Secondary and Inequality: Navigating the Fragmented Landscape of Educational Choices in ,

CAP Paper 214, January 2019

Aigoul Abdoubaetova researches the growing gap context of this diversification in educational opportunities in Kyrgyzstan. She is and fragmentation of schools. The paper sets out to answer Programme Manager of the MA in and Security the following specific questions: at the OSCE in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, and has over nine years of professional experience working in 1. How do parents in Bishkek navigate the fragmented higher administration. Previously, Aigoul landscape of the second- worked for a number of non-profit organizations ary education system and specializing in the areas of youth, international adoption, choose schools for their and other social issues. She holds an MA in International children? 2. To what degree do parents’ Studies from the of Oregon and a BA in educational choices reflect Foreign Languages from State University. and reinforce growing so- s of 2018, Kyrgyzstan’s country that used to be a Soviet cio-economic inequality in GDP per capita was republic where citizens had more a society that is undergo- reported to be $1,221.1 or less equal status and equal ing significant transforma- A tions? Yet the cost of tuition at some access to high-quality public private schools in the capital city, education. Bishkek, tells a very different To answer these questions, we story: annual tuition is $23,800 Over the past two decades, sec- employed a combination of qual- at the QSI International ,2 ondary educational opportu- itative and quantitative methods. $14,155 at the ESCA Bishkek nities in Bishkek have become Our main group of informants International School, $13,000 at more diversified, due both to included parents of schoolchil- the Oxford International School, the growing number and vari- dren aged 7-17 who attend pub- and $11,000 at the Cambridge ety of private schools and to the lic and private schools in Bish- Silk Road International School.3 division of public schools into kek. Religious private schools Parents of students at these different categories depending were not included in the study. schools pay between 3.5 and 7.5 on the quality of education they We surveyed 115 parents using a times the average yearly salary on offer. This paper explores grow- questionnaire and supplement- education alone. These numbers ing inequality in accessing and ed this with 22 in-depth inter- are illustrative of growing obtaining views. The survey included ques- socio-economic inequality in a in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, in the tions on parents’ motivations

CAP Fellows Paper 214 1 Figure 1. Number of private schools in Kyrgyzstan

Source: National Statistical Committee

ty. Finally, it draws conclusions and strategies for choosing their Of the 22 parents interviewed, and provides recommendations. children’s schools, level of satis- 13 sent their children to public faction with their choices, alter- schools and 9 to private schools. Overview native/complementary ways of acquiring knowledge, and their In addition, we interviewed the Private schools emerged in Kyr- child’s post-secondary plans. principals or top administrators gyzstan in the mid-1990s as a re- of eight private schools in or- sult of neoliberal reforms. Figure Of the 115 parents who partici- der to gain greater insight into 1 shows the growth in the number pated in the survey, 79 percent the work of private schools. The of private schools in post-Soviet had children in public schools, sample included high- and me- Bishkek: from 19 (1 percent of all 19 percent in private schools, dium-cost private schools. Fi- schools) in 1995 to 114 (5 percent) and 2 percent in both. These nally, we conducted interviews in 2017. The number of students 115 parents completed surveys with twelve experts in the field who attend these schools has risen about the of 175 chil- of education, who provided ana- from 0.3 percent to 2.5 percent of dren (87 boys and 88 girls). The lytical insights into our research all students.4 More recent sourc- majority of parents who partici- questions. We also drew on pri- es state that there are now 187 pated in the survey were women vate schools’ websites and so- private schools in the country,5 (95 percent). Most of them had cial media pages, as well as on- most of which are located in Bish- degrees (78 line news sources about schools kek. While older private schools percent). Twenty-eight percent and online forums for parents. in Bishkek were often established of informants lived in the city in the buildings of former kin- center, 47 percent in the resi- The paper proceeds as follows. dergartens and other municipal dential micro-districts, and 25 First, it provides an overview of buildings, in recent years several percent in the urban periphery. the state of secondary education new, elite-style private schools Sixty-seven percent of partici- in Bishkek and classifies exist- have been constructed. These pants indicated that that they had ing school choices. Next, it ex- new elite schools are located in an average income, 25 percent plores parental motivations and the southern part of Bishkek, higher than average, 2 percent strategies in choosing schools, where many of the city’s wealthy high, 2 percent lower than aver- before engaging in the wider and privileged families live. age, and only 1 percent very low. debate about the link between education choices and inequali- CAP Fellows Paper 214 2 Private schools in Bishkek are ing quality of education, the short- ly concentrated at the elemen- very heterogeneous, with a di- age of qualified teachers, and the tary level. Evidently, therefore, verse mix of prices and services.6 poor maintenance of buildings.7 there is a serious need for more Many of them have excellent in- Due to high internal migration to schools in Bishkek—but only two frastructure and facilities, small the capital city and urban popu- state schools are built per year.9 It class sizes, and better-paid teach- lation growth in general, public has become common practice for ers (see Figures 2 and 3). schools in Bishkek have become first-graders to start their school extremely overcrowded.8 Accord- year in classes exceeding 40, and The boom in private schools is ing to Chinara Isakova, Bish- in some cases even 50, students10 occurring in the context of acute kek’s 97 schools currently have a (see Figure 4). This problem is shortages and the deteriorating 76,500-student capacity, but the mostly observed in Bishkek and quality of public schools. So far, actual number of students is dou- Chui region. Due to overcrowd- very little has been done by the ble that. The number of school ing, 1,657 of Kyrgyzstan’s 2,262 state to address the myriad issues students is growing by around public schools have two shifts facing public schools: the declin- 10,000 students per year, most- and 159 elementary schools have

Figures 2 and 3. Classrooms in the Cambridge Silk Road International School and Oxford International School

Source: “Gid Kaktus. Chastnye shkoly Bishkeka. Usloviia i tseny,” Kaktus Media, May 25, 2018, https://kaktus.media/doc/338956_gid_kaktus._chastnye_shko- ly_bishkeka._ysloviia_i_ceny.html Figure 4. Overcrowded classes in a public school in a novostroika in the Muras Ordo housing development, Bishkek

Source: “Shkoly Bishkeka. Po chetyre uchenika za partoi,” Azattyk, May 24, 2014, https://rus.azattyk.org/a/26568113/ p2.html CAP Fellows Paper 214 3 Figure 5 and 6. The deteriorating state of School #44 in Bishkek

