ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY

THE BENEFITS OF MANAGED DISKLESS TECHNOLOGIES IN AN

EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

BY

GREGG FERRIE

An essay submitted in partial fulfilment

Of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE in INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Athabasca, Alberta

July, 2011

© Gregg Ferrie, 2011

DEDICATION

To the five pillars of my life: God, my wife, and my three children. Sometimes my focus gets misdirected and without you life would be empty and without purpose, however you always get me back on track. Vikki your steadfast support, love, strength and faith have seen me through the most difficult aspects of my studies. Naomi, Daniel and Joel you have grown into amazing and responsible adults and I couldn't imagine life without you. Thank you all for your love and support. ABSTRACT

School districts are under continual pressure to reduce budgets while providing state-of-the- art technology solutions in support of student learning and achievement. Attempting to do this with traditional Windows-based desktops and limited funding is becoming unsustainable and most school districts are falling further behind in support of the curriculum. This essay will provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of how inexpensive, energy-efficient and fully-managed diskless clients, running primarily open-source are a sustainable and proven solution. As it is antithetical from the current standard, many school districts maintain ageing Windows XP while providing outdated software applications. These desktops are energy inefficient and often poorly managed. They run expensive applications which provide largely the same functionality as their open-source counterparts. This essay will seek to quantify the educational, operational and financial advantages in conjunction with the significant energy savings possible by transitioning ageing Windows-based desktop systems to a fully managed Linux diskless client implementation.

i AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the many people who helped me along this journey including my wife Vikki and family, fellow students, the Computer of Computing and Information Systems staff. Thank you for all the advice and support from Linda Gray, my professors, particularly professor Lin, professor Dron, professor Graf and my essay supervisor professor Huntrods. Most importantly, senior executive staff at School District

No. 63 (Saanich) Dr. Keven Elder and Joan Axford. Your support will always be remembered and appreciated.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Statement of the Purpose...... 7

Research Problem and Historical Context...... 7

Significance...... 15

Assumptions...... 15

Limitations...... 16

CHAPTER II – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...... 17

Historical Context...... 19

The Benefits and Challenges of Thin Clients...... 32

The Promise of Thin Clients Not Realized...... 34

Diskless Clients as Utility Computing...... 35

CHAPTER III - METHODOLOGY...... 36

Comparing Thin, Thick and Diskless Clients...... 39

Can Diskless Become the New Thin...... 42

CHAPTER IV - RESULTS...... 43

Management Issues of Thick Client Personal Computers...... 44

Linux Diskless Client Technology Emergence...... 45

Diskless Client Implementation at School District No. 63 (Saanich)...... 47

Diskless Client Distinctiveness...... 51

Theory of Operation – Boot Process...... 54

Theory of Operation – Local Apps...... 62

System Requirements...... 63

iii Energy Conservation and Diskless Clients...... 67

Diskless Client Energy Management Functions...... 72

Summary...... 73

CHAPTER V – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 74

Diskless Clients Provide the Preeminent Low Cost Computing Solution...... 77

Ancillary Advantages of Linux Diskless Client Computing...... 80

Challenges to Implementing Diskless Client Technology in Education...... 82

Conclusion...... 84

REFERENCES ...... 85

iv LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Comparison characteristics of thin, diskless and thick clients...... 41

Table 2. School District No. 63 - 2009-2012 Technology Plan Budgets ...... 48

Table 3. Functional comparison between thin, diskless and thick clients ...... 53

Table 4. Thick client versus diskless client boot process comparison...... 57

Table 5. Client energy consumption comparison...... 69

Table 6. School District No. 63 diskless client energy savings ...... 71

Table 7. Typical diskless client open source applications...... 77

v LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. OS Platform Statistics...... 4

Figure 2. Diskless client early boot process...... 55

Figure 3. PXE boot with sample scripts plus comments ...... 56

Figure 4. Diskless client customized kernel script...... 58

Figure 5. Diskless client MySQL configuration database ...... 60

Figure 6. Diskless client recommended network configuration ...... 64

Figure 8. School District No. 63 energy consumption by percentage ...... 67

Figure 9. Typical Elementary school diskless desktop snapshot ...... 80

vi CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Public education is expedited in Canada with funding, curricular outcomes, policies and administration provided by the various provincial governments and territories. Although there are some minor differences between the various jurisdictions, the challenges are analogous and include providing equitable resources across a diverse student population to facilitate student learning and assessment. In the province of British Columbia, the prime goals of public education are: to develop intellectual development and critical thinking, encourage and support human and social development while enabling career development opportunities for the future [1]. Although these are lofty goals, the public education system is faced with numerous and significant challenges which include: declining enrolment in many districts, rising costs, salary and benefit increases, policy and regulation changes, inequitable funding models, environmental concerns and student/parent expectations all within the context of a very rapidly changing world. The latter two issues, in particular, are influencing education ministries, policy makers, districts and teachers to rethink the traditional role of the school and how students learning and achievement will be supported.

Until recently, education public education has been primarily delivered through traditional instruction methods, where teachers provide the curriculum and lecture from the front of the class. Students are required to listen, utilize rote learning and memorize information from which they are challenged through quizzes, exams and other traditional methods of assessment. Over the past 10 to 15 years there has been a gradual move by ministries of education to offer students greater choice of curriculum via distributed learning:

1 utilizing computer-based technologies and learning management systems such as Blackboard and Moodle [2].

Teachers and schools are also being challenged to provide access to Internet-based resources, district-based resources and ubiquitous access to information anywhere and anytime, particularly external of traditional school hours. Synchronous with this paradigm, educational ministries, school districts and schools is the rapid change of technology including, but not limited to, the advent of the Internet, social networking, ubiquitous access to resources, mobility, eLearning and a host of other influences [3]. The contemporary, under

30 generation, often called “digital natives” have grown up in a digital world, where information, resources, access, multitasking are systemic to their experience [4]. There is now recognition from educators that these students think differently, work differently and most importantly, learn differently from their predecessors [5].

Understanding this, the British Columbian Ministry of Education, along with other jurisdictions, are rapidly moving to a 21 st Century pedagogical model which considers personalized learning, project-based learning, access to resources anywhere and anytime from any school who can offer the curriculum [6]. Although not exclusively, personalized learning relies heavily upon information computing technologies (ICT) to facilitate communication, social networking, digital resources, ePortfolios and other applications [7].

Ubiquitous access to these resources, both within and without of the confines of the traditional school anytime is becoming predominant. Although the link between ubiquitous access and environmental concerns appear to be diverse, there are threads of commonality which is beginning to change the way educational technology is being viewed and delivered.

2 As students experience with connected activities is endemic to their experience, they are also becoming increasingly aware and concerned about climate change and its impact on the environment. Consequently there is increasing and persistent pressure to reduce energy use and become more efficient in all aspects of public education. In British Columbia, school districts are under extraordinary pressure to conserve energy and reduce green house gases

(GHG) and carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions. There is increasing demand to accomplish this while maintaining modern technologies in support of student learning and achievement. This topic is highly germane to today's public school system as budgets decrease, while technologically astute students demand access to modern ICT-based learning resources with a desire to be thoughtful stewards of the environment. Consequently with all of these competing pressures teachers and schools are struggling to strike a balance which provides the best possible learning opportunities for students.

The challenge districts are now facing is how to provide cost-effective, relevant, current, sustainable, environmentally conscious and ubiquitous access to resources that work for today’s educational outcomes and simultaneously anticipate the future. School district technology plans are usually developed around a three to five year cycle to anticipate funding, resourcing, planning, implementation and professional development opportunities.

Over the past eight to ten years, the current and most pervasive computing model is to provide schools with three year old, off-lease, XP-based desktop computers. These computers typically stay in the school environment until they are completely obsolescent.

The Microsoft XP was originally introduced in late 2001 and is the overwhelming choice for desktop computers in K-12 schools. This has worked well for most

3 school districts as long as the Windows XP platform is supported and moderately current desktop computers are available at low cost. According to w3schools, as of June 2011 the

Window XP operating system still maintains the overwhelming majority of desktop use estimated to be 39.7%, while Windows 7 has gradually increased to 37.8%, Microsoft Vista is at 6.7%, the Mac operating system is at 8.1% and Linux is at 5.2% [8] as shown in Fig. 1 –

OS Platform Statistics. MS Windows 7, released in late 2009 has not seen significant adoption in K-12 schools, due to greater hardware requirements which necessitate more up- to-date desktop computer systems [9]. Microsoft terminated licensing of the XP operating system in July of 2010 while it has extended support until April of 2014 due to it significant and current use. Microsoft considers Windows XP to be a legacy operating system and is working hard to move customers to its current Windows 7 operating system.

Figure 1. OS Platform Statistics

4 This move has been much relatively easy for home users and small business; however large organizations and specifically school districts, have found this a serious challenge.

Many districts have moved some office and administration desktops to Microsoft Windows 7 while opting to maintain Microsoft XP in computer labs, libraries and classrooms for as long as possible. The anticipation is, that funding or off-lease equipment will provide opportunities to move to Microsoft 7 and later versions of Microsoft Office at a later date.

Many of the current technology plans are broad-based and discuss: district policies, technology enabling the curriculum, infrastructure, wireless access, mobility, refreshing desktop computers with newer models and other ICT aspects but rarely address the cost, impact or specifics of moving to Microsoft Windows 7 and Microsoft Office 2010.

The difficulty currently facing school districts can hardly be overstated. Many districts have not articulated plans or committed resources which address the looming challenge for transition from Windows XP to Windows 7 by the 2014 deadline. As districts require at least two to three years to implement, most large technology plans including plan development, consultation, budgeting and implementation this indicates the time left for this process to occur is getting shorter and options are limited. Some districts are considering alternatives to using desktop virtualization such as Microsoft Terminal , Citrix

XenServer or other technologies. However, many of these systems are not cost-effective, even with academic pricing for a school district, and do not support accelerated video and streaming sound required by many graphic applications. This model has been tried by school districts but is generally not supported.

Other alternatives to this traditional computing model are being explored by some school districts. The Vancouver School District is making forays into this realm by replacing

5 some commercial software products with open source programs like OpenOffice, Microsoft

Publisher with Scribus, and so forth, nevertheless it does not address the unavoidable concern about what happens when support is withdrawn for Windows XP and hardware have become obsolete. Additionally, it does not significantly address issues around environmental concerns and reducing GHG and CO 2 emissions although some reductions have been made through the use of programs like Faronic's Power Save software [10]. With funding being a continual and yearly concern, Microsoft's eliminating support for Windows XP in 2014, educational paradigm shifts such as personalize learning, distributed learning and mobility, Internet-based resources, webification of many desktop programs, it is my opinion that another computing model needs to be considered. The utilization of open source software in conjunction with low-cost diskless clients can address many of the concerns that exist currently and anticipate a web-centric, cloud-based model of computing.

Linux computing is a model which has been largely ignored by the K-12 educational community. The reasons for this are diverse and include: fear, uncertainty and doubt about open source software, level of support requited, lack of technical knowledge for implementation, concerns about the efficacy of using non-commercial programs in education, poor documentation, lack of warranty and other factors. Not all of these however are valid and the advantages and disadvantages will be further explored in this essay. Open-source software and thin client technologies have evolved to be competitive, sustainable and highly applicable for school districts. This essay anticipates the utilization of an energy-efficient,

Linux thin client computing model can provide significant benefits for K-12 education over the conventional, personal computing Window-based computing model notwithstanding resistance to change.

6 Statement of the Purpose .

This essay will provide an overview of past directions regarding Linux thin client use in an educational environment and will further seek to analyze current issues and trends as it pertains to the utilization of open source software while improving energy-efficiencies.

Research will be conducted into factors which may have impeded broad-based support for this model including cultural bias, fear of the unknown, uncertainty, doubt, questions regarding open source software efficacy and other issues which have been studied extensively [11]. The purpose is to demystify the apprehensions around Linux thin client technology, analyze the significant advantages while considering the disadvantages with a view to provide districts and schools a viable and highly cost-effective, energy-efficient, alternative to traditional Windows-based computing models.

Research Problem and Historical Context .

The author has been part of the K-12 educational environment since 1992 when initially hired as a network engineer to administer and plan school-based Local Area

Networks for School District No. 73 (Kamloops). In 1996 the author was promoted to the new position of Manager of Information Technology and given the opportunity to produce the school districts first technology plan which included raising the computer-to-student ratio of computers and improving the availability of educational technology opportunities for students. During the subsequent four years there was a great deal of activity hiring additional staff and upgrading districts servers and software, however elementary schools were often left using outdated computers handed down from secondary schools, with the exception of school offices. In 2000 a pilot project was conceptualized with the district systems analyst

7 with a proposal to utilize off-lease computers to provide a low-cost, open source-based alternative to Elementary schools.

In the summer of 2001, School District No. 73 completed the building of a new school, Pacific Way Elementary School and there was a requirement for technology to populate the new school. In conjunction with the author, the district systems analyst, the principal of the new school and the assistant superintendent, it was decided that off-lease 3- year old computers, using Pentium III processors and 256Mb of RAM could be utilized to provide the school with approximately 120 workstations. A Debian-based server running the

Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP) would provide the bootstrap, operating system, desktop environment, file and print capabilities [12]. Core software was included consisting of StarOffice, Mozilla browser, gCompris children's software suite and other relevant open source applications. This model utilized a school-centralized server, running Linux and LTSP.

The client boot process briefly outlined, involved loading the server-based operating system with the Preboot eXectution Environment (PXE) through the client network interface card (NIC), where the file server would respond with an appropriate network bootstrap program (NBP). The server would load the NBP into the clients random access memory

(RAM), where users would be presented with a login screen and after an authenticated ID and password and a highly customized desktop environment would be delivered [13]. As the school was new, the network incorporated category (CAT) 5 cabling and utilized centralized

Ethernet switches running 100 megabit (Mb) to each client and 1 gigabit (Gb) on the backbone to the school-based LTSP server. Under these optimal conditions the server could easily handle the 120 clients with very low server utilization with most stations active.

