DOCSLIB.ORG

The Peak of Lithuania's Millennium?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Peak of Lithuania's Millennium? epoch as “Poletime” and to all nobles It was namely national revival that anything like Finland during the Winter The Singing Revolution and the by Lithuania’s experience. Global of this epoch – as a dry branch of the has led to the 16th February 1918, War. So the Republic of Lithuania 11th March 1990 in world history democracy won a huge victory. For the nation. Actually, the descendents of when the State of Lithuania was re- ended its days sadly, and in the Second first time Lithuanian history became Vilnius University Adomas Mickevičius established. It is difficult to overestimate World War epoch during the Soviet With the start of Mikhail Gorbachev’s a factor in world history. Let us just (Adam Mickiewicz) and Julijus Slovackis the significance of this event – the genocide and Nazi Holocaust Lithuania “Perestroika” Lithuania began its way compare: in the 15th century, Vytautas (Juliusz Słowacki) not only have created Republic of Lithuania has created lost nearly one third of its population. towards restoration of Independence. It created an empire, but beyond the the great poetry of the time but a whole a culture with universal education, As a matter of fact, Lithuania’s honour was led this way by the Sajudis Reform cartographic majesty were empty spaces; field of ideas, referred to as Polish modern trends of art and literature, was defended in the longest “war Movement founded in the summer of the Grünwald Battle stopped the Messianism. They themselves were later with the architecture of gymnasia or after war” – an armed partisan war 1988, and the actions of condemnation march of the West eastwards, yet this named prophets of the Polish nation, even laboratories arousing admiration with the USSR in 1945–1953. Today of the Pact of 23 August 1939 between was a regional, not a world factor. The and Vilnius – the Polish capital of until this day. Without the ideological it is considered Lithuania’s greatest Stalin and Hitler became the central first written constitution in Europe, culture of the first half of the 19th heritage of Lithuania’s interwar culture contribution to Europe’s history of the part of political rhetoric and practice. created in the late 18th century, was a century. Today we believe that the it is difficult to imagine, how Lithuania 20th century. We showed miracles of These include the great meeting of culmination in the ancient history of great creators of Vilnius of this would have survived through the epoch resistance, but, again, we were all alone. 1988 in Vilnius, the Baltic Way in 1989, Poland and Lithuania, however even epoch belong not only to of Soviet annexation. Geopolitically, While some countries did not recognize which linked by a live human chain the The 13th January Remembrance Medal by P. Repšys. then Lithuania needed a great deal Signatories to the Act of the 16th February 1918 The front side Polish culture. Whatever in the first half of the 20th century Lithuania’s annexation by the USSR, capitals of the Baltic States, Vilnius, of effort to step out from Poland’s the attitude, it is clear that Lithuania was nothing this was not an obstacle to depicting Riga and Tallinn, thus demonstrating a powerful yet no less significant was shadow – which happened on 20 The 11th March 1990 – the peak of symbol. In Charlottenburg Park Berlin the Lithuanian history but a granule in the Lithuania on maps in the same red strive for freedom. And Lithuania did it meant – namely Lithuania was the October 1791. While together with Lithuania’s millennium? there is an obelisk dedicated to the of the first half of the niche of empires fallen colour. This was not recognised either on the 11th March 1990. All this process first to defy yet another echelon of Poland we were part of the West, yet 11th March, designed by the Bosnian 19th century is rather an yet shortly to recover. by the Lithuanian émigré community today is named the Singing Revolution: colonialism and empires, and the we were not at the rear of the latter: Before you is a coin with the descendent Braco Dimitrijevic. This echo of the history of the While we were part of the or the dissidents in Lithuania itself. resisting peacefully on the 13th January first to break away from the citadel of bastions of democracy were far away impressed date of the re-establishment would be just commonplace were it Grand Duchy of Lithuania. western world, but with Perhaps only the Kaunas events of 1972 1991 Soviet military aggression and communism. The axis of this process and we were an island in the sea of of independence of Lithuania – the 11th not for the fact that the obelisk was This does not apply to sad neutrality between the were a clearer expression of striving for defending the Parliament, the people was