Summary Document on Sustainable and Replicable
Adaptation Interventions in selected Agro-Climatic
Zones
(Himalayan Region, Coastal and Plateau) Climate Change Factsheet
(2020) (2020)
Dr. Diwakar Hegde
Bankers Institute of Rural Development, Bankers Institute ofLucknow Rural Development, Lucknow
Content
Sr Particulars Page No No
1 Introduction 1.1 Agro-Climatic Zone 1.2 Agro-Climatic Zone in India 2 Characteristics of different agro-climatic zone 2.1 Zone I- Western Himalayan Region 2.2 Zone II: Eastern Himalayan Region 2.3 Zone III- Lower Gangetic Plain Region 2.4 Zone IV - Trans-Gangetic Plains region 2.5 Zone V - Upper Gangetic Plains region 2.6 Zone VI - Trans-Gangetic Plains region 2.7 Zone–VII-Eastern Plateau and Hills region 2.8 Zone VIII - Central Plateau and Hills Region 2.9 Zone IX -Western Plateau and Hills region 2.10 Zone X- Southern Plateau and Hills region 2.11 Zone XI- East Coast Plains and Hills region 2.12 Zone XII - West Coast Plains & Ghats Region 2.13 Zone XIII Gujarat Plains and Hills region 2.14 Zone XIV -Western Dry Region 2.15 Zone XV -Islands Region- A & N Islands and Lakshadweep
3 Agriculture and livelihood Issues 4 Adaptation strategies to climate change in agriculture for livelihood security
5 Conclusion 6 Reference
List of Figures
Sr Title Page No No
1 (a) Fifteen Agro-Climatic Zone in India (b) Fifteen Agro-Climatic Zone in India 2.1 Agro-climatic Zone I showing different state and area under Western Himalayan Region 2.2 Agro-climatic Zone II showing different state and area under Eastern Himalayan Region 2.3 Different districts under Lower Gangetic Plain Region 2.4 Different districts under middle Gangetic Plain Region 2.5 Different districts under Upper Gangetic Plains region 2.6 Different districts under Trans -Gangetic Plains region 2.7 Different districts under Eastern Plateau and Hills region 2.8 Different districts under Central Plateau and Hills Region 2.9 Different districts under Western Plateau and Hills Region 2.10 Different districts under Southern Plateau and Hills region 2.11 Different districts under East Coast Plains and Hills region 2.12 Different districts under West Coast Plains & Ghats Region 2.13 Different districts under Gujarat Plains and Hills region 2.14 Different districts under Western Dry Region 2.15 Different districts under A & N Islands and Lakshadweep Region
List of Table
Sr No Title of table Page No 1 Details of Sub-Region under Western Himalayas Region Zone I 2 Details of Sub-Region under Eastern Himalayan Region -Zone II 3 Details of Sub-region under Lower Gangetic Region -Zone III 4 Details of Sub-Region under Middle Gangetic Plains –Zone IV 5 Details of Sub-Region under Upper Gangetic Plains Region - Zone V 6 Details of Sub-Region under Trans-Gangetic Plain Region- Zone VI 7 Details of Sub-Region under Eastern Plateau & Hills Region -Zone VII . 8 Details of Sub-Region under Central Plateau and Hills Region-Zone VIII 9 Details of Sub-Region under Western Plateau and Hills Region -Zone IX 10 Details of Sub-Region under. under Southern Plateau and Hills region-Zone X 11 Details of Sub-Region under East coast plains & Hills Region -Zone V 12 Details of Sub-Region under West Coast Plains & Ghats Region –Zone XII 13 Details of Sub-Region under Gujarat Plains and Hills region–Zone XIII 14 Different districts under Western Dry Region-XIV 15 Details of Sub-Region under Western Dry Region –Zone XIV
Climate Resilient Agriculture And Livelihood Issues In India
1. Introduction
The country became a hotspot for climate change with vulnerability rank 11th in the world (20181). As most models of climate change in India shows an increase in the variability of rainfall, an increase in mean temperature, resulting in extreme events of flood and drought across the country.
It is reported that an increase in high-temperature days in a year decreases agricultural yields and real wages by 12.6 % and 9.8%, respectively, and increases annual mortality among rural populations by 7.3 % (Burgess et al 2014)2. It is also mentioned that if agriculture in India remains vulnerable to the climate variability that could reduce farm incomes by 15-18% (Subramanian A, 2017)3.
Thus complex situations are making agriculture challenging to increase the production to the tune of 333 MT by 2050 to feed the ever-growing Indian population 1.70 billion by the year 20504. Thus it affects the food and livelihood security of vulnerable people, slows down the economic growth of the country, affects health and development.
Given the complexity of climate change, to overcome the situation, farmers can adapt agriculture technology and practices to ensure increased production and manage the risk of climate variability and changes. This new approach called climate-resilient agriculture. These approaches and technology are very local species in terms of climate, crop, rainfall, and temperature and it requires thorough knowledge for the application to meet local needs.
Therefore for preparing long term strategies for climate-resilient agriculture, it requires understanding the challenges of climate change variability across the different agro-climatic zone and its characteristics like soil type, different crops, and crops growing period, weather and climatic conditions. This helps to understand the suitability of climate- smart agricultural technologies and practices for a range of crops and cultivars.
1 http://ficci.in/Sedocument/20450/India%20Risk%20Survey%20-%202018.pdf 2 http://econ.lse.ac.uk/staff/rburgess/wp/WD_master_140516_v3.pdf 3 https://voxdev.org/topic/agriculture/climate-change-and-indian-agriculture 4 http://www.fao.org/3/a-ap106e.pdf
This document has details of the 15 agro-climatic zone, its features in terms of soil type, different crop and crop growing period, weather parameters like maximum and minimum temperature, annual rainfall, extremes events, its vulnerability, impacts, and regional constraints climate change challenges and solutions.
Thus it is expected that these details will help rural development practitioners, consultants, and other development agencies like NGOs, CBOs, etc. in strategies and program planning to build farming community resilience and reorient agriculture to cope with the climate change challenges.
1.1. Agro-Climatic Zone: Agro-climatic zones are an extension of the climate classification keeping in view the suitability to agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defined an agro-climatic zone (ACZ) as a land unit represented accurately or precisely in terms of major climate and growing period, which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars.
1.2. Agro-Climatic Zone in India The Planning Commission of India has divided the India into fifteen broad agro-climatic zones with the objective to integrate plans of the agro- climatic regions with the state and national plans. It enables policy development based on techno-agro-climatic considerations. These 15 agro climatic zones division were on the basis of physiography, soils, geological formation, climate, cropping patterns, and development of irrigation and mineral resources for extensive agricultural planning and developing future strategies. The 15 different agro-climatic zones are as given below and shown in Fig 1(a) &(b) which are
1. Western Himalayan division 2. Eastern Himalayan division 3. Lower Gangetic plain region 4. Middle Gangetic plain region 5. Upper Gangetic plain region 6. Trans-Gangetic plain region 7. Eastern plateau and hill region 8. Central plateau and hill region 9. Western plateau and hill region 10. Southern Plateau and hill region
11. Eastern coastal plains and Hills
12. Western coastal plains and Ghats
13. Gujarat plains and hills
14. Western Dry region
15. Island Region
Fig 1(a): Fifteen Agro-Climatic Zone in India5
5
Fig 1(b) : Fifteen Agro-Climatic Zone in India
2. Characteristics of different agro-climatic zone
2.1 Zone I- Western Himalayan Region
Fig 2.1 : Agro-climatic Zone I showing different state and area under Western Himalayan Region6
Fig 2.1 Agro-climatic Zone I showing different state and area under the Western Himalayan Region with a number of perennial streams due to high rainfall and snow-covered mountain peaks of which Ganga, Yamuna, Jhelum, Chenab, Satluj and Beas, etc. are worthy of mention. The region is gifted with a number of perennial streams due to high rainfall and snow- covered mountain peaks of which Ganga, Yamuna, Jhelum, Chenab, Satluj, and Beas, etc. are worthy of mention. a) Area: Western Himalayan Region Zone I (Fig 2.1 ) covers the area of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and the hill region of Uttarakhand which includes Jammu, Doda, Udhampur, Rajouri, and Punch, Srinagar, Budgam Anantnag Pulwama Baramula Kupwara Leh Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir. Una, Bilaspur, Hamirpur, part of Sirmour, Kangra, Solan, Chamba district, Palampur, Shimla, Mandi, Kullu, Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh and part of Pauri Garhwal Dehra Dun, Almora, Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Tehri districts in Uttarakhand. This region is divided into four subzones (Table 2.1) b) Economy : The economy of the zone is largely agrarian and the population is rural-based and poor.
