THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 15, 1953 A Bengal Village Shrimati Jyotirmoyee Sarma This is the twelfth in the series of Village Studies, It is based on fast-hand study of a village, the location of which has been indicated though its name has been withheld for obvious reasons. The author belongs to Bengal but was educated in the United Stairs from school onwards and took her PhD in Sociology from the University of Chicago. She worked on tace relations in the States and has published a paper on the Bengali joint household. She did field work in the village about which she writes early this year in the winter months.- Ed.

NLY a short distance from the houses and the fields are inter­ One may have some plots in the Ocity of Calcutta the face of the spersed and houses cluster on the potato fields, some in the paddy land of Bengal changes, and one higher lands. fields, sonic on one side of the village finds oneself in a country dotted with The village has 324 residences. and some on another. Lentils are villages and with a few big towns Of these, only five are brick houses, also grown in quantities sufficient in between. Although the inhabi­ belonging to families who were tor the villagers' own consumption. tants of these villages maintain con­ affluent in the past. The remainder Vegetables in season are also culti­ tact with the city, the contact is of are clay structures thatched with vated. The crops are grown in the a limited type, and village life for straw. Many of these owned by the following time order. In April jute most part is undisturbed by city in­ upper class have cement floors and is sown. In May paddy seedlings fluences and retains its stability and whitewashed walls. The usual plan are raised and in June, the seedlings self-sufficiency as much as modern of a house is to have several struc­ are transplanted. In September economic influences will allow. tures built around a square court­ Jute is cut and sold. In October The village we speak of lies thirty yard with a high wall all around. potatoes are planted, and they are miles from the railroad station of Each separate structure is one dug out and sold in March. In Howrah in the district of Hooghly. room. In a joint household, one December paddy is cut, and it is It is at a short distance from the room is made available to each threshed and separated from the temples of Tarakeshwara, and local married member and additional stalks also in March. Later on, rice- trains running on the small line will rooms may be built within the is husked by the women within take one there from Calcutta in two courtyard or outside the walls. each house. hours. The village covers about When a house is partitioned among Fruit trees of all types native to two square miles. The greater part different units of a joint family, the area, such as mango, bel, jam- of the residential section lies on the the members claim the rooms they rul, kal, guava, banana, papaya, eastern side of the rail lines, while have already been occupying with etc. abound in the village, and sup­ the western side contains mostly a part of the courtyard, and sepa­ ply the residents with fresh fruits agricultural fields and the Kayastrja rate structures may he put up for in season. Ponds are maintained and the Dhoba settlements. The kitchens. for growing fish as well as for bath­ river Kaushiki runs through a part Among the people of smaller ing and washing. Bamboo clusters of the village. It is only a dry means, and usually among the are a familiar sight in this area. stream in the winter but acquires a lower castes, the courtyards are Not only is bamboo necessary for considerable body of water during smaller and the number of rooms the loots of the clay structures but the rains. 'The village with its fields today it also brings a good price in fewer. The, rooms are also smaller sprawls about and has no particu­ the city markets. lar geometric shape. The boun­ in size. These dwellings usually daries between villages are the broad accommodate individual family SHARE CROPPING aals (raised, thin strip of land se­ units and not joint households. The upper class of people have parating the fields), river or road. Naturally the lower caste houses their land cultivated on the share The distinction of one village from tan be distinguished from the others system. The owner of the land sup­ another is mainly a matter of tradi­ in general appearance. plies seed and manure, while the tion, and today it is given formal cultivator supplies the plough and recognition in the governing body PATTERN OF CULTIVATION bullocks, and the crop is shared half of the Union Board. All the villagers are placed on and half. If one wants the entire the cultivation of land. Rice is produce, the cultivators are paid a LOCATION OF HOUSES NOT UNIFORM the basic crop grown and is used en­ daily wage. Similarly, with the Within the village, members of tirely for consumption. The major­ fish ponds, the owners lease the each of the castes live together in ity of the people have to buy rice in ponds to the fishermen for a period separate neighbourhoods, and these addition to what they grow. This of time and the latter look after the areas are called by the names of buying is usually from outside ponds and the fish. Whenever the the castes living in them. However, sources. Potato and jute are grown owner of the pond has need of fish, there is no uniform rule about this, as cash crops and provide ready the fisherman is sent for. Fish is and members of the same caste may­ money. They arc grown alternately caught with a net, and the house­ be found to be living together at on the same fields. Different fields holder gets half of the catch, and great distances if it. is so conveni­ are used for paddy which requires the fisherman the other half. If the ent, and lower caste people may be low land. Potato and jute arc householder wants all the fish, he found to settle near abouts high grown on the higher land. Neces­ must buy the fisherman's share at caste houses, especially if they arc sarily the individual holder of land the regular market price. Other­ the tenants of the latter. The does not have all his plots together. wise, the fisherman takes his share 901 August 15, 1953 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY to the nearby market for sale. one may go there to shop. other sources for maintaining the Among the residents of the village The major cottage industry in village estates and for retaining the the exchange of money is limited this village, as well as in the adjoin­ standard of living desired. As the as far as possible. ing villages, is weaving. Weaving standard of education is not very None of the householders own is a hereditary occupation among high, the desirable work is the hold­ very large quantities of land. There the caste of weavers .or T antis. ing of clerical jobs in the merchant are no exceptionally rich men in This area is well known for the pro­ arms or Government offices in