AT THE INTERSECTION

Joining Forces of Active Transportation to Make and Equity Communities Healthier and Fairer Acknowledgements

Authors: Sara Zimmerman, Michelle Lieberman, Karen Kramer, and Bill Sadler.

Contributor: Keith Benjamin

We would like to thank the many people who assisted in the development of this resource. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the invaluable contributions of the members of the Safe Routes to School National Partnership’s National Active Transportation Diversity Task Force. The Safe Routes to School National We appreciate the new ideas, contrasting Partnership is a national nonprofit with perspectives, examples, and technical a mission to advance safe walking and information provided through discussion bicycling to and from schools, and in and feedback. daily life, to improve the health and well-being of America’s children, and to This publication was made possible foster the creation of livable, sustainable through a contract between the American communities. Begun in 2005, the National Public Health Association and the Safe Partnership works not only on Safe Routes to School National Partnership, Routes to School, but also more broadly funded through cooperative agreement to support local efforts to create healthy, 1U38OT000131 between the Centers for equitable communities. A core area of Disease Control and Prevention and the work for the National Partnership is American Public Health Association. The support for health equity for low-income contents of this publication are solely the communities and communities of color, responsibility of the authors and do not identifying and overcoming the barriers to necessarily represent the official views active transportation and physical activity of the Centers for Disease Control and that reduce health for many communities. Prevention or the American Public Health Association. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ...... page 2 Forging Commitment ...... page 3

What is in this Report? ...... page 4

Section I Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates? . . . . .page 6 Who Walks and Bicycles? ...... page 7 Damaging Effects of Limitations on Mobility ...... page 8 Importance of Active Transportation ...... page 10

Section II Transportation Inequities in America ...... page 13 Higher Rates of Injuries and Fatalities ...... page 14 Disparities in the Physical Environment for Walking and Bicycling ...... page 15 Disparate Experiences Discourage Walking and Bicycling ...... page 17

Section III State of the Movements: Active Transportation and Equity ...... page 21

Section IV Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go ...... page 24 Federal and State Transportation Investments ...... page 25 Regional Transportation Planning ...... page 27 City and County Policy ...... page 28

Section V State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice ...... page 35 Gentrification and Active Transportation ...... page 35 Equity on the Route to School ...... page 37 Community Organizing ...... page 40 Bike Ownership and Repair Programs ...... page 42 Changing the Culture of Recreational Bicycling ...... page 44 Addressing Crime, Fear of Crime, and Racial Profiling ...... page 45 Bike Share Programs ...... page 47 Key Role for Public Transit ...... page 48

Conclusion ...... page 50

1

introduction

Transportation is the linchpin that allows us to function in our daily lives. Whether we move by foot, bicycle, car, bus, skateboard, or wheelchair, we all need to travel to meet everyday needs. We use transportation to buy food, find housing, get to school and work, access recreational opportunities, visit friends and family, and obtain health care and government services – as well as get to literally everything else we do outside our homes.

But our society suffers from considerable inequity, that undermines health. Without safe and convenient and transportation is no exception. Low-income transportation, low-income families can remain people and people of color in the United States trapped in poverty, unable to access the employment face transportation hurdles that can mean that just and educational opportunities necessary to succeed. accessing basic needs is time consuming, dangerous, Healthy food, safe playgrounds, high-quality schools, and sometimes almost impossible. Instead of travel health care, and other services – our transportation time allowing people to safely and conveniently get system allows some to access these with ease, but the physical activity they need while accomplishing creates significant impediments for others. daily objectives, travel is instead a source of stress