Source: “Zdanie shkoly 44 v Bishkeke nakhoditsia v avariinom sostoianii,” Reporter Akipress, March 26, 2014, https://reporter. akipress.org/print:28010. a flexible schedule.11 could collapse completely in the private tutoring/private learning coming 10-15 years.14 centers. In this section, we dis- Obviously, in such large class- cuss each category and summa- es, students do not get enough Yet the outlook for public schools rize them in a table. attention from teachers. This is not altogether bleak. There are is compounded by the fact that a few high-performing “elite” The first category of private the average monthly salary of a public schools (gymnasiums and schools includes elite interna- schoolteacher is 1.3 times lower ) that achieve top results tional private schools with tuition than the national average, with on the NST,15 a national mer- fees above $10,000 per year: QSI the result that few people are it-based selection system that International, Cambridge Silk interested in becoming teach- tests the knowledge and skills Road International, ESCA Bish- ers and existing teachers end up of graduates kek International, and Oxford In- weighed down by ever heavier applying for government schol- ternational. These schools boast teaching loads. arships to local .16 international accreditation and High-performing elite public international curricula different Infrastructure is another issue. schools are seen as prestigious from the curriculum approved by Having mostly been built in the and are difficult to get into. Even the Kyrgyz Ministry of Education Soviet period, these schools are families that can afford to send and Science. All classes are taught now in need of serious renova- their children to private schools in English, primarily by interna- tion (see Figures 5 and 6), yet may prefer these schools because tional faculty but also by local fac- the annual budget that a public of their reputations and excellent ulty with solid English language school receives from the Min- academic outcomes. skills. These schools have excel- istry of Education and Science lent infrastructure, facilities, and for such purposes is extreme- Landscape of Secondary security, as well as small class siz- ly low: 20,000 soms ($285).12 Educational Opportunities es. They are licensed by the Minis- Many schools are thus forced in Bishkek try of Education and Science, and to collect money from parents13 by taking some additional cours- or continue functioning in poor Based on our analysis and pub- es, students can also gain a local physical conditions. The Bulan licly available information, we high school certificate. However, Institute for Peace Innovations have classified secondary school the primary goal of these schools recently sent an official letter to opportunities into six main cat- is to prepare students to apply to President Jeenbekov highlight- egories: three types of private abroad; some students ing these issues and warning that schools (based on tuition costs), have been admitted even to some the secondary education system two types of public schools, and of the world’s top-ranked univer-

CAP Fellows Paper 214 4 sities. These schools can there- na-European School, and Erudit, as transportation to and from fore be described as preparing being relatively new, have yet to school and some extracurricular students “for export.” Many of earn reputations that would jus- activities can be arranged for an their students do not take part tify their high tuition costs. With additional fee. Unlike in the first in the National Scholarship Test- the exception of the Silk Road In- two categories, where some of the ing (NST) required for admission ternational School, which teach- co-owners or top management to local universities:17 if parents es in English, the language of are foreign citizens, the owners of can afford to pay $10-25,000 for instruction of the schools in this these private schools are mostly schools in Kyrgyzstan, they can category is Russian or Kyrgyz. locals. Some schools—like Ilim, also afford to pay for universities However, all of them claim that Kelechek, Zvezdochka, and Evri- in and the US. It is only some subjects are taught in En- ka—are better known than oth- obvious that upon graduation glish or that they generally place ers; they have been in the educa- from such universities, these stu- a heavier emphasis on English. tion market longer and have an dents are going to have expand- While some of them successfully established clientele. The average ed life and career opportunities. prepare students to study abroad, tuition cost is around $2,500 per Local students study in these they do not have internation- year. The Bilimkana school chain, schools alongside the children of al accreditation. These schools which was established only a few expats: their share of local stu- are successful in preparing their years ago but is quickly becoming dents at Cambridge Silk Road graduates to enter prestigious lo- popular, also belongs to this cate- International, ESCA Bishkek In- cal universities and build success- gory. We also include here some ternational, and Oxford Inter- ful local careers. Several of them lesser-known or smaller private national ranges from 40 percent see preparing the future elite of schools with relatively inexpen- to 80 percent, but they comprise Kyrgyzstan as part of their larger sive tuition ranging from $500 just 10 percent of the student educational mission. Local stu- to $800 per year. Some of them body of QSI International.18 dents constitute the vast majority are located on university campus- of these schools’ student bodies. es. The price goes down for those The second category of private schools where the school day is schools is those with annual tu- The third category contains a lon- only half a day and where tuition ition costs between $3,000 and ger list of various schools where excludes food expenses. $7,000. Schools in this category the cost of education is below include Turkish private schools $3,000 per year. These schools The fourth category is public such as the Silk Road Interna- are not necessarily known for schools, mostly gymnasiums and tional School and Turkish private high-quality teaching or for the lyceums, whose students achieve lyceums that belong to the Sa- high performance of their stu- a high level of academic perfor- pat International Education In- dents. Only occasionally do their mance. They can be described as stitution. Sapat private lyceums names appear among the Gold the “top 10,” “top 5,” or “top 3,” have established a reputation as Certificate winners on NST. Yet depending on who ranks them. high-quality schools.19 They are they still attract students, as they These are schools whose students known for achieving very high offer better facilities, better secu- get high NST scores and win var- results on the NST and in various rity, and smaller class sizes than ious kinds of knowledge-based knowledge-based competitions state schools, as well as a stu- competitions. However, there is (Olympiads). The Silk Road In- dent-friendly environment. Send- a hierarchy even within this cat- ternational School, for its part, is ing children to private schools, egory: three Bishkek schools con- known for being one of the oldest including those in this category, tinuously top the national school English-language private schools is very convenient for parents rankings for academic perfor- in the country and for charging who can afford the tuition: chil- mance. On a scale from 0 to 100, much less than other interna- dren are safe, they are fed and School #61’s score is 91, School tional schools. Other schools in cared for all day, and they come #70’s is 88, and School #69’s is this price range, such as Bilimka- home having completed their 76, while the average score for the na-AUCA High School, Bilimka- homework. Extra services such rest of the schools in the top 20 is

CAP Fellows Paper 214 5 only 40.20 Such schools maintain versities on the basis of merit.22 facilities specifically designated their reputations by attracting for this purpose. The most popu- the most qualified teachers and The majority of schools fall into lar subjects are English and other imposing harsh study discipline, our fifth category: public schools foreign languages, but tutors are heavy study loads, and competi- with average or poor perfor- also increasingly engaged for tra- tive selection. If students do not mance. These schools generally ditional school subjects such as perform to the expected stan- lack qualified teachers, produce math or Kyrgyz and Russian lan- dard, they are either expelled or poor NST results, have two or guages. Such courses help chil- leave voluntarily, unable to cope even three daily shifts, and have dren catch up if they lag behind with the heavy workload. Among poorly maintained facilities. It is in school or else learn something the top three, School #61 stands surprising that the achievement that is not on the curriculum.23 out: since the launch of the NST gap is so wide, considering that They offer flexible hours and a in 2003, 215 students from this all public schools and many pri- more or less standard set of pric- school have received Gold Cer- vate schools follow the same cur- es, which differ for individual and tificates, meaning that one-third riculum. group classes. Nowadays, such of all Gold Certificate winners tutoring practices and private ed- nationally have attended this Finally, we look at private tutor- ucational centers have become so school.21 These schools are in ing and private learning centers, popular that it is almost impossi- high demand by parents despite both as an important secondary ble to imagine secondary school the fact that their classes are education component and as an education without them. overcrowded and children study individual category. Such services in two shifts. Their students have are sometimes provided by teach- Table 1 summarizes the main high chances of entering local ers in schools, but most often they characteristics of all six educa- universities, universities in Rus- are offered outside the school tional categories, listing their av- sia, and even some foreign uni- system, in people’s homes or in erage costs. Table 1. Secondary educational opportunities in Bishkek