this village. The joint family pro­ duction of some of the fine types Calcutta or in the towns around pel ties are divided into smaller of cotton saris, and dhotis of the Calcutta. Almost all the office- plots every successive generation. A quality desired in Bengal. The goers are daily commuters and calculation of actual land owner­ weavers are always in touch with spend much of their time travel­ ship is difficult and is the subject of the outside market for the sale of ling every day. This office-going a detailed study. Roughly land their cloth, as well as for the de­ has been going on for two genera­ ownership is of three types. (1) signs they produce. All the weavers tions and has given a particular Government property such as that from this and the surrounding stamp to the community. House­ owned by the railroads. (2) land areas bring their products for sale wives must rise early enough to for which a road cess is paid to the at the cloth hat held in Howrah provide a complete meal to the Government, such as the brahmot- early every Tuesday morning. office-goers by 6-30 a.m., and on tar lands which were at one time Weavers from great distances all week days, the upper caste houses gifts from the Maharaja of Burd- over Bengal bring their' goods to have only women and children in wan to the Bralunins of this and this hat. Here they sell their cloth them for twelve hours of the day. surrounding villages and the mal at wholesale prices to retailers and It is estimated that a monthly in­ lands owned by the Kayasthas casual buyers may also pick up come of Rs 150 or thereabouts in which were acquired formerly from attractive bargains. addition to the food grown in the zamindars on lease, and (3) praja- Weaving is not a profitable occu­ village is sufficient to provide com­ watta land, or land taken out on pation today. Due to the high cost fortable living to an average family. lease at a fixed rate of khajna of cotton yarn and the higher cost Anyone with an income of Rs 400 ( rent ) to the direct owner of land of living, few of the weavers are or more would be ' considered in the village or to a non-resident now independent producers. The wealthy. zamindar. All the Brahmins have majority take orders from maha- According to the census of 1951, brahmottar land. However, other jaus, who supply them with yarn our village has a population of castes may also have such land, for and the designs to be woven. The 1,603 persons with 752 females and a Brahmin in need will sell his land weavers may work on a daily wage 851 males. No great movement of to anybody and has often done so. or receive a part of the price of the population has taken place here, The Kayasthas got the mal land cloth. there being no influx of refugees while working for the zamindars In this village almost all the from Eastern Pakistan. The popu­ in the old days. Much of the praja- Tanti homes have one or two looms lation is divided into twenty caste swatta land is today owned by the and the male members work at groups, and five non-caste groups. Young Men's Zamindari Co-opera­ them. The women starch and wind The latter consist of the non-Hindu tive Society Limited. The former the yarn. The Tantis here own and the non-Bengali population. zamindar of this village who resid- land and grow as much of their own Non-Bengali people are spoken of ed in Midnapur sold his -zamindari food on the share system as the in terms of their province of ori­ to this co-operative society. The means of individual members per­ gin, such as Biharis or Oriyas. latter consists of several non-resi­ mit. In the adjoining village, how­ That they may have divisions among dents who have taken to the ever, little cultivation was noticed themselves is not a matter of inte­ management of zamindari as their among the Tantis. It will be seen rest to the community. Besides profession. Due to the continuous later that in our village the num­ these, there are some migratory divisions of land, the individual ber of other occupational castes is tribal people who come to these landowners among the higher castes small, and, therefore, no other parts in seasons of work. Mainly now own about fifteen to thirty major crafts exist. The few pots they are Oraons from the Palamau bighas of land. The lower castes made by the potters or the oil pro­ district, and other tribes under the usually are tenants on prajaswatta duced by the oil pressers are sold general label of coolie. The mem­ land, but many have bought some within the village or at the hat. bers of the Santal tribes who are besides, and are found to own from old settlers here, although they still two to five big has of land. THE BUSY HOUSEWIFE retain some tribal characteristics, In this agrarian self-sufficient have acquired the place of the low­ SELF-SUFFICIENT VILLAGE village, however, the influence of est of the caste groups. The migra­ The village is self-sufficient for the city is felt and transmitted by tory tribal people similarly are every-day purposes.. There is no the literate upper class members. thought of and treated as untouch­ market within its boundaries. There Working at office jobs in Calcutta able and low caste people. are only a few shops near the rail­ by the Brahmins, Kayasthas, and road station for sweets and medi­ now by a few Tantis has become MUSLIM COMMUNITY cines. A hat (weekly or bi-weekly a significant part of the village eco­ There is, moreover, a small market) is held twice a week on nomic system. As the income from Muslim population in this village. a piece of land bordering on the land is not sufficient for self-main­ Behaviour toward Muslims is like next village, a mile and a half tenance, and as individual owner­ the behaviour toward castes with away. All the consumers' neces­ ship of land becomes less and less whom social intercourse is not sities are met at this hat. A daily through continuous divisions of maintained. Muslims are ceremo­ market is held in the nearby town ancestral properties, it is impera­ nially unclean to the Hindus and, two miles away, and for emergency tive that money be brought in from therefore, untouchable. A general