8 The pilot was updated and refined for one year, after which an implementation plan was created to resource and actualize the system for all 32 elementary schools. It was considered of paramount importance that the image operate as effectively as possible, therefore the implementation also included updating the infrastructure at all schools to CAT 5 wiring, replacing older CAT3 cable where necessary, replacing older switches and centralizing to facilitate at least 100Mb to each client and 1Gb on for the Local Area Network

LAN backbone, An electrician was provided with all of the necessary resources and time with the task of upgrading each of the school LANs. This would precede the district analyst who would subsequently replace the old Windows-based desktop computers with the new

Linux-based system utilizing off-lease consistent desktop computers on a school-by-school basis. The initial pilot confirmed that the key factors which would enable success included:

• a very responsive LAN with as few hops between the clients and server as possible

• 100Mb to the clients and 1Gb on the backbone including the server

• homogeneous clients with consistent models of network cards, video cards, sound

cards and monitors

• accelerated video cards for graphic software

• sound cards to incorporate sound

In the fall of 2002, implementation began for 32 elementary schools scheduled for a three year period. The full implementation was fully completed by the summer of 2005. Each of the elementary schools was upgraded on a three week cycle. During the first week the old computers were replaced, new consistent computers were installed and tested. The server was setup, printing was established, user accounts were created, old documents and files were transferred and preliminary image debugging was accomplished. During the second week

9 users were permitted to login and provided with training and orientation with the new system. During the third week any issues which had not been discovered earlier were addressed including just-in-time training and support. This process was repeated for the next two years until all 32 elementary schools were fully converted. Throughout the implementation there was continual development while rethinking regarding the efficacy of utilizing off-lease or used computers. Although the systems were under much greater control through centralized management and virtualizion, the age of the systems made them subject to breakdowns after 2-3 years reducing user confidence in the system. As this was being deliberated a Vancouver computer wholesaler contacted the district with an offer to donate approximately 1,300 Pentium III-based, mini-tower barebones computer systems, without hard drives and RAM, which were the result of a merger with another company. The district decided to accept this offer and purchased 512Mb of RAM for each system and spent the next year replacing all of the older off-lease computers at the elementary schools.

The benefit of using dedicated diskless clients became apparent very quickly.

Utilizing new and more powerful computers greatly increased user confidence in the system.

Previously, support and maintenance of the older computers was continual and unproductive.

Emphasis was consequently placed upon responsive, remote management where incremental improvements could be accomplished on an on-going basis. Additionally with the advent of the improved processing capabilities of the new computers, it became easier to offload programs that had previously been run on the server to the clients when possible, and utilize the distributed processing, incorporating technologies such as trivial file transfer protocol

(TFTP). As well, with the on-board video of the new workstations incorporating greater accelerated video capabilities, it was possible to run better graphic-based software which had

10 been somewhat lacking in the previous iteration of the image. By the end of the elementary school implementation it was necessary to reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of the system and how the model could be scaled to secondary schools which were considered much more complex than elementary schools.

School District No. 73 (Kamloops) had 32 elementary schools and 10 secondary schools located across a very large and diverse geographical area. Secondary school curriculum included heavy use of office productivity software, had requirements for industrial education (IE) applications such as computer-aided drafting (CAD), computer- aided modelling (CAM), video editing, graphic design, programming and required pervasive access to Internet resources. Due to the increased complexity of secondary schools, a committee was created to determine the viability of using the Linux-based model in use at elementary schools into the secondary schools. After six months of discussion and deliberations it was determined that a pilot would be accomplished at the smallest secondary school with a principal who had previous experience and expertise with Linux and open- source software. Subsequently a strategy was developed during the winter of 2005-2006 for

Barrier Secondary school to implement the Linux diskless client model.

The secondary school image would incorporate updated open-source software, faster diskless clients and better video chip sets. Over the winter, the electrician updated the LAN, replaced the Ethernet switches and prepared the network. During the spring break of 2006 the district analyst replaced all of the older Windows-based desktop computers with new diskless clients, a new LTSP server and performed most of the preliminary work to transition files and access for staff and students. Although not without its challenges the secondary school pilot was deemed a success and refinements were continued throughout the subsequent months. In

11 the late spring of 2006 another plan was drafted to see implementation of the upgraded secondary school image for the subsequent nine schools. Beginning in the summer of 2006 the remainder of the secondary schools were upgraded during times of low activity, which included winter breaks, spring breaks and summer vacations and was finally completed by the summer of 2009. Linux and open-source software have become the standard for School

District No. 73 (Kamloops) throughout the fifty two schools [14].

Since the beginning of the secondary school implementation much has occurred. In early 2008, the author was offered the position of the Director of Information Technology for

School District No. 63 (Saanich), accepted the new position and commenced work in Saanich in February of that year. As part of the authors employment contract, district executive and the Board of Trustees agreed to incorporate a new technology plan based on the experience gained previously by utilizing open-source software and Linux diskless client technology.

Consequently, in the spring of 2008 an extensive District Technology Plan was drafted and accepted by the Board of Trustees which included upgrades and support for the LAN and

WAN infrastructure, district administration operations, district communication, educational technology, professional development and training, privacy and security and risk management and business continuity management. A budget of approximately 1.2 million dollars was allocated for the implementation and consultation began with the eight elementary schools, three middle schools and three secondary schools.

The first task was to hire an experienced systems analyst and assist current district technical staff to help transition to the new system. It was agreed that a new school, KELSET

Elementary school would serve as a pilot, based on the work done at the Kamloops school district, with improvements and knowledge gained. An Linux LTSP server and approximately

12 120 updated diskless clients were purchased for a pilot which was implemented during the summer of 2008. Throughout the 2008-2009 school year significant improvements were made to the system, incorporating new open-source software, improved speed, pod-printing capabilities and significantly the ability to manage the client for automatic turn-on and turn- off based on a predefined schedule greatly increasing the energy efficiency of the model.

After consultation with senior executives and school administration, implementation at the remainder of the elementary schools began during the summer of 2009 and continued until the spring of 2010. A similar process utilized at Kamloops, was used at Saanich. An electrician was hired and preceded the technology implementation for each school, upgrading the LANs and replacing switches. Server closets were created, mini-server racks were installed, the number of hops from the client stations was reduced and access greatly improved to a minimum of 100Mb for clients and 1Gb for the server to central switches. An implementation team, including the district analyst, two district technicians, the school support person and the district teacher coordinator were on hand for the first week. With a larger team it was possible to change out the old desktop computers on the first day, install the server and new diskless clients on the second, transfer all files, create new user IDs and setup printers on the third day. By the fourth day school staff would be assisted by logging into the system and orientation provided. On the fifth day of implementation the district technology coordinator would be taking groups of children through the system accompanied by their teachers. Two staff would remain on-site for the next week, debugging assisting staff and providing any support and training requested. By the end of the second week the schools were operating efficiently and making good use of the new system. This process continued until all eight elementary schools were converted to the new system by late winter of 2010.

13 Upon successful conclusion of the elementary plan, consultation was started with the three middle schools and senior administration.

The first middle school was implemented during the March spring break of 2010 utilizing one Linux LTSP server and 232 diskless clients. The middle schools have advanced requirements and information technology staff spent a greater amount of effort refining and improving the system for more sophisticated students and staff. As well there was additional

Windows-based software system in use at the middle schools which was not in use pervasively at elementary schools. These included limited use of Kurzweil text-to-speech reading software, SmartTechnologies Notebook software and Dragon Speaking Naturally.

The initial hope was to virtualize these packages using the open source Windows-based

Application Programming Interface (API) [15]. Many programs function well under Wine, however many do not and the aforementioned software would not operate properly after much effort by district analysts. Consequently a hybrid model was developed where critical

Windows applications would continue to be supported on Windows XP-based desktop computers connecting to the school network through Samba server interoperability also loaded on the LTSP server [16]. The average middle school at the Saanich school district has approximately 225 workstations for which approximately 15-20 units must continue to run

Windows XP until Linux versions become available or web-based versions are released.

Although this is an impediment it was not considered a significant enough obstacle to prevent implementation for all middle schools. As a consequence, after the first middle school had been thoroughly tested and refined, the subsequent two middle schools were implemented during the summer and winter breaks of 2010.

14 Significance .

Diskless client technology is not new technology; however the manner in which it is being implemented and deployed is new, enabling accelerated video and streaming sound.

Being able to scale very low cost, diskless clients puts the support emphasis not on the desktop support, but on the use of the software and applications while providing constant improvement and upgrades. The diskless clients that have been deployed at School District

No. 73 (Kamloops) and School District No. 63 (Saanich) and continue to be implemented allow for multi-language support, ubiquitous access not only across the network, but securely through the Internet with the use of software such as FreeNX. Another area of consequence occurred after the Saanich school district hired an Energy Manager and there was a desire to quantify the energy savings from fully managed diskless clients. Energy savings of 60 percent over the traditional model were quantified and realized through rigorous data gathering and analysis as confirmed by BC Hydro engineers. Perhaps the most important result from having BC Hydro confirm the achieved energy savings is the prestige associated with greatly reduced energy consumption and reduction of GHG and CO 2. As well, BC

Hydro is considering offering incentives to organizations who implement this model which might include a portion of funding for diskless clients purchased [17], particularly if they conform to EPEAT [18], including Energy Star [19], and 80Plus [20] standards..

Assumptions .

This essay assumes the reader is familiar with the K-12 public education sector and the many challenges associated with public funding, while endeavouring to provide the best technological opportunities for student learning and achievement. It is particularly useful if the reader already has a familiarity with the Linux operating system, thin client technologies

15 and open source software, either as developer, a user, or a system administrator although enough background information is provided for a broad perspective. Additionally this essay assumes the reader is aware of global warming concerns and acknowledges there is a significant challenge with climate change and the necessity to make changes.

Limitations .

For some organizations there are significant obstacles to implementing a Linux-based diskless client model utilizing open-source software. Overcoming these obstacles is not trivial and requires significant support from senior stakeholders. Perhaps the greatest of these are resistance to using open-source software, lack of technical knowledge to implement, limited support for critical Windows-based applications, cultural bias, lack of executive support and capital dollars. Although challenging, many of these deterrents can be overcome albeit with time and effort.

There is still much work that can be done to improve this model and it may be an interim until web operating systems become fully developed making the need for local servers redundant. In the meantime this model is the most elegant, cost effective model to provide large enterprise-wide client systems to users.

16 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Server-based based computing models have existed since the first mainframe computers were produced and “dumb” or text-based terminals were attached facilitating display and data entry. These terminals were simple devices with no processing capabilities, a screen for display, and a keyboard for data entry which were connected via RS-232 serial connections [21]. In this model the monolithic server maintained the operating system, the programs and data generated by the users and system. This computing model was dominant until the advent of the introduced a new paradigm in the early 1980s.

Gradually most mainframe computers were replaced with mini servers connected to personal computers (PC) with hard drives, hosting their own operating systems and providing a graphical user interface (GUI), such as Microsoft Windows or the Apple Macintosh. In additional to a local operating system, these PCs incorporated individual instances of such as spreadsheets or word processors.

By and large, over the next two decades, server functionality was primarily file and print control devices that facilitated the sharing of data, controlled the network and other centralized operations in what could be defined as a client-server environment. Since the late

1990s, this trend has changed gradually, where web and cloud-based servers provide access to applications and resources, yet personal computers continue to connect to these systems whether local or Internet-based servers. The PC or “fat” client is the antithesis to the early terminal which has been alternatively called “thin” clients due to their heavy dependence upon the server and limited or no processing capabilities.

17 Although there has been a significant shift away from the early server-based, “green screen” dumb terminals, the use of “thin” clients has evolved and persisted since the early days of mainframe computers. A thin client in its strictest sense is a lower cost computing device in a client/server architecture whose sole function is to process keyboard commands and provide a screen output [22]. Thin clients normally lack any processing capabilities, persistent memory or I/O devices support. Throughout that time there has been an ongoing introduction of more user-friendly, GUI-based terminals providing a richer environment to the user and one that is familiar for most personal computer users. This has been facilitated through the use of products such as Microsoft Terminal Server [23], Citrix Terminal Server and the Linux Terminal Server Project [12], to name a few, which utilize thin clients manufactured by companies like Wyse, IBM, HP, and others.

The use of thin clients has been sporadic and not always brought the desired panacea that was predicated by industry leaders such Oracle Corporation’s Larry Ellison who attempted to build a business case in the mid-to-late 1990s around a thin client he called a

“”. In 1999, he was quoted as saying, “the personal computer is a ridiculous device," where he saw the thin client rapidly replacing the user centric personal computer [24]. Many technical and industry analysts also saw an eminent future for not only the concept of thin client computing but a change in the very architecture for building seamless network applications where the emphasis was on scalability, security with a smooth migration to new technologies [25]. The reality was however the market share for the network computer never materialized due to dramatically falling PC prices, reduced functionality of thin clients and users desire to personalize their desktop environment.

Although the high expectation for the use of thin client technology has not been accepted to

18 the degree Ellison and others foresaw, there has been some successes in certain environments and situations. Due to the scope of the topic this literature review will concentrate on thin client use since the year 2000, with particular emphasis upon its application in K-12 and post-secondary education and more specifically the significant benefits towards greater energy conservation.

Historical Context .

