. • Important maxims that guided orthodox Christological thought (all heresies end up violating one of the following): o “He became as we are so we can become as He is.” [alt. translation: “God became man to restore us to his image”] - (Athanasius) [cf. 1 John 3.2] o “What Christ did not assume he could not redeem” (Cappadocian Fathers). o “Grace never destroys nature” (Cappadocian Fathers). o “We cannot be saved by our wills [Pelagianism], but God will not save us without our wills [Apollinarianism]” (St. Augustine)