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August 15, 1953 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY personal relationship is, however, CASTE HIERARCHY THE PRIVILEGED FEW maintained between members of the Similar to caste hierarchy every­ The Brahmin caste enjoys a sacred two groups. The menfolk are where in India, in our village the status of supremacy. The secular known to one another and they Brahmin caste is at the top, and rank of the Brahmins is also high, exchange friendly greetings on some castes are at the bottom. The compared to the castes lower in streets. Muslims of the moneyed latter have food habits and customs rank, but it is not necessarily the class or those superior on other ac­ which are ceremonially unclean to highest. The Kayastha caste here counts are treated with respect by Hindu ritualistic notions. Persons as elsewhere in Bengal ranks high the Hindus although at a distance. who deviate most from the Hindu in the secular level. In this village In this village no trouble arose ideals are ranked the lowest, as is it is noted by the Brahmins that the during the communal riots. The the case with the Santals and the few Kayastha families have been Muslims, like the Hindus, cultivate Oraons who still retain many tribal wealthier for generations, and well land. But they are also traders, traits. Castes such as Harhi, Dorn, advanced in education. T h e and in this village the majority are Muchi, etc, are considered low cas­ Kayastha caste has the tradition of dyers and spinners of yarn and also tes all over Bengal and are associat­ having worked as literary men in weavers. Near the Muslim neigh­ ed with unclean habits and low the courts of the Muslim rulers bourhood, there is a mosque and occupations. and over a length of time, many also a burial ground. of the Kayasthas leased or bought Castes at the bottom make con­ land from the Brahmins and became The following is the numerical scious efforts to move up, and their powerful zamindars themselves. order of the caste and other group desire for a change of status is re­ Kayasthas also acquired wealth affiliations of the heads of the 324 cognised by the rest of the com­ through trade and commerce. houses in the village. The actual munity. The first step toward this When the English system of educa­ number belonging to each group in change is the giving up of occupa­ tion started, the Kayasthas along the total population was not tions thought to be unclean. For with the Brahmins adjusted them­ counted: instance, the Muchis who used to selves to the new system quickly, work on leather and hides have and filled in large numbers all the Numerical Strength of Caste' given up that work, and for two professions and the ranks of Gov­ and Non-Caste Groups generations have taken to cultiva­ ernment service. The Kayastha tion only. They will not now even caste in this village produced one touch a dead animal. Their change well-known literary man at the end of occupation leaves a gap in the of the last century who was also a village division of labour as when high ranking Government official. a cow or a hull dies, some people His family is still considered the must carry the dead animal to the wealthiest in the village, whether place set apart for it and, if pos­ in fact they are or not. sible, skin it. Santals and Oraons now step into the breach and do It is noted that persons in village this work. Although they have not communities do not consciously cul­ taken to leather work completely, tivate family histories. The elders whenever a cow or a bull dies, they know the names of their ancestors clear the dead and lake the hide. for three or four generations, but little else about them unless they Although the castes in between happened to be peculiar or unique the top and the bottom do not have in some ways. On the whole, the any exact ranks, a general notion ancestors of all the old Brahmin prevails about them, as indicated in families functioned as priests to the the following classification: other Brahmin families. The Brah­ (1) .Brahmin mins are ranked among themselves (2) Kayastha on the basis of whether or not their (3) Tanti, Goala ancestors served as priests to npn- (4) Kumor, Kamar, Napit, Kolu, Brahmins, for the good Brahmins should not have done so. Today, Moyra however, many of the Brahmins of (5) Gandhabanik, Jugee the highest status serve as priests to (6) Mahishya Kayasthas, Tantis, and other non- (7) Bagdi, Dhoba, Muchi, Brahmins of high ranks. The Bag- Chunuri, Dom, Dule, Harhi dis have Brahmins of their own and (8) Santal so have the other castes of their The positions indicated arc general status. Brahmins acting as judged on the basis of the ceremo­ priests to these low castes cannot nial and the secular values of this inter-marry or inter-dine with the viMage and may vary from those in higher class Brahmins. No Bagdi other communities. They may also Brahmins reside in our village. They be held in disagreement within our are called from other villages when village, and any of the castes may requited. claim to be a little higher in posi­ The ancestors of the better class * Occupations or professions corres­ tion. This feeling prevails parti­ Brahmin families, besides acting as ponding to the caste groups are given cularly among castes grouped to be priests, were noted for their learn­ later. of equal status. ing and maintained tols (seminars). 904 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 15, 1953 Brahmin boys from great distances which equal feelings are maintained some land and grow as much of came there to be trained in Sanskrit between the two groups. On social their own food as possible. They grammar, literature and philosophy. occasions Kayasthas invite Brahmins are clean tastes, and may serve Knowledge of these subjects was to meals excluding rice. water to the Brahmins. However, then concomitant to priesthood. The castes such as Tanti (weav­ their standard of living is low, and Non-Brahmins were not admitted to ers) and Goala (milkmen) practise they have not yet taken to better­ tols, but they obtained secular edu- clean occupations and in this village, ing themselves through the means cation with Brahmins in pathsalas some of them are moneyed men. of education. The upper class peo­ (primary schools). Kayasthas often Between the two groups, the Tantis ple do not associate with them at stood on the same level with the are gaining the attention of the com­ close range. Brahmins in secular literary capa­ munity for their increasing literacy. The Gandhabanik (dealer in cities. A lew of them have also taken office spices caste is not very low in eco­ BHADRALOKS jobs whereas none of the Goalas has nomic status, but in keeping with The Brahmins and Kayasthas to­ done so. Brahmins take food, ex­ the position of Baniks (traders) gether (along with Baidyas in other cluding rice, in the homes of these elsewhere, if is ritnally low in rank. parts) form the upper class or two castes also. Brabmins will not take water from bhadralok (gentlemen) throughout members of this caste. The Jugee Bengal. Although Brahmins observe THE CLEAN CASTE forms a strong group in East. Bengal and maintain their ritual purity in The castes grouped in the fourth where it is supposed to have a Bud­ regard to the Kayasthas, informal position fill many of the various dhistic descent, In our village, how­ relations arc maintained between needs of village life. The Kumor ever, it is an inconspicuous caste, the two groups as a normal matter (potter), Kamar (ironsmith), Napit and its members do weaving and of course. Close friendships may (barber), Kolu ( oilpresser), Moyra cultivation. Similar to Baniks, the be formed, and informal visiting in (confectioner), all practise their Jugees do not have a ritually high homes take place frequently in caste occupations but they also own status.