In 1991 the late Dr. Mark Weiser envisioned the concept of ubiquitous computing for which he coined the phrase “calm computing” where he anticipated the concept of a more elegant form of computing. In his seminal work The Computer for the 21 st Century Weiser is quoted as saying “The most profound technologies are those that disappear. They weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable from it’’ [26]. This vision of ubiquitous access and high mobility was the goal where researchers debated the efficacy of how “thick” user’s clients actually needed to be, in order to realize the vision of

Dr. Weiser. There has been much discussion about how much processing power, disk capacity, video capacity and so forth did the client require to provide sufficient access to resources? Thick clients were by their very nature independent from the networked system, incorporating their own operating systems, persistent memory, video, sound and other capabilities which had the potential to introduce significant challenges for support, privacy and energy management [27]. Satyanarayanan debated the potential for clients who were functionally independent, facing all of these threats and could by their nature degrade the vision of Weiser and others particularly regarding the hope that technology would disappear into the environment, much like utilities such as electricity and the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Calm technology could become the much anticipated, innocuous

19 technology in which people became little concerned as it became largely ubiquitous and trouble free. The reality has been quite different.

Although the notion of thin client computer, which incorporated a rich GUI-based experience, was the expectation, the reality of very early testing of WAN-based, thin client technologies recognized its inherent limitations. Vendors, such as Microsoft and Citrix and applications service providers were proposing that thin client technology could deliver cost effective, functional, secure, energy efficient and pervasive computers across a wide area network. As well, it could also lower the total cost of ownership of an organization and greatly reduce the maintenance and support required to maintain and manage personal computers currently in use. In 2002 Lai and Nieh tested these propositions through the use of slow-motion benchmarking by means of several thin client computing environments to evaluate thin client performance on a wide area network [28]. This was important research due to the great differences in computing models. PC-based systems had the operating systems and applications loaded on local hard drives, utilized powerful processors, incorporated onboard video and sound capabilities with connections to the network for file and print sharing, Alternatively thin clients utilised network boot technologies like Preboot eXecution Environment (PXE) which provided the operating system, GUI environment, applications and other functionality across the network. The thin client would have minimal processing power, no persistent memory, and little video or sound capabilities with a single point-of-failure being the network. Lai and Nieh tested six different clients across two test bed environments and recorded results for data transfer of operations, letter latency, scroll latency, fill latency, red bitmap latency, image latency, web data transfer, web latency, video data transfer, video playback time and video quality. The results of the testing indicated that

20 in certain circumstances thin client technology could deliver acceptable performance even when running across WANs and the Internet usually related to low-bandwidth requirements such as text and data entry; however performance varied wildly across thin clients. They concluded that the design trade-offs of the thin client capacity would not be appropriate in a

WAN environment by reason of network latency. More work needed to be accomplished.

In 2004 Goldwasser and Letscher, at the Department of Mathematics and Computer

Science at Saint Louis University, considered the high computer-to-student ratio in the computer labs and the need to provide student access in a “single cohesive environment” for use in their course work [29]. They considered the common practises existing in-place for facilitating student course work and proposed that thin client computing, utilizing open source software could provide major benefits for the department and students. These benefits included: a fully server-sided environment consisting of a server and thin clients where the client acted only as a display and input device and all computation occurred on the server. It could provide consistency in the image, be tightly controlled and easier to support. There was also an assumption that student requirements were fairly basic and implemented open source software would suffice. Prior to the thin client implementation the department had a very heterogeneous environment consisting of computer labs running Microsoft Windows XP,

Mac OS 9.1, Mac OS X and Red Hat Linux. During the academic year of 2003-2004 the department implemented TightVNC as the basis for the system installed them on the existing dual processor Dell workstations running Gentoo Linux. This allowed for up to 100 clients per server access and the image was enhanced and supported over the subsequent year.

Remote users were permitted to access the system using TightVNC loaded on their personal computers. A preliminary evaluation realized the following benefits including: consistent and

21 universal access, scalability, cost effective, open source software and a centrally controlled system. Challenges included: universality while providing support on multiple and diverse platforms, transparency and discontinuity between different systems, performance issues, session management, security and OpenGL support. Other limitations included network dependency and lack of local device support required by system users. Almost two years after initial implementation, the overall analysis was, the thin client system had provided significant benefits and more work needed to be done to overcome some of the challenges and offered opportunities for continual improvement. Overall it was considered a success and would be maintained.

Simultaneous to the work that was taking place at the Saint Louis University, Tolia, et al at the Carnegie Mellon University School of Computer Science wrote a paper in 2005 entitled “The Seductive Appeal of Thin Clients” [30]. Their premise considered thin client technologies promised many potential benefits however thin clients were not able to meet the usability goal of “crisp interactive response” and their application was highly dependant upon the application and available network quality. Similarly to an earlier paper written by

Satyanarayanan, the network being the single point-of-failure and network latency was considered to be the largest impediments to wide-spread thin client acceptance. This paper cautions organizations who were considering thin client technology to consider all aspects before implementing. They surmised that management of personal computers often caused organizations to consider reducing TCO through thin clients having the promise of lower client costs and ubiquitous access to centralized resources. This is particularly attractive to post-secondary institutes with large numbers of computer labs and computers. To measure their supposition they tested the adequacy of thin client using an open source VNC client on

22 a local area network. They ran a series of programs, including The Gimp, OpenOffice

Impress and OpenOffice Writer across the LAN and traced packets for response times.

Latency times were recorded and analyzed where less than 150 ms latency was considered

Crisp, 150ms – 1s Noticeable to Annoying, 1s – 2s Annoying, 2s – 5s Unacceptable and greater than 5s Unusable. The results of their analysis showed that highly graphic applications such as The Gimp perform poorly with moderate latency. Although less graphic applications performed better having a mix of applications indicated an overall unacceptability to using thin clients in a networked environment. Their conclusion was the promise of thin client technology posed a real threat to the high availability and graphically pleasing environment of the thick client and it should only be implemented in an encapsulated fashion utilizing VM technology.

In the same year Baratto, Kim and Nieh with the Department of Computer Science at

Columbia University, proposed a solution to the relatively poor graphics capabilities and response of traditional thin clients, with technology called THINC or Thin-client InterNet

Computing. THINC considered the advantages of thin client computing while providing a

“high fidelity display and interactive performance in both LAN and WAN environments”

[31]. The difference between this model and previous attempts to improve the graphic capabilities of thin clients was THINC leverages the inherent video driver while introducing a simple virtual display driver which intercepts drawing commands at the device layer, packetizes them and then relays them over the network to the client. The premise considered the use of this technology to alleviate the need to change hardware, application software and operating systems. Working below the window server and above the framebuffer at the abstraction layer, THINC implemented a number of protocol commands for encoding display

23 updates which include: RAW for display raw pixel data at a given location, COPY for copy frame buffer area to specified coordinates, SFILL for fill an area with a given pixel colour value, PFILL for tile and area with a given pixel patter and BITMAP for fill a region with a bitmap image. In order to manage network latency issues and possible network problems,

THINC introduced the notion of utilizing a command queue. The command queue is designed to draw to a specific location, based on the order commands are received, thereby freeing the problem for areas to become overwritten through subsequent commands. THINC was tested across a widely used Citrix MetaFrameXP with Microsoft Remote Desktop using

Independent Computing Architecture (ICA) and Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) on LAN,

WAN and Wireless 802.11 network environments. Additionally, it was tested within the context of a LAN and greater distances over the Internet using a variety of clients including

PC, SunRay, Xclient, and a host of others to compare network response. Baratoo et al concluded that using a new virtual display system, built around a virtual driver model, optimizes the performance by up to 4.5 times and improves the graphic response for an enhanced user experience. They also concluded that this technology worked well across the

Internet for a range of remote display applications.

Although thin clients had proved their merit for productivity software, web browsing and other less network-dependant and low graphic applications, frustrations result when attempting to use thin client technology for multimedia, gaming and other graphic intense applications. With growing interesting in these areas, it was regarded essential that thin client provide support to enhance the user experience. In 2006, De Winter et al considered a hybrid technology using a combination of thin client protocol and video streaming to send the graphical output of an application to a thin client device [32]. Traditional thin clients present

24 significant problems due to their low processing capabilities and lack of support for

Graphical Processing Units (GPU) with absolute reliance on network access. This model proposed an additional driver abstraction layer between the graphical libraries and the device driver layer and would determine if the application commands being passed were directed to a standard video card device driver or one requiring GPU support. Additional information regarding video requirements would be based on the amount of motion in the images, where the software framebuffer exceeded a predetermined threshold where a pseudo device driver would emulate a GPU video card and pass this along to the client. In this model the switch between standard and enhanced video would not be apparent to the user. The researchers utilized a test bed of PCs connected across a 100Mb LAN and developed a realtime desktop streamer to compare personal computers utilizing traditional thin client protocols. A number of parameters were measured including the influence on the bandwidth per frame for different Group of Pictures (GOP) size and influence on delay for most determining parameters. Four application types were also compared including: office applications, video streaming, web browsing and graphic video gaming. The results of the research were conclusive and the realtime videostreamer outperformed the classic thin client model providing users a potential solution for enhanced video streaming and gaming. De Winter et al proposed additional work on this model considering the significant energy efficiencies achievable through thin client technologies as an additional advantage.

Until 2006 most research was focused on enhancing thin client technology to reduce

TCO and provide enhanced usability, better access and improved graphics capability. In May of 2006 Al Gore released the documentary “An Inconvenient Truth” which significantly raised the awareness of climate change and global warming [33]. Interestingly there was an

25 increasing emphasis upon the energy savings which could be realized with thin client technologies. Contemporaneous with Gores documentary, Dr. Eckhard et al of the Fraunhofer

Institute in Germany conducted a study resulting in a report entitled “Environmental comparison of PC and thin client desktop equipment” [34]. This study involved comparing the environmental footprint of all aspects between PCs and thin clients and considered characteristics of each, equipment manufacture, use, disposal, weight and power consumption with an analysis of the comparison. Various assumptions were considered, including the benefits of both PCs and thin clients in an office environment for productivity.

A number of standards and criteria were used in the analysis such as the Environmental

Priority Strategy (EPS), Material Intensity per Service Unit (MIPS), calculations for energy demands using Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) and ISO 14040ff for environmental performance evaluation. The analysis of equipment comparison was categorical as to the overwhelming advantages of thin clients for all metrics. Thin clients were smaller, lighter, used less materials in manufacture, less e-waste, consumed less energy, had reduced GHG and CO 2 emissions, were quieter, required less physical space, required less maintenance and had a appreciably smaller environmental footprint. The recommendation considered thin client technology having significant environmental advantages over conventional PC-based computing and should be considered as an improved option.

In 2007, Przybyla and Pegah with the Ringling College of Art and Design, conducted an analysis of technology use throughout the College including data centers and user workstations [35]. They were concerned with the environmental impact of ICT as well as energy consumption, affect on heating and cooling, e-waste and sustainability of their current systems. Being high profile national College providing programs for visual arts and design

26 with a large-scaled integration of technology the responsible use of technology was considered a organizational goal. They considered existing inefficiencies of their current system throughout all campus buildings which had seen a near doubling of the number of servers between 2000 and 2005 with a significant increase in the number of computer labs which remained active 24 hours per day. The paper is primarily a discussion of the causes and effects of the existing system with details on how the College could move forward to reduce the environmental impact of ICT. Along there is scrutiny around how data centres could be made more efficient there is significant discussion around the potential for use of thin clients primarily as a focus for “eco-computing” which would facilitate less energy consumption, less effect on heating and cooling, less maintenance and administration, longer life expectancy and less e-waste. Although this is primarily a strategic directions paper it does show the increased awareness for the need to become more environmentally responsible in all facets of ICT particularly around computing through the use of thin client technologies.

Forrester Research conducted a study in 2008 entitled “Green Benefits Put Thin-

Client Computing Back on the Desktop Hardware Agenda” which considered the need for organizations’ to re-examine thin clients with a view that this technology could have a considerable effect upon reducing energy consumption, while decreasing GHG and CO2 emissions [36]. The basis for the analysis considered timing was opportune for business to consider their next wave of desktop computer refresh with thin rather than thick clients due to the growing corporate importance of green IT. The study considered reasons for thin clients not attaining anticipated market saturation which had been predicted over the past decade, which included: incompatible applications, connectivity constraints and lost

27 computer sovereignty. Organizations that had attempted to implement thin client technologies were frequently held back from wide-spread use due to these and other factors. The promise of thin clients as a solution for IT infrastructure had not realized the potential even with the many acknowledged benefits. Although some interesting research had improved the performance for graphic-based applications such as CAD, picture-editing and so forth, it still did not meet the standards provided by PC-based computing. Although improvements had been achieved for client response times, network latency, particularly over large distances, such as the Internet, continued to hamper user experience. Also the absence of persistent memory, such as a local hard drive and CD-ROM, rendered the thin clients unusable when the network failed due to the single point-of-failure. Users who were accustomed to personal computers were frustrated and saw thin client as a loss of personal control over their environment, particularly when they could not download, install plugins or a range of debatably useful, albeit non-corporate applications. These issues often served to generate resistance by users. Interesting although some technical improvements had been achieved over the past few years, many of the prominent issues continued to persist. The Forrester study nevertheless considered the intensifying issue of global warming and climate change as a way to engage users for change. Concerns which had previously not been of significance to users might now be considered important to alter the cultural perception of this technology.

These included focusing acceptance based on: reduced power consumption, lowered emissions and improved product life and sustainability. The Forrester study recommended focusing the environmental advantages with the Chief Information Officer (CIO), the Chief

Financial Officer (CFO) and the Line of Business Officers (LBO) with an emphasis on: understanding the realities of thin client computing, gaining an understanding of the broad

28 user context of the business, selecting appropriate vendors and engaging open dialogue with important stakeholders in the business. The analysis considered the best approach for a successful thin client implementation included understanding the organizational environment, setting clear objects, open communication with stakeholders and most importantly communicating the savings and efficiencies achieved through green computing models facilitated by thin client.

Subsequent to the Forrester study additional research and analysis had been accomplished into usability analysis in thin client acceptance by the School of Computing at the Dublin Institute of Technology [37]. This study endeavoured to indentify successful strategies for Linux thin client acceptance within an educational institute. It utilized the

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) model which aims to explain user intentions and subsequent usage behaviour through four key constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions) [38].

