DOCSLIB.ORG

Safety Aspects of Offshore Oil and Gas Operations in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Waters

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Safety Aspects of Offshore Oil and Gas Operations in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Waters Safety Aspects of Offshore Oil and Gas Operations in Arctic and Sub-Arctic Waters Tarantola, S., Rossotti, A., Flitris, E. 2019 EUR 29572 EN This publication is a Technical report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s science and knowledge service. It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process. The scientific output expressed does not imply a policy position of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication. For information on the methodology and quality underlying the data used in this publication for which the source is neither Eurostat nor other Commission services, users should contact the referenced source. The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Union concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Contact information Name: Marcelo Masera Address: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Westerduinweg 3, 1755 ZG Petten, The Netherlands Email: [email protected] Tel.: (+31) 224 565403 EU Science Hub https://ec.europa.eu/jrc JRC114560 EUR 29572 EN PDF ISBN 978-92-79-98398-6 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/866261 Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2019 © European Union, 2019 The reuse policy of the European Commission is implemented by the Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Except otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated. For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not owned by the EU, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. All content © European Union, 2019, except: [cover page: pixabay.com; incredible Arctic, fotolia.com]; [images in chapters 2, 6, and 7, sources mentioned inside the document] How to cite this report: Tarantola, S., Rossotti, A., Flitris, E., Safety Aspects of Offshore Oil and Gas Operations in Arctic and sub-arctic Waters, EUR 29572 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2019, ISBN 978-92-79-98398-6, doi:10.2760/866261, JRC114560. Contents Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 2 The Arctic area ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 2.1 Geographical description of the Arctic area ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 The Arctic climate........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9 2.3 Spatial distribution of Oil & Gas fields ................................................................................................................................................................ 11 2.4 Arctic continental shelf claims..................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 2.4.1 Arctic Territorial or Maritime Disputes which have been resolved ......................................................................... 15 2.4.2 Arctic Territorial or Maritime Disputes which remain unresolved ........................................................................... 16 2.5 Drilling activities ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17 2.6 Costs of oil production in the Arctic Seas ......................................................................................................................................................... 18 2.6.1 Factors that shape the prices of Arctic oil production ........................................................................................................ 18 2.6.2 Market conditions ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 3 Winterisation standards................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.1 DNV GL rules for mobile offshore units ............................................................................................................................................................. 20 3.2 DNV GL offshore Arctic standards ........................................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.3 Anti-icing and anti-freezing measures ................................................................................................................................................................ 24 3.4 De-icing measures .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24 3.5 Selection of metallic material ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 3.6 Selection of non-metallic material and electronic components .................................................................................................. 26 3.7 Other technical issues and solutions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 26 4 Pollution in the Arctic environment from offshore Oil & Gas activities ............................................................................................ 28 5 Safety and contingency plans in the Arctic ................................................................................................................................................................... 33 5.1 The safety issue ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33 5.2 Contingency plans .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 6 Accidents on Arctic and sub-Arctic offshore installations .............................................................................................................................. 38 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 6.2 Accident Database................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39 6.3 Landmark Accidents .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 45 6.3.1 Kolskaya jack-up drilling rig (Sea of Okhotsk, 17 Dec 2011) ...................................................................................... 45 6.3.2 Kulluk conical drilling rig (Gulf of Alaska, 31 Dec 2017) ................................................................................................. 47 7 Recent research activities .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 50 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • THE CLIMATE CASE AGAINST ARCTIC DRILLING August 2015
    AUGUST 2015 UNTOUCHABLE: THE CLIMATE CASE AGAINST ARCTIC DRILLING August 2015 Conceived, written and researched by Hannah McKinnon with contributions from Steve Kretzmann, Lorne Stockman, and David Turnbull Oil Change International (OCI) exposes the true costs of fossil fuels and identifies and overcomes barriers to the coming transition towards clean energy. Oil Change International works to achieve its mission by producing strategic research and hard-hitting, campaign-relevant investigations; engaging in domestic and international policy and media spaces; and providing leadership in and support for resistance to the political influence of the fossil fuel industry, particularly in North America. www.priceofoil.org Twitter: @priceofoil Greenpeace is the leading independent campaigning organization that uses peaceful protest and creative communication to expose global environmental problems and to promote solutions that are essential to a green and peaceful future. www.greenpeace.org Cover: ©Cobbing/Greenpeace CONTENTS SUMMARY 2 Key Findings 3 UNBURNABLE CARBON 4 ARCTIC OIL FAILS THE CLIMATE TEST 5 THE PERCEPTION OF NEED AND A BET ON CLIMATE FAILURE 6 Arctic Oil Is Too Expensive for the Climate 8 LEADING THE PACK IN THE HUNT FOR UNBURNABLE CARBON 10 STRANDED ASSETS 11 FOSSIL FUEL FATALISM 13 #SHELLNO: PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY RISKS 14 CONCLUSION 16 2 SUMMARY There is a clear logic that can be applied to the global challenge of addressing climate change: when you are in a hole, stop digging. An iceberg spotted in calm waters on the edge of Kane Basin, If we are serious about tackling the global climate crisis, we need in late evening light. to stop exploring, expanding, and ultimately exploiting fossil fuels.
