HISTORICAL NOTE

tons, as well as body tissues and fluids. It is never found in the free state, however, but Silicon and Germanium most often as a compound with oxygen In the late 1940s, two elements—silicon tories ushered in a revolution in electronics (SiO2) called silica; 95% of the earth's rocks and germanium—suddenly received a that continues today in the rapid advances contain silica as their principal component. surge in interest due to the discovery of in solid-state devices, integrated circuits, Germanium, on the other hand, is a very their ability to act as "semiconductors," and miniaturized electronic components. rare element, comprising only about i.e., to conduct electricity more efficiently Both silicon and germanium were recog- 0.0005% of the earth's crust; making recov- than an insulator (such as rubber) but less nized as elements long before their uses as ery difficult, too, is the fact that germa- efficiently than a conductor (such as cop- semiconductors were even imagined. Sili- nium is not found in natural con- per). The invention of the semiconductor con is the second most abundant element centrations or deposits, but rather is evenly device called the transistor in 1947 by John in the earth's crust (second only to oxy- distributed in trace quantities in many Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William gen), and is found in almost every rock, all rocks. Like silicon, germanium is never B. Shockley at the Bell Telephone Labora- natural water, plants, and animal skele- found in the free state, but always in vari- ous uncommon minerals and sulfide ores, especially those of silver, lead, tin, zinc, and antimony. Until the late 18th century, chemists Custom Silicon Micromachining were not able to separate elemental silicon from its silica compound; some chemists > Micromachined Silicon Structures even considered silica itself to be a pure ele- ment. In 1787, A. Lavoisier in France spec- ulated that silica was probably the oxide of • Silicon Membranes an as-yet-undiscovered element. Various chemists attempted to isolate the element, • Anodic Bonding A A A including Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1800, and Louis Thenard and Joseph Gay-Lussac in 1811, but their results were • Applications include: not conclusive. In 1817, a chemist in Swe- den, Jons Jakob Berzelius, discovered that - Sensor Structures A A A the element was present without oxygen inside cast iron; in 1823 Berzelius finally 400 microns succeeded in establishing the existence of - X-ray lithography silicon as an element, though he could pre- pare only an impure form. Silicon was finally created in reproduc- - Soft x-ray windows and optics ible crystalline form in 1854—nearly 70 years after its existence had first been • Design and Consulting Services proposed—when Henri Saint-Claire Deville crystallized it out of an alloy he pro- duced by mixing melts of chlorides and For more information contact us! then electrolyzing them. He named the el- Micro-Optics Technologies, Inc. ement silicon (loosely) after the Latin word for flint, "silex." 8608 University Green #5 In 1871, a chemist in Russia, Dmitri Middleton, Wl 53562 Ivanovich Mendeleev, predicted a hypo- (608) 831 -0655 FAX (608) 831 -5821 thetical element in group IVA of the Peri- odic Table between silicon and tin, Internet: 72360.2261 (©CompuServe. Com describing its expected physical properties and naming it tentatively "eka-silicon." Fif- Circle No. 51 on Reader Service Card. teen years later, in 1886, Clemens Winkler analyzed argyrodite, a sulfide mineral, and found a previously unknown constituent; he isolated it and named it "germanium" SPECIAL NOTICE TO MRS MEMBERS: after his native country of Germany. Fur- ther investigation by other chemists con- 1993 Members of the Materials Research Society may subscribe to MATERIALS firmed its position between silicon and tin LETTERS for the special rate of $38. You will receive Volumes 15,16,17 and 18. in group IVA in the periodic table, just as MATERIALS LETTERS is an interdisciplinary journal affiliated with the Materials Mendeleev had predicted. Research Society, devoted to the rapid publication of short communications on the Germanium is a hard, silvery-gray solid science, applications and processing of materials. with a metallic appearance. It is brittle Order your subscription today from: Materials Research Society, 9800 McKnight rather than ductile, with the arrangement Road, Pittsburgh, PA 15237 • Phone: (412) 367-3003; FAX (412) 367-4373 of atoms in its crystalline structure similar to the diamond lattice of carbon. Before its

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Electro-Ceramics: Properties and Applications July 19-21, 1993

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Fiber Reinforced Composite LA-900 Materials .04-1020 |im in single analysis July 26-30, 1993 PC controlled for versatile operation Operated under Windows 3.0 for flexible For further information on this and other programs, please contact: Prof. F. J. McGarry, Director, MIT Office of the data display Summer Session, E19-356, Cambridge MA 02139-307. Phone: 617-253-2101. Fax: 617-253-8042. 30 second analysis, start to finish Circle No. 53 on Reader Service Card.