Although very little in the underlying technology had changed, the intent was to analyse user acceptance for the use of Linux thin client and mitigate any changes for users through the use of UTAUT. Two test environments were established using a mix of PCs and Linux-based thin clients and users were allowed to login and experience the systems through a blind study.

Subsequent results were analysed through acceptance survey information on recommendations for future thin client implementation was detailed. The results of the blind tests confirmed a 92% satisfaction rating with thin client systems when users were not aware of which workstations they were using. The UTAUT methodology assisted researchers to distinguish between the purely technical and non-technical issues with a view to present thin client technology in a different light, concentrating on the significant advantages.

29 Organizations could consider user’s educational requirements such as thin client integration with PCs, consistency with login procedures, storage options are identical to PCs and identical services are provided to both.

Although there had been some sporadic use of Linux-based thin client technologies, throughout the education community, much of the research previously done was based on virtulizing the Microsoft Windows environment using Microsoft Terminal Server or Citrix

Terminal services. Linux and open source software had been generally discounted by the business communities and minimized by educational organizations as not being relevant.

There was a great deal of uncertainty about its efficacy, usability, support and other factors with a view that although it functioned well in the server environment, however it was not a viable option for corporate or organizational desktop users. In 2009 Braddock with the

Centre for Mobile & Converging Technologies at the Leeds Metropolitan University, considered the viability of Linux thin client and open source technologies through the use of the Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP) [39]. Although not a peer-reviewed article,

Braddock deliberates the advantages of utilizing open source software including cost, openness, availability and other aspects while considering its disadvantages which includes lack of marketing, user perception, confusion around the model and so forth. He considers the advantages of using Linux thin clients with a particular emphasis on LTSP. As well open source technology with Linux distributions such as Ubuntu had seen steady and incremental improvements since its initial creation in 2004 [40]. Ubuntu comes bundled with LTSP and provides support for thin client technology inherently, making it a much more palatable option. Braddock also introduced the use of diskless clients as an alternative to thin clients.

Diskless clients incorporate characteristics of both thick and thin clients together with faster

30 processors and onboard GPU which would support accelerated video and graphic applications. This option in conjunction with optimum distribution showed potential for providing the advantages of thin client technologies, open source software and usability which had previously been a significant challenge.

Also in 2009, Ritschard with Engineering Network Services at Colorado State

University compared the use of thin client technologies as part of the workstations provided for students at the College of Engineering [41]. Approximately 50% of the lab computers utilize Linux thin client technology and contrast personnel support requirements between

PCs and thin clients, mobility, security, system administration, financial implications, technical expertise required to implement and environmental considerations. As with many previous studied the he reflects that thin clients offer significant and overarching advantages in almost all areas of ICT particularly with energy conservation, however challenges for full scale implementation include: resistance by users to adopt, licensing, support for and limited graphic capabilities for graphic intensive software such as CAD, 3D Modeling, video streaming and some web-based flash applications. His assessment is that thin clients offer many technical advantages over PCs and that higher education has largely overlooked these advantages and should be considered for future lab upgrades.

In 2010, Martínez-Mateo et al with the Facultad de Inform´atica, Universidad

Polit´ecnica de Madrid, focus on the significant benefits offered through thin client technologies with an emphasis on Linux and open source software through the LTSP project.

They consider improved manageability and administration, greatly increased security, lower

TCO and considerable energy efficiencies possible with this model. In support of this they provide a comparison of two metrics the first being the evolution of price differentiation and

31 the estimated hours of maintenance per week between PCs and thin clients. As well they consider how new technologies are impacting post-secondary education including a shift from the traditional models of lab-based computers to access remotely through distance learning, web-based learning and offering access to resources ubiquitously. Although pervasive, traditional PC-based models of computing in this environment cannot be sustained and are becoming a “resource barrier” for educational institutions. With greater concerns about budgets, sustainability, support, ubiquitous access and global warming new models need to be developed which include thin client, mobility and remote access. They present many of the same challenges that have been previously discussed for thin client technology however also stress that research in many areas will remove the remaining obstacles making thin client technology the most attractive choice for educational institutions.

The Benefits and Challenges of Thin Clients .

Over the past decade much of the research for thin client technology focused on a comparative analysis between thick and thin clients, improving video performance and reducing network latency. In almost every paper reviewed, there was an acknowledgment that thin client technology could provide significant advantages over PC-based computing models which include:

• reduced maintenance

• reduced support

• reduced capital costs

• reduced energy costs

• smaller footprint requiring less physical space

32 • standardization and consistency

• lighter

• quieter

• consumed less energy

• by extension require less heating and cooling

• reduced GHG and CO 2 emissions

• produced less e-waste

• with an appreciably smaller environmental footprint

Where open source software and systems were also utilized, such as Ubuntu and LTSP, thin client technology provided additional rewards in reducing software licensing costs. Many post-secondary institutes found that open source software could be effectively combined with thin client in multipurpose teaching labs, although there has not been a significant uptake on this model.

When thin client technology was utilized there was general agreement that it lacked in three significant areas. Firstly, it did not sustain software which required high graphics requirements such as computer aided drafting (CAD), photo editing, vector drawing and other applications requiring a “crisp interactive response”. This was consistently the case even improving video quality through developments such as THINC and driver abstraction layer improvement [31]. It was still not possible to provide comparative results, across a network, with a PC enabled with faster processor, more RAM, GPU and local persistent memory. Secondly, due its complete dependence upon a single point-of-failure, the network,

33 thin client technology was subject to network interruptions and packet latency which limits its use for any application requiring contiguous access such as streaming video or audio. To lessen interruptions and breaks in a video or audio stream clients require reasonably large memory buffers which would aggregate the video and accommodate network congestion, latency or brief interruptions. One of the considered benefits of thin clients is greatly reduced capacity including processing power, RAM and persistent memory. Typical thin clients have low-powered and weak processors, greatly reduced RAM which is normally 128Kb to

512Kb, no GPU and no persistent memory. These features of thin clients are often considered primary benefits but serve in hindering them for the core functionality required for streaming video and audio. As a result, buffering video and audio streams is normally not an option, resulting in thin clients suffering support for real-time applications, which users have come to demand. Finally, if the client/server environment utilizes open source software combined with thin client, there are an additional issues around lack of support for “industry standard” software that runs on Windows-based systems such as Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative

Suite and others. There are some possibilities for substitutions; however there are some educational environments which require the use of these specific products and the use of

Linux-based thin client might not provide this functionality.

The Promise of Thin Clients Not Realized .

Beginning with Dr. Mark Weiser’s vision of ubiquitous computing in the early 1990s and Larry Ellison’s notion of the networked computer in the mid-1990s, thin client technologies have frequently been proposed as a superior solution to solve many of information technology departments striving to provide technology as a utility. In reality, while there has been much research to overcome the challenges of thin client, it has failed to

34 deliver on the key issues of enhanced graphic capabilities, network consistency and support for application software. Due to these limitations pervasive use of thin client has not been realized and is only utilized sporadically. Interestingly thin clients are gaining greater attention due to concerns about global warming and its impact on the environment. Even withstanding this important development, adoption for thin client will continue to be restricted since the essential problems have not been substantively addressed. This essay concludes that traditional thin clients cannot solve the outstanding issues and that it requires a fresh view for acceptance of the client/server model.

Diskless Clients as Utility Computing.

The purpose of this survey was to perform an historical analysis of thin client technology. My analysis has indicated that thin client technology has not realized its promised potential due to a fundamentally flawed model. Diskless, not thin clients can provide the functionality which would combine the advantages of both thin and thick client technologies. I propose to demonstrate how diskless clients can offer a comprehensive computing solution which would come much closer to realizing the vision of Dr. Mark

Weiser’s vision for ubiquitous computing. This model has the potential to offer greatly reduced energy efficiencies and reduced GHG and CO 2 while lowering TCO and providing the “crisp interactive video” which PC-based users have come to expect. As well, the many issues regarding network latency and video performance can also be addressed through the use of greater client capacity available in diskless clients. For many organizations, particularly education, this model comes much closer to the concept of utility computing which has been much anticipated but little realized.

35 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Since its advent in the early 1980s the PC has gradually become the primary computing device in most organizations, and although bringing powerful technology to users, it is has brought with it increased complexity, security concerns, added costs, additional staffing and often times significant instability. When computers were first introduced, mainframe or mini computers hosted systems using terminals connected with serial connections. The advent of networked PCs became more pervasive and powerful, with software becoming more sophisticated. The result has been the increased complexity of computer based information systems becoming more difficult to maintain, costs escalate and

IT staffing increases. This is compounded by users having access across an organizational network and ultimately the Internet, opening PC to vulnerabilities such as malware, viruses,

Trojan horses, and other security concerns [42]. Information technology managers, and information technology departments, are finding it increasingly difficult, time consuming and expensive to protect and maintain user’s PCs [43].

In K-12 and post-secondary environments, limited financial resources are often times inadequate to even maintain outdated systems [44]. In 2008 School District No. 63, had approximately 2500 PCs, connected to local area networks (LANs), which are in turn connected to a district wide area network (WAN) spanning 18 sites and ultimately the

Internet. The IT department had a staff of three centralized technical support people and nine site-based support people primarily responsible for maintaining the system. The challenge for the information technology (IT) department was to not only maintain the over 100 plus

36 servers, but the network infrastructure and the 2500 networked PCs. Like many school districts that cannot afford new computers, most were received by donation from Computers for Schools (CFS) or purchased “off-lease”, resulting in the hardware being approximately three years old before the school district integrated them. The primary operating system continues to be Windows XP for which Microsoft has indicated will no longer be supported by April 8, 2014 [45]. Realities include IT staff being dedicated to providing support to this outdated technology, and rarely able to keep up. It has been widely recognized that capital budgets are under funded [46]; consequently, it is possible to only upgrade a small percentage of PCs in the system on an annual basis. The choice districts are often faced with is, allowing the PCs to become progressively obsolete or find a more cost effective, sustainable solution.

Additionally, PCs running Microsoft Windows are becoming increasingly difficult to secure in an enterprise environment. Utility programs such as Ghost and Deep Freeze certainly assist, but they also add to the total cost of ownership (TCO) and require IT staff intervention whenever new programs are added or security patches and upgrades are required. As well, the PCs, in a large organization are difficult to secure from a standpoint. Regardless of policies or acceptable use agreements, users still manage to subvert systems, by installing unauthorized or illegal software, which can compromise the organization. Schools have been subject to audits from the Business Software Alliance (BSA) and levied fines or payments due to member companies. Typically, teachers purchase software products for home and then assume they can use them on their school computers and vice versa. Obviously, a school district or university cannot be seen to uphold high

37 ethical standards, if its users are installing software, which violates software license agreements. This issue has required a change in strategy to insure compliance.

Added to these IT-based pressures is the need to reduce GHG and CO 2 from ethical, legal and moral responsibility. The province of British Columbia introduced Bill 44 in 2007 call the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Targets Act [47]. This Act called for the provincial government and all aspects of the public sector, including school districts, to set reductions in

GHG by 33% by 2020, 80% by 2050 and 100% carbon neutrality by 2010. In early 2010

School District No. 63 (Saanich) has hired an Energy Manager sponsored by BC Hydro. The energy manager has since created and implemented a Strategic Energy Management Plan

(SEMP) outlining energy reduction strategies for 2010 until 2020. The SEMP plan calls for annual energy reductions of 5% per year until we have reached 33% of our 2007 energy consumption. This is an ambitious objective which involves changes in culture, practice and committed resources. Currently the district has achieved these objectives largely due to the diskless client initiative which has seen reductions in energy of ICT energy of approximately

70% at implemented schools. This aspect will be considered in greater detail.

All of these increasing pressures and emerging issues indicate that districts must either find the necessary funds to implement new and current technologies to facilitate the teaching learning process in the 21 st century or risk becoming irrelevant. With funding as the primary impediment to maintaining systems similar to home or corporate environments new and novel ways must be found to maintain currency in a rapidly changing technological environment. This essay considers the efficacy of Linux diskless client technology which answers many if not all of the current and future concerns.

38 Comparing Thin, Thick and Diskless Clients.

In my survey of the peer-reviewed papers and literature for the past decade most of the research has been focused on the relative merits of thin over thick computing models although there is frequently a muddying of terms relating to what constitutes a thin, slim or diskless client. Strictly speaking thin clients could be defined as computing devices which have little processing capability, limited graphic capabilities, reduced RAM and no CD-ROM or hard drive. Thin clients do not generally have local operating systems and as a consequence rely completely on the network and server for their functionality. All of the processing is accomplished on the server and as a consequence servers generally cannot manage too many simultaneous connections often topping out at 25 to 30 concurrent client connections. The server side software sends screen output to the client and the client responds with keyboard or mouse input [48]. Having a small amount of RAM, a weak CPU, no persistent memory and the client is completely dependant upon the server and the client cannot function in a connectionless state. Their advantages include high energy efficiency due to small power supplies, low maintenance, greatly reduced support and much lower total cost of ownership.

Thick clients by their nature are networked computers having most of their resources, including operating system and many applications installed locally. They generally have lots of RAM (2Gb or greater), a powerful CPU, GPU graphics resources, sound capabilities, hard drive, CD-ROM or DVD drive and network card [49]. Although they can function independently, network connectivity is normally achieved through utilities provided by the operating system manufacturer such as Microsoft Windows, Apple or most Linux distributions. Users tend to prefer thick clients as they offer more control of the desktop and

39 unless prevented through an administrative policy, can install software locally. As thick clients have their own operating systems and applications they can continue to allow users to work even when disconnected to the network making them not fully dependant upon centralized resources. This functionality along with fast GPU capability has led to their wide- spread and continued acceptance by both organizations and users. The primary disadvantages of thick clients include increased cost, higher energy costs, greater support and maintenance with an overall increased total cost of ownership.