    [Show full text]
  • Russia's Ring of Fire
    Russia’s Ring of Fire Kamchatka, the Commander & Kuril Islands 26th May to7th June 2021 (13 days) Zodiac cruise & Auklet flocks by N. Russ The Pacific Ring of Fire manifests itself in numerous places on the rim of the Pacific Ocean – but nowhere more dramatically than in Russia’s Far East. Along one of the world’s most active plate boundaries, the Pacific plate subducts under the Eurasian plate and the resulting volcanic and geothermal activity has built a unique and amazing landscape. Upwelling from the deep trenches formed by this action and currents around the many islands means there is an abundance of food for both birds and marine mammals, making the seas here amongst the richest in the world. The region’s human history is as interesting and as fascinating as the geological history and it is closely connected to the oceans that surround it. The earliest people to settle in the RBL Russia - Ring of Fire Itinerary 2 region, the Ainu, lived from the sea. Explorer Vitus Bering and, at the height of the Cold war, Russia’s formidable Pacific Fleet, were based in the region. The secrecy surrounding the fleet resulted in the region being ‘closed’ even to Russians, who had to obtain special permits to travel to and within the area. It is only now, two decades since Perestroika, that people can travel relatively freely here, although there is still very little in the way of infrastructure for visitors. This voyage takes us where very few people have been – or are able to go. The region falls into three quite distinct and unique geographical regions: the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Commander Islands (the western extremity of the Aleutian chain of islands) and the Kuril Islands.
    [Show full text]
  • Soviet Naval Force Control and the Red Naval C System: What the Blue Commander Needs to Know
    Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive Theses and Dissertations Thesis Collection 1989 Soviet Naval Force Control and the Red naval C system: what the Blue commander needs to know Tondu, Jennifer L. Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/26259 NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL Monterey, California 7 3-^35 SOVIET NAVAL FORCE CONTROL AND THE RED NAVAL C^ SYSTEM: WHAT THE BLUE COMMANDER NEEDS TO KNOW by Jennifer L. Tondu March 1988 Thesis Advisor: James G. Taylor Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. T24239 classified irity classification of this page REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Restrict ive Report Security Classification Lnclassified lb Markings Security Classification Authority 3 Distribution Availability of Report Declassification Downgrading Schedule Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Performing Organization Report Number(s) 5 Monitoring Organization Report Number(s) Name of Performing Organization 6b Office Symbol 7a Name of Monitoring Organization aval Postgraduate School (if applicable) 39 Naval Postgraduate School Address (city, state, and ZIP code) 7b Address (city, state, and ZIP code) onterev, CA 93943-5000 Monterey, CA 93943-5000 Name of Funding Sponsoring Organization 8b Office Symbol 9 Procurement Instrument Identification Number (if applicable) Address (dry, state, and ZIP code) 10 Source of Funding Numbers Program Element No Project No Task No Work Unit Accession N Title (include security classification) SOVIET NAVAL FORCE CONTROL AND THE RED NAVAL C3 SYSTEM: WHAT IE BLUE COMMANDER NEEDS TO KNOW Personal Author(s) Jennifer L. Tondu a Type of Report 13b Time Coyered 14 Date of Report (vear. month, day) Page Count aster's Thesis From To March 1988 90 Supplementary Notation The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or po- ion of the Department of Defense or the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Annual Report 2013
    ANNUAL REPORT 2013 GREENPEACE INTERNATIONAL CONTENTS 01 Message from the Executive Director 03 02 Message from our Board Chair 04 Our Board Of Directors 05 03 The Global Programme 06 A new way of working 08 The Greenpeace fleet 10 Renewing energy 12 Saving the Arctic 14 Saving the Arctic: The Arctic 30 16 Protecting our forests 20 Defending our oceans 22 Detoxing our world 24 Celebrating ecological food and farming 26 04 People power 28 Our dedicated volunteers 30 Your support: Thank you! 32 05 Organisation Director’s report 36 Greenpeace worldwide abbreviated financial statements 38 Greenpeace International abbreviated financial statements 42 Environmental report 46 Staff members on permanent contract 48 06 Office contact details 50 Written and edited by: Matt Farquharson, Edwin Nichols. We would also like to thank everybody who contributed to this Annual Report. Art Direction and Design by: Atomo Design www.atomodesign.nl Cover image: © Daniel Beltrá / Greenpeace JN 472 © Rose Sjölander / Greenpeace © Rose Sjölander / Greenpeace 2 Greenpeace International Annual Report 2013 SECTION MESSAGE 01 FROM THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR Campaigning for a peaceful, just and green future is no longer the job of a specialised few, but the common struggle of all. As the distance between rich and poor grows, and the grip of old power systems wreaks ever more havoc on the natural world, our struggle will and must intensify. The old, polluting industries will not give up without a fight. They have had several hundred years at the top, they exert a corrupting influence at every level of our governments and institutions. We must break their grip on all forms of power.