1. Top elite international private schools: a. Tuition – $10-25,000 b. Preparing students “for export”: international accreditation, all subjects taught in English c. International teachers, excellent facilities, security, small class sizes, student-friendly atmosphere 2. Higher-fee private schools: a. Tuition – $3-5,000 b. Excellent prospects of entering top universities in Kyrgyzstan c. Qualified and well-paid teachers, good facilities, security, small class sizes, student-friendly 3. Medium and lower-fee private schools: a. Tuition—under $3,000; b. Financial (not always merit-based) opportunities for entering good universities c. Select teachers, decent facilities, security, small class sizes, student-friendly atmosphere 4. High-performing public schools: a.Free; collection of fees from parents for school needs—$100-200 per year (estimated average) b.Merit-based opportunities to enter good universities c.Select teachers, average facilities, no security, large class sizes, harsh discipline, selective admission 5. Public schools with average and low academic performance: a. Free; collection of fees from parents for school needs—$50-80 a year (estimated average) b. Limited prospects (both merit-based and financial) of entering good universities c. Underpaid teachers with heavy loads, average or poor facilities, no security, large class sizes 6. After-school private tutoring and private learning centers: a. $2-4 per hour or $80-150 per month to attend group sessions (3-4 times a week) b. Flexible schedules and payment schemes; targeted choice of subjects

CAP Fellows Paper 214 6 Figure 7. Parents’ reasons for choosing a private school

Parents’ Motivations and ers (41 percent), English lan- vate schools, parents expect clos- Strategies for Making School guage education (41 percent), a er teacher-student interaction Choices specialized program (41 percent), and a more individualized ap- and security (36 percent) were proach. Parents interpret small Having sketched the landscape also important. class sizes as an important factor of educational choices parents in that contributes to the quality of Bishkek have for their children, In the following subsections, we learning. we turn to explore their motiva- unpack these and other motiva- tions and strategies when navi- tions by interweaving the survey Some parents were very con- gating this landscape. We distin- results with analysis of our in- cerned about their child’s health guish between the motivations terviews with parents, school ad- and wellbeing in overcrowded and strategies for choosing pri- ministrators, and experts. classes. One parent, whose child vate and public schools. attends one of the high-perform- Small Class Sizes, Better Condi- ing public schools in Bishkek, Private Schools tions, and Better Treatment of expressed a wish to move her Children daughter to a private school so The survey results shown in Fig- that she would have better study ure 7 highlight parents’ most One major factor motivating par- conditions: commonly mentioned motiva- ents to consider private school tions for choosing private schools. for their children is the size of I am satisfied with the quality of ed- Small class sizes (73 percent) was classes. In many public schools, ucation that our school provides and the leading motivating factor, fol- classes are extremely overcrowd- the teachers are very qualified. How- lowed by quality of education and ed: several informants indicat- ever, if I had more money, I would transfer my daughter to private all-day child care, each of which ed that in a 45-minute lesson, school because of the small class siz- scored 68 percent. Sixty-six per- the average child receives less es and good conditions. There are 47 cent of parents were swayed by than a minute of attention from children in my daughter’s classroom a perception that private schools the teacher. By contrast, classes which was designed to fit 25. There is had better attitudes toward chil- in private schools are generally a 40 cm gap between the blackboard dren. Good infrastructure (55 small; student numbers range and the desk in the first row, so the percent), highly qualified teach- from 10 to 25.24 In choosing pri- child who has to sit at that desk is

CAP Fellows Paper 214 7 the most miserable, because he/she well as reserving time for com- public schools. Even then, pri- sits too close to the blackboard. In pleting homework. Schools orga- vate schools guarantee children’s winter, when the heater is on, there nize transportation to and from security far better than public is not enough air in the classroom. school, which can save parents schools, respondents noted: It’s the same on hot summer days. time during rush hour. This ap- Because of the high number of chil- proach is convenient for families, Private schools are more expensive, dren, school happens in two shifts. particularly in households where but you are paying not for education The school cafeteria stops working at but for security. There are 16 people both parents work. An expert on 4 pm and the child who is at school in the class and you know that no one until 7 pm often goes hungry (Parent, education articulates this in the will hurt your child (Parent, private public school #26). following way: school).