Between the thin and thick clients lies a sort of no-mans-land which has been largely unexplored and overlooked from my literature survey. By definition diskless clients have crossover capabilities which have characteristics of both thin and thick. They incorporate all of the advantages of thin clients having no hard drives or CD-ROMS, more energy efficient power supplies, require less maintenance and support, cost less and do not require client desktop support. Unlike true thin clients they have many of the benefits of thick clients which include more RAM, faster CPU, GPU graphics support and support many of the applications users want and require. Using ten client characteristics as indicated in Table 1 - Comparison characteristics of thin, diskless and thick clients, I contrast the three computing models showing relative advantages and disadvantages:

40 Table 1. Comparison characteristics of thin, diskless and thick clients Client Type Characteristics Thin Diskless Thick Low Watt Power Supply 3 2 1 Energy Efficiency 3 3 1 CPU Capacity 1 3 3 GPU Capability 1 2 3 Cost 2 3 1 Availability 1 1 3 App Location 1 2 3 Support 3 3 1 Overall TCO 3 3 1 Score 18 22 17

The number coding is an attempt to visibly rate each characteristic per category.

Negative characteristic have been weighted lowest with a 1, characteristics that might be considered mid-way or nether positive or negative have been weighted with a 2, while positive characteristics have been weighted with a number 3. Using this system it is possible to rate characteristics of 1 for poor, 2 for medium and 3 for good; providing a crude qualitative analysis for the various models.

Thin and thick clients have very comparable scores, respectively 18 and 17 with diskless clients scoring a marginally higher 22. Obviously this is a very simplistic way to consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of these different models however it does serve to underscore the aspect of diskless clients having many of the strengths of both thin and thick clients while very few of their inherent weaknesses. Taking in to account the prolonged and pervasive support for thick clients it is important to discuss what makes thick clients the overwhelming choice over the obvious comparative overall advantages of thin clients.

41 Although thin clients have proven benefits for IT departments which include reduced cost, support, maintenance and TCO they have not been able to overcome the disadvantages in providing support for graphic applications, limited number of clients per server and functionality when network connections are lost. As a consequence users have continued to expect and demand clients which afford them access to both networked and local applications and resources, graphic applications and connectionless support. In a corporation or public organization users are less concerned about the energy consumption of their clients and the cost to purchase and support them. As thin clients have not produced the panacea which

Larry Ellison predicted in the early 1990s and researchers have not been able to overcome the deficiencies of thin clients a different client computing model must be considered.

Can Diskless Become the New Thin .

The previous comparison of computing models begs the question: what can diskless clients offer to the organization which neither thick nor thin can provide? Diskless clients offer the best possible compromise for large scale computing environments where TCO, energy reduction, sustainability and functionality are prerequisites. Thin clients were not able to subvert the popularity and functionality of thick clients while thick clients cannot be sustained without significant increases in funding and support. As neither model provides the foundation to meet all of K-12s objectives and requirements diskless client technology provides an opportunity to support current and future educational requirements.

42 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The use of Linux diskless client computing can dramatically alter a school districts ability to provide staff and students with a secure, stable, and cost effective computer-based information system (CBIS). This is an increasing concern as software continues to drive hardware replacement while becoming more complex and support intensive. Districts struggle to maintain and support systems which constantly require maintenance on users networked personal computers. These computers, often running Microsoft Windows and

Windows applications, require vigilance with virus updates, software upgrades, security patches, regular maintenance, and support. With increasing costs, reduced budgets and

Microsoft’s intention to cut support for Windows XP in 2014 it leaves districts with an impending crisis. Add to this provincial requirements to greatly reduce energy consumption by 2020 will require significant change by providing relevant and cost effective information systems.

The primary goal of Linux diskless client technology is; the user’s personal computer becomes secondary to the actual business processes, and enables users to perform their required tasks while not having anxiety about viruses, crashing, access, and support. Diskless client technology has relevance in providing educational environments with lower total cost of ownership, reducing maintenance and support while greatly reducing energy consumption.

My research and practical application has show the efficacy of this technology as a viable alternative from conventional Microsoft Windows-based desktop environments. With funding being the major limiting factor, valuable school district resources can be better

43 utilized in system development, support, and user training rather than purchasing hardware, software licenses and maintaining systems. Although the issue is extensive, I briefly discuss the methodology behind Linux diskless client technology which can effectively reduce the total cost of ownership, streamlining and improving user access to the information and data they require. As well there is a discussion around how diskless client technology is an improved model over what is often misnamed “thin” client architecture.

Pragmatic and effective technology integration is becoming increasingly important, as organizations require more detailed and complex analysis of information and data. The objective of a superior information system is to provide accurate and reliable access to data, information and knowledge that enhances the organizations ability to attain their core goals.

The challenge of school district information technology (IT) managers is to provide users with computer based information systems that are cost effective, where the technology becomes discreet to the business processes. Ironically, the advent of the personal computer

(PC), although introducing powerful processing capabilities to the desktop and a user- friendly graphic user environment (GUI) has moved away from the efficiency and simplicity of the mainframe with its centralized host model. Organizations have found it necessary to increase the number of support staff required to maintain networked PCs.

Management Issues of Thick Client Personal Computers .

This subject is of particular personal interest, in my role as the information technology director of a mid-sized school district. The cost of providing CBISs with ever- increasing requirements to staff and students, while users networked PCs continues to age is becoming increasingly difficult and costly. It is important to underscore the benefits of technology integration using Linux diskless client computing as opposed to the model of

44 “thin” client computing that has become an industry byword. This, in turn, does not imply that the model developed at School District No. 63 is necessarily a panacea, but it has been proven to realize the expectations of a modern CBIS and provide significant benefits beyond basic cost savings.

In a K-12 and advanced educational environments, limited financial resources are often times inadequate to even maintain outdated systems [50]. At School District No. 63, there are approximately 2500 PCs, connected to local area networks (LANs), which are in turn connected to a district wide area network (WAN) spanning 18 sites and ultimately the

Internet. The challenge for the information technology (IT) department is to not only maintain the over 100 plus servers, but the network infrastructure and the 2500 networked

PCs. Like many school districts that cannot afford to populate the system with new computers, many are received by donation from Computers for Schools (CFS), or purchased off-lease, resulting in the hardware being three to four years old before the school district integrates them. The primary operating system continues to be Windows XP, no longer supported by Microsoft, with a few Windows 7 stations in administration. Primary support is facilitated with three technicians based out of the central office and another nine equivalent located at school sites. The choice the district is faced with is, allowing the PCs to become progressively obsolete or find a more cost effective and sustainable solution.

Linux Diskless Client Technology Emergence .

Thin client computing is a technology that although not new, is seeing resurgence and incorporating the GUI interface users expect on their PCs however as shown earlier faces significant barriers to user acceptance. It is in fact a hybrid model, diskless clients which can offer an acceptable alternative between thin client and fat clients. I consider the history and

45 relevance to the implementation at School District No. 63 and the methodology around the effective use of Linux “diskless” client computing in the organization, due to its reduced costs relative to proprietary systems, its scalability, effectiveness and energy efficiency.

An organization, that requires client access to the corporate Intranet and the Internet, can take advantage of this technology, as long as well thought out planning and adequate resources are available. These resources include knowledgeable staff, adequate budgets, testing and refining, staff preparation and training. All of this can be clearly defined in a

CBIS model designed to integrate the Linux diskless client technology and the business processes of the organization. Educational institutions have successfully used thin client technology to provide cost effective, reliable and effective systems to both staff and students.

The Linux diskless distributed computing model provides many additional advantages, and includes:

• lower hardware costs

• greater longevity of hardware

• reduced software licensing costs

• lower energy costs

• centralized administration

• centralized data backup

• greatly improved security

• standardization of business processes

• overall lower total cost of ownership (TCO)

46 As well, educational institutions that have implemented this technology also note benefits that include greater user reliance on the system, software standardization, single point software installs, and the ability to change and enforce organizational policies.

Diskless Client Implementation at School District No. 63 (Saanich) .

In 2008 the author was hired as the Director of Information Technology for School

District No. 63 (Saanich) on southern Vancouver Island. Saanich school district provides publicly funded educational services to approximately 7,500 students. The district has a school board office, facilities plant, eight elementary schools, three middle schools, three secondary schools, one alternative school and one distance learning school with a total of 27 sites. The author was hired, in part, due to the successful implementation of diskless client technology at School District No. 73 (Kamloops) where he was employed since 1992 and had been involved with the development of diskless client technology since 2001 where similar technology has been continuously refined.

After starting with School District No. 63 the initial task was to create a detailed three year technology plan which included significant changes to the district network infrastructure, administrative operations, communications, educational technology, professional development, security, privacy, risk management and a business continuity plan

[51]. The plan was atypical to many district plans in that it includes a comprehensive scope, budget and project lead for accountability. Core to the plan was significant upgrades to the district local area networks and wide area networks, complete replacement of all 2500

Windows workstations with diskless clients, replacement of all aging CRT monitors with 19”

LCD monitors, elimination of all Windows-based servers with Linux LTSP servers, virtualization of redundant servers, elimination of all personal inkjet and laser printers with

47 energy efficient pod printers and multifunction devices. Project costs are included in Table 2

– School District No. 63 – 2009-2012 Technology Plan Budgets.

Table 2. School District No. 63 - 2009-2012 Technology Plan Budgets Tech Plan Section Quantity Budget LAN Wiring upgrades (materials) 1.2 $70,000 LAN Wiring upgrades (staffing) 1.3 $120,000 Green Computing & LCD Monitor Replacement 1.5 2500 $460,000 School Server Replacement 4.3 20 $90,000 Diskless Clients 4.3 2076 $519,000 Total Budget $1,259,000

Multifunction devices and pod printers were ancillary to the technology plan and monies were provided out of existing operating budgets. As well training and professional development costs of $227,500 were budgeted separately out of operational funds and not included in the capital budgets for the diskless client implementation. The Saanich school district was fortunate to have had capital reserves of approximately four million dollars of which 2.1 million, due to land sales, which were made available for this project.

In the June 2008 School Board meeting the board of trustees passed a motion to

“develop a comprehensive technology plan” which identified technology as a strategic direction [52]. The vision of the strategic plan recognized the need for students to be technologically literate to compete and excel in the twenty-first century. With this mandate in the summer of 2008 School District No. 63 (Saanich) piloted a system at KELSET

Elementary school, based on Ubuntu 8.04 Long Term Support (LTS) Hardy Heron [53] incorporating the Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP) [12]. A programmer analyst had been hired 2 months earlier, with a degree in computer science and extensive experience with

Linux and open source software to develop and improve the image. Initial work began immediately taking the standard Ubuntu/LTSP installation and developing custom menus,

48 installing pertinent applications, determining security role types and other details specific to elementary schools. The version utilized was Ubuntu 8.04 LTS and LTSP 4.

From the authors previous experience at the Kamloops school district it was important to ensure that all factors necessary to make the pilot a success were put into action.

This included ensuring the LAN at the school was optimized for a diskless client system including a centralized server closet with switches located centrally. Although not strictly necessary the client response time has shown improvement by having the server to central switch connect at 1 Gb and all other switches co-located centrally connected at 100 Mb. As the school was relatively small independent runs were made to each work station ensuring

100 Mb from switch to workstation.

In order to achieve a better user experience all existing workstations were replaced with the same diskless client workstation, a new 19” wide screen LCD monitor and new mouse and keyboard. It was considered important to provide the same environment and experience to all users rather than attempt to repurpose older computers. This was done to improve consistency for the image, reduce maintenance and support, diminish eye strain manifest with the older CRT monitors, create a common experience and reduce the energy consumption by using Energy Star [19] monitors and 80 Plus power supplies [20]. The hardware initial hardware requirements for both the diskless clients and servers have evolved since the initial pilot and specifications will be provided in a later section of this chapter.

The initial pilot at KELSET elementary school lasted through the 2008-2009 school year where it was refined and enhanced. A great deal of user feedback and recommendations were generated through the pilot project. Successive fixes, upgrades and enhancements were

49 applied in response to user feedback. By the end of June 2009 the project was deemed successful and version 1 complete.

During the summer of 2009 an implementation plan was developed for the remaining seven elementary schools commencing in the fall of that year. A schedule was created with a successful completion of all elementary schools by February of 2010. Subsequently the three middle schools were scheduled and implemented beginning in the spring of 2010 and completed by the fall of 2010. During that time the image had undergone continued enhancements and improvements. Each school saw successive improvements in the image and incremental upgrades as experience and technological enhancements were developed.

During the fall of 2010 it was determined the upgrades would be applied to the early schools including all of the major enhancements including Ubuntu 10.04 LTS, upgrades to LTSP, software upgrades and so forth. Each of the schools was scheduled over an eleven week period. It was initially thought that the upgrades would take the better part of the morning, however the time to upgrade a typical school server with all upgrades and enhancements took approximately one hour. Work commenced at approximately 7:30 am at each site and was complete by school start time at 8:30am. The entire upgrade for all schools was completed by the spring of 2011.

Since that time a detailed analysis has been ongoing for the implementation of the three secondary schools. Software requirements, image enhancements and user requirements have been completed. A detailed implementation plan and schedule was developed and implementation of the first of three secondary schools began in the early summer of 2011.

The second and third are planned for completion by March of 2012. Details of the software

50 being used and how we have coped with critical Windows-based software will be outlined later in this chapter.

To date the implementation has been deemed a success by schools, administration and senior staff, albeit with continued development of the image which is now in version three.

Overall user satisfaction is high, site-based technical support has been virtually eliminated and many of the problematic issues normally inherent in a PC-based system have been resolved. Implementing schools have achieved compliance to district acceptable use policies, desktop security issues have been effectively eliminated, hardware failure and obsolescence has been greatly reduced, software licensing issues are centrally administered and user acceptance has been increased due to the high reliability of the system. As well, energy consumption has been reduced by 70 percent for information technology use for a total of ten percent overall. Detailed analysis of the energy efficiencies will also be addressed later on in this chapter. The result of this implementation is far reaching and significant not only for information technology but has significant implications for educational outcomes, energy reduction and greatly improved service and support.

