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An Easy-To-Use Genotoxicity Assay Using EGFP-MDC1-Expressing Human Cells

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An Easy-To-Use Genotoxicity Assay Using EGFP-MDC1-Expressing Human Cells Genes and Environment, Vol. 36, No. 1 pp. 17–28 (2014) Regular article An Easy-to-use Genotoxicity Assay Using EGFP-MDC1-expressing Human Cells Shun Matsuda1,RyoMatsuda2, Yoko Matsuda1, Shin-ya Yanagisawa1, Masae Ikura2, Tsuyoshi Ikura2 and Tomonari Matsuda1,3 1Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, Otsu, Shiga, Japan 2Radiation Biology Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Received December 26, 2013; Revised January 16, 2014; Accepted January 21, 2014 J-STAGE Advance published date: February 1, 2014 Histone H2AX phosphorylated at Ser139 (g-H2AX) is a gregates called foci (1,2). Because a single g-H2AX useful biomarker for DNA double-strand breaks. However, focus corresponds to one DSB (2,3), g-H2AX is an ex- g-H2AX detection has methodological disadvantages such tremely sensitive indicator for DSBs. Whereas induction as the requirement of expensive anti-g-H2AX antibody and of g-H2AX was ˆrst shown in response to ionizing time-consuming handling for its staining. Mediator of DNA irradiation (1), it has since been reported that a broad damage checkpoint 1 (MDC1) is a central adaptor protein spectrum of mutagens also induces g-H2AX, including which recruits various DNA damage response proteins to radical generators [bleomycin (4), tirapazamine (4), g-H2AX and thus forms nuclear foci in the same location as g-H2AX in response to DNA damage. Here, we describe calicheamicin g1 (5), c-1027 (6), and neocarzinostatin an easy-to-use genotoxicity assay which combines en- (7)], topoisomerase inhibitors [camptothecin (CPT) (6), hanced green ‰uorescence protein (EGFP)-fused MDC1- topotecan (8), and etoposide (4)], a DNA intercalator expressing cells with a free R program for image-proc- [doxorubicin (9)], alkylating agents [N-methyl-N- essing and quantiˆcation of foci area/nucleus. The wor- nitrosourea (MNU) (10), N-methyl-N?-nitro-N- k‰ow of this assay is simple: mutagen treatment, imaging, nitrosoguanidine (11), adzelesin (6), methyl methan- and R-processing. This assay does not need antibodies or esulfonate (12), and N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (13)], an staining handling and it detected the genotoxicity of a oxidizing agent [hydrogen peroxide (7)], bulky DNA ad- range of mutagens, including camptothecin (topoiso- duct-forming agents [4-nitroquinoline1-oxide (4NQO) merase I inhibitior), cisplatin (crosslinker), and 4-nitro- (4), benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) (13), and N-acetoxy-2- quinoline 1-oxide and benzo[a]pyrene (bulky DNA-adduct acetylamino‰uorene (13)], DNA crosslinking agents forming compounds), as increased ‰uorescence of EGFP- MDC1 foci. Furthermore, cotreatment with arabinofu- [cisplatin (CDDP) (14) and actinomycin D (15)], a ranosyl cytosine/hydroxyurea and mutagens sensitized ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor [hydroxyurea (HU) EGFP-MDC1 foci formation to bulky DNA adduct-type (16)], a DNA polymerase inhibitor [aphidicolin (17)], mutagens. Additionally, the established cells can be moni- and a general tyrosine kinase inhibitor [staurosporine tored in real-time using live cell imaging to obtain detailed (18)]. Furthermore, the relationship between chemical dynamics of MDC1 in response to mutagens. The simple dose and g-H2AX induction is linear (4). These facts handling of this assay is expected to enable its full automa- explain why there is increasing interest in using g-H2AX tion, thus making it useful for high-throughput genotoxici- as a biomarker in chemical genotoxicity assays. Indeed, ty screening of chemicals and monitoring of environmental previous studies have used g-H2AX in genotoxicity as- mutagens. says for photogenotoxic chemicals (19,20) and for known and potential environmental pollutants such as Key words: MDC1, g-H2AX, ‰uorescence microscopy, benzene (21), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (22), nonyl- image-processing, R phenol polyethoxylates (23), heavy metals (24), cigarette smoke (25), and nanoparticles (26–32), and the results were all positive except for alumina (Al2O3) nanoparti- Introduction cles. Histone H2AX phosphorylated at Ser139 (g-H2AX) 3 is one of the most useful biomarkers for DNA double- Correspondence to: Tomonari Matsuda, Research Center for En- vironmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, Otsu, Shiga strand breaks (DSBs). When DSBs are induced in cells, 5200811, Japan. Tel: ＋81-77-527-6224, Fax: ＋81-77-524-9869, H2AX polypeptides within about ¿2 Mbp of a DSB E-mail: matsuda.tomonari.8z＠kyoto-u.ac.jp site are phosphorylated to form g-H2AX nuclear ag- doi: org/10.3123/jemsge.2014.001 The Japanese Environmental Mutagen Society 17 Shun Matsuda et al. On the other hand, genotoxicity assays targeting g- the tandem BRCA1 C-terminus (BRCT) domains inter- H2AX still have several methodological limitations. act with g-H2AX (39,40), p53 (54), p53-binding protein Immuno‰uorescence microscopy, ‰ow cytometry, 1 (55), cell division cycle 27 (56), murine double minute western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent 2 (57), and Ser 1524-phosphorylated topoisomerase IIa assay (ELISA) are conventionally