905 August 15, 1953 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY THE ISOLATED TILLERS At the same time clothes washed enter the room of worship, until he The Mahishyas are the traditional by them become impure, and the has properly cleansed himself cultivating population of Bengal. womenfolk of the high castes rinse through fasting and bathing, and is In this community they are small out such clothes in clean water be­ wearing fresh clothes. In this man­ in number and do not show as much fore they wear them. The Muchis, ner he is separated from his ordi­ advancement in education and eco­ although they have given up their nary activities. Moreover, a visit nomic standard as the Mahishyas caste occupation, have not yet lost to the water closet makes one ritu- of the adjacent district of the their ritual uncleanliness. The Chu- ally unclean, and not only washing Twenty-Four Perganas. But the nuris make lime by burning snails but a change of clothes is impera­ families here all cultivate their own which is looked upon as a very dirty- tive. Before changing his clothes, land or have others to cultivate it occupation. The Doms are tradi­ a Brahmin may not enter his own for them, and have secure income tionally the watchers of the burning room or touch any household ob­ from farming. 'The Mahishyas are ghats (crematoria). Making of bas­ jects, and if he touches even a low not an impure caste, but are not in ketry from bamboo splits and canes taste (untouchable) at such a close association with the upper is another of their occupations. The moment, the latter will, be defiled class. Dules are fishermen. The Harhis and will need a change of clothing. are attendants of women at child­ The ritual feelings of impurity are The castes in group seven are the birth. The Harhi women are espe­ different from objective feelings of impure and so-called untouchable cially required to cut the umbilical uncleanliness in that the impurity- castes. The Bagdis also claim fann­ cord and to perform all the un­ is contagious. It is carried from ing to be "their only caste occupa­ pleasant tasks while taking care of one to another and from that to an­ tion. They are in numerical majo­ the mother and the new-born child. other merely through touch, al­ rity in the areas here. The physi­ The Santals, as already mentioned, though no physical dirt or other cal prowess of the men of this caste still retain many of their tribal symptoms of defilement can be dis­ used to be proverbial, and many of habits, and will perform many func­ cerned. And as such, the feeling of them were hired as guardsmen in tions in the village thought to be untoucliability is not one attached the old zamindaris of Bengal. Tra­ unclean by the other tastes. All to the impure castes alone. ditionally the Bagdis were also as­ these castes, however, perform some sociated with robbery and dacoity. acts of cultivation besides their caste RITUAL PURITY This is not to say that all the men occupations. Many of them may Women observe ritual purity more of this caste were engaged in cri­ have given up their caste occupa­ minal pursuits, but some well known particularly than men and the com­ tions altogether and do only farm­ munity behaves accordingly. For names of dacoits came from them. ing, especially on lands belonging to A remnant of this tradition is seen instance, Brahmin women are never others. These are the people who asked to dine at non-Brahmin today in the worship of the dacate usually- work on the share system Kali (the goddess of the dacoils or homes. They are not invited even or at a daily wage. It is not to be by the Kayasthas. Women from robbers). A Kali puja is held on thought that they give up other the night after Shiva chaturdashi any of the castes may- be asked to occupations and take to farming dine at a Brahmin house, however, in the month of February. A good merely to better themselves. The Brahmin priest performs the puja, although social intercourse between structure of the village economic women is limited. and the entire village community system is such today that the func­ as well as the villagers nearby come The feeling of untouchability docs tioning of many of the caste occu­ not bring complete .lack of contact to the ceremony, and participate in pations is not enough to bring a it by giving offerings and taking between members of the higher and proper income. Cultivation is taken the lower castes, but produces con­ vows. But it is of special signifi­ to as a necessity. cant e to the Bagdi caste. Its mem­ tact in a prescribed manner. For bers voluntarily perform all the out­ Much has been written about example, the Harhi or Bagdi ser­ side tasks for the ceremony for caste untouchability. It is to be vants in a Brahmin house may wash which their services may be allow­ noted here that the feeling of un- clothes and hang them out when ed, frequent the place in a body, touchability does not exist in rela­ wet but may not touch dry cloth­ and hold a fair. Fast is observed by tion to low castes only, but it may ing. They may wash the cooking the Bagdis almost universally on this prevail in regard to all men and utensils, but may not touch water occasion and all of them offer puja. objects in different situations. Thus, for either drinking or bathing. The myth about tins puja is that while low caste people would defile Women of higher castes have to be the bagdis used to perform it in the cooked food in high caste homes, employed for other types of work. old days before setting out for their the touching of such food and es­ Thus a Tanti or a Rainar woman dacoity expeditions. In this com­ pecially rice requires an amount of may come only to grind the spices munity it may be said that the ceremonial cleanliness from the and to clean the kitchen, but she Bagctis rank themselves, the highest householders themselves such as will not touch the cooked food or among the impute castes. How­ washing and putting on of fresh go near the lighted kitchen fire. ever, they cannot enter the inner clothes, and conversely, the touch­ The members of the community rooms of the houses of the high ing of the food defiles the hand or know which objects may