Diskless Client Distinctiveness .

As indicated in earlier chapters there is ambiguity with the terminology between the three models of network client computing often all mislabelled “thin” client computing. The three models often termed “thin”, “diskless” and “fat” clients share some similarities but some important difference as well. The first model requires the use of a Terminal server whether provided by Microsoft Server Terminal Services, Citrix Presentation Server or Linux

Terminal Server Project. Both the Microsoft and Citrix server solutions have client specifications, which often require a PC or “client”, which utilizes an onboard operating

51 system having a minimum requirement for client hardware specifications. Clients that run

Terminal Services are not required to have a great deal of processing power. For example, a

Pentium with 256 MB of RAM (and sometimes less), network interface card supporting PXE or Etherboot and a VGA video card is sufficient – no secondary storage is required.

Therefore, it is relatively easy to integrate Terminal Services into a network that has older computers and equipment, or commercial thin clients provided by vendors supplied by Wyse,

HP, Lenovo, and so forth. A thin client by this definition, is a client computer or client software in client-server architecture networks, which depends primarily on the central server for processing activities, and mainly focuses on conveying input and output between the user and the remote server.

A fat client is a computer in a client-server architecture, which typically provides rich functionality independent of the server. A thick or fat client does all processing on the client and requires local secondary storage and only passes data for communications and storage to the server. Such a client still requires periodic connection to the server and server resources, but can provide many functions independent of the server including accelerated video for high-end applications such as video, CAD and other graphics intensive programs. Many if not all of the users applications are often loaded on the client. Additionally, the fat client will always have a hard drive for the loading of a full local operating system and application programs and will cost a considerable amount by comparison.

Diskless clients are a form of hybrid between the thin and fat client models, which process data, using their own CPU and RAM to run software, but do not store the data persistently [54]. The server handles the task of handing off the OS kernel, storage of data and some if not all applications. In contrast, thin clients have all processing being

52 accomplished by the server. The thin client may operate an embedded operating system or client software, which allows simple input/output tasks to communicate with the server, such as drawing a dialogue box while waiting for user input. While the fat client has a full operating system complete with secondary storage, such as a hard drive, to load applications and simply use the server for data storage or print services. Diskless workstations can be seen as a very elegant compromise between the two models where they combine the best of both the thin and fat clients.

The differences between the three models are highlighted in Table 3 – Functional comparison between thin, diskless and thick clients.

Table 3. Functional comparison between thin, diskless and thick clients Thin Client Diskless Client Fat Client (personal (centralized computer) computing) Local Hard Drive Used No No Yes Local General No Yes Yes Processing Used Processor/RAM Low (128Mb - Moderate High (2Gb+) Capacity 512Mb) (512Mb – 2Gb) Accelerated Graphics No Yes Yes Capability Terminal Services Yes No (however No Required remote access can be provided with FreeNX and utilized Linux Terminal Server) Energy Consumption Low (3-20 Watts) Low (25-60 High (90-300 Watts) Watts) Unit Cost Moderate ($300- Low ($200- High ($550-$1000+) $500) $300) Support Costs Low (centralized) Low High (PC-based) (centralized)

53 As can be seen from the above table, diskless clients offer very low unit and support costs, distributed processing which reduces the number of servers required, accelerated graphics for high-end applications and very low administration requirements. At School

District No. 63 we have implemented this model successfully at eleven schools. Briefly, then the model can be summarized by considering the theory of operation, the system requirements, implementation details and finally energy efficiencies achieved

Theory of Operation – Boot Process .

A diskless client offers a number of challenges from a development perspective, including initial boot up, running an operating system (when the Linux server passes the kernel to the client), which is generally expecting access to secondary storage and subsequent client applications. This section describes the theory behind how a diskless workstation operates, focusing on the School District No. 63 evolved Linux-based, custom, diskless workstation. Over the evolution of our implementation we have used both Etherboot and

Preboot Execution Environment (PXE), with mixed results. The original implementation utilized recycled desktop computer and operated the Etherboot process, as it allowed the system to determine which network card was installed in the PC. This was necessary as the client base was wide and varied, and most client computers included floppy disks or hard drives. Many educational organizations have attempted to repurpose aging PCs however this can be problematic due to the huge variance of model and the poor energy efficiency. Our initial implementation for these diverse workstations is shown in Fig. 2 – Diskless client initial boot process.

54 Initially determine which NIC is installed (via lsmod and/or) Knoppix (3c905, eepro100)

/usr/ltsp/etherbootX.X.x/ Finds Card & downloads kernel ./bin32 all images for network cards make bin32/3c905-tpo.fd0 (.fd0) is the device. make bin32/3c905-tpo.lilo cp 3c905-tpo.lilo /tftpboot/lts/ltsroot/lilo/b Each machine is assigned an IP and kernel based on its MAC address. On the server: /etc/dhcpd.conf (contains DHCP settings)

First Part is the network it serves to thin clients. Second Part is the network it is a part of. host S1 ... S2 etc. hardware-ethernet d8:df: (enter machines' mac address here) fixed-address 10.7.7.32 (machines assigned IP address) filename" lts/kernel" kernel for that machine.

Figure 2. Diskless client early boot process

With the opportunity to have a uniform client with consistent motherboard and on- board chipset the preferred method is PXE boot. Since that time we have standardized clients to one particular make/model, with the same motherboard and very specific chip sets for network interface card (NIC), video and sound. As well, these diskless clients do not have floppy drives, hard drives or other types of secondary storage. Fig. 3 – PXE boot with sample scripts plus comments:

55 Assuming that pxelinux.0 and pxelinux.cfg are installed in /tftpboot...

copy arch/i386/boot/bzImage to /tftpboot edit /tftpboot/pxelinux.cfg/my _boot_file to create a boot file for the kernel: DEFAULT vmlinuz-2.4.33.3-via-c3-gcc3.3 root=/dev/nfs

ip=dhcp

create a symlink to the boot file above for the mac address of the system prefixed with

01.

ln -s via-c3.cfg 01-00-15-f2-15-c2-69

note it is easier to create a file called "default" for the majority of the clients and only use symlinks for special-case computers, this ensures consistency. edit /etc/dhcpd.conf file to ensure it knows to load pxelinux with: filename "pxelinux.0";

Figure 3. PXE boot with sample scripts plus comments

Since our initial pilot of the KELSET elementary school this has been further simplified by later versions of the Linux kernel and LTSP. Simplified we utilize copy the kernel image through the use of a customized, created by the LTSP project, called ltsp- update-kernels [55]. This script copies the kernel, ramdisk and performs other housekeeping duties. Next the bootloader utilizes SYSLINUX which delivers the operating system via the

PXE boot process [13]. The process for booting up a diskless client is very similar to that of a

“fat” Linux client and could be compared in Table 4 – Thick client versus diskless client boot process comparison.

56 Table 4. Thick client versus diskless client boot process comparison Thick Linux Client Diskless Linux Client 1. Computer starts up, BIOS initializes 1. Computer starts up, BIOS initializes itself itself 2. BIOS loads the bootloader {1} from the 2. BIOS loads the bootloader {3} from the disk and runs it network {4} and runs it 3. Bootloader loads the kernel and 3. Bootloader loads the kernel and initramfs initramfs {2} from the disk and starts the from the network and starts the kernel. kernel. 4. Kernel starts up, mounts the root 4. Kernel starts up, mounts the root filesystem, and passes control to the first filesystem {5}, and passes control to the first userspace process: /sbin/init userspace process: /sbin/init 5. Finally, init is responsible for starting the 5. Finally, init is responsible for starting the rest of the system. rest of the system.

In commenting on the above comparison:

{1} early versions of the bootloader utilized Linux LOader (LILO), this has since changed to the GRand Unified Bootloader (GRUB).

{2} initramfs or "initial RAM " is a small archive containing drivers and programs that are needed to get the system started, such as storage drivers [56].

{3} GRUB is a bootloader used primarily for desktops and servers that boot from a local hard disk. For embedded or networked systems, the most common bootloader is now

SYSLINUX which is the basis for diskless client booting.

{4} there is a different protocol involved at each layer:

• The BIOS loads the bootloader using the PXE protocol

• The bootloader loads the kernel and initramfs using the TFTP protocol

• The kernel loads everything else using the NFS protocol

{5} on a system with a local hard disk, the root file system is a partition on the disk. On a networked system, the root file system is a directory on the server.

By contrast these two processes it can be noted that booting a diskless client is now

57 very similar to booting a fat client which has a local operating system, apart from programs which are loaded from the network instead of a local drive. Early versions of the process required a custom complied kernel which included a network driver to boot from the network. In current LTSP versions the initramfs that is loaded alongside the kernel includes the network driver, therefore a standard distribution kernel is sufficient and requires very little customization [57]. This has greatly simplified the boot process particularly if standardized client hardware is used for all diskless clients.

Early versions of the system required that every workstation variant be determined through a clear text file with its IP and MAC address stated. A script determined which card was present then downloaded the appropriate kernel customized for each specific client variant such as indicated in Fig. 4 – Diskless client customized kernel script.

/usr/ltsp/etherbootX.X.x/ Finds Card & downloads kernel ./bin32 all images for network cards make bin32/3c905-tpo.fd0 (.fd0) is the device. make bin32/3c905-tpo.lilo cp 3c905-tpo.lilo /tftpboot/lts/ltsroot/lilo/b Figure 4. Diskless client customized kernel script

As can be assumed this was time consuming and required a great deal of additional kernel configurations. With recent versions of the Linux kernel having all network drivers incorporated there is also no need to utilize this kind of script. Each school server now utilizes a MySQL database containing MAC addresses, IP addresses and other relevant configuration data. Fig. 5 - Diskless client MySQL configuration database is taken directly from a typical MySQL database showing pertinent tables and fields.

58 Tables +------+ | Tables_in_dhcp | +------+ | global_options | | ranges | | reservations | | subnets | +------+ Columns from global_options; +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | rec_num | tinyint(3) | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment | | options | varchar(128) | NO | | | | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ Columns from ranges; +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | rec_num | int(5) | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment | | id | tinyint(3) | NO | | 0 | | | first | varchar(15) | NO | | | | | last | varchar(15) | NO | | | | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ Columns from reservations; +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | res_id | int(6) | NO | PRI | NULL |auto_increment | | mac | varchar(20) | NO | | NULL | | | ip | varchar(15) | NO | | 10.101. | | | subnet_id | tinyint(3) | NO | | 1 | | | hostname | varchar(26) | YES | | NULL | | | domain | varchar(24) | YES | | NULL | | | gateway | varchar(15) | YES | | NULL | | | netmask | varchar(15) | YES | | NULL | | | location | varchar(20) | YES | | NULL | | | turnon | enum('Y') | YES | | NULL | | | turnoff | enum('Y') | YES | | NULL | | | root_path | varchar(255) | YES | | /opt/ltsp/i386 | | | filename | varchar(255) | YES | | pxelinux.0 | | | comment | varchar(255) | YES | | NULL | | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ Columns from subnets; +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ | id | tinyint(3) | NO | PRI | NULL | auto_increment | | name | varchar(64) | NO | | | | | interface | varchar(8) | NO | | | | | network | varchar(15) | NO | | | | | netmask | varchar(15) | NO | | | | | gateway | varchar(15) | NO | | | | | broadcast | varchar(15) | NO | | | | | dns1 | varchar(15) | YES | | NULL | |

59 | dns2 | varchar(15) | YES | | NULL | | | lease_time | int(6) | YES | | NULL | | +------+------+------+-----+------+------+ Figure 5. Diskless client MySQL configuration database

The DHCP server and BIND DNS server are both configured based on this database.

Although still requiring detailed knowledge of Linux, the Linux kernel and LTSP the whole boot process has been significantly improved and update for current Ubuntu server distributions.

Network booting the diskless clients on an IP based network requires a server on the network that supports both DHCP and Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), to provide configuration information and allow transfer of initial boot files. The Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol DHCP provides address discovery with the ability to also pass other initial configuration information to the booting host. TFTP is a UDP based protocol which allows the client to request a file one block at a time. As PXE booting requires a PXE server, which is essentially an enhanced DHCP server, the PXE server offers all the information usually set through DHCP as well as optional or additional configuration services.

The basic boot process can be expressed as follows: initially the network boot code gets control after the basic POST checks have been performed and the hardware initialization has been accomplished. When the is included in the BIOS, a BIOS set-up option will generally enable transfer of control to the network boot code, either instead of booting from the hard drive or before hard drive booting is tried – this depends on BIOS settings capability. In the case of a network card boot ROM, the boot ROM will be found during the

BIOS scan for card initialization ROMs and the ROM initialization code will pass to the

BIOS boot code to take control as soon as the booting process begins. 60 Once the network booting code has control, either it first sends out a DHCP or a bootp request to the network to obtain an IP address, as well as other network card set-up information, and gets the pathname of the boot file to load. PXE booting is similar, except that PXE expects to get some PXE-specific information back in the DHCP query, including the PXE version in use. Having obtained this information it initializes the network card, and then uses TFTP to download the boot file, block by block.

The first file retrieved over the network is generally either a second stage boot loader (e.g., pxelinux in the case of a PXE boot), or a specially tagged kernel

(Etherboot/Netboot). A second stage boot loader will load a configuration file over the network (such as a file from the pxelinux.cfg subdirectory in the case of pxelinux) to control the next sequence. It will then use TFTP to download a kernel image, and optionally an initial ram . Once the kernel has been retrieved, and uncompressed, control will be transferred to it, and the booting process can continue. Then X-Windows is loaded, the preferred desktop environment (Gnome in our case) is set-up and configured along with setting for video and sound. The environment is very similar to the set-up for thin client with the exception that much of the processing ends up on the client rather than the server, thus lowering the server CPU utilization to that of server/fat-client architecture, with all the benefits of the centralized administration and management of thin client architecture. With the use of diskless client architecture in this manner it is possible scale the system greatly.