A few parents, often who had For some parents, especially of An education expert echoed this children in elementary school, it is lived abroad or had been exposed view: to Western-style education, were convenient that their child is cared for during the day because they are very critical of the teaching meth- at work. He eats there, rests, does I think if parents could afford it, ods and communication style of homework. This takes a certain many would send their children to teachers in public schools. They amount of pressure off parents (Ex- private schools just to make sure the took a negative view of the top- pert, Ministry of Education). child is looked after. This is especial- down and authoritarian style of ly important in the case of the secu- rity of teenagers, including informa- interacting with students, com- As many public schools in Bish- tional security. Parents do not worry paring it to the old Soviet style kek are underfunded and over- and their children are in a secure with its harsh disciplinary meth- crowded, they work in two shifts environment until they pick them up ods. For them, private schools of- and do not have the means or fa- (Expert, Ministry of Education). fered an escape from the conser- cilities to organize afterschool ac- vative style of teaching in public tivities. This creates a burden on Thus, another motivation driv- schools, promising better treat- working parents, who tradition- ing parents to choose private ment of children and a more lib- ally reach out to grandparents or schools is this “all-day childcare” eral and relaxed learning atmo- other extended family members approach, which helps minimize sphere. As one parent explained: for help with childrearing. How- parents’ daily chores and ensure ever, this option is not available their children’s safety. If I were to choose between two evils, to everyone. Many residents of I would choose private schools be- Bishkek come from various parts International Private Schools cause at least they offer some relief, of the country and leave their el- including better teaching and com- and English as a Means of Enter- munication methods (Parent, private derly parents and extended fam- ing Universities Abroad school). ilies behind. Working parents therefore seek alternative help The cost of a private school rises All-Day Child Care Services with child rearing, either hiring sharply if it offers a curriculum nannies, relying on local rela- taught solely in English and has Most private schools in Bishkek tives, or choosing private schools. international accreditation. Inter- provide all-day child care ser- views with school administrators vices. The school day in a private In Kyrgyzstan, children’s safe- and analysis of graduates’ pro- school lasts from 8 am to 5 or 6 ty at school has been a problem files revealed that these schools pm. Schools provide breakfast, for many years. There have been are heavily oriented toward pre- lunch, snacks, and in some cases many reported cases of violence paring children to study abroad. an early dinner. They also orga- among high school children, Having native English speakers nize after-school activities, such as well as of school racketeer- as teachers, an international cur- 25 as language courses, sports, mu- ing. Only in very recent years riculum, and counselors sic, arts, and other interest-based have parents started to collect who prepare applications to for- clubs, on the school premises, as money to hire security guards eign universities all mean that or install camera surveillance at CAP Fellows Paper 214 8 these students have more oppor- to universities in the West. rather than on the number of tunities to access the global edu- Gold Certificates or local Olympi- cation system than their peers at When it comes to private schools ads. The latter, according to him, other schools. These schools can with a local curriculum and in- are local and trivial matters. also organize trips to European struction in Russian, it becomes and U.S. universities (at parents’ less clear how successful they are Turkish Boarding Schools: Qual- expense) to spark students’ inter- at preparing children for educa- ity and Added Value est in studying abroad. tion abroad. Most of them allo- cate more hours to studying En- Many Turkish private schools in However, some parents and ex- glish than public schools and use Kyrgyzstan belong to the Sapat perts raised questions about the English as one of their main mar- International Education Institu- quality of this education for its keting strategies. Some of them tion system, which currently has high cost. One expert said: also organize study tours to Eu- two international schools, 16 ly- rope or the US for an extra fee. An ceums (boarding schools), and As far as I know, in most private interview with a representative of four primary schools in the coun- schools where the cost is very high, the Sapat (Sapat Inter- try.26 Both international schools, the emphasis is on infrastructure, national Education Institution) two of the boarding schools, and good conditions, and English-speak- administration revealed that the three of the primary schools are ing teachers. But I have reservations chain has big ambitions to send located in Bishkek. Sapat private regarding the qualifications of teach- ers at these schools. Look at the re- students to foreign universities in schools are known for their qual- sults of republican Olympiads and the coming years: ity, proof of which can be seen Gold Certificates. Among them you in the number of international will not find representatives of these This year, out of 750, about 350-400 and local competitions their pu- elite schools, except for the Kyr- students went abroad. Fifty went on pils have won and the number gyz-Turkish Lyceums (Expert, edu- full scholarships to universities that of Gold Certificates that students cation agency). are included in the world’s top 100. have received over the years. In We achieved this goal in just two addition to quality, other motiva- Interviews with representatives years. Our plan for next year is to increase this number to 100. They tions prompted parents to choose of some of the elite internation- took 25 students to Hong Kong. They these schools: they instill moral al schools suggest that their stu- have eight universities and five of values and encourage an upright dents do not achieve high NST them are in the top 100. All 25 [stu- lifestyle. Students of the Turk- results for three reasons. The first dents] received scholarships. Tuition ish schools are often described is language limitations: NST and costs $25,000-35,000 (Representa- as well-bred, hardworking, hon- local competition are conduct- tive of Sapat International Education est, and self-disciplined.27 While ed in Russian or Kyrgyz, while Institution). the curriculum does not contain these schools’ students study in per se, they English. The second is that many The same representative of the try to school children in Islamic local students of international Sapat school chain was critical of ethics within a universal moral schools do not plan to apply to the local system of rating schools framework; values such as re- local universities: by the time the based on the NST, pointing to a spect for parents and the elderly, NST comes around, they have of- number of flaws in that approach. tolerance, compassion, altruism, ten already received admission He suggested that Kyrgyzstan brotherhood/sisterhood, etc., are letters from universities abroad. should shift to thinking more important components of Sapat Third, the children of foreign citi- globally and rely on internation- education. A representative of a zens and expatriates who study in al ratings, such as the Program Turkish school administration these schools are not interested for International Student Assess- confirmed: in taking the NST. Instead, they ment (PISA), evaluating schools’ take international exams such performance by the same stan- Our is to provide two as the SAT, TOEFL, and IELTS, dards under which foreign uni- things: quality education and proper which are required for entrance versities’ students gain admission

CAP Fellows Paper 214 9 upbringing. These two things cannot do (an Islamic scholar), they now children]. Parents may not always be separated from each other (Rep- send them to Turkish schools. be interested only in the quality of resentative, Turkish private school). education or school results. So our A representative of the girls’ lyce- school, besides education, is also A parent whose child attends um shared that boarding schools taking care of children and filling this social gap that we have in our society one of the Turkish elite private like his have become popular not schools commented: (Representative, Turkish boarding just because of education, but school). also due to social/family circum- The reason why I gave my son to the stances. He explained that girls Private Schools as Social Curren- school is English, but the ethics of who live with stepfathers are fre- the school were equally important to cy quently sent to boarding schools. me (Parent, private school). He also discussed the role of mi- In choosing schools, parents pri- gration. Boarding schools, espe- According to this parent, Turkish marily rely on the opinions of cially in the south, have become boarding schools are much more their social networks: friends, popular among migrant fami- effective at promoting important relatives, or colleagues. Accord- lies who live in Russia. Hous- values than non-boarding Turkish ing to the survey, 76 percent of ing prices are too high in Russia schools because their pupils have all parents surveyed rely on the to allow the entire family to live less contact with outsiders. Sapat recommendations or reviews of properly, and often both parents boarding schools are segregated friends and relatives in finding are labor migrants. It has thus by gender in the upper-middle information about schools (see become common practice among grades and high school students Figure 8). migrants in Russia to leave their usually live at school during the children behind in Kyrgyzstan week, going home for weekends. Because private schools are rel- with grandparents or other rela- Teachers in boarding schools atively new and it is not easy to tives. For these families, private therefore have more control over obtain information about their boarding schools have become a the behavior of their students. results and performance, par- good option, giving children edu- Often, boys and girls are sent to ents normally seek suggestions cation as well as needed care: Turkish boarding schools during from people in their social circles. their teenage years specifically for We find that parents are more Lots of parents work abroad or fre- these reasons. One respondent likely to send their children to a quently travel abroad. They need particular private school if other said that whereas previously par- someone who can take care of [their ents sent their children to a mol- parents in their social circle send