6 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ1-15052006.pdf
c) Major Crops: The major crops grown in the area under this region are saffron, maize, barley, oats wheat, peaches, apricot, pears, cherry, almond, litchis, walnut. In valleys, paddy grows whereas in the terraced field and in hilly areas maize grows in Kharif season. In winter barley oats and wheat is used to cultivate. The crop growing period ranges from 90–120 days.
The region is highly favourable for horticultural crops especially apple orchard and other temperate fruits such as peaches, apricot, pears, cherry, almond, litchis, walnut, etc. Tea plantation has been started in areas like Garhwal-Kumaun hills.
Locally known ‘dhoks’ or ‘margs’, which are high altitude pastures are used by the Gujjars, Bakarwals and Gaddis to rear their sheep, goats, cattle and horses.
Table 2.1 : Details of Sub-Region under Western Himalayas Region Zone I
Sr Sub- Rainfall Climate Soil Crops Region cm 1 High 17 Humid to Hill soil Wheat, Altitude cold arid mountain, Maize, meadow, Rice& Jowar skeletal tarai 2 Hill 20 Humid Brown hill Rice Maize Temperate Wheat rapeseed 3 Valley 40 Subhumid Sub mountain, Wheat, temperate mountain Maize, Rice skeletal & ,meadow Sugarcane 4 Sub- 103 Semi-arid Alluvial, brown Wheat, tropical to Humid Hills Barley & Potato https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/ wrkgrp11/wg11_agrclim.pdf d) Temperature : Summer is mild & Winter is cold. In July the temperature ranges between 5°C and 30 °C, while in January it ranges between 5 °C and -5 °C. Thus maximum temperature is 30°C and minimum -5 °C. Analysis of trends in maximum temperature during 1985- 2015 indicates an increasing trend with seasonal scale 0.01° to 0.09°C/year. During the peak winter month of January, except Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, all the other states show the cooling effect with an annual seasonal scale ranging from –0.05° to – 0.08°C/year.
e) Rainfall : The amount of average annual rainfall is 150 cms which varies between 75 cm to 150 cm. However, it is less than 30 cm in Ladakh. It is seen that rainfall activity during monsoon is a decreasing trend of 99%. f) Soil Type: Valleys and dons of Kashmir, Kullu, and Dun have thick layers of alluvium while hill slopes have thin brown soils in hills. While Ladakh and parts of Lahaul and Spiti have skeletal, calcareous soils with alkaline reaction, the rest of the region has soils that are shallow to the deep loamy, forest and podzolic brown with medium to high organic matter and acidic in reaction. g) The vulnerability of the Zone: Total 50 % districts of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are vulnerable to climate change which is less as compared to Uttarakhand as 62 % Districts in Uttarakhand state are highly vulnerable. h) Effect of climate change on the region: The metrological department suggests that the average temperature of Kashmir has gone up by 1.45 degrees Celsius over the last two decades. This change decreased 40 % of food production which is likely to touch over 60 % in the coming 10 years with the current rate of change. More and more paddy land is changed into rain-fed orchards. Apple orchard are shifting to a higher altitude. Climate change is resulting in drying up rivers, and springs vanishing glaciers making farming a highly risky profession. Erratic monsoons have affected both Kharif (monsoon) and rabi (winter) crops resulting in crop failure. i) Region Specific Constraint: Severe soil erosion, degradation due to heavy rainfall/floods and deforestation, poor road, poor input delivery, inadequate communication infrastructure, and marketing are some of the regional constraints to the development plan execution. j) Solutions: Promotion of cultivars tolerant to heat and moisture stresses; Improvement of water management & conservation, Improved nutrient management; Pest forecasting; Integrated farming system ; Weather forecasting and dissemination , early warning systems, decision support system ; Technology demonstration and capacity building; promotion of post-harvest Technology
2.2 Zone II: Eastern Himalayan Region a) Area: Agro-climatic zone II includes Arunachal Pradesh, the hills of Assam, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. It is divided into different five sub-zone which includes 1. Himalayan hills- 2. North East Hill covers Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland Meghalaya, Southern Hills includes Manipur Tripura and Mizoram, 4.Lower Brahmaputra covers the districts of Barpeta, Dhubri, Nagaon, Darrang, Kamrup, Goalpara, Kokrajhar and Sonitpur 5. Upper Brahmaputra valley comprising of the districts of Lakhimpur, Sibsagar, Cachar, Dibrugarh, Jorhat, and Karimganj (all in Assam) and Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar in West Bengal.
Fig 2.2 : Agro-climatic Zone II showing different state and area under Eastern Himalayan Region7
The hill areas are sparsely populated with a mix of several ethnic origins and cultures. The topography is rugged. The region is gifted with a number of perennial streams due to high rainfall and snow-covered mountain peaks of which Ganga, Yamuna, Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej and Beas, etc. are worthy of mention. b) Economy: The economy of the zone is largely agrarian and land- based activities. The majority of the population is rural-based and poor depends on agriculture and animal husbandry for livelihood. Mithun rearing, Pigs rearing, poultry, sericulture & bee-keeping also adding practiced by people as income generation activities. c) Major Crops: The major crops grown in the area under this region are rice, maize, potato, and tea. Orchards of pineapple, litchi, oranges, and lime are grown in the area. Rice is the staple food and occupies 81% of the total area under it followed by maize 12.8% . Jumping (shifting
7 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ2-15052006.pdf
cultivation) prevails in the hilly areas which are estimated nearly, a third of the cultivation. The crop growing period is less than 270 days. d) Temperature: Annual maximum temperature varies from 25 °C and 30 °C in July and the minimum temperature between 10 °C and 20 °C in January. The annual maximum temperature shows an increasing trend with an annual seasonal scale ranging from 0.02 to 0.08°C/year. e) Rainfall: Average annual rainfall is between 200-400 cm, which is showing annually decreasing trend –0.02 to –0.01 mm/year in this region. The hill areas are sparsely populated with a mix of several ethnic origins and culture. The topography is rugged. f) Soil Type : The different five sub-zone of the Eastern Himalayan region has different types of soil. The red-brown soil in the Himalayan hills is not highly productive. Red sandy to laterite in North East Hill is largely under forests and mostly barren. The soil is acidic in the Southern Hills is also barren and unculturable. The soil in Lower Brahmaputra is alluvial, red loamy and terrain soils which are agriculturally better. Upper Brahmaputra is with alluvial and red loamy soil, (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 : Details of Sub-Region under Eastern Himalayan Region Zone II 8 Sr Sub-Region Rainfall Climate Soil Crops cm 1 Himalayan 264 Per Humid Brown Hills Rice, Ragi, Hills to Humid Maize,potato 2 North East 352 Per Humid Red Sandy Rice, rapeseed Hills to Humid Laterite , Maize 3 Southern 205 Per Humid Acidic Soil Rice, sesame , Hils to Humid Maize sugarcane 4 Lower 184 Per Humid Alluvial red Rice, jute, Brahmaputra to Humid loamy tarai rapseed wheat jute, potato 5 Uppar 280 Per Humid Alluvial Rice, Jute Brahmaputra to Humid red loamy wheat, rapeseed,
g) The vulnerability of the Zone: As the Eastern Himalayas is home to some of the most fragile ecosystems in the world, the poor and marginalized people living in this region face a pressing challenge of adapting to changing climate.