used for g-H2AX de- (58). tection, and all these methods absolutely require anti-g- Here, we established human cells expressing enhanced H2AX antibody, which is an expensive consumable. green ‰uorescent protein (EGFP)-fused MDC1 (EGFP- Furthermore, staining with g-H2AX antibody is also MDC1) and developed an easy-to-use and rapid geno- burdensome and time consuming and high-throughput toxicity assay, which combines both the cells and a free screening with these methods would be di‹cult. For en- R program for imaging and statistical analysis (59). We vironmental and chemical management applications, an then demonstrated the e‹cacy of the genotoxicity assay easy-to-use and high-throughput method for chemical by testing several diŠerent types of mutagens, including genotoxicity screening would be advantageous. the DNA topoisomerase inhibitor CPT, the crosslinking Mediator of DNA damage checkpoint 1 (MDC1) is a agent CDDP, the bulky adduct-forming compounds large protein (2,089 amino acids) (33) which plays a 4NQO and B[a]P, and the alkylating agent MNU. central role in ampliˆcation and mediation of the DNA damage response (DDR). In human cells, when a DSB Materials and Methods occurs, the MRN complex composed of MRE11 (meiot- Chemicals: Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), MNU, ic recombination 11)/RAD50 (homolog of S. arabinofuranosyl cytosine (AraC) and HU were pur- cerevisiae's Rad50)/NBS1 (Nijmegen breakage syn- chased from Wako (Osaka, Japan). CDDP and CPT drome protein 1) binds to the DSB site (34), whereupon were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Missouri, USA). ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) protein is recruited 4NQO and B[a]P were purchased from Nacalai Tesque to the DNA lesion via NBS1 (35,36). ATM phosphory- (Kyoto, Japan). O6-benzylguanine (O6-BG) was pur- lates histone H2AX adjacent to the DSB site to form g- chased from Santa Cruz (California, USA). The chemi- H2AX (37). At the same time, DNA-dependent protein cals were dissolved in DMSO. kinase (DNA-PK) is also recruited to the DSB site and Cell culture: Human breast adenocarcinoma MCF7 phosphorylates H2AX (38). Subsequently, MDC1 binds cells were cultured in Dulbecco's Modiˆed Eagle's to g-H2AX (39) and brings additional ATM to the DSB Medium supplemented with 10z fetal bovine serum at site, expanding ATM-dependent H2AX phosphoryla- 379C in a humidiˆed 5z CO2 incubator. tion (40). The positive feedback loop involving ATM-g- Construction of pEGFP-C1/MDC1 plasmid: First, H2AX-MDC1 ampliˆes DDR signaling. In the case of the middle region of human MDC1 cDNA (KIAA0170) replication stress, ATM and rad3-related (ATR) protein were cut out with HindIII and EcoRIandinsertedinto phosphorylates H2AX at stalled replication forks the same sites of pEGFP-C1 vector (Clontech, Califor- (9,16). A recent report demonstrated that MDC1 binds nia, USA) (pEGFP-C1/MDC1 DNDC). Next, the 3? to topoisomerase II binding protein 1 (TopBP1) and terminus region of human MDC1 was ampliˆed from that both H2AX and MDC1 are required for formation human MDC1 cDNA by polymerase chain reaction of TopBP1 foci at stalled replication forks (41), suggest- (PCR) with the following primers: 3? terminus MDC1- ing a role for MDC1 in response to replication stress. By F, 5?-ccggaattccaatctcctgtcaccacagaccag-3? (an EcoRI these mechanisms, MDC1 immediately (within 5 min site is underlined); 3? terminus MDC1-R, 5?-tccccgcgg after ionizing irradiation) forms foci in the same loca- tcaggtggatgacatctccaaagggg-3? (a SacII site is under- tions as those formed by g-H2AX in response to DSBs lined). The PCR product was cut with EcoRI and SacII (2,42). andinsertedintopEGFP-C1/MDC1DNDCcutwith MDC1 has multiple domains for mediating pro- the same restriction enzymes (pEGFP-C1/MDC1 DN). tein–protein interactions and thus functions as an im- Subsequently, the 5? terminus region of human MDC1 portant adaptor which brings and retains various DDR was ampliˆed from human MDC1 cDNA by PCR with proteins to DSB sites through g-H2AX. The N-terminal the following primers: 5? terminus MDC1-F, 5?-ccc forkhead-associated domain interacts with Ser1981- aagcttccgaggacacccaggctattgactgg-3? (a HindIII site is phosphorylated ATM (40,43) and Thr68-phosphorylat- underlined); 5? terminus MDC1-R, 5?-cccaagctt ed checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2) (44) in response to DSBs ggcttttctccagagggacagcc-3? (a HindIII site is under- and constitutively with RAD51 recombinase (45); the lined). The PCR product was cut with HindIII and in- Ser-Asp-Thr repeats constitutively phosphorylated by serted into pEGFP-C1/MDC1 DN cut with the same casein kinase 2 interact with NBS1 (46–49); the Thr-Gln- restriction enzyme (pEGFP-C1/MDC1). Xaa-Phe repeats phosphorylated by ATM in response to Transduction of stable EGFP-MDC1-expressing DSBs interact with ring ˆnger protein 8 (50–52); the MCF7 (EGFP-MDC1/MCF7) cells: pEGFP-C1/ Pro/Ser/Thr repeats interact with DNA-PK (53); and MDC1 was transfected into MCF7 cells by Lipofecta- 1818 Genotoxicity Assay Using EGFP-MDC1 mine 2000 (Life technologies, California, USA) accord- LAS-1000 image analyzer controlled by Image Reader ing to the manufacturer's protocol. After 48 h, stable LAS-1000 Mini V1.21 software (Fujiˆlm, Tokyo, transformants were selected using medium supplement- Japan).
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