Figure 8. Sources of information used by parents to choose a school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 10 Figure 9. Parents’ reasons for choosing a public school

their children there and assess Public Schools significant factor in choosing their experience positively. public schools is their proximi- When it comes to parents’ mo- ty. Parents choose public schools Interestingly, such sharing of tivations for choosing public because they are located in the their experiences in obtaining schools, the survey results reveal neighborhood or close to where private secondary education can a completely different picture. parents work. In the Soviet era, also reinforce status competition The figure below details the most Bishkek schools were planned in among parents: if some families commonly mentioned reasons such a way as to be walking dis- send their children to a presti- for choosing a public school. The tance from any place of residence. gious school, others also feel so- majority (68 percent) indicated This is still the case in the cen- cial pressure to do so. One parent that the proximity of the school tral parts of the city and in some whose child attends the Silk Road was a major motivation, while 52 micro-districts, while access to International School told the sto- percent said that their choice was schools is more complicated in ry of how, when a more expensive determined for them by the dis- the new residential areas on the branch of the same school was trict in which they reside. Only 33 urban periphery. For families opened, wealthier parents moved percent indicated that the quality that live within walking distance their children there, even though, of the education was a motivating of a public school, it is a very con- according to her, there was no factor, and all other factors were venient choice. difference between the curricu- significantly less relevant. la of these two schools. Parents Parents in Bishkek can send their send their children to more ex- Below, we analyze the most sig- children to the schools in their pensive schools to be “on trend” nificant reasons why parents district or else try to place chil- and “keep up with the Joneses.” chose public schools, using both dren in the schools of their choice We suggest that by sending chil- survey and interview results. in other districts. Our informants dren to private schools, parents who send their children to pub- implicitly seek to showcase their School Location lic schools were divided between social status. In this sense, pri- those who used neighborhood vate schools serve as social cur- In line with the survey results, in- schools and those who bypassed rency for parents. terviews confirmed that the most this system in search of bet-

CAP Fellows Paper 214 11 ter-quality schools. Among those ability to raise extra funding from high-performing schools is com- who chose neighborhood schools, parents and other sponsors helps petitive, securing a place for a proximity was the single most im- these schools retain good-quality child requires certain skills and portant factor influencing their teachers. This, coupled with se- commitment from parents, such decision. When asked about their lective admission policies, leads as early planning, preparation, reasons for choosing their school, to a differentiation in education hiring tutors, etc. One parent one parent said this: quality and outcomes between shared her experience of how be- lyceums/gymnasiums and aver- ing strategic and preparing well I did not go and check out other age schools.28 In Bishkek, some in advance helped her to prepare schools. This school is located close lyceums/gymnasiums are pop- her children for the high-per- to us, so I chose it. I don’t know how ular and in high demand due to forming school #61: it is different from other schools their higher NST scores, which (Parent, public school # 87). increase students’ chances of en- I would prepare both my kids at home tering more prestigious local uni- after they came home from kinder- Sticking to a neighborhood school versities. garten. They could read at the age of was also influenced by a lack of 4. I taught them math. I researched what schools are good, where they are the resources associated with at- The search for high-quality edu- tending better ones, which would located, what they teach. I planned cation was one of the major fac- ahead, thinking about which school require extra cost and effort. One tors that influenced parents to parent explained her experience to choose. I developed my own rating choose such high-performing ly- by asking parents about the schools with it in this way: ceums/gymnasiums. Those who their kids attend. I asked questions lived in poorer new settlements about which schools were the best. I have five children; four of them go in Bishkek and those who had no And then based on my personal rat- to school. Before, two of them used ing, I decided that my kids should to go to a . After they choice but send their children to low-performing neighborhood go to school #61. And then we start- finished elementary school, I had to ed preparing for admission (Parent, transfer them to School #88 near our schools complained that schools public school # 61). place of residence. The reason for were extremely overcrowded and this is that we would spend money understaffed, with a very high on transportation and it would also rate of teacher turnover. Parents In choosing a similar type of require an adult to take them and who were able to place their chil- school, another parent consid- bring them back. And that school dren in high-performing public ered a combination of factors. would require more money for reno- schools mentioned qualified and First, she shortlisted the top three vation and we would pay more mon- committed teachers, the school’s schools: schools #70, #61 and ey. So we have transferred them to #26. She recognized that school the neighborhood school. You pay specialized curriculum, disci- pline, high NST scores, and the #61 was the highest quality of all less for school fees here. It is only but considered her children to one stop away. The children walk to number of competitions won by be better at humanities than at school (Parent, public school # 88). the students as important factors in their decision. When asked , and after consid- ering the schools’ locations chose Quality of Education about her motivation, one mother said the following: school #26. Although their neigh- borhood school was also consid- After the collapse of the Soviet ered not bad, she decided to go Union, some schools were restruc- First, this school is very strong and with school #26 because it had tured into lyceums and gymnasi- my child will get a good education much higher ratings. Additional- ums. These differ from ordinary not only in and mathematics, but also in all other subjects. My son ly, she found out from her social schools in that they have a more is good at mathematics and I want circles that the principal of school specialized curriculum, extra him to develop these skills further #26 had a good reputation and courses, and a heavier workload. (Parent, public school # 61). made sure that the admissions The cost of these extra courses is process was transparent and partly covered by the Ministry of Because admission to these based on merit. She hired private Education. The school principal’s

CAP Fellows Paper 214 12 tutors and successfully prepared schools, such as #61, #13, and Many use these free hours to fill her child for the entrance exam- #6, attendance at which has been the gaps in the public education ination. seen as a status symbol since So- system in certain core subjects by viet times. He mentioned that un- attending private lessons. Private One common feature of par- til very recently, it was common tutoring has become very pop- ents who sent their children to to have to pay large bribes to be ular among students of all types high-performing public schools admitted to these public schools. of schools, but more so in public was that parents were themselves Higher, unofficial parental fees schools (36 percent of students) educated and interested in their paid to gain admission to these than in private ones (23 percent) children’s development. They schools help explain why very (see Figure 10). However, more were very resourceful and well-in- poor parents cannot send their private school students attended formed about schools in Bishkek, children there.29 educational centers (41 percent) their ratings and performance, than did their counterparts in using their social and profes- Flexible Afterschool Time public schools (30 percent). One sional networks to find out infor- way to explain this is that stu- mation. Most importantly, they Attending public schools general- dents in public schools want ex- knew how to get their children ly takes only half a day, in contrast tra help with core subjects such into these schools: they actively to the full day at many private as math and English, and there- encouraged and motivated their schools. Children are therefore fore seek out private tutors, while children to study. Many used the left with ample afterschool time private school students tend to be services of private tutors, while to do homework, tutoring, and enrolled in extracurricular classes others prepared children at home various extra-curricular activi- for sports, music, arts, etc., which themselves, investing their own ties. Some parents indicated that are more often group-based. time and energy and using their that the advantage of a public More students in public schools own knowledge and skills. school is that their child can at- received family help with home- tend the Shubin , work (59 percent) than students In an interview, an education which is popular among many in private schools (36 percent), expert reminded us that despite urban families in Bishkek. After- as many private schools provide the presence of elite internation- school time can also be used to at- homework support at school. al private schools in Bishkek, tend various interest-based clubs, for many residents, the dream such as dancing, drawing, sports, Survey results showed that math schools remain the “elite” public chess, etc. and languages, especially En-