8https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wg11_agrclim.pdf
h) Effect of climate change on the region: The region is highly sensitive to extreme events. It changed its hydrological regime, increased frequency, and intensity of climate hazard, erratic rainfall higher temperature, rise in crop pests and disease leading to lower yield . The productivity of rice and maize decreased in area by an average of 40% . i)Region Specific Constraint: Aluminium toxicity and soil acidity, Soil erosion and floods shifting cultivation, low SRRs, non-availability of electricity, poor road, poor input delivery system and communication infrastructure. Soil degradation, lack of water conservation deforestation, ecological system of the region is problematic, Fragile land and ecology, Low productivity, prone to soil erosion with the low level of irrigation & recurrent floods. j) Solutions : The run-off should be checked and water conserved should be utilized in minor irrigation. Shifting cultivation should be controlled by encouraging permanent settlement. A programme to grow fruits above 30% slopes in the hills needs to be framed Supporting activities of sericulture, handicrafts poultry, and piggery, etc. should be promoted. A long term quality seed production plan should be implemented to assure an adequate supply of quality seeds to the farmers.
2.3 Zone III- Lower Gangetic Plain Region a) Area : Agro-climatic zone III called as Lower Gangetic Plain Region which includes West Bengal (except the hilly areas), Eastern Bihar and the Brahmaputra valley(Fig 2.3)
Fig 2.3 : Different districts under Lower Gangetic Plain Region9
b) Economy: Agriculture plays a vital role in the State’s economy under regions and about 70% of the population derives livelihood from it. The cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, bee-keeping & fisheries also add to the livelihood of the rural population. c) Major crops: Rice, jute, maize, potato, and pulses are the main crops of the region. The area is the leading producer of paddy and the second-largest producer of potato giving 30% of total potato production of the country. More than 60% of the country’s raw jute fiber is also produced here. In addition, wheat, pulses, mustard, groundnut, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and flowers are cultivated. The crop growing period ranges from 150–270 days. d) Temperature : The maximum temperature is about 41°C whereas the minimum temperature is about 9°C 0C. Temperature for July month varies from 26°C-41°C and for January month 9°C-240C. e) Rainfall : Annual rainfall in the region is ranging between 120 cm and 170 cm with an average 143 cm. More than 75% rainfall occurs during the 4 months from June to September whereas December and January are almost dry months. The hill zone of West Bengal shows a decreasing trend during the monsoon months of July– September –0.03 mm/year.
9 http://farmech.dac.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ3-15052006.pdf
f) Soil Type: As shown in table 2.3 different sub-zone shown different types of soil which varies from Barend Plains Central Alluvial Plains Alluvial Coastal Saline red and yellow loamy.
Table 2.3 : Details of Sub-region under Lower Gangetic Region - Zone III
Sr Sub- Rainfall Climate Soil Crops Region cm 1 Barind 159 Moist Red and Rice ,Jute plains subhumid & Yellow alluvial ,wheat, dry rapeseed subhumid 2 Central 145 Moist Red and Rice, Jute, Alluvial subhumid to Yellow deltaic Wheat Plains dry alluvium rapeseed , subhumid potato 3 Alluvial 161 Dry Red and Rice Jute, Coastal subhumid & Yellow deltaic rapeseed Plains dry alluvial subhumid 4 Rarh Plains 130 Moist Red and Rice, subhumid & Yellow loamy wheat dry rapeseed subhumid sugarcane
g) The vulnerability of the Zone10 : For annual mean temperature, all districts indicate a statistically significant increasing trend, whereas in the case of annual rainfall and a potential evapotranspiration trend, all districts in region indicate a statistically significant decreasing trend. About 42% of the state area is flood prone in West Bengal . h) Effect of climate change on the region 11 : The State West Bengal, part of Bihar in the region are facing inadequate and erratic rainfall in successive years. More than 80% of annual precipitation occurs during monsoon and that too erratically in respect of time and space causing drought-like situations in summer and flood during monsoons. Every summer many parts of Purulia, Bankura, Paschim Medinipur, and Birbhum suffer water shortage with respect to the entire state. The onset of monsoon is delayed. There is
10 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-composite-vulnerability-macro-zone-map-of- West-Bengal-computed-from-integration-of_fig2_285705350/download 11 http://www.nicra- icar.in/nicrarevised/images/Books/Vulnerability%20of%20agriculture%20to%20climate% 20change.pdf
overall warming with minimum temperatures increasing faster than the maximum temperatures. i) Region Specific Constraint: Flood/ waterlogging, improper drainage, Salinity/alkalinity, Arsenic contamination, low SRRs, no availability of electricity, high population growth, poor road and communication infrastructure. j) Solutions: Efficient water management, Promotion of heat/salinity/arsenic tolerant cultivars; Farm mechanization, Strengthening of tanks for effective water harvesting, Adoption of Integrated Farming System with emphasis on crops, Adoption of Integrated Plant Nutrition System, Amelioration of Boron deficiency and Iron toxicity Pest forecasting Integrated farming system, Dissemination Weather forecasting, and early warning systems. The decision support system, Technology demonstration, and capacity building.
2.4 Zone IV - Middle Gangetic Plains region a) Area : Middle Gangetic Plains region under zone IV incorporates Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (except Chota Nagpur plateau) covering 23 districts of both states . It is a fertile alluvial plain drained by the Ganga River and its tributaries.
Fig 2.4 : Different districts under the middle Gangetic Plain Region12
12 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ4-15052006.pdf
b) Economy: Agriculture is the main occupation of the rural people. Many of the farmers take two crops a year, and some with assured irrigation also take the third crops during summer. c) Temperature: The average temperature of July month varies from 26°C- 4I°C and that of January month 9°C-24°C with maximum temperature 41°C and minimum 9°C. The western part of Uttar Pradesh exhibits warming trend from March to September, i.e. pre-monsoon to monsoon ranging from 0.03° to 0.07°C/year with highest in July 0.05– 0.07°C/year. The same trend of increase in the minimum temperature is noticed in the monsoon months in Bihar, in the range 0.03°– 0.06°C/year d) Rainfall : The amount of annual rainfall lies between 100 cm and 200 cm, 80% of which is received during the months of June to September. The area experiences a small seasonal water deficit of 40–50 cm from February to May. The region has vast potential of groundwater and surface runoff in the form of perennial rivers which is utilized for irrigation through tube wells, canals, and wells.
Table 2.4 : Details of Sub-Region under Middle Gangetic Plains Region - Zone IV S Sub-Region Rainf Climate Soil Crops r all cm 1 North West 121 Moist Alluvial Rice, wheat Alluvial sub- (Recent), ,maize & humid to Calcareous sugarcane Dry sub- humid 2 North East 147 Dry sub- Alluvial , Rice, wheat, Alluvial humid to Tarai & maize moist ,jute, gram sub- humid
e) Crops: Rice, maize, millets in, Kharif, wheat, gram, barley, peas, mustard and potato in rabi are important crops. The important cash crops of the region are sugarcane, potato, tobacco, chilies, turmeric and coriander with supplemental irrigation. Rice–wheat cropping system is more predominant. Amongst the fruit crops mango, guava, litchi, banana and citrus, and amongst the vegetable crops potato. Onion, brinjal, tomato, cauliflower, and cabbage are important. Rain- fed agriculture with supplemental irrigation is practiced. The crop growing period ranges from 180–210 days.
f) Soil Type: There are two sub-zones in a region North West Alluvial and Noth East Alluvial. The soil in North West Alluvial is Alluvial (Recent), Calcareous and in North East Alluvial, it is Alluvial, Tarai. g) The vulnerability of Zone: Hot, wet summer and cool dry winter characterize the climate of the region. Low productivity level due to mono-cropping of rice in the large areas; and Deteriorating of land quality. h) Effect of climate change on the region: Raising temperature and erratic rain fall, more frequent flood, cyclone, drought hits livelihood security poor people 13 in region. The impact on flood and livelihood security of poor created vicious cycle of poverty in region. It is observed that change in maximum and minimum temperature causes reduction in yield of rice to the tune of 1.0 to 1.1 per ha and 1. 0 to 1.9 per ha. The production of of major crops, livestock also found decreased . i) Region Specific Constraint: Flood, waterlogging, improper drainage, Salinity, alkalinity, Arsenic contamination, low SRRs, non-availability of electricity, high population growth, poor road and communication infrastructure are the some of the constraints for the development programs in the region. j) Solutions: Delineation & mapping of multi-nutrient deficiency; Development of heat-tolerant varieties of wheat; Development of salt- tolerant and deep water paddy varieties; Efficient water management; Management of ‘Diara’ & ‘Tal’ areas; and Farm mechanization, Adoption of Integrated Plant Nutrition System, Promotion of rice-fish farming.