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HISTORICAL NOTE

use in the semiconductor industry, germa- States by Edward G. Achison. Until the Germanium semiconductor devices re- nium had little commercial importance. It creation of boron carbide in 1929, silicon placed many of the vacuum tubes, diodes, was used only in an alloy (with gold) for carbide was the hardest synthetic material and rectifiers normally used in common dental work, and in glass, for infrared opti- known. electronic devices, and also performed cal devices such as lenses, prisms, and Silicon is also the starting material for the new functions that vacuum tubes could windows. organic-compound silicones used as plas- not handle. Since 1948, there have been Like germanium, crystalline silicon is tics, oils, greases, and synthetic rubbers. many developments in the industry, for also a brittle solid, and is black to dark gray Inorganic silicon compounds are used in example, the diffused-junction transistor. in appearance, with a high metallic luster. the manufacture of glass and ceramics, pi- During the 1960s, elemental silicon sup- Elemental silicon is dark brown in its amor- ezoelectric crystals, and insulating materi- planted germanium as the most common phous form. Unlike germanium, elemen- als. semiconductor material. Heating silica tal silicon had found many commercial Toward the end of World War II, new with coke in an electric furnace yields ele- applications by the turn of the century. Sili- processing methods made available large mental silicon of ordinary purity, but "zone con is used as an alloying ingredient to quantities of extraordinarily pure germa- refining" yields silicon of a much higher strengthen magnesium, aluminum, and nium, opening the door to its use in the purity, suitable for electronics. Silicon has copper. Mixing silicon with tin and copper electronics industry. Highly pure germa- several advantages over germanium, in makes silicon bronze, which found wide nium ingots are remelted and doped with that it is vastly more common than germa- use in telephone and telegraph wires. Fer- specific impurities (such as arsenic or gal- nium and is thus intrinsically less expen- rosilicon is used in making very resistant lium) to produce desired electronic charac- sive; silicon also retains its semiconducting silicon steels. teristics. After about 1945, germanium's properties at higher temperatures. Silicon Silicon carbide (also known by the trade properties as a semiconductor became forms an oxide film with excellent electrical name Carborundum) is an exceedingly widely known. The first transistor was an- insulating properties; the film can be used hard, clear, green-tinged crystalline com- nounced in 1947, and a year later the ger- as a mask to permit the introduction of spe- pound first created in 1891 in the United manium triode was put on the market. cific impurities needed for doping the

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ADVANCED WELDING PROCESSES NEW J Norrish, Cranfield Institute of Technology, UK This textbook covers principle features and applications, including MORE TITLES OF INTEREST power source technology, filler materials, gases for advanced welding, narrow gap techniques and automation. Invaluable to ARTJflCE AND ARTEFACTS NKW__ engineers in manufacturing industry. 100 Essays in Materials Science 1992 392 pages illus hard 0 85274 325 4 $140.00 RWCahn, University of Cambridge, UK paper 0 85274 326 2 $49.50 An entertaining collection of scientific journalism and book reviews selected by the Materials Science correspondent of Nature, this book POWDER METALLURGY covers many different topics and will appeal to a wide range of The Process and its Products scientists. A G Dowson 1992 384 pages illus hard 0 7503 0152 X $39.90 'An excellent, clearly written expose on essentially all the sub-processes in PM.' PHYSICS OF NANOSTRUCTURES TEXT International Journal of Powder Metallurgy Edited by J H Davies and R Ix>ng. University of Glasgow, UK Explains the development of the powder metallurgy process, Prepared for postgraduate students working on nano- and surveying its capabilities for a range of products and discussing the microstructures, this is a collection of contributions from leading potential for future applications. A book for students or engineers. international figures. Covers both the theory and practice of nanoscale device technology. 1990 180 pages illus hard 0 85274 006 9 $65.00 NOW IN PAPERBACK HOT ISOSTATIC PROCESSING TEXT January 1993 356 pages illus paper 0 7503 0169 4 $39.00 H V Atkinson, University of Sheffield, UK and B A Rickinson, HIP Limited, Chesterfield, UK GRAPHICS AND ANIMATION 'A timely, well presented little book, which students in particular IN SURFACE SCIENCE TEXT should like very much.' Edited by D D Vvedensky, Imperial College, UK and S Holloway, Surface Engineering University of Liverpool, UK A textbook that examines the fundamental science and applications Alerts a wide audience to the power of graphics and animation in of the HIPping process, showing how the technique improves science and particularly surface science. Shows how using the latest material properties compared with more conventional techniques. computational techniques, computer graphics can illustrate complex concepts and enhance understanding and interpretation of 1991 204 pages illus hard 0 7503 0073 6 $59.00 simulations, calculations and experiments. SHEET METAL FORMING 1992 140 pages illus hard 0 7503 0118 X $55.00 R Pearce, Secretary General, International Deep Drawing THE MEASUREMENT OF Research Group, UK GRAIN BOUNDARY GEOMETRY NEW 'An admirable distillation of the present state ofknowledge...a V Randle, University of Swansea, UK valuable basis for teaching and training.' Sheet Metal Industries An overview and description of the latest developments in the theory The first book devoted to the process of sheet metal forming. Covers of grain boundary geometry, experimental aspects of data collection all aspects of the process from engineering plasticity and materials and data processing. Essential for students, researchers and all using science through solving problems in the press shop. EM techniques. 1991 300 pages illus hard 0 7503 0101 5 $75.00 March 1993 c200 pages illus hard 0 7503 0235 6 $120.00