Figure 10. Strategies for obtaining additional knowledge outside the school curriculum, by type of school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 13 Figure 11. Choice of private vs. public school, by income

glish, are the most popular sub- it more strategic to send their Preparing Children for “Real jects. One expert described the child to a high-performing pub- Life” popularity of the private tutoring lic school and compensate for the business in Bishkek this way: missing knowledge through pri- Some parents find that public vate tutoring. For example, learn- schools allow children to grow I know very few schools where kids ing English privately is much less up in the authentic social envi- do not go to private tutors. Even the costly than attending an interna- ronment of Bishkek and better majority of kids in elite gymnasiums tional private school. One parent, prepare them for real life. Many also go to private tutoring. Money while convinced that high-per- parents who chose public schools flows there (Expert, consultant on forming public schools provide were critical of the conditions in education). quality education, noted the ad- private schools, considering them vantage of private schools when it too protective and nurturing and However, location and distance comes to English. For her, hiring noting that children socialize are important. Parents who lived a private tutor was the solution: mainly with others from similar on the outskirts of Bishkek com- social backgrounds. One expert plained about the lack of access I have seen how well children from shared the following opinion: to good tutoring centers in their international schools speak English. area. The majority of private ed- As far as I understand, they are no Many parents consider that private ucational centers and places to do different in terms of other subjects. schools do not provide kids with the extracurricular activities are lo- Of course, it is not bad, but why opportunity to become closely fa- cated in the city center. This also would you overpay just for English? miliar with life and make them less contributes to the popularity of I need to hire a good tutor so that my adaptable (Expert). such activities among long-term child can compete with them. These urban residents compared to schools also give academic writing Parents consider that public newcomers, who overwhelmingly skills. This is their big advantage; schools allow children to study public school children do not have live in new settlements. with other children from diverse these skills. So this is a big disadvan- tage of public schools if you want to backgrounds and learn to social- While private tutoring is not send your kid abroad. You have to ize and survive. They see “real cheap, it can actually offer cost get additional help in this (Parent, life,” take public transportation savings to middle-income fam- public school # 6). to school, become more indepen- ilies. Some such families find dent and more disciplined, and

CAP Fellows Paper 214 14 thus grow up to be more prepared average incomes or are poor. The quality of education in pri- for the difficult life ahead. However, some families with vate schools was rated higher (68 higher-than-average incomes percent) than in public schools Discussion: Portrait of Edu- also use public schools. (33 percent). The comparison of cational Inequality parental satisfaction with their Inequality can also be identified choice of schools shows that par- In this final section, we try to un- by comparing parents’ motiva- ents from private schools were derstand how these choices are tions and strategies. For example, more satisfied—4.29 out of 5, shaped by the kinds of resources location was the most important compared to 3.74 for parents of parents have at their disposal. factor for parents of children in children in public schools. The This requires taking a hard look public schools—69 percent, ver- reasons for dissatisfaction were at the issue of inequality, which sus only 5 percent for parents different for public and private we do first by comparing families’ of children in private schools. schools. The most common com- motivations and strategies and This suggests that children in plaints about public schools in- then by categorizing families by private schools are not limited cluded poorly qualified teachers, the different forms of capital they by distance: their parents can overcrowded classes, bad treat- employ in providing education take them across the city, usual- ment of children, a lack of books, for their children. ly in their own cars, or they can and collection of money from afford to pay for transportation parents for various school needs. Factors of Inequality organized by schools. Mobility is Complaints in private schools thus connected to income. Mon- were more elaborate and related The most obvious factor that re- ey also allows parents of private to the quality of food, the quality flects inequality between public school children to access privileg- of education not being quite up to and private school parents is in- es: small classes with proper con- expectations, and fear of the ex- come. Figure 11 confirms the ob- ditions, a good diet, and better perimental character of private vious, showing a direct correla- treatment of children by teach- schools and their innovative cur- tion between income and choice ers and staff. For families whose ricula. of school. We see that parents children attend public schools, with higher incomes can afford these were not mentioned as fac- One of the most noticeable gaps private schools, while public tors in their choice. between the two types of schools school users are those who have is revealed in the future plans

Figure 12. Plans for children’s future, by type of school

CAP Fellows Paper 214 15 Figure 13. Study abroad plans, by income

that parents envisioned for their a fairly straightforward correla- tribute to people’s wellbeing.30 children. Figure 12 shows these tion here: those who have money differences: only 10 percent of have more opportunities both for Social capital usually implies var- parents of private school attend- private education and for educa- ious forms of social relations that ees were interested in local uni- tion abroad, while those who lack people can use to their benefit. versities, compared to 46 percent money have fewer. Yet the situa- In the context of Kyrgyzstan, so- of the parents of those attend- tion is more complex; looking at cial relations and networks have ing public schools; 81 percent of educational inequality only from always been extremely import- parents of private school chil- the financial angle does not tell the ant;31 indeed, tribal and family dren indicated that their child complete story. In the next sec- networks are believed to be at would study abroad, compared tion, we incorporate other forms the core of Kyrgyz politics.32 In to 20 percent of parents of public of capital into the discussion. this research, we found that par- school children. The top destina- ents with wider social networks tion for obtaining post-secondary Three Forms of Capital and could access more information education was Europe, followed Categorization of Families on educational opportunities. It by the US and Russia. is through their social networks In order to see the full picture, we that they sort out which schools Besides a correlation between suggest looking at family resourc- are good and find out where to future plans and type of school, es by considering different forms find qualified teachers and tutors. there is also a very strong posi- of capital: financial, social, and In some cases, having connec- tive correlation between future cultural (human). This approach, tions to school directors can even plans and income. This is shown pioneered by Bourdieu, has been secure a discount at a private in Figure 13. explored by a number of other school or a place for a child in a scholars. Non-financial forms of highly competitive school. Looking at all these figures and capital—social and cultural—are comparisons, one could suggest important resources that can con- Cultural capital refers to various