2.5 Zone V - Upper Gangetic Plains region a) Area: Upper Gangetic Plains region under zone V (Fig 2.5 ) covers the area of Western and Central Uttar Pradesh with total 32 districts of Uttar Pradesh which includes Allahabad, Fatehpur, Pratapgarh, Sultanpur, Raebareli, Unnao, Lucknow, Bara Banki, Sitapur, Hardoi,Kheri and Pilibhit in Central part. Shahjahanpur, Bareilly, Rampur, Moradabad, Bijnor, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Baghpat, Ghaziabad and Bulandshahar in the northeastern. Badaun, Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Etah, Farrukhabad, Kannauj, Mainpuri, Firozabad, Etawah, Kanpur Dehat and Kanpur in and southwestern.
13 assessing climate impact and vulnerability in region of eastern Uttar Pradesh A choudhary and badal p Indian journal of economics and development 2018 14 la , 18- 22 impact of climate change on agriculture in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar state a kumar A MAUSAM 62 2011 171-178
Fig 2.5 : Different districts under the Upper Gangetic Plains region b) Economy: The economy of the zone is largely agrarian, the population is rural-based poor and depends on agriculture and allied sector for their livelihood. c) Major Crops: The major crops grown in the area under this region are rice, maize, pigeon pea, sorghum, pearl millet, moong beans during Kharif. Wheat, Bengal gram, green peas, rapeseed and mustard, and lentil are grown during the rabi season. Sugarcane is the main cash crop. Rice–wheat cropping system is more predominant. Amongst the fruit crops, mango and guava, and amongst the vegetable crops potato, onion, brinjal, tomato, cauliflower, and cabbage are important. The crop growing period ranges from 150–180 days in a year.
Table 5: V Details of Sub-Region under Upper Gangetic Plains Region Zone V
Sr Sub- Rainfall Climate Soil Crops Region cm 1 Central 98 Dry Alluvial Rice,Wheat ,Arhar Plains sub- humid to semi- arid
2 North 91 Dry Alluvial, Rice, Wheat, sugarcane, East sub- Tarai Maize Hills humid to semi- arid 3 South 72 semi- Alluvial Wheat, western arid bajra,maize,arhar,potato Plains d) Temperature : The areas adjacent to foothills are relatively cooler and experiences a thermic soil temperature regime. It experiences a dry period from February to June with a mean annual temperature of more than 22°C. The temperature in the region ranges between 26 °C -41°C in July and on January 7°C -23°C14. e) Rainfall : Annual rainfall ranges between 70–150 cm, 70% of which is received during the months of June to September. However, The climate of the region is characterized by hot summer and cool winter. f) Soil Type : Central plain is with alluvium calcareous sandy loam, Northern Western part is with loam to sandy loam and Southwestern has alluvium calcareous clay which is very fertile and can give very good yields with proper management. g) The vulnerability of Zone: Upper Gangetic Plain region is highly drought-prone, with an occurrence frequency of 40%–45%. Not only the probability of drought but the region has become increasingly drought- prone in recent decades. h) Effect of climate change on the region: The production in the region has experienced a gradual declining trend from 2000 onwards, which is consistent with the increase in drought-affected areas from 20%– 25% to 50%–60%, before and after 2000, respectively.15 i) Region Specific Constraint : Groundwater depletion, decreasing total factor productivity, micronutrient deficiency, non-availability of electricity and high population density. j) Solutions : Water conservation measures, Improvement of productivity, Improved nutrient management, Integrated farming system, Promotion of conservation technique, Management of Sodic soils; Farm mechanization; Promotion of salt tolerant varieties of rice and heat tolerant varieties of wheat .
14 https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/117/03/0480.pdf 15 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-016-6102-2
2.6 Zone VI - Trans-Gangetic Plains region
a) Area : Agro-climatic Zone VI called as Trans Gangetic Plains region which encompasses areas included in the States of Punjab, Haryana, Plain region of Rajasthan as well as the Union Territories of Chandigarh and Delhi.
Fig 2.6 : Different districts under Trans -Gangetic Plains region b) Economy: Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of the economy of the region and 70% population derives livelihood from it. It is the most fertile agriculture region. c) Major crops: Important crops include wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice, gram, maize, millets, pulses, and oilseeds, etc. The crop growing period is less than 120 days in a year. d) Temperature: The climate has semiarid characteristics with July month's temperature between 26°C and 42°C, January temperature ranging from 7°C to 22°C .The region shows cooling effect ranging from –0.05° to –0.08°C/year in Haryana, –0.05° to –0.08°C/year in Punjab and –0.04° to –0.07°C/year during the peak winter month of January in
Rajasthan respectively 16 and warming trend after in summer in range of 0.02° to 0.08°C/year
Table 6: Details of Sub-Region under Trans-Gangetic Plain Region Zone VI Sr Sub-Region Rainfall Climate Soil Crops cm 1 Foot hills of 89 semi-arid Alluvial Rice,Wheat Shivalik & to dry sub (recent) ,maize, Himalayas humid calcareous sugarcane 2 Plains 56 Semi-arid Alluvial Rice,Wheat to Dry sub- (recent) ,sugarcane, humid calcareous Maize bajra 3 Scarce 36 Arid & Calcareous, Wheat, Rainfalls arid extreme sierozemic, bajra,cotton,rice, region arid alluvial gram (recent) desert e) Rainfall: The rainfall varies from 70 cm and 125 cm. f) Soil Type deep loamy alluvium-derived soils with occasional saline and sodic phases as well as deep loamy to grey-brown and deep loamy desert soils. g) The vulnerability of Zone : The soil salinity, already prevalent in the plains of Haryana, Punjab and Rajashthan is bound to extend over the marginally saline areas reducing the availability of agricultural land. This has put additional stress on the already declining water table. The groundwater exploitation has intensified and consequently, the water- stressed areas became water scarce.
h) Effect of climate change on the region: Climate change is adversely impacting the productivity in agriculture in the region because agriculture production in the region mainly depends upon rainfall. Due to change in climate, there has been an increase in Maximum and Minimum temperature, the length of the period of each season is also changed resulting in the lower production. i) Region Specific Constraint: Erratic and scanty rainfall leading to high water deficit. Soil salinity leading to frequent physiological droughts. Acute drought at the time of grain formation Nutrient imbalance, especially for N, P Zn and Fe. The region is also facing the menacing problem of waterlogging, salinity, alkalinity, soil erosion and falling water
16https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336643290_Impact_of_Observed_Climate_Change_on_the _Classification_of_Agroclimatic_Zones_in_India
table. Groundwater depletion, decreasing total factor productivity, micronutrient deficiency, non-availability of electricity and high population density. j) Solutions: Soil & Watershed development; Adoption of Integrated Plant Nutrition System; Adoption of zero tillage/ furrow irrigated raised bed (FIRB) technology. In rice-wheat cropping system areas; Promotion of rice-wheat cultivation with SRI-SWI method of cultivation resp.