    [Show full text]
  • Argus Nefte Transport
    Argus Nefte Transport Oil transportation logistics in the former Soviet Union Volume XVI, 5, May 2017 Primorsk loads first 100,000t diesel cargo Russia’s main outlet for 10ppm diesel exports, the Baltic port of Primorsk, shipped a 100,000t cargo for the first time this month. The diesel was loaded on 4 May on the 113,300t Dong-A Thetis, owned by the South Korean shipping company Dong-A Tanker. The 100,000t cargo of Rosneft product was sold to trading company Vitol for delivery to the Amsterdam-Rotter- dam-Antwerp region, a market participant says. The Dong-A Thetis was loaded at Russian pipeline crude exports berth 3 or 4 — which can handle crude and diesel following a recent upgrade, and mn b/d can accommodate 90,000-150,000t vessels with 15.5m draught. 6.0 Transit crude Russian crude It remains unclear whether larger loadings at Primorsk will become a regular 5.0 occurrence. “Smaller 50,000-60,000t cargoes are more popular and the terminal 4.0 does not always have the opportunity to stockpile larger quantities of diesel for 3.0 export,” a source familiar with operations at the outlet says. But the loading is significant considering the planned 10mn t/yr capacity 2.0 addition to the 15mn t/yr Sever diesel pipeline by 2018. Expansion to 25mn t/yr 1.0 will enable Transneft to divert more diesel to its pipeline system from ports in 0.0 Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr the Baltic states, in particular from the pipeline to the Latvian port of Ventspils.
    [Show full text]
  • Projected Construction of a Timber Industry Complex on the Sakhalin Island, Russia, Will Have the Capacity to Process Over 1.2 M
    Projected construction of a timber industry complex on the Sakhalin island, Russia, will have the capacity to process 3 over 1.2 million m of raw material per year The ECC (Eurasian Communication Centre) along with WhatWood consultant agency had been tasked by the government of the Sakhalin region to conduct a study of the timber industry’s possible development directions within the Sakhalin area. This article presents the main findings of the study. By the directive of the Sakhalin regional government, it is planned to construct one of the largest wood processing centers in all of Russia. The complex will be located in the central part of the island withing the Tymovskoye urban locality. The project will incorporate a diversified range of production, including softwood lumber, cross-laminated timber products, linear meter timber products, fuel pellets, fuel chips and oriented strand board products. The timber industry takes up a position in the top-10 list of measures for implementing the “Strategy-2035” plan in the region. The economic feasibility of the timber industry construction within the Sakhalin region is apparent: availability of resources, proximity to major sales markets (China, Japan, Korea) and ready-made infrastructure. The target annual consumption of raw wood materials by the region’s timber industry is estimated be up to 1.2 million m3 per year. The species structure is mainly composed of conifers (77% softwood and 23% hardwood species). The annual allowable cut for the target forest districts (Okhtinskoe, Noglikskoe, Aleksandrovskoe, Tymovskoe, Smirnykhovskoe) adds up to 1.9 million m3 per year. The production site location is selected in such a way as to minimize the hauling distance.