CAP Fellows Paper 214 16 kinds of knowledge, skills, and in- additional forms of capital, the “New Kyrgyz” formation, including familiarity portrait of educational inequality with how institutions work, that becomes more complex and nu- This category includes Kyr- result in positive outcomes for up- anced. We see that those who do gyz businessmen who became ward mobility. It is a question of not have financial, social, or hu- wealthy by engaging in cross-bor- knowing the “rules of the game.”33 man capital are the ones at risk. der trade, the sewing industry, Parents, even when they do not Accordingly, we can distinguish construction, or other businesses. have much financial capital to in- several main categories of fami- Many of them came to Bishkek vest in an elite private school, are lies by reference to the resources from the regions and built their still able to access high-quality they have for placing children in fortunes by working hard over the education by sending their chil- schools. It is important to look at course of many years. Such “new dren to high-performing public these categories as fairly abstract Kyrgyz” may not have strong ur- schools. Knowing the rules of the ones and bear in mind that many ban cultural capital and may have game helps them make strategic families belong to more than one only a modest education and so- decisions, such as preparing chil- category. Yet creating some form cial background. But they do have dren ahead of time for admission of typology helps us visualize the money, and depending on how to a competitive school or univer- nuances of inequality. We start successful their businesses are, sity; taking advantage of various at the upper end in terms of re- they can afford different kinds of extracurricular activities, such as sources. private schools, from the cheap- music schools, drawing, choreog- est to the most expensive. For raphy, etc.; seeking out addition- Elite representatives of this category, al learning opportunities through sending children to an expensive private tutors; and being actively This category includes represen- private school might be a matter engaged in their children’s edu- tatives of the upper echelons of of social prestige, while placing cation, constantly motivating and Kyrgyz politicians: parliamenta- them in cheaper private schools directing them. ry deputies, upper-level minis- is a matter of convenience: kids try bureaucrats, representatives are well looked-after and parents Parents’ education also helps. of the Presidential Office, and do not have to do homework with Many parents who grew up high-ranking professionals work- them. during the Soviet era, when lit- ing in international organiza- eracy was almost universal and tions. These are people who have Urban Middle Class schools and universities offered at least two (financial and social) very high-quality education, pos- or even three (financial, social, This category includes long-term sess a very good knowledge of and cultural) forms of capital. city residents who themselves core school subjects. These par- These families can afford to send grew up in Bishkek or consid- ents might not have the money their children to international er themselves urbanites. Mem- to place their children in private English-language schools or else bers of this group have excellent schools or the social connections oblige school principals to accept skills35 and ur- to secure them places in presti- their children to these schools ban-style manners. Many of them gious public schools, yet they are for a lower fee (or no fee at all). work as professionals in various quite well-educated themselves Parents in this category have the fields, including the more or less and they devote their own time to widest range of choices for their well-paid positions in interna- studying with children. children. Down the hierarchy of tional organizations. Some might official positions, the range of have small businesses. Even Thus, having a wide range of so- choices shrinks: lower-ranked of- with higher-than-average sala- cial connections and cultural cap- ficials might still have social and ries, their incomes might not be ital can increase parents’ access cultural capital, but not necessar- enough to afford private schools. to schools and opportunities for ily financial capital. The top choice for such parents is obtaining knowledge.34 When to place their children in the pres- we take into consideration these tigious high-performing public

CAP Fellows Paper 214 17 schools. To do so, they make the middle class, they are not able to or social connections that would best of their social, cultural, and generate additional income from help them in the professional or human capital. We interviewed small and medium businesses. business realms. They live in the parents who had graduated from Having a child attend a high-sta- family dormitories in the city such schools and whose children tus public school can place a sig- center or in the less prestigious now attend the same schools. A nificant burden on such house- novostroikas on the outskirts of feeling of belonging and person- holds, as these schools still collect the city. The only choice they have al connections with school prin- higher parental contributions is to send children to the neigh- cipals and teachers help them in than average schools. The low borhood schools. Unfortunately, this. Being well-educated them- status of their jobs means that because many novostroikas lack selves, they can benefit from their they have limited social capital schools, their children have to human capital by helping children or professional connections. The travel long distances to attend the prepare to study in such demand- only form of capital these urban nearest school. These children ing schools. These are the parents poor might have, then, is their are the most unfortunate because who are most likely to be criti- human capital—that is, their own their parents do not have money cal of private schools, dismissing knowledge of subjects. They are or connections; being from rural them as providing a poor quality more likely to send children to areas, their social capital is built of education, while justifying their the regular neighborhood schools around kinship and relatives own choice. and contribute to their children’s who live in the villages they came education by helping them with from. Nor do they have much hu- Urban Poor their homework. man capital to help their children with homework or advance their This is the category of long-term Poor Internal Migrants educational opportunities. urban residents in the lower so- cio-economic strata—those with- Since Kyrgyzstan’s independence, These are the five categories of out regular or well-paid jobs. Bishkek has attracted a large Bishkek residents, which sum- These include low-paid teachers, number of internal migrants, marize the inequality between medical staff (nurses), and oth- who have come to the capital in families in terms of children’s er low-paid government work- the search of income/surviv- access to education by looking at ers, whose only source of income al opportunities. These families different forms of capital: - finan is their salary. Unlike the urban might not have any qualifications cial, social, and cultural. What is

Figure 14. Categorization of families in regard to access to schools

CAP Fellows Paper 214 18 the relative weight of each cate- cial and cultural capital can place To the Ministry of Educa- gory in the overall composition their children in the best public tion and Science of the Kyr- of resource possession? Putting schools, which provide an educa- gyz Republic: precise numbers on this is be- tion no worse than that in some yond the scope of this research, private schools. This tells us that • Establish a program that but by looking at average sala- inequality in secondary education pairs individual high- and low- ries and at the numbers of public in Bishkek is layered and depends performing public schools for and private schools in the city, we on how families can utilize their mentorship suggest that the composition is resources. It is those families • Organize workshops for high- skewed toward the lower end. We that lack all three forms of capital performing school principals propose that educational inequal- whose children are at the highest to share knowledge and skills ity in Bishkek can be understood risk and need serious attention through training as a pyramid (see Figure 14). from policymakers. It is disturb- • Foster a sense of community ing to know that these poor fam- and collegiality among principals Conclusion ilies—who make up the majority of all schools through a range of the urban population of Bish- of activities, such as social Parents’ secondary education kek—are disadvantaged in access- gatherings, workshops and social choices in Bishkek reveal that, as ing not only private schools, but media networks in many parts of the world, pri- also high-quality public schools. • Facilitate public-private vate schools serve wealthy and school cooperation by sharing the upper middle-income families. Recommendations best practices of high-performing Despite some debates around the private schools with low- quality of education in private The secondary education land- performing public schools schools, privileged families in scape in Bishkek is diverse and • Establish incentives for Bishkek opt for private education fragmented. This research di- private schools to conduct for a variety of reasons. Some see vides secondary schools into five socially responsible activities and in private education an oppor- categories: three types of private contribute to the improvement of tunity to escape the Soviet-style schools differentiated by price the education system education system, which they (elite, high, and medium-fee • Reach out to international perceive as outdated, while oth- schools) and two types of pub- organizations and private donors, ers value private schools for their lic schools differentiated by per- such as local businessmen, conveniences. For a select few, formance (high-performing and to sponsor scholarships for private schools provide an easier low-performing schools). Our re- children from new settlements path to leaving the country and search found that while wealthy to cover expenses such as books, entering global education, while families chose private schools, transportation, and meals at for others, they provide a mech- it was middle-income urban high-performing schools. anism for securing higher status families who primarily accessed for children (and parents). As high-performing and competitive To International Organiza- most private schools do not have public schools. Poor families lack tions and NGOs: strict and competitive admission both the financial and non-finan- policies, the only criterion for ac- cial resources to access high-qual- • Establish community learning cessing such schools is the fami- ity schools and mostly attend centers that offer low-fee or free ly’s financial status. Thus, private low-performing neighborhood educational courses and activities schools sort out student compo- schools. To address such inequal- in new settlements. Such sition according to parents’ so- ity in secondary education, poli- opportunities can supplement the cio-economic backgrounds. This cymakers should prioritize the Ministry of Education’s efforts to paves the ways for social segrega- needs of low-performing schools help low-performing schools and tion and inequality. and increase poor families’ access increase their competitiveness to quality education. with higher-quality schools. However, parents with strong so- • Provide expert assistance in