March 11th. Thus this day became autocracy. The Polish and Lithuanian March 1990. It is a third coin dedicated erected in 1979 and dedicated to a day Lithuanians’ national Soviet Union and Germany, freedom, but that required the sacrifice were singing even as tanks attacked. the beginning of a chain reaction State was divided between Prussia and to the millennium of Lithuania. The “that will probably be significant for revival in the second without true friends and allies: of Romas Kalanta. Today, this Revolution is comparable which eventually destroyed the Soviet Austria that were part of the western first one was dedicated to the year world history”. What is it – a magic half of the 19th century potential union with Poland with the Budapest Autumn 1956 and Union and, in the opinion of Edvardas world, and Russia. 1009 – the first mention of the name of coincidence or a trick? And now let us and to its patriarchs was ruined by the conflict Recalling the exile of 1941 the Prague Spring 1968. Lithuania, Gudavičius, was not a routine brick Lithuania; the second one – to the old have a serious look at the last centuries Simonas Daukantas, Jonas on Vilnius and the loss of as the leader among the Baltic States, in the assembly of velvet revolutions 1990 – the beginning of Lithuania’s and the longest period of statehood – of Lithuania’s millennium. Basanavičius and Vincas the historical capital, and this became a catalyst of the europeisation but its central pillar. This has been rise into its new millennium the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). Kudirka, the bard of national conflict, in its turn, deprived process in the Soviet empire. It took recognised not only by historians. Thus we have a triptych with a stylish Lithuania’s highs and lows revival Maironis and the most of the possibilities to form a union the leadership because of the most Commemorating the 10th anniversary And still the year 1990 is not only combination of the date numbers: in the 19th–20th c.c. outstanding Lithuanian with other Baltic countries. The ardent manifestations of resistance in of Lithuania’s independence in 2000, a significant for Lithuania’s role and 1009, GDL, 1990. Can’t we, however, creator of the time Mikalojus Pact between Stalin and Hitler of this country, which resulted from the US congressional resolution read that image in the world, but for itself as take it as a numerological trick if we are In the 19th century, Lithuania was Konstantinas Čiurlionis – 23 August 1939 not only paved ways historic path covered by the Lithuanian “the 11th March 1990 declaration on well. On seeing a map of the GDL we aware that Lithuanian history of the within the Russian Empire. Jointly all of them have become for the Second World War, but nation. The Baltics’ Singing Revolution the full sovereignty and re-establishment as if crouch at the thought, how small modern times has had a whole series of with Poland, we resisted it by the giants of the modern partitioned Eastern Europe as was impossible without the historic of independence of the Republic of we are today; however in the epoch of peaks in the fights for freedom? Does uprisings of 1830–1831 and 1863. Lithuanian identity. well. This is what determined role of Poland’s “Solidarity”, which Lithuania destroyed the former Soviet the GDL’s largest expansion, Lithuania the year 1990, made that outstanding, They were led by nobility which mainly Lithuania’s destiny. Being began eroding the fundamentals of Union”. The August 1991 revolution owned just a tiny shore of the Baltic not obscure them? As a matter of fact, spoke Polish; therefore even today alone, in 1940 Lithuania the communist camp. For Lithuania, in Russia, which changed the balance Sea without Klaipėda. And today, for the 11th March has already become a Lithuanians sometimes refer to the Laisvės statula Kaune. did not demonstrate however, a role probably not that of global powers, was also guided the first time in history, both Vilnius Skulptorius J. Zikaras but then, could we dream of our capital’s to Europe, and became a member of 100 LITAS COIN FROM THE SERIES DEDICATED TO this high appreciation as little as 20 the Euro–Atlantic community. New THE MILLENNIUM OF THE MENTION OF THE NAME OF LITHUANIA LITHUANIAN years ago? This, too, is for the first time opportunities and new challenges – this Gold Au 999.9 in our millennium history. is what Lithuania’s millennium makes Quality proof COLLECTORS All this enables raising a question: to contemplate. Contemplate our life in Diameter 22.30 mm shouldn’t namely the year 1990 be the centuries to come. Weight 7.78 g COINS considered the beginning of Lithuania’s In the coin, we see a Vytis of The words on the edge of the coin: LIETUVOS VARDO TÛKSTANTMETIS second millennium? Historians are calligraphic stylistics.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • An Examination of the Role of Nationalism in Estonia’S Transition from Socialism to Capitalism