    [Show full text]
  • An Analysis of LEGO's Response to an Attack on Its Partnership With
    60 — Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, Vol. 7, No. 1 • Spring 2016 An Analysis of LEGO’s Response to an Attack on its Partnership with Royal Dutch Shell MaryClaire Schulz Strategic Communications Elon University Abstract In 2014, Greenpeace launched an attack on a 50-year brand partnership between Danish toy company LEGO and Royal Dutch Shell, an oil and gas corporation. Through the analysis of Greenpeace’s campaign and LEGO’s responses over a three-month period, this case study examined how Greenpeace influenced LEGO’s communications with its consumers and its subsequent decision to terminate its partnership with Shell. Findings suggest that the popularity of a Greenpeace viral video played a role in LEGO’s decision, in addition to accusations questioning LEGO’s investment in children’s futures. I. Introduction In light of worldwide economic hardship and an increasingly competitive business market, it seems that a family-owned business specializing in the manufacturing of tiny plastic building bricks would be struggling for success. But careful craftsmanship coupled with decades of strategic branding has led the Danish toy company LEGO Group to become one of the most popular toy companies in the world. However, LEGO’s 50-year partnership with oil and gas corporation Royal Dutch Shell caught the attention of Greenpeace in July 2014, which launched a campaign attacking the toy company for supporting a corporation threatening the Arctic environment. Greenpeace’s attack on the partnership peaked with its release of a YouTube video titled “LEGO: Everything is NOT awesome,” a work by BAFTA-winning creative agency Don’t Panic.
    [Show full text]
  • Japan's Karafuto Governorate (1905–1945): History and Social Memory
    DOI: 10.24411/2658-6789-2019-10011 Japan’s Karafuto Governorate (1905–1945): History and Social Memory S.V. GRISHACHEV Abstract. The history of colonies under the rule of the Japanese Empire in the first half of the 20th century has not been explored well enough so far. For example, the history of Karafuto Governorate (1905–1945), which existed in southern Sakhalin, is covered very little, while some aspects of its history are not known at all. This article focuses on the history of Karafuto Governorate’s formation and its socio-economic structure, namely territorial development after the Russo-Japanese war, its role and status in the colonial system of Japan, the use of the island’s main economic resources and the creation of socio-cultural space, as well as along the memorialization of the colonial past of the Japanese Empire’s northern borders. In addition, this article describes the process of the governorate’s liquidation (it started after the accession of southern Sakhalin to the USSR after the Second World War) followed by passing the governance to the Soviet administration, co-residence of Soviet and Japanese people on the same territory in 1945–1948, the deportation of Japanese people and the fate of the Korean population of the island. The article gives examples of how the memory of the Japanese presence on Sakhalin Island is preserved in Japan and Russia today. Keywords: Karafuto Governorate, colonization, Japanese Empire, Toyohara, the Second World War, social memory. Historical Background From the moment relations between Russia and Japan were established and up to the end of World War II, Sakhalin Island was a territory which the two countries repeatedly divided between themselves.
    [Show full text]
  • United Nations Code for Trade and Transport Locations (UN/LOCODE) for Russia
    United Nations Code for Trade and Transport Locations (UN/LOCODE) for Russia N.B. To check the official, current database of UN/LOCODEs see: https://www.unece.org/cefact/locode/service/location.html UN/LOCODE Location Name State Functionality Status Coordinatesi RU 7RS Shemakha CHE Road terminal; Recognised location 5614N 05915E RU AAD Aleksandrov (Alexandrov) Road terminal; Request under consideration 5623N 03837E RU AAQ Anapa Airport; Code adopted by IATA or ECLAC RU ABA Abakan Road terminal; Recognised location 5342N 09125E RU ABC Ambarchik SA Port; Request under consideration 6937N 16218E RU ABD Abdulino ORE Rail terminal; Road terminal; Recognised location 5342N 05340E RU ABK Abinsk KDA Port; Rail terminal; Road terminal; Recognised location 4452N 03809E RU ABS Akhtubinsk Function not known Recognised location RU ACS Achinsk Airport; Code adopted by IATA or ECLAC RU ADH Aldan Airport; Code adopted by IATA or ECLAC RU ADT Ardatov NIZ Road terminal; Recognised location 5514N 04306E RU AER Sochi KDA Port; Rail terminal; Road terminal; Airport; Code adopted by IATA or ECLAC 4336N 03943E RU AGI Aginskoye Road terminal; QQ RU AGK Angarsk IRK Port; Rail terminal; Road terminal; Recognised location 5232N 10353E RU AHK Arkhangel'skoye STA Road terminal; Recognised location 4436N 04406E RU AHR Akhtari Function not known Request under consideration RU AKS Aksay ROS Port; Request under consideration 4715N 03953E RU ALA Nartkala KB Road terminal; Recognised location 4333N 04351E RU ALE Aleysk AL Rail terminal; Road terminal; Recognised location
    [Show full text]
  • Environmental Protection Efforts and the Threat of Climate Change in the Arctic
    Resumen: El cambio climático es un problema mundial polifacético, y la región ártica es una de las áreas más vulnerables actualmente en riesgo debido a sus efectos perjudiciales. El Ártico regula el clima de la Tierra y, por lo tanto, la protec- ción ambiental del Ártico es un diálogo necesario que debe explorarse en las relaciones internacionales. Es un problema global de máxima importancia. Esta tesis destaca el papel de los diferentes protagonistas del Ártico, incluido el Consejo Ártico, el principal foro internacional en las relaciones diplomáticas árticas. Esto nos lleva a un examen del trabajo que las Naciones Unidas han llevado a cabo con respecto al cambio climático y, finalmente, a comparar la política ártica de dos Instituto Universitario fuerzas (o potencias)globales clave, la Unión Europea y los Estados Unidos. Sus perspectivas divergentes son claras; la UE es una unión política y económica colectiva sin un estado propio del Ártico, mientras que los EE. UU. es una nación in- de Estudios Europeos dependiente del Ártico con más intereses geopolíticos y territoriales en la región. Se explorarán las políticas, los intereses, la cooperación y los desafíos de la UE y los EE. UU. en el Ártico. Se discutirán puntos clave como la Política ártica de 2016 de la UE, la presidencia finlandesa del Consejo Ártico, la política divisoria de los EE. UU respecto al cambio climático y las fuentes energéticas, y la tendencia de EEUU a rechazar los acuerdos colectivos internacionales. Al final, sus posturas sobre el medio ambiente son lo verdaderamente importante. El cambio climático y el Ártico están relacionados científica- mente y, por lo tanto, la protección ambiental del Ártico es crucial en el debate sobre el cambio climático.