CAP Fellows Paper 214 19 developing effective mechanisms 5 Kozhobaeva, “Stoit li ucheba.” 44, no. 1 (2012): 71-92. of monitoring, evaluating and 6 Kaktus Media, “Gid Kaktus.” 17 Interviews with administrators rating school performance. Such 7 Sanzhar Eraliev, “Skol’noe of international schools, Bishkek, obrazovanie. Problemy dostigli 2018. mechanisms can help parents 18 and the wider community to krainei tochki,” Azzatyk, September “Admissions—Other International 6, 2018, last accessed November Schools,” Bishkek International access information about school 21, 2018, https://rus.azattyk. School, last accessed November performance and the means of org/a/kyrgyz_education_school- 21, 2018, http://www.esca.kg/ addressing problems in low- problems/29474742.html. admissions/other-international- performing schools. 8 Eric Eversmann, “Dropping Out: schools/. School Attendance in the Kyrgyz 19 Interview with experts, Bishkek, Acknowledgements Republic,” PRAXIS: The Fletcher 2018. Journal of Development Studies 20 Bilim Akipress, “Reiting”; XVI (2000). “Nazvany 20 luchshikh shkol I would like to thank 9 Gulnora Iskandarova and Eraliev, “Skol’noe obrazovanie.” Bishkeka za 2018 god,” Kaktus 10 “Po piatero za partoi. Skol’ko Media, August 24, 2018, last Emil Nasritdinov, who detei uchiatsia v pervom klasse v accessed September 2, 2018, participated in the research prestizhnykh shkolakh Bishkeka,” https://kaktus.media/doc/378847_ design and data collection. Kaktus Media, September 10, nazvany_20_lychshih_shkol_ 2018, last accessed November bishkeka_za_2018_god.html. I also thank my advisors Marlene 21, 2018, https://kaktus.media/ 21 “Zolotye tsertifikaty ORT,” Lyceum Laruelle, Marintha Miles, Scott doc/379418_po_piatero_za_ #61, last accessed November 21, Morgan, David Abramson, partoy._skolko_detey_ychitsia_v_ 2018, https://yk61.ru/index.php/ and Christopher Kojm at the pervom_klasse_v_prestijnyh_ dostizheniya-uchenikov/zolotye- shkolah_bishkeka.html. sertifikaty-ort. Central Asia Program, Elliott 11 22 School of International Affairs. “Schools in Kyrgyzstan 1.5 Times “Istoriia litseia,” Lyceum # 61, Overcrowded,” 24.kg, September 10, last accessed December 16, 2018, 2018, last accessed December 10, https://yk61.ru/index.php/news/ 2018, https://24.kg/english/95503_ k2-item. Notes Schools_in_Kyrgyzstan_15_times_ 23 Iveta Silova, “Private Tutoring in overcrowded_/. Eastern Europe and Central Asia: 1 “The Poorest Countries in the 12 Interview with a public school Policy Choices and Implications,” World,” Focus Economics (blog), administrator, Bishkek, 2018. Journal of Comparative and last accessed September 2, 2018, 13 Ruben Ruiz Ramas, “Parental International Education 40, no. 3 https://www.focus-economics.com/ Informal Payments in Kyrgyzstani (2010): 327-344. blog/the-poorest-countries-in-the- Schools: Analyzing the Strongest 24 Kaktus Media, “Gid Kaktus.” world. and the Weakest Link,” Journal of 25 “S reketom v shkolakh 2 Z. Kozhobaeva, “Stoit li ucheba v Eurasian Studies 7, no. 2 (2016): Kyrgyzstana stalkivaiutsia 51% chastnykh shkolakh zaplachennykh 205-219. mal’chikov i 12% devochek— deneg?” Azzatyk, February 6, 14 “Obrashchenie Bulan Instituta issledovanie NISI,” Bilim Akipress, 2017, last accessed October k Presidentu KR Sooronbaiu October 9, 2017, last accessed 11, 2018, https://rus.azattyk. Jeenbekovu,” Bulan Institute, November 21, 2018, http://bilim. org/a/28281350.html. September 5, 2018, last accessed akipress.org/ru/news:1409182. 3 “Gid Kaktus. Chastnye shkoly November 21, 2018, http:// 26 Sapat International Educational Bishkeka. Usloviia i tseny,” Kaktus bulaninstitute.org/ru/obrashenie- Institution, last accessed November Media, May 25, 2018, last accessed presidentu/. 21, 2018, http://sebat.edu.kg/about. October 11, 2018, https://kaktus. 15 “Reiting. Top 20 shkol Bishkeka php?lang=ru. media/doc/338956_gid_kaktus._ 2018 goda,” Bilim Akipress, August 27 Cenet Engin Demir, Ayse Balci, chastnye_shkoly_bishkeka._ 24, 2018, last accessed November and Fusun Akkok, “The Role of ysloviia_i_ceny.html. 21, 2018, http://bilim.akipress.org/ Turkish Schools in the Educational 4 National Statistical Committee of ru/news:1466310. System and Social Transformation the Kyrgyz Republic, Education and 16 Duishon Shamatov, “The of Central Asian Countries: The Case Culture, last accessed November Impact of Standardized Testing of Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan,” 21, 2018, http://www.stat.kg/ru/ on University Entrance Issues in Central Asian Survey 19, no. 1 statistics/obrazovanie/. Kyrgyzstan,” European Education (2000): 141-155.

CAP Fellows Paper 214 20 28 Christopher Whitsel, “Parental Choices in the Primary and Secondary School Market in Dushanbe, Tajikistan,” European Education 46, no. 2 (2016): 53-73. 29 Author’s interview with an expert. 30 Annette Lareau, Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race and Family Life, with an Update a Decade Later (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2011). 31 Kathleen Kuehnast and Nora Dudwick, Better a Hundred Friends Than a Hundred Rubles? Social Networks in Transition—The Kyrgyz Republic (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2004), last accessed January 23, 2019, http:// documents.worldbank.org/ curated/en/821201468774540164/ Better-a-hundred-friends-than-a- hundred-rubles-Social-networks-in- transition-the-Kyrgyz-Republic. 32 Aksana Ismailbekova, Blood Ties and the Native Son: of Patronage in Kyrgyzstan (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2017). 33 Lareau, “Cultural Knowledge.” 34 Lareau, Unequal Childhoods. 35 Natalya Kosmarskaya, “The Russian Language in Kyrgyzstan: Changing Roles and Inspiring Prospects,” Russian Journal of Communication 7, no. 2 (2015): 217-222.

CAP Fellows Paper 214 21