    De oeconomia ex natione: An Examination of the Role of Nationalism in Estonia’s Transition from Socialism to Capitalism Thomas Marvin Denson IV Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Political Science Besnik Pula, Committee Chair Courtney I.P. Thomas Charles L. Taylor 2 May 2017 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: Estonia, post-Soviet, post-socialist, neoliberalism, nationalism, nationalist economy, soft nativism Copyright © 2017 by Thomas M. Denson IV De oeconomia ex natione: An Examination of the Role of Nationalism in Estonia’s Transition from Socialism to Capitalism Thomas Marvin Denson IV Abstract This thesis explores the role played by nationalism in Estonia’s transition to capitalism in the post-Soviet era and the way it continues to impact the Estonian economy. I hypothesize that nationalism was the key factor in this transition and that nationalism has placed a disproportionate economic burden on the resident ethnic Russians. First, I examine the history of Estonian nationalism. I examine the Estonian nationalist narrative from its beginning during the Livonian Crusade, the founding of Estonian nationalist thought in the late 1800s with a German model of nationalism, the conditions of the Soviet occupation, and the role of song festivals in Estonian nationalism. Second, I give a brief overview of the economic systems of Soviet and post-Soviet Estonia. Finally, I examine the impact of nationalism on the Estonian economy. To do this, I discuss the nature of nationalist economy, the presence of an ethno-national divide between the Estonians and Russians, and the impact of nationalist policies in citizenship, education, property rights, and geographical location.
    [Show full text]
  • Projections of International Solidarity and Security in Contemporary Estonia
    DUKE UNIVERSITY Durham, North Carolina The Spirit Of Survival: Projections of International Solidarity and Security in Contemporary Estonia Katharyn S. Loweth April 2019 Under the supervision of Professor Gareth Price, Department of Linguistics Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Graduation with Distinction Program in International Comparative Studies Trinity College of Arts and Sciences Table of Contents List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................. 2 Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 4 i. An Overview of the Estonian Nation-State ................................................................................................ 8 ii. Terminology ................................................................................................................................................... 12 iii. Methodology ................................................................................................................................................. 17 iv. Overview of the Chapters
    [Show full text]
  • Rein Taagepera
    Journal of Baltic Studies Vol. 40, No. 4, December 2009, pp. 451–464 THE STRUGGLE FOR BALTIC HISTORY Rein Taagepera The attitudes of Western powers toward the Baltic states were in 1945–1990 steadily affected by how they perceived Baltic history: whether it even existed and if so, what did its most recent phase represent – occupation or voluntary union? The Baltic refugees were initially poorly prepared for the struggle about history, because they lacked not only English language skills but also understanding of democratic societies. Their books were printed by little- known publishers, and studies in scholarly journals were almost completely absent. A breakthrough took place in the 1960s. Major figures were Vytas Stanley Vardys, who was first to publish articles in top journals and books with major publishers, and Ja¯nis Gaigulis, who initiated and kept going the Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies (AABS) and its Journal of Baltic Studies. Support for scholars was strong in the Latvian exile community, while hesitant in the Estonian and Lithuanian ones. By the time of the ‘Singing Revolution’ the struggle for Baltic history had been won in the Western world. It had become widely accepted that the Baltic peoples and their histories existed, and Moscow’s attempts to rewrite Baltic history could not take root in the West. Winning the struggle for the past helped in the struggle for the future of the Baltic peoples. Keywords: AABS; Baltic post-WWII exiles; Ja¯nis Gaigulis; Vytas Stanley Vardys; Western perception of Baltic history estern attitudes toward the Baltic states in 1945–1990 were steadily affected by Wtheir perception of Baltic history: whether it even existed and if so, then which one? Hence the struggle carried out in the West for a Baltic future was continuously intertwined with a struggle for the past.