    [Show full text]
  • Here Comes the Sun: Constraining Russian Aggression and Ambition in the Arctic Through the Analysis of Structural Realism
    Here Comes the Sun: Constraining Russian Aggression and Ambition in the Arctic Through the Analysis of Structural Realism Samantha Battey Undergraduate Honors Thesis Submitted to the Department of International Affairs University of Colorado at Boulder April 2018 Primary Advisor: Dr. Michael Kanner, Department of International Affairs Defense Committee: Dr. Michael Kanner, Department of International Affairs Professor Aysegul Aydin, Department of Political Science Professor Shuang Zhang, Department of Economics 2 Abstract: This paper is a broad case study attempting to reconcile how structural realism can use different liberal theories and concepts to accomplish realist ends. That being said, the current situation in the Arctic has real-world significance that draws equal importance with the theoretical implications of this thesis. As climate change is opening the Arctic to economic exploitation in the near future, this paper addresses the rising importance of the Arctic and the issue of how the U.S. and its allies should respond to Russian militarization of the Arctic while ensuring their own interests. By the utilization of structural realism in the analysis of the situation, this paper argues that an efficient way to prevent Russia from gaining economic capabilities in the Arctic is through a political agreement based on the common interests of the “Arctic Five”: United States, Russia, Canada, Denmark, and Norway. Preference schedules are used to analyze and compare each state’s individual interests, resource sovereignty, continued peaceful operations and cooperation, and environmental sustainability. The analysis of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) reveal both relevant provisions and crucial mistakes to be taken into account while constructing this political agreement.
    [Show full text]
  • Analyses of Key Companies Having Business Operations in the Arctic
    Analyses of Key Companies having Business Operations in the Arctic Extract of the report Climate Change in the Arctic April 2017 1 Main companies from key sectors in the Arctic Table 4 List of main companies from key sectors in the Arctic Shell, conoco, bp, noble energy, transocean Sector Company Logo Oil & Gas (19) Mining (10) Fishery (7) Others (3) 2 Analyses of Key Companies having Business Operations in the Arctic A. Oil and Gas Sector Royal Dutch Shell Climate change or carbon emission Main business activities reduction related initiatives within in the Arctic and beyond the Arctic • Shell owns 27.5% interest in Sakha- • Shell ended the offshore exploration lin-2 on the Sakhalin Island (Russia), drilling operations in Alaska in an integrated oil and gas project locat- September 2015. ed in a subarctic environment. • Shell works with Wetlands Interna- • In 2015, Shell has made drillings for tional to identify and assess critical oil and gas at the Burger J well habitats in the Arctic regions, develop- in the Chukchi Sea (offshore Alaska, ing a tool that predicts the distribution US ), but the discoveries were of Arctic species; and ever since 2006, insufficient to warrant further explora- it has funded a science programme tion in the area and the well was with the local governments of the Royal Dutch Shell deemed a dry hole. The well was North Slope in Alaska. sealed and abandoned in accordance HQ: The Hague, Netherlands with US regulations. • Shell and IUCN have been work- ing together since 2004 to minimise Ticker: • Shell has 18 state leases in the Beau- the impact on Western gray whales RDS/A fort Harrison Bay area in Alaska at Shell’s jointventure operations in Market Cap (USD mil.): (US ).
    [Show full text]