2.7 Zone–VII: Eastern Plateau and Hills region a) Area: Eastern Plateau and Hills Region under zone VII comprises the Chotanagpur plateau Rajmahal hills, Chhattisgarh plains and Dandakaranya which covers 16 districts of Chhattisgarh, 18 districts of Jharkhand, 3 of Madhya Pradesh, 4 of Maharashtra, 15 of Orissa & 1 district of West Bengal.17
Fig 2.7: Different districts under Eastern Plateau and Hills region
b) Economy: The population is largely rural with a concentration of tribal in the Chhattisgarh and Orissa and follows different farming
17 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ7-15052006.pdf
system cropping, Cattle/buffaloes rearing, Goat rearing, Piggery, and Poultry for income generation activities.
c) Main Crop: Rice, wheat, maize, black gram, pigeon pea, Bengal gram, linseed and Rabi groundnut. The crop growing period is less 120 days in a year.
d) Temperature: The region enjoys 26°C-34°C of temperature in July, 10°C-27° C in January.
e) Rainfall : The average annual rainfall varies from 80 cm- 150 cm.
f) Soils type: Soils are red and yellow with occasional patches of laterites and alluviums.
g) The vulnerability of zone: The temperature is showing an increasing trend, deforestation is an important part of the rising temperature, but in the region, villagers totally depend upon forest for fuelwood collection. The region is deficient in water resources due to plateau structure and non-perennial streams. The rainfall trend of the last 10 years exhibited a decreasing pattern. Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in the region. h) Effect of climate change: Long dry spell, deficit rainfall, and recurrent drought affect the livelihood of the majority of its people, particularly tribes and rural peoples living in this area.
i) Region Specific Constraint: Moisture stress, drought and Soil acidity, Iron toxicity, low SRRs, non-availability of electricity, high population growth, poor road, poor Input delivery.
Table 7: Details of Sub-Region under VII Eastern Plateau & Hills Region VII
Sr Sub- Rainfall Climate Soil Crops Region cm 1 Eastern 127 Dry sub humid Medium to Rice, linseed,, Plain deep black jowar wheat, red and gram, yellow groundnut 2 Eastern 144 Moist sub- Red & yellow, Rice, niger, highland humid to dry red loamy Maize , wheat sub-humid 3 North 130 Moist sub- Red & yellow, Rice, ragi, central humid to dry red loamy Maize , wheat plateau sub-humid
4 Eastern 137 Moist sub- Red & yellow, Rice, ragi, Plateau humid to dry red loamy Maize , wheat sub-humid 5 Tribal 134 Moist sub- Red sandy, Rice, niger, humid to dry red & yellow, Maize , Ragi sub-humid red loamy laterite communication infrastructure. The region is deficient in water resources due to plateau structure and non-perennial streams.
j) Solutions: The region requires planning to maximize the use of rainwater, increase groundwater potential, change cropping patterns ;strengthen input and services delivery systems; cultivation of high- value crops of pulses and vegetables; promotion of indigenous breeds of cattle and buffaloes, rehabilitation of degraded forest lands, fruit plantations, development of inland fisheries in permanent water bodies, and adopting integrated watershed development .
2.8 Zone VIII - Central Plateau and Hills Region
a) Area: This region spreads over Bundelkhand, Bhander plateau, Malwa plateau, and Vindhyachal hills. high-value crops, reclamation of ravine lands and improvement in indigenous breed cattle.
b) Economy : The economy of the zone is largely agrarian, the population is rural-based poor and depends on agriculture and allied sector for their livelihood.
Fig 2.8 : Different districts under Central Plateau and Hills Region18
c) Major Crops: Maize, sorghum, pearl millet, durum wheat, barley, black gram, green gram, pigeon pea, Bengal gram, field pea, lentil, soybean, rape seed & mustard, linseed and groundnut. The crop growing period is 120 -150 days in a year.
d) Temperature: In the central zone temperature in July month is varies from 26°C-40°C and in January month 7°C-24°C. It also is observed a significant decreasing trend in January, the peak winter month, ranging –0.05° to –0.07°C/year.19
e) Rainfall:The average annual rainfall varies from 50 cm- 100 cm.
f) Soil type : Soil type: Soils found in the region vary in different sub- region ranging from mixed red, yellow and black.
18 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ8-15052006.pdf
19 https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/117/03/0480.pdf
g) The vulnerability of zone: Very low productivity with a predominance of subsistence agriculture; Excessive runoff; Underutilized potential of horticulture and livestock; and Low development of irrigation. There is a scarcity of water.
h) Effect of climate change : Climate change has hit the agriculture- based livelihoods and food grain production in the Bundelkhand districts has decreased by 58%. It is very serious for agriculture- based society and the economy. The land and people of Bundelkhand are facing the crisis of drought continuously for the past 4 to 5 years.
i) Region Specific Constraint : Drought, moisture stress, Soil crusting & cracking, soil salinity/alkalinity, low SRRs.
j) Solutions: Development of abiotic tolerant varieties of rice, wheat, pulses & oilseeds; Delineation & mapping of multi-nutrient deficiency; Water harvesting and recycling; Farming systems; Soil and water salinity management. In-situ water harvesting/conservation; Inter-culture in between rows to create soil mulch and vegetative/bio-mulching; Promotion of agroforestry, Silvi- pastoral, and Agri-Horti system. Adoption of the improved arid farming system; Promotion of hybrids of maize, Bajra & cotton.
Table 8 : Details of Sub-Region under Central Plateau and Hills Region-Zone -VIII
Sr Sub-Region Rainfall Climate Soil Crops cm 1 Bundelkhand 78 Dry sub Mixed red & Wheat, gram, UP humid to black Jowar rice arid 2 Bundelkhand 70 Dry sub Mixed red & Wheat, gram, MP humid to black Jowar rice semi - arid 3 North Hills 157 Moist sub Red and Wheat, rice humid to yellow dry semi- humid 4 Kymore 110 Dry semi- Red and Wheat, gram, Plateau humid yellow Jowar rice Satpura Hills medium black 5 Vindhya 113 Dry semi- Medium black Wheat, gram, Plateau humid Jowar rice, linseed
6 Satpura 122 Dry semi- Shallow black Wheat, gram, Plateau humid mixed red Jowar Maize and black 7 Central 130 Dry semi- medium red Wheat, gram, Narmada humid black, grey bajra rapeseed Valley brown 8 Gird 67 Semi arid medium Wheat, gram, half drier black, alluvial bajra rapeseed and wetter half 9 South Eastern 76 Semi arid Medium black Wheat, gram, Plains (wetter half) Jowar Maize 10 Southern 76 Semi arid Medium red& Maize, wheat, Plains (wetter half) black Grey gram rice brown 11 Transitional 49 Semi arid Desert soil Bajra, wheat plains (wetter grey brown sesame, half) rapeseed ,jowar 12 Southern 50 Semi arid Red and Maize, wheat, Plains (wetter yellow grey gram & jowar half) brown 13 Semi arid 50 Semi arid Alluvial Wheat, Bajra, Eastern plains (drier half) gram & jowar 14 Flood prone 50 Semi arid Alluvial Wheat, Jowar, Eastern plains (drier half) (recent) gram , jowar , rapeseed
2.9 Zone IX -Western Plateau and Hills region a) Area: Western Plateau and Hills region under Zone IX comprises a major part of the State of Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh and one district from Rajasthan. The zone is divided into four sub-zones which cover Kolhapur, Satara, Pune, Nashik, and Jhabua in the western plains region. The second scarcity region includes Ahmednagar. Dhule, Sangli and Solapur Central Plateau spread across 21 districts, of which, 10 are in Maharashtra and 11 are in Madhya Pradesh. The districts from Maharashtra are Osmanabad, Latur, Bid, Aurangabad, Jalna, Parbhani, Akola, Amravati, Buldana and Jalgaon. In Madhya Pradesh, they are, West Nimar, East Nimar, Dewas, Indore, Dhar, Ratlam, Ujjain, Shajapur, Rajgarh, Jhalawar, and Mandsaur.
Fig 2.9 : Different districts under Western Plateau and Hills Region20
b) Economy: The economy of the zone is largely agrarian, the population is rural-based poor and depends on agriculture and allied sector for their livelihood. c) Main crops: Jowar, cotton, sugarcane, rice, bajra, wheat, gram, pulses, potato, groundnut, and oilseeds are the principal crops. The area is known for its oranges, grapes, and bananas. The period 120-150 days in a year. c) Temperature: July temperature varies between 24°C-41 °C, and January temperature between 6°C- 23°C. The part of the region , Konkan and central Maharashtra, excluding Vidarbha shows a warming trend in the post-monsoon months ranging from 0.02° to 0.09°C/year. d) Rainfall: The average annual rainfall varies between 25 cm-75 cm. e) Soil type : Medium black, gravely medium to light Shallow red, skeletal Sub montane, Reddish-brown to black tending towards lateritic nature, Medium to deep black, alkaline Black, medium to heavy in texture, fairly high in clay content, alkaline.