With a well architected network infrastructure, diskless clients with adequate RAM and processing capacity clients load within 30 seconds of a cold boot to login screen.

Typically a standard middle school has up to 250 workstations. With one Linux/LTSP server,

250 standard diskless clients and an optimized boot loader process this server can handle

61 typical loads with maximum utilization running well under ten percent. In order to reduce server load at school startup we have developed a script which loads clients based on predefined categories such as: administration, library, teaching labs, teacher computers and student computers. Clients are prebooted and available for staff and students when required.

For example administration computers will boot up at 7:45am, library computers at 8:30am, lab computers at 8:45am and so forth. Additionally each of the groups is staggered to startup clients at 30 second intervals further reducing server loads. Further energy reductions are maximized by shutting clients down at predetermined times. Users are able to startup any workstations which is turned off by simply hitting the power button.

Theory of Operation – Local Apps .

Along with the boot process many other enhancements have been incorporated into the diskless client image. With up to 300 clients loading off of one Ubuntu server it would be assumed that load times would be sluggish at both boot up and application load, depending on the number of clients active and those requesting application programs. There are many factors that go into optimizing the system for large numbers of diskless clients. These include ensuring the optimization of the network infrastructure; diskless client capacity and enhancing the method key applications are loaded. As diskless clients are a hybrid model incorporating the advantages of thin and thick clients it is possible to integrate features which make diskless clients perform much better than true thin clients.

LTSP adds functionality to the system through a feature called local apps which can allocate load from the server to the clients and is a form of distributed processing [58]. True thin clients do not have the intrinsic processing capability or RAM to run applications client- side. Diskless clients however, can take advantage of local app functionality. Simply put,

62 local apps allow system administrators to move some CPU intensive applications such as

Firefox and Open Office from the server to the client if they have the capacity. Provided that client requirements are met, it is possible to make use of the functionality of LTSP to “hand off” CPU intensive applications from the server to the client, thus greatly reducing the load on the server. Ubuntu includes a package called "ureadahead" as part of the core server system. This program records files that are loaded as part of the boot process and preloads them automatically. As part of our customized image a custom ureadahead configuration was created that includes the files used by Firefox and OpenOffice. Once a user has logged into a client and is ready to launch one of these programs from the desktop a typical load time for either Firefox 4.x or Firefox 3.x is four to five seconds, dramatically improving user satisfaction. It is possible to preload other applications however we have noted that the browser and word processor are the most heavily used applications. With the boot process optimized and typical application load being greatly reduced it is possible to reduce the danger of poor performance enhancing user satisfaction and perception.

Although this only touches on many of the enhancements made to optimize the system it serves to point out that with all aspects of the implementation carefully thought out it is possible for Linux diskless clients to perform as well as thick clients with the advantages of thin clients. Although brief this provides some basis for the theory of operation, boot process, local apps and client scheduling. It is important, however to define the basics for the system requirements to appreciate the implementation.

System Requirements .

The system requirements for the diskless requirements can be dealt with simply in three categories: the network, the server and the diskless client. As the clients are heavily

63 dependant upon the server and clients utilizing localized processing, the network requires sufficient bandwidth for handing off the kernel to the client as well as any applications which can be run locally rather than server-side. Therefore, our experience has shown that the server has to have gigabit connectivity across the backbone with a minimum of 100 megabits to each client from the switch workgroup switches. This also assumes the server will have a gigabit NIC while the clients have auto-switching 10/100/1000 NICS as indicated in Fig. 6 –

Diskless client recommended network configuration.

Figure 6. Diskless client recommended network configuration

The server hardware components are designed to complement the Linux LTSP server requirements and can easily support up to 300 diskless clients with the network specifications noted above. The recommended server specifications for large diskless client implementation are listed as follows:

64 • Tier 1 2U Server 2 way AMD Opteron 6128 HE (Dual CPU Sockets)

• 12 core CPU

• 16 GB DDR-3 1333 memory

• Similar to HP ProLiant DL385 G7 6180SE Server

• Minimum Dual 1 GB network ports,

• Raid Card to support the configuration below,

• Front USB ports

• 9 X SAS 450 GB hard drives (Raid 10 + 1 Hot Swap

• 2 X SAS 146 GB or better (Raid 1 for OS)

• 80 Plus Certified dual redundant hot swap power supplies

• Spare power supply module 80Plus Rated

• Estimated cost approximately $10,000 - $11,000

Current large site server specifications recommend up to twelve core processors with

16 Gb RAM capable of supporting up to 300 concurrent connections and associated processes. Smaller sites with less workstation requirements can function with less capable servers. Single server per site implementation is possible due to the processing capabilities of the diskless client computers. Most true thin clients have very limited processing capabilities and small amounts of RAM, however the hybrid diskless client incorporate enough processing speed and RAM to run the operating system locally as well as most, if not all applications. Fig. 7 – Diskless client server utilization, illustrates the CPU utilization for one server and approximately 250 diskless clients. As a note, the large spike in utilization at

22:00 hours is the backup process, which takes place throughout the night. Peak utilization time is from 8:00am to 3:00 pm and utilization rarely gets above 40% under a full load. Since

65 this initial snapshot was taken two years ago recent tests and upgraded servers have seen typical utilization drop to fewer than ten percent at maximum load.

Figure 7. Diskless Client Server Utilization

The cost for each diskless client is approximately $250 for each unit, including keyboard and optical mouse. Clients become appliances at this cost, where the primary components are a case with low wattage 80Plus power supply, a motherboard and RAM. The following lists typical recommended diskless client specification:

• AMD Athalon X2 240 2.7Ghz CPU

• Foxconn M61PMP-K motherboard

• 2 GB DDR-3 1333 RAM

• Logitech USB keyboard and optical mouse

• Micro-ATX Slim case

• 80 Plus Certified power supply

• Estimated cost approximately $250/unit

With the combination of a robust and fast local area network, capable Linux/LTSP server and powerful, low cost diskless clients it is possible to build relatively support-free, 66 low cost and sustainable server client architecture. All of this is of great significance to IT departments and users however, ancillary is the opportunity for diskless clients to greatly reduce energy consumption, greenhouse gases (GHG) and carbon dioxide (CO 2).

Energy Conservation and Diskless Clients .

In performing its primary business, which is the instruction of students, the district's annual budget is approximately $71m with $1.34m spent on maintenance, and $1.06m spent on utilities including electricity, natural gas and other fuels. This is further broken down into

$.491m being spent on electricity, $.425m on natural gas, $.0134 on fuel oil, $.009m on propane with $.13m spent on water. Saying this, the district contributes significantly to greenhouse gas production with an annual consumption of 24,840 GJ or 6.9 GWh/yr

(equivalent) for natural gas and 5.8 GWh/yr for electricity. Fig. 8 – School District No. 63 energy consumption by percentage provides a graphical breakdown of the estimated energy usage. The emphasis is upon the electrical energy used by the district.

Figure 8. School District No. 63 energy consumption by percentage 67

School District No. 63 has been involved in energy reduction strategies for a number of years. Early projects initiated by the Facilities department included, a detailed lighting, heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) analysis for potential energy savings, while becoming a BC Hydro PowerSmart partner in 2002 [59]. The district embarked on numerous lighting upgrades, including installing energy efficient T8 and T5 fluorescent lamps with electronic ballasts in all buildings, upgraded various energy controls and direct digital control

(DDC) system to improve control and comfort enabled by the HVAC units. Many of these systems utilize the data network and provide control software, data collection and analysis.

Other initiatives have been addressed by the Information Technology department.

The district central office - incorporates a small data center currently housing eight servers which are the result of previous consolidation and vitalization. Three years ago there was no district redundancy or fail-over site. Each of the eight elementary schools and three middle schools had two to four aging tower-based Windows servers which functioned as

DNS, File & Print servers. The three secondary schools have an average of six to seventeen tower-based servers each running various versions of Windows server software performing

DNS, File & Print Sharing with a host of other functions.

Additionally the eight elementary schools had an average of approximately 100 desktop personal computers per school running Windows XP for a total of 780 units. Each of the three middle schools each had an average of approximately 250 plus desktop personal computers also running Windows XP for a total of 790 units. The three secondary schools have an average of 300 desktop personal computers also running Windows XP for a total of

900 units. Each of these workstations had a minimum 120 plus Watts per station not

68 including monitors. Approximately fifty percent of existing systems utilized 17” CRT monitors.

The district technology plan called for a ninety percent replacement of the Windows- based desktop client systems with Linux diskless client systems. This included replacing existing Windows-based server operating systems and associated software with Linux and

LTSP. In School District No. 63 the focus on energy savings was through the use diskless clients which are fully managed through scripts and utilities implemented on each school server. The clients are “lower” power computers running AMD Opteron or Athalon processors with 1-2 Gb of RAM. They consume slightly more power than a conventional thin client but much less than a personal computer. Table 5 – Client energy consumption comparison outlines typical energy consumption for the various clients:

Table 5. Client energy consumption comparison

Client Type Typical Power Consumption Typical Power Consumption while Inactive while Active Thin 3-10 Watts (generalized) 5-27 Watts (generalized) Diskless 28 Watts 35 Watts Thick (PC) 84-96 Plus Watts 105-120 Watts

The district energy manager undertook an energy audit which provided energy data from our inventory of approximately 2450 personal computers. The BC Hydro IT Survey Totals -

Strategic Energy Management Report [60] found that the current inventory of Windows- based workstations was:

• 40% of old computers left on 24/7 with no sweep, sleep, or power management

enabled

69 • 80% of power used when idle due to larger inefficient power supplies and no power

management implemented

• Average turned on time averaged at approximately 6 hrs/day for 192 days/year

• Average active operating time was averaged at approximately 3.6 hrs/day for 192

days/year

Typical power consumption values for thin clients was taken from the Desktop Energy

Consumption Report, by Wyse Technology Inc. [61] while PC and diskless client analysis was accomplished using a WattsUp Pro ES Power Meter and the results were averaged across all schools [62]. The results of this shows the energy savings on the eight elementary and eleven middle schools implemented are show in a school-by-school comparison in Table

6 – School District No. 63 diskless client energy savings.

70 Table 6. School District No. 63 diskless client energy savings

ECM Savings No. of Energy School Diskless Clients Savings per School kWh/yr Elementary Schools Brentwood 72 28,685 Cordova Bay 70 27,948 Deep Cove 91 36,327 Keating 87 34,737 Kelset 98 39,117 Lochside 80 31,935 Prospect Lake 64 25,556 Sidney 108 43,116 Total Elementary Schools 670 267,422 Middle Schools Royal Oak 211 84,266 Bayside 224 89,450 North Saanich 221 88,500 Total Middle Schools 656 262,216

Total Diskless Client Electrical Savings for implemented schools 1,326 529,637 Savings per Diskless Client 399 kWh/year

This total accounts for approximately ninety percent of the total workstations per school with a conversion rate of approximately 9:1 for diskless clients to Windows PC workstations. The savings generated from implementing the diskless client technology has resulted in 529,637 kWh/year or .529 gWh/year savings. The approximate BC Hydro electrical rate is current at $.08 per kWh/year. The estimated savings per year of the diskless client implementation is 529,637 kWh/year * $.08 for a total yearly savings of approximately

$42,370. Adding to this the additional 750 workstations yet to be installed provide for a total of 2076 diskless clients for an approximate savings of 829,205 kWhr/year * $.08 for a total estimated annual savings of $66,366 per year. With the initial cost of the diskless clients

71 being approximately $519,000 and the anticipated accumulative electrical saving of $331,682 over a five year period indicates that the cost overall for all clients can reduced to $187,317.

With an anticipated end-of-life for diskless clients estimated to be six to eight years due to the few moving parts and processing requirements this makes the clients almost cost neutral in energy savings alone. This is a significant savings, not only in client cost, but more importantly in the reduction of GHG and CO 2. With an estimated reduction in energy consumption for IT client costs the district will reduce total electrical energy consumption by almost ten percent.

Diskless Client Energy Management Functions .

These significant cost savings are not only the result of using low watt, energy efficient power supplies in the diskless clients but highly managed power and power down procedures through scripts and cron jobs. Additionally the image incorporated the Linux kernel “laptop mode” for power management, black and blank screen savers and are scheduled to turn on and off on through a managed schedule thus further reducing energy consumption when clients are inactive [63]. A schedule regarding power up and turn off times is worked out with the school through scripts and Command Run ON (cron) jobs. Each location or purpose of computer is individually addressable through the database. Typically, the office and staff computers are turned on first, and then the labs and library are turned on shortly before students are expected in the lab. Users can also manually turn machines on at any time.

Clients are turned on using the wake on LAN protocol, which uses a special packet sent over the network, addressed to the MAC address of the machine. Users are warned that the computer is going to be turned off, and are provided a chance to leave the machine on. 15 minutes later, all other machines are turned off.

72 With these features in place overall client energy consumption has been reduced by approximately fifty percent per year. Adding the replacement of CRT monitors with LCD monitors further reduces this to approximately 70 percent savings on client computing. All diskless clients utilize 80 Plus power supplies and all LCD monitors are Energy Star compliant.

Summary .

Diskless client technology is not new technology; however the manner in which it is being implemented and deployed is new, enabling accelerated video and streaming sound greatly enhancing the user experience. Being able to scale very low cost, diskless clients puts the support emphasis not on the users PC, but on the use of the software and applications.

The diskless clients we have deployed and continue to implement, allow for multi-language support, ubiquitous access not only across the network, but securely through the internet with the use of software such as FreeNX. Additionally we are seeing greatly reduced support and maintenance and significant energy savings. The emphasis is upon continued development, enhancement of the image and improved software support. There is still work that can be done to improve this model and it may only be an interim step until web operating systems become fully developed making the need for local servers redundant. In the meantime I believe this computing model to be the most elegant and cost effective one to provide large enterprise-wide client systems to users.