    [Show full text]
  • Understanding the Cold War Through the Singing Revolution
    Subjects: History / Government Understanding the Cold War through the Singing Revolution Aim / Essential Question How does the experience of Estonia reflect the political evolution of the Cold War? Overview Students will learn about the Cold War through the experiences of Estonia. This 4-5 day lesson shows the Cold War through a four-phase, issue analysis model. The lesson includes video clips, a slide show presentation, a four-page graphic organizer, and a culminating writing task explaining Estonia’s experience in the political evolution of the conflict. Materials & Technology • Slide show presentation of activities (from www.izzit.org) • Class set of graphic organizers for students (below) • Teacher-developed guidelines for final paper • The Singing Revolution (Chapters 1, 2, 3 and 5) (from Disc One / Chapters) • Newsreel: “Yalta” (from Disc Two / Section 1: 1939-1956: The Soviet & Nazi Occupations / Newsreels) • Newsreel: “1956 Hungarian Revolution” (from Disc Two / Section 1: 1939-1956: The Soviet & Nazi Occupations / Newsreels / 1956 Hungarian Revolution) • Any DVD-compatible player that will allow distinct chapters to be shown • A television or video projection unit Lesson Time: Four to five 50-minute class periods. Objectives Students will: • Apply a four-phase issue analysis model to study the Cold War. • Analyze written and film resources and document their findings on a graphic organizer. • Write a summative essay using a four-phase analysis model and information gained from lesson and film to demonstrate understanding of the Cold War. Instruction Day 1 Opening: Bell Ringer / Do Now / Anticipatory Set • Provide students with graphic organizer to accompany the lesson as they enter the classroom.
    [Show full text]
  • Freedom and Its Discontents
    Part III Freedom and Its Discontents Estonia’s Path Out of the Cold War 329 Chapter 13 Estonia’s Path Out of the Cold War Mart Laar In 1940, following the Nazi-Soviet conspiracy of 1939, the Sovi- et Union occupied and annexed three independent countries on the shores of the Baltic Sea: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. In so doing the Kremlin took a bite it never could fully digest. The Western world did not recognize the annexation and continued this non-recognition policy until each Baltic country restored its statehood. Throughout this time, diplomatic representatives of the Baltic countries continued to work in Western capitals. The Soviet Union sought on several occa- sions to gain from the West de jure recognition of Baltic countries as part of the Soviet Union, but without success. As soon as 1940-41 massive resistance began in the Baltic countries themselves against Soviet rule with the aim to restore statehood. After mass deportations on June 14, 1941 partisan movements spontaneous- ly emerged that helped to push the Soviets out of the country. When the German occupation started, the resistance movement again went underground. By the time the Red Army reached Estonian borders in 1944, Estonians joined the German army, helping to stop the Soviets for eight months. Then in autumn 1944 Hitler decided to abandon Estonia and the Red Army took the country over again. During the German retreat Estonians attempted to restore the inde- pendent Republic and form a new government, but they were crushed by Soviet tanks. Nevertheless, for many people the war was not over.
    [Show full text]
  • Burden of the Brezhnev Doctrine: New Perspectives on the Collapse
    Matthew Newton JSIS A530 Dr. Jones Autumn Quarter 2016 The Burden of the Brezhnev Doctrine: New Perspectives on the Collapse Even before the inception of the Soviet Union, debate raged about how best to achieve socialism in the ailing Romanov empire. The extreme left, Leon Trotsky in particular, advocated for global communism achieved by international revolution. His successor, and later murderer, Joseph Stalin, co-opted Lenin’s policy of “Socialism in one country;” the Soviet Union would be the world’s paragon in the ascent to socialism. Once it achieved it, the workers of the world would unite and build communism globally, and the borders between nations would wither away in accordance with Marxism-Leninism. However, at the end of World War II, the Red Army found itself occupying eight quasi-sovereign states in Eastern and Central Europe. The relationship between the Soviet Union and the subjugated states shifted soon after their integration into the Warsaw Pact (formerly known as the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance). During the Soviets’ march to Berlin and the early post-war years, the Red Army carried out a massive transfer of wealth and assets from the peripheries of occupied territory to Moscow. (Applebaum, 2012) Nonetheless, in financially supporting these nations and their leading communist parties, the Soviet empire gradually overextended itself from the inside outward. The relationship between Moscow and its European satellites proved tenuous and politically unviable as early as 1956, when what would become known as the Brezhnev Doctrine was used to retroactively justify the invasion of Hungary. Meanwhile, Nikita Khrushchev wielded the policy of nuclear brinksmanship in order to scare the United States out of initiating nuclear war.