20 http://farmech.dac.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ09-15052006.pdf
f)The vulnerability of the zone : The region is extremely vulnerable to climate change. The extreme climate destroys not only the Kharif and rabi crops but also destroys Kharif supplementary crops in this region. Low productivity of lands and small landholdings have led to disguised unemployment. For the pastoralists or the goat/cattle keepers water- scarcity, feed-scarcity, disease in animals, etc. are some of the major problems. Reducing pasture lands and common grazing lands create further pressure on the land. g)Effect of climate change: Crop failure and drought have now become a permanent scenario Using district-level data on temperature, rainfall, and crop production, the Economic Survey 2017-18 has documented a long-term trend of rising temperatures, declining average precipitation, and increase in extreme precipitation events. The regions face serious challenges due to a lack of sufficient food security and/ or economic opportunity for the many people who live there. h)Region Specific Constraint : Drought, moisture stress, Soil crusting & cracking, soil salinity/alkalinity, low SRRs i)Solutions: Promotion of heat-tolerant varieties of wheat; Watershed management; and Farming systems, farm mechanization promotion, In- situ water harvesting/conservation; Development of wasteland; Creation of additional irrigation potential; Emphasis on high-value crops; Promotion of Agri-Horti-pastoral system; Promotion of organic fertilizers. In-situ water harvesting/conservation.
Table 9 : Details of Sub-Region under Western Plateau and Hills Region -Zone IX
Sr Sub-Region Rainfall Climate Soil Crops cm 1 Hill region 98 Semi-arid Medium to Jowar , Bajra , deep black, groundnut shallow red red yellow 2 Scarcity 60 Semi-arid Medium black Jowar ,cotton , region deep black Wheat 3 Plateau region 87 semi-arid Medium black Gram, Jowar, wetter deep black wheat cotton mixed red
2.10 Zone X- Southern Plateau and Hills region
a) Area: The Southern Plateau and Hills region under zone X comprising of 35 districts of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is large, The zone is divided into six sub- zones as follows This sub-zone covers almost the entire northern Karnataka which includes, Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Belgaum, Dharwad, Raichur and Bellary. Central Region of Karnataka and Rayalaseema includes four districts from Karnataka—Chitradurga, Tumkur, Bangalore and four districts from the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh—Chitoor, Cuddapah, Kurnool and Anantapur.
Fig 2.10 : Different districts under Southern Plateau and Hills region21
b) Economy : : The economy of zone is largely agrarian, the population is rural-based poor and depends on agriculture and allied sector for their livelihood.
c) Main crops: The important crops grown in this zone are Paddy, Jowar, Bajra, Groundnut, Ragi and other small millets; cash crops like Cotton and Sugarcane and horticultural crops like Turmeric Onion, Chillies, Banana and fodder crops. Wheat is grown in the northern districts of Karnataka during the rabi season. Horticultural
21 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ10-15052006.pdf
crops like Turmeric Onion, Chillies, Banana are also grown in the region along with fodder crops. Wheat is grown in the northern districts of Karnataka during the rabi season. The crop growing period is less than 90 days in a year .
d) Temperature: The temperature of July month lies between 26°C to 42°C, that of January month between 13°C-21°C.
e) Rainfall: The area receives 84 cm of rainfall, with annual rainfall between 50 cm-100 cm.
f) Soil types: The major soil types in Tamil Nadu are red non- calcareous, red calcareous and black soil. In Andhra Pradesh, it is sandy loam, red loam, and black soils. In Karnataka, the major soils are shallow to deep black clay in the Northern region, Red loam in the Central region and Red sandy loam in the Southern region.
g) The vulnerability of Zone: Very heavy rainfall during northeast monsoon season in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh cause flood.
h) Effect of climate change on the region: Flood, Cyclone and Drought are the most devastating natural hazards in AndhraPradesh Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, claiming more lives and causing extensive damage to agriculture,vegetation, human and wild life and local economies.
i) Region Specific Constraint: Drought, moisture stress, Soil crusting & cracking, soil salinity/alkalinity, low SRRs, Land productivity is very low.
j) Solutions: The Agro Planning Regional Planning Unit has suggested the development of wastelands in this region. Productive use of barren and uncultivated lands, cultivable waste and permanent fallows through afforestation; Reclamation soil salinity/alkalinity through use of Gypsum/Pyrites; Reclamation of acidic soil through liming/mills sludge; In-situ water harvesting/conservation through the adoption of cultural practices like bed furrow in deep black cotton, uplands and flat sowing and ridging later in red soils; Diversification of the area of low-value crops to high-value crops; Promotion of hybrid rice in conjunction with SRI method of cultivation; and Development of Tribal agriculture.
2.11 Zone XI East Coast Plains and Hills region
a) Area : Agro-climatic Zone XI known as East Coast Plains and Hills region which covers Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Pondicherry comprising of 9 districts of Andhra Pradesh, 15 of Orissa, 15 districts of Tamilnadu and Pondicherry State. There are six sub-zones which are North Orissa, Coastal North, East Hills, Southern Hills, Lower Brahmaputra & Upper Brahmaputra.
Fig 2.11 : Different districts under East Coast Plains and Hills region22
b) Economy: This zone is predominantly the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa. Livestock Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, poultry, duck & fishery and other rice-based cropping systems; Fish and Prawn culture, Piggery contributes to the economy. c) Main Crops: Rice, sweet sorghum, maize, sugarcane, black gram, green gram, groundnut, niger, sunflower, cotton, Jute & mesta, banana, coconut, mango, cashew nut, and orchard are main crops of the region. Black pepper, turmeric, brinjal, okra, tapioca, chilies, onion, sweet potato, flowers, medicinal & aromatics (Coleus & scented geranium) are also largely grown in the area. Oil palm cultivation is being promoted in the Coastal Andhra. The crop growing period is 115-210 days in a year .
22 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ11-15052006.pdf
d) Temperature: The mean maximum temperature ranges from 28 to 33. 5° C and the minimum are from 19 to 26.5 ° C. The maximum temperature is 38.5 whereas the minimum is 19° C resp.
e) Rainfall : This zone receives rainfall in South West and North East Monsoon. The rainfall received in this zone is 50–70 cm in Tamil Nadu, 80–110 cm in Andhra Pradesh and 150 cm in Orissa .
f) Soil type : The soil types are predominantly Red loam and Black cotton in Andhra Pradesh, Red non-calcareous, Black soil, and Sandy loam in Tamil Nadu and Alluvial sandy loam, Loam clay loam and Coastal alluvial in Orissa. There are also narrow strips of saline water inundated areas.
g) The vulnerability of the Zone: The vulnerability of the Zone: Bay of Bengal Sea had been unkind to this East coast belt over the years, with super cyclones lambasting the coast repeatedly during North-East Monsoon. Fragile ecology due to waterlogging, soil salinity/acidity, and soil erosion.
h) Effect of climate change on the region: Raising the temperature and erratic rainfall, more frequent flood, cyclone, drought hits livelihood security poor people in the region. The impact on flood and livelihood security of the poor .
i) Region Specific Constraint : Poor water management, Poor nutritional status of soil, saline lands.
j) Solutions : Development of salt-tolerant cultivars of rice, Productive use of barren and uncultivated lands, cultivable waste and permanent fallows through afforestation; Reclamation soil salinity/alkalinity through use of Gypsum/Pyrites; Reclamation of acidic soil through liming/mills sludge; In-situ water harvesting/conservation through the adoption of cultural practices like bed furrow in deep black cotton, uplands and flat sowing and ridging later in red soils; Diversification of the area of low value crops to high value crops; Promotion of hybrid rice in conjunction with SRI method of cultivation; and Development of Tribal agriculture Flood resilient Farming systems and Crop management in flood prone areas.