73 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

School districts in British Columbia, and elsewhere, are faced with increasing pressures resulting from decreasing budgets, increased support and maintenance for their information technology infrastructure, escalating complexity of networking environments, a need to maintain software currency for student learning and changes in educational paradigms such as 21 st century learning and personalized learning. As well the inevitability for the end-of-life of Windows XP in 2014 and an aging hardware inventories put increased pressure making for difficult choices in the future. Typically many school districts have operated a decentralized model where schools manage capital and operating budgets which are loosely controlled by the central board office. The consequence is; many schools purchase off-lease or used computers which already near end-of-life are less reliable and increasingly irrelevant to educational outcomes. As a result, school districts such as School

District No. 68 (Nanaimo) are faced with the considerable task and expense of upgrading disparate school-based computer systems in most schools.

In early 2011, IBM was engaged by the School District No. 68 board of trustees to provide consultative services which would evaluate the district current technology with recommendations for remediation [64]. The report was presented to the district trustees with the following observations:

“the acquisition of technology is currently largely school-based, equity of access has

also become an issue” … where “the deployment of computers is not standardized

from school to school, as some schools have computers in classrooms, while other

74 schools only have computers in labs. This has resulted in have and have not schools”

Additionally the report went on to say:

“Although there is district level direction for the purchase of computers through

Computers for Schools, given the schools are primarily responsible for the purchase

of the majority of their technology, district level accountability for purchases of

technology is a significant challenge. It appears that a significant portion of

technology related budgets are based on maintaining the status quo from previous

years, and are department independent, as opposed to budgeting based on a long

term plan, and having the various departments such as Technology, Program,

Aboriginal Education, Student Support Services and so on, work collaboratively to

establish annual budget requirements based on a long term plan enterprise rather

then many smaller entities working together.”

The Nanaimo school district is a mid-sized district serving 14,500 students with 31 elementary schools, seven secondary schools and two alternative schools [65]. With 40 schools and approximately 5,000 computers district-wide that are largely three to eight years old, this presents a significant challenge to the district. With the majority of these computers still running Windows XP, security issues such as virus infections [66] and rootkit infections

[67] are getting progressively more problematic as support for the aging operating system nears end-of-life and users fail to upgrade with the latest security patches. The recommendations from IBM include: spending approximately five million dollars over the next five years upgrading client workstations. Unfortunately Nanaimo does not have the capital dollars to dedicate to these upgrades and leasing is generally not an option for school districts due to pressure on operating budgets. The report highlights the problem that is

75 endemic with school districts all over British Columbia; they must upgrade aging equipment if they are to provide current and relevant technology while not having the financial resources to make it possible. Unfortunately the experience in Nanaimo is not new or unique.

Many school districts across British Columbia face similar challenges with a lack of resources and “the lack of a district, centralized technology plan” [64], as the traditional approach of providing Windows-based computers is no longer possible or practical in the K-

12 public education system.

Earlier literature survey findings indicated that of thin client implementations performed by post-secondary institutes; the three primary failures of thin client systems were considered to be:

• lack of support for familiar Windows-based applications

• lack of support for a rich GUI-based environment

• network latency and connectivity issues causing a single point of failure

Over the past decade a variety of approaches were researched and developed to solve these issues with thin clients such as: reducing user expectations [29], Thin-client InterNet

Computing THINC graphics enhancement [31], adding a driver abstraction layer providing

GPU emulation [32], analysis and improving client acceptance strategies [38], and so forth with a great deal of optimism but very little tangible results. While there was some minor progress with providing a richer graphic experience there was very little advancement for application support and network latency issues. Although thin clients have the promise of lower TCO, reduced support and reduced energy consumption they have proved disappointing as the core disadvantages have not been overcome. Windows-based thick client

76 systems have proved unsustainable primarily due to cost constraints and support issues. An alternative must be found or existing systems will continue to decay and become irrelevant.

Diskless Clients Provide the Preeminent Low Cost Computing Solution.

The authors experience at School District No. 73 (Kamloops/Thompson) and School

District No. 63 (Saanich) have show that the utilization of Linux diskless client in conjunction with a small percentage of Windows-based workstations can provide a hybrid solution which is affordable, sustainable, maintainable and very energy efficient. It provides diverse solutions to accommodate school district business processes and educational curricular requirements. The diskless client solution being implemented employs primarily open source software including Ubuntu [68] as the core distribution, Linux as the base operating system, LTSP terminal services [12] and Gnome desktop environment [69]. Table 7

- Typical diskless client open source applications, lists the base open source software applications for a typical elementary school diskless client implementation.

Table 7. Typical diskless client open source applications Category Program Application URL Education Childsplay http://www.schoolsplay.org/ KGeography http://kgeography.berlios.de/ KLettres http://edu.kde.org/klettres/ Linux Letters and http://lln.sourceforge.net/ Numbers Little Wizard http://littlewizard.sourceforge.net/ Tux Math http://tux4kids.alioth.debian.org/tuxmath/ http://tuxpaint.org/ http://tux4kids.alioth.debian.org/tuxtype/index.php GCompris Suite http://gcompris.net/-en- Graphics F-Spot Photo http://f-spot.org/ Manager Gimp Image Editor http://www.gimp.org/ GNU Paint http://www.gnu.org/s/gpaint/ Vector http://inkscape.org/ Graphics Editor OpenOffice Draw http://www.openoffice.org/product/draw.html 77 Picasa http://picasa.google.com/ Simple Scan https://launchpad.net/simple-scan SIR Simple Image http://kde-apps.org/content/show.php?content=35325 Resizer Internet Firefox http://www.mozilla.com/en-US/firefox/fx/ Google Chrome http://www.google.com/chrome/ Google Earth http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Office Adobe Reader http://www.adobe.com/products/reader.html FreeMind http://freemind.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Main _Page OpenOffice Base http://www.openoffice.org/product/base.html OpenOffice Impress http://www.openoffice.org/product/impress.html OpenOffice Writer http://www.openoffice.org/product/writer.html Zimbra Collaboration Suite http://www.zimbra.com/ (Email) Science Stellarium http://www.stellarium.org/ Sound & Audacity http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ Video Brascero Disk http://projects.gnome.org/brasero//index.html Burner Webcam http://projects.gnome.org/cheese//index Booth - http://recordmydesktop.sourceforge.net/about.php RecordMyDesktop Imagination http://imagination.sourceforge.net/ http://www.kinodv.org/ Music http://projects.gnome.org/rhythmbox/ Player VLC Media Player http://www.videolan.org/vlc/

The standard open source software compliment provides schools with much of the educational functionality required by curricular requirements. Saying that, there is a need to provide additional functionality using commercial software where open source falls short.

Some commercial software is available for native Linux; such as Smart Technologies

Notebook software [70], while others are not. When possible, district analysts have been able to get many closed source Windows-based applications operational, using Wine emulation software [71]. Wine is included with the standard Ubuntu image and makes use of

78 compatibility layer functionality, providing support for Windows-based programs on Linux- based systems. The School District No. 63 implementation uses Wine to support software such as: All the Right Type typing tutor [72], Math Makes Sense [73], Google Sketchup 8

[74], Smart Notebook software and other programs. With Wine it is possible access software programs typically available only supported by Windows operation system. As a result of providing this functionality we greatly increase user acceptance and satisfaction.

There are programs nonetheless which do not operate using virtualization or emulation. Many of these programs are utilized in special education providing applications for students with learning disabilities. When it is necessary to offer specialized programs such as text-to-speech software like Kurzweil [75], speech-to-text software such as Dragon

NaturallySpeaking [76], or literacy software for example Clicker 5 [77] the district provides

Windows-based laptops to provide systems for students with special needs. This ensure that the few users with the specific commercial software required for special education needs can be completely accommodated.

For a typical school utilizing 120 workstations, 110 of these make use of Linux diskless clients while the remaining ten will be Windows-based laptops. This 11:1 ratio provides a fusion of diskless Linux clients and Windows laptops for elementary schools preserving the centralized management. Fig. 9 – Typical Elementary school diskless desktop snapshot provides a graphical view of the customized Gnome desktop staff and students see when logging into the system. Using this hybrid approach offers schools the specialized software they require to provide educational outcomes for the present while anticipating the future.

79

Figure 9. Typical Elementary school diskless desktop snapshot

Ancillary Advantages of Linux Diskless Client Computing .

Since the initial pilot at KELSET elementary school in 2008, the Linux diskless client image has seen continual development and refinement. With the primary focus on improving the image, rather than providing support and maintenance, many enhancements have been brought to the system. As with thin client technology, access to users desktop is available from any client within the school as well as their customizations, files, documents, bookmarks and other data. Moreover, user’s desktop environments are available securely from home through NoMachines NX client technology [78] for which the benefits are significant. Previously when staff and students desired to work on word processing or other files from school servers, they were required to attach them to an email message or copy to a flash drive. Predictably this was problematic and resulted in duplicate files, overwrites and so forth. With secure remote access via the NX client to the entire desktop including applications and data files, users no longer have to be concerned about redundancy issues.

80 Providing remote access to school-based programs has resulted in staff, students and parents not having to purchase software which is in use at the school. Offsite school login is available from Windows, MAC or Linux computers, thereby facilitating ubiquitous access and approaching the kind of “calm computing” which Dr. Mark Weiser anticipated in the early 1990s [26].

Additionally, as the foundation for the implementation is standard Ubuntu, it is possible to implement multilingual capabilities within the system. When users login to the system they are presented with the choice of pertinent languages including French and

English. After logging in users menus and applicable applications such as Firefox, and

OpenOffice are also available in the language of choice. This is a huge benefit to English as

Second Language student and French Immersion schools.

Other enhancements include: incorporating the intelligent Teaching and Learning with Computers (iTalc) desktop management system for teachers, using the Festival text-to- speech synthesis software system pervasively, improving print support and a host of other improvements.

Arguably from an IT department standpoint, the greatest benefits resulting from incorporating Linux diskless client technology into schools is, onsite support and maintenance are greatly reduced. Whereas a significant portion of information technology time was previously spent in simply maintaining the system, the diskless client model is centered on continual improvement. Diskless clients become essentially appliances and can be managed out by site staff. Fixes or updates are performed centrally and affect all users with even major upgrades being affected within minutes, rather than days greatly minimizing system downtime.

81 Other benefits include minimal effect of virus, rootkit or other malicious infections as

Linux is not targeted to the extent that Windows-based systems are. Although users have some flexibility in their desktop environment they cannot download and install software and control over the system remains the responsibility of the central IT department. The common experience of most IT departments is reflected in the report from IBM to the Nanaimo school district where “the gaps identified in the engagement reports are mainly a result of the IS

Department spending the majority of their time in reactive mode …” [64] . Rather than limiting IT’s ability to provide services and support due to funding and other factors, diskless client technology has provided a modern and responsive school-based information system for a very low cost. The following quote from School District No. 63s Superintendent of Schools underscores user and acceptance from students, parents and staff [79]:

“Our state-of-the-art technology plan is getting rave reviews from schools.

Thanks go to everyone who is making the new thin (diskless) client (Linux) system

work so well, particularly to our Information Technology Director Gregg Ferrie, our

teacher leader Brock Simmonds, and our knowledgeable IT crews in the board office

and in the schools. Teachers’ uses of modern web-based solutions for sharing

information with children and colleagues is one of the real benefits of our new open-

source web-based approach. The positive effects on teaching and learning make the

plan clearly worth the effort and the expense.”

Challenges to Implementing Diskless Client Technology in Education .

As with any significant organizational change there are intrinsic barriers and resistance. The success of the Linux diskless client implementation at both School District

No. 73 (Kamloops/Thompson) and School District No. 63 (Saanich) was not achieved

82 without overcoming many difficulties and challenges. For any school district planning to implement significant technological change there are several potential impediments and can include any and potentially all of the following:

• lack of executive support

• insufficient funding

• poor communication

• inadequate planning

• lack of technical expertise

• user resistance to change

• IT staff resistance to change

• insufficient training

• inadequate support

• failure to garner user feedback and advise

With the diskless client implementation at School District No. 63 (Saanich), these potential impediments to successful project completion were addressed early on in the process. Immediately after the author was hired in early 2008 a comprehensive technology plan was developed, based on experience gained from the Linux diskless client implementation at School District No. 73 (Kamloops/Thompson). This plan included budget details, project responsibilities, executive sponsorship, project details and particulars regarding training and support. Once complete and approved, presentations were made to senior district staff, followed by school administration staff and school teaching and support staff. All questions, concerns and potential problems were discussed and responded to.

Subsequent to a lengthy consultation process, executive staff granted approval to move

83 forward with the pilot at KELSET elementary. During the pilot, feedback was garnered from school, admin and executive staff on a weekly basis and any concerns As a consequence the image was improved and developed based on teacher and student requirements. To date, 11 schools have been successfully implemented with three more secondary schools to be converted over the subsequent eight months. The will span the full scope of schools in the public K-12 education system from elementary, middle and secondary.

Conclusion .

Linux diskless client technology although not a panacea combines many of the advantages of both thin and thick client technology. It is a hybrid technology which has proven successful when risks are anticipated and well managed. School districts are under increasing pressure from budget constraints, curricular changes, technology advances and environmental concerns and have not found satisfactory solutions to providing school-based information systems in support of the teaching-learning process. Linux diskless client technology is relevant for the present and anticipates the future of web-based operating systems and applications. It accomplishes this for less than one half the cost of desktop solutions, while centralizing support, standardizing software, enhancing development and providing ubiquitous and pervasive access. Furthermore school districts faced with the challenge of having to reduce lowering GHG and CO 2 levels have an elegant, effective solution. Most importantly, diskless client technology can achieve workstation energy consumption reductions by up to 70 percent, resulting in substantial savings for schools districts. Linux diskless client technology provides the first step toward utility grade computing and is enabling technology that should be given more than casual consideration considering the many issues that face school districts in British Columbia.

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