    [Show full text]
  • The Revolutions of 1989
    2 Internationale Geschichte International History “By far the best collective work on this topic. This book will be unique, and is much needed – at WOLFGANG MUELLER, MICHAEL GEHLER, ARNOLD SUPPAN, eds. a time when social scientists continue to strive to understand the ‘Arab revolutions’. We get in-depth analysis and diversity of the assessments.” – Pierre Grosser, professor of history of international relations and contemporary world history, Sciences Po, Paris; author of the prize- winning book 1989, l’année où le monde a basculé (Paris: Perrin, 2009). Contents: The Revolutions of 1989 REVOLUTIONS: Gorbachev and the “New Thinking” – Poland 1989 – Hungary 1989 – The Tiananmen Square “Incident” – The Revolution in East Germany – Czechoslovakia A Handbook Internationale Geschichte International History in 1989 – Yugoslavia 1989 – The End of Communist Rule in Bulgaria – The Romanian Revolution – The “Singing Revolution” in the Baltic Republics REACTIONS: The Superpowers – The USSR and the Revolutions – US Strategic Planning – The Reunification of Germany – The USSR and the Reunification of Germany – Margaret Thatcher and German Unification – France and 1989 – Italy and 1989 – Austria and Eastern Europe – Austria and 1989 AFTERMATH: Societal Transformations – Remembering 1989 – The “Archival Revolution” – NATO Enlargement – EU Enlargement – Epochal Changes – Chronology Authors: A. Grachev (World Political Forum, Turin) – K. Bachmann (University of Social Sciences and Humanities Warsaw) – A. Oplatka (Andrássy University Budapest) – P. Vámos (Hungarian Academy of Sciences) – H. H. Hertle (Center for Contemporary History, Potsdam) – J. Suk (Czech Academy of Sciences) – F. Bieber (University of Graz) – A. Galijaš (University of Graz) – U. Brunnbauer (University of Regensburg) – A. U. Gabanyi (Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, Berlin) – K. Brüggemann (University of Tallinn) – N.
    [Show full text]
  • Raising Soviets on Imported Goods. Socialist Realism in Estonian Secondary Education
    Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2014 Raising Soviets on Imported Goods. Socialist Realism in Estonian Secondary Education Helen Saask Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Saask, Helen, "Raising Soviets on Imported Goods. Socialist Realism in Estonian Secondary Education" (2014). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7122. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7122 This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Raising Soviets on Imported Goods. Socialist Realism in Estonian Secondary Education Helen Sääsk Thesis submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History Robert Blobaum, Ph.D., Chair Joshua Arthurs, Ph.D. Mark Tauger, Ph.D. Department of History Morgantown, West Virginia 2014 Keywords: Soviet education, socialist realism, secondary education, double-thinking, history of education ABSTRACT Raising Soviets on Imported Goods.
    [Show full text]
  • Sounds of the Singing Revolution: Alo Mattiisen, Popular Music, And
    Lawrence University Lux Lawrence University Honors Projects 5-30-2018 Sounds of the Singing Revolution: Alo Mattiisen, Popular Music, and the Estonian Independence Movement, 1987-1991 Allison Brooks-Conrad Lawrence University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://lux.lawrence.edu/luhp Part of the Musicology Commons © Copyright is owned by the author of this document. Recommended Citation Brooks-Conrad, Allison, "Sounds of the Singing Revolution: Alo Mattiisen, Popular Music, and the Estonian Independence Movement, 1987-1991" (2018). Lawrence University Honors Projects. 124. https://lux.lawrence.edu/luhp/124 This Honors Project is brought to you for free and open access by Lux. It has been accepted for inclusion in Lawrence University Honors Projects by an authorized administrator of Lux. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Sounds of the Singing Revolution: Alo Mattiisen, Popular Music, and the Estonian Independence Movement, 1987-1991 Allison Brooks-Conrad April 30th, 2018 Musicology Advisor: Professor Erica Scheinberg Acknowledgements Special thanks to my mother for introducing me to Estonia and for sharing my passion for this fascinating Baltic state. Thank you to both of my parents for their advice, support, and interest in this project. Thank you to Professor Colette Brautigam for making the digital images of Mingem Üles Mägedele that I use in this paper. Thank you to Merike Katt, director of Jõgeva Music School in Jõgeva, Estonia, for graciously sharing her images of Alo Mattiisen with me and for her support of this project. Finally, thank you to my advisor, Professor Erica Scheinberg. I am so grateful to her for her willingness to take on the obscure topics that interest me and for supporting this project from the beginning.