Table 11: Details of Sub-Region under East coast plains & Hills Region -Zone V23
23https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11 /wg11_agrclim.pdf
Sr Sub-Region Rainfall Climate Soil Crops cm 1 North Orissa 128 Moist Sub- Deltaic Rice, Coastal humid alluvial, Groundnut, coastal Jute alluvial, ,Sesame , laterite, red Ragi loamy 2 North East 352 Semi arid Deltaic Rice, Hills alluvium, Groundnut, deep black, Bajra red sandy, ,Sesame , red & black Ragi 3 Southern 205 Semi arid Red loamy , Rice, Hils red sandy Groundnut, costal Sugarcane, alluvium Sesame , 4 Lower 184 Semi-arid Deltaic Rice, Brahmaputra to dry sub alluvium Groundnut, humid red loamy Sugarcane, Sesame , 5 Uppar 280 Semi arid Mixed red Rice, cotton Brahmaputra (drier half ) & black , groundnut costal bajra, alluvium
2.12 Zone XII West Coast Plains & Ghats Region
a) Area: West Coast Plains & Ghats Region Zone XII extends over the Malabar and Konkan coastal plains and the Sahyadri’s which covers 6 districts each of Karnataka and Maharashtra, 2 districts of Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Kerala State. b) Economy : Agriculture contributes most to the income in the primary sector in West Coast Plains & Ghats Region. Export earning crops like tea, coffee, spices, cashew and some marine products from the region also contribute considerably for our country’s foreign exchange revenue. c) Major Crops : Rice, foxtail millet, sugarcane, sunflower, cowpea, horse gram, green gram & cotton. Horticulture crops: Potato, onion, garlic, tomato, ginger, black pepper, cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, medicinal & aromatics (Asparagus, glory lilly & Guggal) an orchids. Fruit crops: Cashew nut, mango & citrus. Plantation crops: Coconut, areca nut, Oil palm & cocoa. The crop growing period is less than 270. d) Temperature :The average temperatures of 26°C-32°C in July and 19°C-28°C in January.
e) Rainfall : This is a humid region with annual rainfall above 200 cm
Fig 2.12 : Different districts under West Coast Plains & Ghats Region –Zone XII
Table 12 : Details of Sub-Region under West Coast Plains & Ghats Region –Zone XII Sr Sub- Rainfall Climate Soil Crops Region cm 1 Coastal 36 Per Humid Laterite, Rice, Ragi Hilly & humid red ,Sesame& loamy, niger coastal alluvium 2 Coastal 31 Dry Humid Laterite, Rice, tapioca midland & per red ,Ragi& humid loamy, banana
coastal alluvium 3 Midland 27 Per Humid Laterite, Rice, red tapioca, loamy, banana coastal &groundnut alluvium 4 Hilly 23 Per humid Red Rice, Ragi loamy, ,Jowar mixed &groundnut red and black
f) Soil Type: Soil varies from laterite, red loamy to coastal alluvium. g) The vulnerability of the Zone: Seismic changes in the Arabian sea point to a high risk in earthquakes and tsunami threatening western coastline. h) Effect of climate change on the region: Productivity of irrigated rice in the Western Ghats region is likely to change +5 to –11% depending upon the location. The majority of the region is projected to lose the yield by about 4%. In the case of rain-fed rice, the projected change in yield is in the range of – 35 to +35% with a large portion of the region likely to lose rice yields up to 10%. Climate change is likely to reduce yields of maize and sorghum by up to a whopping 50% depending upon the region. i) Region Specific Constraint: Poor water management, Poor nutritional status of soil, saline lands Moisture stress, drought and Soil acidity, Iron toxicity, low SRRs, non-availability of electricity, high population growth, poor road, poor Input delivery, and communication infrastructure. Rich water resources with relatively unfertile land; and Fragile eco-system due to excessive runoff soil salinity/acidity/irregular stretches of backwater/mound formation/inadequate drainage.
j) Solutions: Soil & Water Management; Integrated farming system; In-situ water harvesting/conservation; Development of wasteland; Creation of additional irrigation potential; Emphasis on high-value crops; Promotion of Agri-Horti-pastoral system; Promotion of organic fertilizers; dairy development, crop diversification, groundwater development.
2.13 Zone XIII Gujarat Plains and Hills region
a) Area: Gujarat Plains and Hills region under Zone XIII (Fig 2.13 ) covers the entire State of Gujarat Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli which broadly divided into South, Middle, North and Saurashtra-Kachchh regions. Large parts of the State are plains and mountainous . Mountain part of region shares border with States of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
Fig 2.13 : Different districts under Gujarat Plains and Hills region . b)Economy : Gujarat has a relatively strong economy which depends more on the industry and service sectors rather than agriculture. c)Major Crops: The major crops are grown in the area under this region Maize, Bajra, durum wheat, green gram, groundnut, castor, sugarcane & cotton. The region is highly favourable for horticultural crops like Onion, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, flowers (Aster, spider Lilly, marigold & chrysanthemum) aromatic plants & medicinal plants (Isabgol, Guggal & aloe) and Jatropha. The crop growing period varies from 90-150 days in a year. d) Temperature : It is an arid and semi-arid region with the mean July temperature reading 30 °C and that of January about 25 °C. In Gujarat plains and hills region exhibits a warming trend annually and in pre- and post-monsoon, ranging from 0.01° to 0.05°C/year, but the same is not observed during individual months.
Table 13 : Details of Sub-Region under Gujarat Plains and Hills region–Zone XIII24
Sr Sub region Rainfall Climate Soil Crops cm 1 South 180 Semi-arid to Deep black Rice Ragi Gujarat I dry subhumid coastal SugarCane alluvium Jowar 2 South 97 arid to Deep black Jowar, arhar Gujarat I semihumid coastal cotton alluvium wheat 3 Middle 90 arid to Medium Rice Maize Gujarat semihumid black Bajra Cotton 4 North 73 Semi-arid Grey brown Bajra Gujarat coastal Cotton alluvium Jowar, wheat 5 North West 34 Arid to Semi- Grey brown Bajra Arid arid deltaic groundnut alluvium jowar cotton 6 North 34 Arid to Semi- Medium Bajra Saurashtra arid black groundnut jowar cotton 7 South 54 Dry subhumid coastal Bajra Saurashtra alluvium groundnut medium jowar cotton black e) Rainfall: The mean annual rainfall varies between 50 cm and 100 cm. f) Soil Type : Soils are regur in the plateau region, alluvium in the coastal plains, and red and yellow soils in theJamnagar area. g) The vulnerability of the Zone: Nearly 20% of the area is considered drought-prone. Out of the total, 84 % of districts are highly vulnerable which assessed based on exposure sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the region. h) Effect of climate change on the region: Twelve out of 26 districts of Gujarat are drought-prone. In years of poor rainfall, the yields of important crops like groundnut which are mainly rainfed can reduce by 70% or more.
24https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11 /wg11_agrclim.pdf
i) Regional Constraints : Poor water management, Poor nutritional status of soil, saline lands j)Solutions: Promotion of integrated water management ;In-situ water harvesting/conservation ; Restriction on overdrawn of groundwater ; Reclamation of salinity; Conjunctive use of canal and groundwater; Adoption of inter-cropping in groundnut and cotton; Promotion SRI method of cultivation; Promotion of fodder development and fodder banks; Development of inland and brackish water fisheries.
2.14 Zone XIV Western Dry Region
a) Area : The agro-climatic zone XIV known as Western Dry Region comprises of total 11 districts of Rajasthan thus covers the entire state which are Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Jaisalmer, Jalor, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Nagaur, and Sikar. The zone has all the characteristics of a hot desert.
Fig 2.14: Different districts under Western Dry Region 25
b) Economy : Livestock contributes greatly to desert ecology. Productivity is among the lowest in the country. c) Major Crops : Pearl millet , bajra, cluster bean, kidney bean, green gram, chickpea and sesame. The crop growing period is less than 80 days .
25 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ14-15052006.pdf
d) Temperature : Region shows contrasting temperatures—28 °C to 45 °C in June and 5 °C to 22 °C in January. e) The Rainfall : This region has an erratic rainfall of an annual average of less than 25 cm.