be touch­ castes, and those among high tastes clothes or other objects, and these ed by which castes and their ritua­ who are particular about ritual must be washed at every turn. Here listic purity may still be retained. cleanliness, will change their clothes the matter is not of objective clean­ Caste rules are observed and if touched by the Bagdis. liness only, for a clean object com­ maintained within the households. ing in touch with one in which food The joint household is usual among had been kept will need to be equal­ the upper castes, but among the THE UNCLEAN CASTE ly washed. Similarly, the Brahmin lower castes, extended and compli­ The Dhobas are considered un­ who is the purest of man, cannot cated relationships within one house­ clean because they wash clothes. perform his sacerdotal duties, nor hold are rare. In a joint house- 906 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 15, 1953 hold, male descendants of the build­ son's age, and young children are VILLAGE LEADERSHIP er of the house stay in the same especially taught this habit. Brah­ Formerly the assembly of older premises over several generations. mins or Kayastha boys or girls will men of each caste gathered to judge Joint households dating over two call the Muchi or Bagdi cultivators any irregularities among its mem­ hundred years are common in the " uncle " or " elder brother " be­ bers and in the community as a village. When relationships within cause the latter have worked for whole. Such associations called the a house become greatly extended,' their house since before their birth. panchayet are completely lacking the house may be partitioned and Or they will call the Bagdi maid­ new. Persons of means in each separate kitchens set up for indivi­ servant " father's sister ". The latter caste may be looked to for leader­ dual family units. Each of these in turn may call the children in ship, but their decisions are not units may itself contain members of terma of tui (language used for sub­ necessarily binding. In the com­ three generations. If any members ordinate members by elders' of the munity as a whole, the literate per­ of the household need to reside house), indicating their superiority sons of the upper class are looked outside of the community, their in age and familiarity. Not only up to in critical situations. The share of the house is recognized by the children hut adults also may formal administration of the village the other members, and it may or call old people of lower castes by is now in the hands of the Union may not be used by the others. kin terms. Board. Nine villages are conjoined Lower caste people, on the other In relations with persons of equal in the Union Board of which our hand, usually tend to separate from status in the village, as of same village is a part. The number is their brothers after the death of the caste and economic status, the ap­ fixed by the district government. father, or soon after they are mar­ plication of kinship terminology is Nine persons are elected to the ried, due primarily to the smallness complete for all members of that Union Board including the presi­ of the dwelling units, and the fact house. Thus if the old man is called dent. A resident from each village that every male member must earn grandfather, his son will be called may not be elected. The Union his own income. Unless some in­ " father's brother " and so forth. Board employs one secretary, and come comes from a common source, Friendship relations often take place chowkidars (village watchmen) for a joint household has no particular between members of such closely each of the villages, the numbers advantage. interacting households. Friendships varying from one to two according are between persons of same sex, KINSHIP BEHAVIOUR to the size of the communities. The and usually between persons of same office of the Union Board is in the Although the house and property age. Boys who have grown up to­ home of the president. The district may be partitioned if members of a gether or gone to school together government authorities appoint four joint household are not on close think of each other as friends. members of the Union Board for a terms, formal kinship behaviour is Friendship may also be ritualised court. It hears cases of legal dis­ retained among them. On occasions in which situation two persons swear putes among the residents. Matters when help is needed, as during mar­ friendship to each other for always of debts and loans of less than two riage or death, it would be consider­ and call each other with a definite hundred rupees are decided here. ed shameful if all the members of term meant for friends. Various The court has the power to subject a house did not help one another. terms are in use which either moan an offender to imprisonment upto Within such a household a child friends or are symbolic of affection fifteen days or fine upto fifty rupees. grows up with children other than and loyalty. 'This is true also for The Union Board collects taxes, his brothers and sisters. Cousins girls. Friends may be of any caste. makes and repairs roads, installs are treated as siblings and the great­ Friendship is recognized as a per­ tube wells, and looks after the free er the amity between them, the sonal relation distinguished from primary schools maintained by the more will be the harmony in the social relation, and may be main­ Government. Taxes are collected joint household in later years. Si­ tained while both the parties observe according to the income one has milarly, a child learns to behave their caste prohibitions. It is usual, from land or other properties with­ toward those of his parents' gene­ however, for friendship to deve­ in the village-. The expenditures ration, such as his father's brothers lop among people of equal status. undertaken are sanctioned by the and their wives, his father's sisters, For instance. Brahmins are more district authorities. Although no etc, with as much respect as due his apt to make friends with other toads are wide enough for motor own parents, and with more of it, Brahmins or with Kayasthas and vehicles, the main roads are good if they arc older than