    [Show full text]
  • The Revolutions of 1989. a Handbook
    Wolfgang MUELLER - Michael GEHLER - Arnold SUPPAN (eds.) The Revolutions of 1989. A Handbook ISBN 978-3-7001-7638-1 Print Edition Internationale Geschichte 2 2014, 705 Seiten, 24x17 cm, Karton € 75,00 Only a few people foresaw the sudden and momentous events of 1989: within months the seemingly unshakable communist regimes of Eastern Europe were washed away and with them the postwar international order. This book gives an overview over the national revolutions and external reactions. It contains chapters on the revolutions in all major countries of the former communist bloc as well as on the responses of all major international Wolfgang MUELLER players. The first part examines the revolutionary events – from is deputy director of the Institute above and from below – in Eastern Europe as well as China and of Modern and Contemporary their backgrounds. The second part deals with Soviet and Historical Research at the Western perceptions and responses. The third part focuses on Austrian Academy of Sciences in the aftermath of the revolutions, on societal transformations, the Vienna acceptance of the new Central European democracies to NATO and the EU, and on the memory of 1989. Michael GEHLER is director of the Institute of “By far the best collective work on this topic … This book will be Modern and Contemporary unique, and is much needed – at a time when social scientists Historical Research at the continue to strive to understand the ‘Arab revolutions’. We get in- Austrian Academy of Sciences in depth analysis and diversity of the assessments.” Vienna Pierre Grosser Arnold SUPPAN is former professor for the History of Eastern Europe at the University of Vienna Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Austrian Academy of Sciences Press A-1011 Wien, Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • From Opposition to Independence: Social Movements in Latvia, 1986- 199 1
    FROM OPPOSITION TO INDEPENDENCE: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN LATVIA, 1986-199 1 by Daina Stukuls #569 March 1998 CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON SOCIAL ORGANIZATION WORKING PAPER SERIES The Center for Research on Social Organization is a facility of the Department of Sociology, The University of Michigan. Its primary mission is to support the research of faculty and students in the department's Social Organization graduate program. CRSO Working Papers report current research and reflection by affiliates of the Center To request copies of working papers, or for hrther information about Center activities, write us at 4501 LS&A Building, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, send e-mail to [email protected], or call (734) 764-7487. Introduction Prior to 1987, independent mass demonstrations in the Soviet Socialist Republic of Latvia, indeed, in the entire Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, were unheard of. Not only were they strictly forbidden by Soviet authorities, but the fear wrought by decades of repression seemed to make oppositional collective action very unlikely. While pockets of resistance and individual dissident efforts dotted the Soviet historical map, the masses were docile, going out on to the streets only in response to compulsory parades and marches designed to commemorate holidays like May Day. In 1986, a policy of greater openness in society, glasnost', was initiated by the new Secretary General of the Communist Party of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev. Among the changes brought about by glasnost' was a greater tolerance by authorities of open expression in society, though this too was limited, as the policy was intended to strengthen rather than weaken the union.
    [Show full text]
  • Communism: Its Ideology, Its History, and Its Legacy COMMUNISM: ITS IDEOLOGY, ITS HISTORY
    COMMUNISM: ITS IDEOLOGY, ITS HISTORY, and ITS LEGACY Third Edition Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation© 1 2 Communism: Its Ideology, Its History, and Its Legacy COMMUNISM: ITS IDEOLOGY, ITS HISTORY, and ITS LEGACY Paul Kengor, Ph.D. Professor of Political Science Grove City College Lee Edwards, Ph.D. Chairman Emeritus Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation Claire McCaffery Griffin, MA Claire Griffin Consulting, LLC PUBLISHED BY Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation 300 New Jersey Avenue NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20001 www.victimsofcommunism.org Third Edition Copyright ©2021 Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation 300 New Jersey Avenue NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20001 [email protected] Printed in the United States 4 Communism: Its Ideology, Its History, and Its Legacy Table of Contents Introduction .........................................................................7 Karl Marx and His Legacy .............................................................9 Lenin and the Bolshevik Revolution .................................................. 27 Stalin and the Soviet Union ......................................................... 39 Independence, Occupation, and Deportation in the Baltics ..............................51 Mao and China .....................................................................81 Kim Il-Sung and North Korea ........................................................ 93 Pol Pot and Cambodia .............................................................103
    [Show full text]