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Advanced Cement Based Materials Published in Affiliation with the American Concrete Institute BOARD OF EDITORS Pierre-Claude Aitcin Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Editor-in-Chief Co-Editor Quebec, Canada Zdenek P. Bazant Surendra P. Shah J. Francis Young Northwestern University, Evanston, Northwestern University University of Illinois IL, USA Urbana, IL, USA James Beaudoin Evanston, IL, USA National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Associate Editors David Darwin Hans W. Reinhardt Hiroshi Uchikawa University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA Director, Otto Graf Institut ONODA Cement Co., Ltd. Manuel Elices Escuela de Ingenieros de Caminos, Ciudad Universitat Stuttgart Sakura, Japan Universitaria, Madrid, Spain Stuttgart, Germany Goran Fagerlund University of Lund, Sweden Edwin R. Fuller, Jr. dvanced Cement Based Materials is a new top quality, rigorously peer- National Institute of Standards and Areviewed journal focussing on key aspects of the advanced cement based mate- Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA rials field. The journal is backed by a strong editorial team and an international, inter- Edward Garboczi National Institute of Standards and disciplinary editorial board. Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA Aims and Scope: Advanced Cement Based Materials provides a unique interna- Christopher Hall Schlumberger Cambridge Research Ltd., tional and interdisciplinary forum for previously unpublished research on the prepa- Cambridge, UK ration, characterization, processing and uses of advanced cements and concretes. Vagn Johansen Papers on fundamental relationships between microstructure, processing and G.M. Idorn Consult AS., Birkeroed, engineering properties of cementitious materials are of prime interest. Denmark Bhushan L. Karihaloo Audience: Civil engineeers, chemists, materials scientists, ceramic engineers, me- University of Sydney, Sydney, New South chanical engineers, chemical engineers, computer scientists, physicists, electrical Wales, Australia Albert S. Kobayashi engineers, geologists and petroleum engineers. University of Washington, Seattle, WA,USA Subscription Information J.C. Maso ISSN 0165-7355 Institute National des Sciences 1993, Volume 1 (6 issues) Appliquees, Toulouse, France Institutional rate: $215.00 Franco Massazza Italcementi, SPA, Bergamo, Italy Personal rate $107.00 Jacky Mazars Please add $30.00 for postage and handling outside the U.S. Ecole Normale Superieure, For information on the American Concrete Institute member rate, please call the New York Cachan, France office at 212-633-3950. Shigeyoshi Nagataki Tokyo Institute of Technology, Send subscription orders or requests for further information, sample copies and author Tokyo, Japan guidelines to: P. Paramasivam In North America: ^^^^^^^^^_^^^^^_-^— National University of Singapore, Elsevier Science Singapore For faster service\ call your Peter L. Pratt Publishing Co. order today. Imperial College of Science and P.O. Box 882 Tel. No.: (212) 633-3950 Technology, London, UK Madison Square Station Lawrence R. Roberts New York, NY 10159 FaxNo.: (212) 633-3990 W. R. Grace & Company, Cambridge, Outside North America: MA, USA Elsevier Science Jan P. Skalny Publishing Co. Consultant, Owens Mills, MD, USA ELSEVIER P.O. Box 211 SCIENCE PUBLISHING Folker H. Wittman COMPANY. INC. Institute for Building Materials, Zurich, 1000 AE Amsterdam Switzerland The Netherlands 1/93 D1DP