his father. Tantis than with members of other enough for bullock carts and bicy­ Different kin terms are applied to castes. cles. There arc five deep tube wells uncles and aunts, according to whe­ As the village is stable, boys' distributed in the different neigh­ ther they are older or .'younger from friendships last to mature years, and bourhoods. The majority of the father, and they arc distinguished although with the growth of other villagers drink water drawn from in a numerical order by age. A interests the intensity of sentiments them lather than from the ponds. grandfather's brother is also called may diminish, the mutual calling of grandfather, distinguishing the older each other as friends is always con­ FREE PRIMARY SCHOOL and younger numerically, and equal tinued. Girls are often married There is a free primary school in respect and affection are given to away from the community, and the village. It is attended by boys them. their movements are limited. So and girls of this and the neighbour­ the friendships they make in their ing villages, as there are only three REGARDLESS OF CASTE childhood often come to a break. primary schools in the entire Union. In the village one applies kinship Also they are so completely absorb­ Although the schools are free and terminology to everyone with whom ed within the household that they open to members of all castes, a look he has any personal contact, regard­ rarely take interest in forming now at the list of students shows that the less of caste or economic status. Con­ friendships in the community in attendance is mainly from the upper sideration is taken only of the per­ which they are married. castes. The leaders of the commu- 907 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 15, 1953

908 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 15, 1953 nity often request the lower caste especially in the matter of con­ Some land is bequeathed to the parents to send their children to trolling mishaps or misfortunes. If temple, the income from which is school, but it is due to the ignorance anything goes wrong, for instance kept in the temple fund. The tem­ of the guardians that these children if a person falls ill, or if his house ple priest and his family also live are denied schooling. The primary burns down accidentally, or if he on the income from this land. The schools end at class four level. does not get enough crops from his deity symbolizes one manifestation Only two high schools are there fields, it is ascribed to his bad luck, of Durga, and is worshipped every in the villages comprising the Union. or to his having failed to have per­ day. The villagers, however, do The high school in our village ends formed some rituals which angered not have much contact with the at class nine and docs not prepare the gods, or on account of the evil temple, and visit it only if they students for the school final exami­ winds. The lack of scientific think­ make vows of offerings to the deity nation. The high school in the ing is much greater among women on recovering from illness, or from adjoining village does, however, ex­ than among men, and more among having some other desires fulfilled. tend upto class ten, and of the four the lower castes than among the The deities more popular in the boys in our village preparing for the higher castes. Thus, for instance, village are the stone images lying school final examination, two go to if a child falls ill, instead of think­ under some of the big trees. They the latter school, and two go to the ing of a doctor, the housewives call are placed on a high altar built high school at the big town of Sin- an ojha belonging to lower castes under the trees, and the housewives gur, ten miles away, commuting by for driving away the evil spirit and come and worship them there and train. at the same time offerings are made bring them offerings. Women from There is no girls' school other to Shasthi, the goddess who pro­ the lower castes also visit these than the primary school. Girls de­ pitiates children. Actually in this deities as well as those of the higher siring to go to school after the com­ village, there is no medical man. castes. The images of Shiva pre­ pletion of class four will have to Two physicians who live in the dominate and those of Shasthi (pro­ commute by train either to Singur town two or three miles away are pitiator of children), Shitala (healer or to Srirampur which is fifteen called for grown ups who can of smallpox), and Manasa (con­ miles away. As a result, to this day afford to pay them. One quack troller of snakes) are also common. only one girl from this village has doctor practises in the village and passed the school final examination. is patronised mainly by the lower GAY RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS class population. A few of the Brahmin and Kaya- The worship of the permanent stha young men are attending col­ Belief in astrology is strong, not images call forth individual acts of leges in Calcutta. Joining com­ only in cases of misfortunes but in worshipping. Collective participa­ mercial colleges is especially favour­ sacied ritual life in general. All tion in religious ceremonies, how­ ed. The purpose of college educa­ religious festivals here as through­ ever, takes place on festival days. tion is mainly to prepare one for an out Bengal are calculated astro­ These are numerous and a few will office job. Only one young man in nomically, and auspicious days such be mentioned here. The Durga the village is studying for a Mas­ as giving first rice to babies, sacred Puja in autumn is an occasion for ter's degree. He is a Brahmin of a thread, and marriage. The printed festivities among all people here as family of noteworthy literary tradi­ almanacs making known these dates everywhere in Bengal. Formerly tion. He had been holding a job common everywhere in Bengal are Durga Puja used to be held in four which he gave up to go to the also in use here. houses among the Brahmins and University. The villagers thought Kayasthas. In the last twenty-five him queer for this, although his SYMBOL OF SOLIDARITY years, however, only one puja is interest in learning