Table 14 : Details of Sub-Region under Western Dry Region –Zone XIV
Sr Sub- Rainfall Climate Soil Crops Region cm 1 Western Dry 39.5 Arid to Desert Soil Bajra, Gram, extremely grey & brown Wheat & arid Rapeseed f) Soil type: The soil is mostly sandy, loamy sand and sandy loam. g) The vulnerability of zone: There have been 48 drought years of varied intensity in the period 1901-2002 in the region, which means that the chance of occurrence of meteorological drought in the region is 47%, the maximum number of cold waves have also occurred. The frequency of droughts (four out of every five years)extremely low and erratic rainfall, very limited surface water sources, like perennial river basins, resulting in greater dependence on groundwater resources. h) Effect of climate change: The region is a water deficit, with the frequency of four out droughts every five years. Extremely low and erratic rainfall, very limited surface water sources, like perennial river basins, resulting in greater dependence on groundwater resources. It is the driest region with nearly 70 percent of the area classified as an arid and semi- arid region. i) Region-specific Constraints: The region experiences high temperatures, extremely scanty and erratic rainfall and very high frequency of extreme events like droughts which make agriculture a high- risk activity in the state. Limited sources of surface water and declining groundwater levels due to overexploitation and injudicious use of groundwater resources further weaken the already fragile resource base for agriculture. Most of the state falls in the semi-arid region and the soil is characteristically low in carbon content and alkaline in most areas. a) Solutions: In-situ water harvesting/conservation through the adoption of cultural practices like ridge furrow planting, inter- cropping/mixed cropping with legumes, planting against slopes (in hilly tract), inter-culture in between rows to create soil mulch and vegetative/bio-mulching; Reclamation of soil salinity through the application of Gypsum especially in oilseed crops; Enhancement of water use efficiency by the popularization of Diggies in canal command areas; promotion of livestock and fodder cultivation.
2.15 Zone XV -Islands Region- A & N Islands and Lakshadweep
a) Area : Islands Region under the agro-climatic zone XV comprises of Union Territory (UT) of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Union Territory of Lakshadweep Islands. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a group of more than 3,000 islands in the Bay of Bengal with small and marginal landholdings .
Fig 2.15: Different districts under A & N Islands and Lakshadweep Region26
b) Economy: The A & N Islands and Lakshadweep Region have an immense collection of natural recourses. Along with agriculture, the fishing industry, industrial, and tourism sectors support a major portion of the economy of the Island region and acts as a source of revenue- earning for the peasants of the region. c)Major Crops: The principal crops are rice, coconuts and areca nuts. Other crops are sugarcane, pulses, fruits, and vegetables. The flora of Lakshadweep includes banana, colocasia, drumstick, breadfruit, and wild almonds. Coconut is the only crop of economic importance in this Union Territory. The crop growing period is more than 210 days, which is long enough to support the double cropping system and the growth of plantation in the area. d) Temperature: The climate of Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep Islands is moderate: the temperature is neither too hot nor too cold in the Island as maximum temperature is 30°C in July and the minimum is 25°C January. e)Rainfall: The annual rainfall of Lakshadweep is 160 cm while that of Andaman Nicobar Islands 300 cm. Rainfall pattern recorded at Port Blair shows less rain. f)Soil Type: The soil of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (in the East) greatly differ from those of the Lakshadweep Islands (in the West). Soils of Andaman and Nicobar (A and N) are medium to very deep red loamy
26 http://farmech.gov.in/06035-04-ACZ15-15052006.pdf
soils including marine alluvium-derived soils along the coast. Soils of the Lakshadweep group of Islands, on the other hand, are highly calcareous and sandy in nature. g) The vulnerability of the region: The climate of the island is the tropical type and hot all year round, with a dry season from December to April and in Lakshadweep rainy season from May to November. Soil health has danger due to a rise in sea level and the incursion of coastal waters. An increase in the frequency of extreme weather events, particularly tropical cyclones, droughts, floods, and heatwaves have adverse effects on the crops. The unpredictability of local weather conditions and climate. h) Effect of climate change in the region : Decrease in coconut production; Increase in soil salinity, affecting habitats, agriculture, and availability of freshwater; Changes in distribution and productivity of marine as well as freshwater fisheries; Submergence of habitats and special ecosystems such as mangroves. i) Region Specific Constraints: The region is known to fragile eco- system. Soil salinity & acidity, frequent cyclones, low SRRs, poor road and communication infrastructure, poor irrigation, poor productivity, poor farm mechanization, poor post-harvest management.
J) Solution: Removal/leaching of salts, construction of dykes to check ingression of seawater on the surface and in the lower soil profile and plantation mangroves; Promotion of SRI method of rice cultivation; Promotion of the cultivation of plantation crops; Mari-culture of oysters & mussels; Ornamental fish breeding & culture; and Diversified fishing activity.
3. Agriculture and livelihood Issues:
Being an agrarian country, 50% Indian of the population depends on agriculture, forests, fisheries, and allied occupations for livelihoods. Agriculture and allied livelihood occupation are nature-based and inherently sensitive to climate variability. Climate variability, change in temperature and rainfall affect agriculture through its direct and indirect effect on the crop, soil, water, and pest by reducing crop duration and growth, the fertility of the soil, fertilizer use efficiencies, and induces water stress.
Some of the data from the research shows that ▪ It is projected to reduce irrigated rice by 4% in 2025. The wheat yield would reduce by 6 to 23% by 2025 and 2015 scenario. ▪ Mustard yield is projected to reduce by 2% in 2015.
▪ The potato crop duration in the Indo-Gangetic plain is projected to reduce by 2.5% and 11% in 2025 and 2080 time period respectively. ▪ Maize yield in Kharif season is projected to decrease by 18% but adaptation can increase the yield up to 21. ▪ A significant increase in runoff is projected in the wet season that may lead to an increase in frequency and duration of floods and also soil erosion. ▪ Enhanced frequency and duration of extreme weather events such as flood, drought, cyclone, cold wave adversely affect frost- sensitive crops and vegetable ▪ It is predicted to be disturbed and the quality of groundwater along the coastal track will be more affected due to intrusion of seawater.
Timely area-specific action to address the problem of climate change helps to increase the resilience of agriculture for livelihood security to cope with the challenge of climate change
4. Adaptation strategies to climate change in agriculture for livelihood security : Potential adaptation strategies can be suggested based on the characteristics of the area to increase the resilience of agriculture and reduce the adverse impacts of climate change across different agro- climatic zone as given below, Developing cultivars tolerant to heat and moisture stresses: Development of new crop varieties with higher yield potential and resistant to multiple stresses (heat, drought, flood, salinity) will be the key to maintain yield stability. 1) improving water management: Water harvesting structures and deepening of open wells through community participation water conservation, integrated water-saving technologies drip, sprinkler and rain gun irrigation, laser-aided land leveling and crop need-based irrigation for higher water use efficiency. 2) Conservation agriculture: Bed planting (narrow/broad) Zero tilled direct-seeded rice (DSR) of crops with residues saves water to enhance resource use efficiency, provide economic benefits and minimize unfavourable climatic stresses. residue retention 3) Improved nutrient management : Site-specific nutrient management and demand-driven N use using a leaf colour chart more and efficient use of plant nutrients. 4) Pest forecasting: Escape from the ill-effects of climate change. Integration should be made among crop production, livestock, agroforestry, and fish production to improve production, income, and livelihood. 5) Integrated farming system: elevated temperature on diseases a generic model management advisories. The Info Crop model has been updated to simulate the effects of biotic stresses
6) Weather forecasting and dissemination: Weather forecasting and early warning systems minimizing risks of climatic adversaries agro-met advisories and disseminate. 7) Decision support system: Predicting yields of major crops in climate change scenarios, yield gap analysis, crop management optimization, yield forecast and forewarning for disease and insect infestation in major crops 8) Technology demonstration and capacity building: With the promotion of climate-resilient technologies and behavioural and institutional interventions, initiatives interventions community-based dissemination of climate-resilient technologies .
5. Conclusion: Climate change and climate variability affect the sustainability of agriculture production and livelihood security. Adaptation of climate-resilient agriculture can help in coping up with the challenge of climate change. The climate-resilient practices and technology need plan and preparation of long term strategies as per area-specific need. It requires understanding different characteristics of the area like soil type, different crops, and crops growing period, weather, and climatic conditions challenges. The agro-climatic classification is based on these characteristics which help to understand the suitability of climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices for a range of crops and cultivars.
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