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semiconductor (such as boron, gallium, ar- or indium, mixed with phosphorus, arse- senic, and phosphorus). nic, or antimony. These compound semi- ADHERENCE Since the 1970s, materials other than sili- conductors are particularly useful in con and germanium have been investi- devices that emit light efficiently or operate gated for application as semiconductors in at exceptionally high frequencies, such as TESTS? transistors, rectifiers, photocells, and run- semiconductor lasers, light-emitting di- nel diodes. Most notable among these are odes, or solar cells. 1 compounds made of aluminum, gallium, YOUR CHOICE. KEVIN J.ANDERSON BOOK REVIEWS • Stud Pull - Direct Tensile

• Direct Peel (90 & 180) Photoelectronic Properties of cally with intrinsic recombination. • Tape Peel (90 & 180) Semiconductors Chapters 3 and 4 deal with one-center Richard H. Bube recombination models, the latter chapter G Diamond Scratch (Stylometer) being devoted in detail to the Schockley- (Cambridge University Press, 1992, Read model. Chapter 5 deals with models O Blade Cut (Hesiometer) 318 pages). in which two recombination centers hav- ISBN: 0-521-404916 (hardback); ing markedly different capture coefficients HH Strain Spallation 0-521-406811 (paperback) are present, and includes a liberal set of ex- In my formative years as a physicist I amples drawn largely from the author's • Lap Shear read this author's book on Photoconductiv- own work. ity of Solids (Wiley, 1960), and I was influ- • Tear enced by his clear, authoritative style. The Chapter 6 discusses the various recombi- present volume updates much of the pre- nation processes that can occur, such as lu- minescence, phonon emission, and Auger ADHESION INTERNATIONAL vious material, while retaining the style. The author's broad experience is apparent, emission; however, I would have placed (A Quad Group Company) and this book will be a useful reference. this chapter earlier in the book. Chapters 7 and 8 are devoted to the most useful exper- After an introductory chapter, which imental methods for photoelectronic mea- *^ (800) 342-2430 could have been longer and more "intro- surements on solids. The first of these ductory," the second chapter gives a gen- chapters covers steady-state methods, 1815 S. Lewis Street, Spokane, WA 99204 eral treatment of photoconductivity W(509)458-4558 FAX (509)458-4555 such as Hall, thermoelectric, capacitive, parameters, setting the nomenclature for and luminescence techniques; the second Circle No. 56 on Reader Service Card. subsequent chapters and dealing specifi- deals with transient measurements and looks at the rates of decay and how these are related to trapping mechanisms. Deep- level transient spectroscopy is covered, but I would have welcomed a clearer exposi- tion and more examples of this technique. Many illustrations of the main points are The Encyclopedia of Materials ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Characterization is the companion made in these chapters, again drawn al- volume in the Materials Characteriza- most exclusively from the author's work. MATERIALS tion Series: Surfaces. Interfaces. Thin The effects at grain boundaries, a subject Films. Each of the eleven remaining often neglected, are covered in Chapter 9. CHARACTERIZATION volumes in the Series covers a specific materials class, and is Chapter 10 provides a good introduction to designed to guide the scientist or photoeffects in amorphous semiconduc- engineer who has surface or micro- tors, a subject worthy of a book by itself. Edited by C. Richard Brundle, characterization problems, but no time Chapter 11 deals with photovoltaic effects Charles A. Evans, Jr. & Shaun Wilson to become a technical specialist. and considers heterojunctions and practi- To order your copy, or for more cal solar cell junctions. However, the sub- • Provides up-to-date analytical techniques for information on the Encyclopedia and materials characterization (and you don't have to ject of the band energy line-up problem, the entire Series, call toll-free 1-800- which should be very important, is not dis- search through 20 books to find them!) 366-2665. or contact: • Designed for the practicing materials professional cussed. The final chapter covering quan- • Contains over 50 analytical techniques I-IUTTERWORTH tum wells and superlattices is rather • Single-page summaries of each technique are [HE I N E M A N N superficial and descriptive—a pity, given included for easy review 80 Montvale Avenue the examples abounding in the literature. • Short, focused articles on characterization methods Stoneham. MA 02180 Although I am somewhat disappointed for material and process problems Visit us at booth #217 in San Francisco overall, I am sure that the book will be use- ful in both my research and teaching. 1992: 769 pp.: book # 7506-9168-9: $95.00 SS053 Reviewer: Peter }. Dobson is in the Depart- ment of Engineering Science at the University Circle No. 57 on Reader Service Card. of Oxford, England. His main interests are in the optoelectronic properties of materials.

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