earned him res­ The ritualistic activities of the held to which all castes contribute. pect. Hindu religion are practised in the It is stated that none of the fami­ households. Most houses and espe­ NO NEWSPAPERS lies are now wealthy enough to cially those of the high castes have celebrate Durga Puja on its own. One library has been established a separate room for worship in All tastes come to observe the cere­ in the village through the efforts of which the image of a deity has been mony and share the joyfulness of the young men and it is endowed installed for several generations. the occasion, but only the Brah­ with private contributions. It now This deity is a symbol of solidarity mins, Kayasthas and Tantis offer has thirteen hundred books. Circu­ between the various branches of a pushpanjali (flower offerings). Two lation of daily newspapers is com­ household, even after the house is years ago the Bagdis also wanted pletely lacking in the homes. The partitioned. The cost of worship the right to offer pushpanjali. They men commuting to Calcutta every is borne by all members of the were not permitted, however, as the day bring back news of any impor­ house. A priest comes to worship good Brahmins who were pnests of tance. Two of the Brahmins and the deity daily or periodically as the ceremony would not officiate two Kayasthas have battery radio is customary in the household. A for the Bagdis. The latter were sets in their homes. These are espe­ Brahmin householder is not expect­ told by the higher castes to have cially meant to provide entertain­ ed to do his own worship if the Durga Puja of their own with their ment, but the news is also heard. image is that of Narayana, and on own priests, and the entire village The tradition of rural dramas important occasions he must have would contribute to it. The Bagdis and folk songs on festive occasions a priest from another Brahmin did not consent to it, but stayed is still retained. But the cinema family. It is also customary to draw away in a body that year from the also attracts attention, and both the priest from a definite family ceremony. The feeling was not men and women will sometimes go from father to son. against the Bagdis offering pushpan­ ten to fifteen miles by train to see The village has a temple. This jali but in having the good Brahmin a cinema show. one, similar to most temples in Ben­ priests serve it for them. There is little secular or scienti­ gal, was built by the influential Historically Durga Puja is an fic thinking among the villagers, zamindars several centuries ago. upper class ceremony, being per- 909 August 15, 1953 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY formed in the old days by the kings different areas. But the features nistration of the Union Board, the and zamindars. Today it is becom­ marked here, such as the division difficulties in attainment of ade­ ing universal through the medium of labour among castes and their quate education, hygiene, and of the community fund collection. interdependence in forming the medicine, lack of scientific thought, But in the rural communities some solidarity of village life, the joint and the performance of religious of the other religious festivals ap­ household among the higher castes, rituals which integrate the house- peal more widely and closely to all personal types of relations with all ' hold as well as the entire village, castes. The instance of the dacate members of village regardless of are common to village communities Kali Puja has already been cited. caste difference, the formal admi­ all over Bengal. Rathajatra or Doljatra (Holi) are among many of the festivals uni­ versal throughout India which are here also celebrated by persons of all castes together. The festival of Paush-parbana in January is the harvest festival and celebrated with much gaiety throughout rural Ben­ gal. The goddess Laxmi is wor­ shipped in all the homes, and a particular type of sweets called pitha prepared from ground rice and lentils with coconuts or sweet pota­ toes are prepared that day in houses big or small. A general joyfulness in the village marks the occasion.

WORSHIP THROUGH PENANCE Gajan is another festival of rural bengal. This festival is related to Shiva who is conceived as a beggar mendicant not wanting any of the luxuries of life, and, therefore, not requiring any costly ingredients for his worship. The Shiva temples of Tarakeshwara near our village are often visited during all ceremonies relating to Shiva. On the last day of the Bengali year, about the mid­ dle of April, the festival of Gajan is held. For a month prior to it, many men become mendicants temporarily and offer their penances to Shiva. The penances are the fulfilment of vows the persons may have made for an answer to their prayers. Many of the penances are performed with acrobatic feats to the delight of onlookers. Anybody from any caste may become a men­ dicant. For the time being, no caste difference remains among them, and they are all thought to be holy mem. Formerly many of the pe­ nances performed at Gajan were extremely painful. These have gone out of fashion of late. The village community described heir is not only typical of the Hooghly district, but of the whole of rural Bengal within a radius of forty or fifty miles from Calcutta. Beyond this, the picture changes somewhat in that the menfolk of the upper class cannot commute to the offices in Calcutta, but must stay away from the village alto- gether and take residence in the city. Some differences may also be found in the subsidiary crops grown in the 910 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY August 15, 1953 Open Forum These columns arc thrown open to the public for ventilating genuine grievances and drawing at ten- turn to specific cases where our mixed economy miscarries. One such was the case of the Fountain Pen Ink manufacturing industry discussed in an earlier issue (Made in India: Plight of Fountain Pen Ink In­ dustry, July 18) where tariff protection and restriction on imports were negatived by the issue of licences for setting up production within the country to the very same manufacturers from whom the indigenous in­ dustry is sought to be protected. Following arc two other cases, the first relates to transport policy restricting exports of valuable foreign exchange earners; and the second to import control that is impairing housing and building construc­ tion.—Ed Wagon Supply, Railway Siding and Export of Ores Shri M C Mitra, a retired officer storage space is allotted. Thus no and Madras with a central organisa­ of the Indian Railways, now Manag­ one can export any ore unless a plot tion co-ordinating these offices. ing Director, Mitra (India) Ltd, Cal­ is allotted to him and as this is Allotment, of plots and wagons cutta, writes: entirely at the discretion of the Port should be the responsibility of this DESPITE abundant supplies and Commissioners, trade from this' port organisation only This organisa­ large overseas demand, expor­ is virtually controlled by them. A tion could be made to pay its way ters of ore, particularly those deal­ number of plots have, in fact, been by the levy of a small surcharge but ing in iron and manganese ores, are allotted by the Port Commissioners, it is essential that it should be run hemmed in with so many restric­ but the way in which this has been by men who know the business, and tions that they are unable to carry done leaves much to be desired. whose primary function will be to out their tasks .satisfactorily. The Some resourceful exporters have assist the trade. ports from which these ores are managed to get several plots under AGAINST A STONE WALL! various names. Even forwarding and exported are chiefly Calcutta, Bom For instance, during the monsoons bay, Madras and Visakhapatnam. clearing agents, who have plots, have entered into long-standing agree­ the railways are sometimes in a The conditions prevailing in Cal­ ments with these plot holders. The position to allot more wagons for cutta differ, however, from those at result is that a monopoly has been ore traffic, but the Port Commis­ the other ports, the trade being created in favour of the existing sioners are unable to cope with the virtually controlled by the Port large shippers. additional traffic as they have a Commissioners of Calcutta. In the limited number of wagons to cara­ other ports it is the railways that An Ore Committee has been set the ores from the storage plots to control the trade. While Calcutta up to advise the Port Commissioners the jetty. The Port Commissioners, serves the mining areas of South in the matter of ore export, but it is however, have plenty of space for Bihar and Orissa, the other ports dominated largely by vested interests. storage. With a little organisation, serve Madhya Pradesh and the min­ Further allotment of plots has been loading by barges could be easily ing areas in South India. stopped, and the wagons of two of arranged, eliminating the use of the biggest forwarding and clearing Port Commissioners wagons alto­ SLUGGISH MOVEMENT agents taken away from them and gether. The Port Commissioners In ports other than Calcutta, given to parties who were closely have also lands on the other side of applications for wagons are not con­ associated with the monopoly ring. the river at Shalimar. Several of sidered by the railways until a As a result of protests, the Port these plots are lying idle or are foreign Letter of Credit is produced. Commissioners have at last been being utilized only partially and Now, no foreign buyer will incur the made to sit up and take stock of there is no reason why these sidings, expenditure of opening an L/C the position, but there is little pros­ with minor modifications, cannot be unless he is reasonably assured of pect of any improvement. With all used for ore traffic. There are seve­ shipments. Even if a buyer takes the confusion in the allotment of ral business firms who would be the risk after inspecting the stocks plots, the movement of ores from quite prepared to do shipments from at the mines, he is sorely disappoint­ the mines has considerably fallen this area, but are told that consign­ ed and incurs heavy losses, as the off, and the mine owners are natur­ ments of ore other than to Calcutta railways allot very few wagons. If ally hard hit as they can hardly be docks are non-preferential, and book­ the exporter is lucky, he can hope to expected to look after the export ing of ore to Shah mar in particular move about 500 tons per month. trade themselves. Until the prob­ is permanently closed. There is a The average, however, hardly exceeds lem is solved, no plot holder should large railway siding on the west bank zoo tons a month. Foreign buyers be permitted to have more than ten of the river at Uluberia. Arrange­ are not interested in such small wagon allotments, either in his own ments have been made by a firm, quantities and now insist on ready name or in the name of ' sister com­ for the storage of ores and barge stocks at port before opening L/C. panies '. Also plot holders, who do shipments from this siding, but A vicious circle is thus created, not make at least two shipments in wagons are riot being allowed by the resulting in stagnation, or at best, a year, should have their plots and railway to move the ore from the only a sluggish movement .so that wagons cancelled. This should mines on account of the restrictions "huge quantities of high grade ores, release a considerable number of already mentioned. Thus, wherever winch could have earned precious wagons for fresh allotment. he may go, and whatever he may do, foreign exchange, lie idle at consider­ The ore trade is of such great the exporter only knocks his head able loss to the country. importance to the country that it will against a stone wall! In Calcutta, under existing arrange­ be worthwhile having a special orga­ Port Commissioners will not give ments, ores can be moved only to nisation like that of the Coal Com­ out pints, they will not reallot plots the sidings of the Port Commis­ missioners, but without the power that have not brought them any sioners of Calcutta, and no wagons to interfere in normal trade. Offices traffic for months together, and they for this purpose are allowed unless may be located in Calcutta, Bombay will not arrange for " Barge Load- 911