2 This situation is nothing new. equitable. That means a transportation What do we mean Transportation has long been a civil system that works to get all of us to where by equity? rights issue in America. Segregation was we need to go, while also supporting commonplace on buses and other public healthy local communities. Initiatives like Equity addresses the effects of transportation until the 1960s. During the U.S. Department of Transportation’s power imbalances and the social, that time period, heavy federal investment Ladders of Opportunity pilot are looking economic, and political differences in the interstate highway system led to to restore connectivity, develop workforce the demolition of many low-income capacity, and support neighborhood that generate disparate outcomes neighborhoods and neighborhoods of revitalization. Local community groups for people in arenas like health, color, while facilitating white flight to and nonprofits are working to overcome education, and employment. Equity the suburbs, with the effect of increasing the policy and infrastructure disparities residential segregation and disparate access that can make active transportation – recognizes that different people to transportation by race and class. The another name for getting around on foot, have different barriers to living persistent scars of urban renewal have bicycle, skateboard, or wheelchair – safer healthy, fulfilled lives. In order to left highways slicing through many urban and more convenient for some than for neighborhoods, making it impossible others. Our transportation system can be allow people to get to the same to walk or bicycle to many nearby one that supports our local economies, outcome, we need to understand the destinations. Differential investments have prioritizes our local streets as a community different barriers and opportunities left some communities with rundown resource, lets children breathe clean air, roads without sidewalks, while others and allows neighbors to meet and chat that affect different groups, and have the latest multimodal infrastructure. without the menace of nearby high speed craft our approaches, policies, The operation and construction of traffic – but we will need to work together and programs with those various our transportation network reflects to achieve that vision. longstanding racial and class tensions, and challenges and needs in mind. the effect has been to privilege access for The key area of focus for this report some over access for others. While civil rights laws now require transportation Forging Commitment will be equity as it relates to race, departments, transit agencies, and other For too long, many active transportation culture, ethnicity, and income. There service providers to consider civil rights organizations have been largely white, are many other aspects of equity, and social equity when making decisions, and have primarily focused on improving these laws only go so far in addressing walking and bicycling in middle- such as gender, gender identity, underlying issues. Segregation by and upper-income neighborhoods. sexual identity, disability, class, transportation remains commonplace in Meanwhile, organizations that focus on immigration status, religion, age, many communities, especially in low- equity and social justice have worked income communities and communities of on many pressing issues facing low- homelessness, and more – we will color where people are more dependent income communities, but their work on touch on many of these, but will upon transit, bicycles, and their own feet walking and bicycling safety has been not focus in on them. There are to get around. sporadic and without a national strategy or coordination. But that is all changing. other aspects of equity as well – “Transportation justice is the The relevance of transportation equity regional equity, rural, suburban, and to the lives of low-income people has urban equity, and more. These also concept that transportation become increasingly clear, as low levels infrastructure should aim of physical activity have contributed to deserve scrutiny and exploration, to equally and equitably rising obesity and diabetes rates, combined but in this report they will be with the mounting toll of injuries and discussed only in passing. address the needs of all fatalities to people walking and bicycling people, regardless of without other options than traveling economic class, race, sex, unsafe streets. At the same time, as our country becomes more diverse, active age, ability or any other transportation organizations are increasing kind of social distinguisher.” in staff diversity and in their commitment anything, the greatest payoff is work that to working across lines – whether is more true to the larger vision of the From Beyond the Backlash: Equity and Participation in Bicycle Planning1 community or neighborhood boundaries, active transportation and social equity or lines of racial, ethnic, class, ability, and movements: the vision of communities sexual orientation. The challenges are real. that are filled with the diverse people who What to do? As our country’s It can be difficult to work in new areas, make up America – immigrants, families, demographics change and we experience with new partners, and outside of comfort older people, kids, people of different new challenges to creating strong and zones. But the payoffs are real too – new abilities, people of different races, classes, healthy communities, we urgently need partners, greater effectiveness, and safer and nationalities – who are healthy, active, to create a transportation system that is and healthier communities. More than engaged, vigorous, and working together. 3

What Is in this report?

This report explores the complexities of equitable active transportation and the issues that arise at the junction of efforts to advance walking and bicycling and work to increase health, fairness, and opportunity for low-income communities and communities of color. The report sets out why equity and active transportation matter, addresses tensions that may arise when the active transportation and equity movements intersect, describes opportunities for increasing equity in the field of active transportation, and explores some of the programs and initiatives that are doing this crucial work.

The report begins in Section I with a discussion of why walking and bicycling matter for equity. While noting that some people think of walking and bicycling as a middle-class concern, this section makes the case that safe and convenient walking and bicycling are of profound importance for low-income communities and communities of color. Low-income Americans currently walk and bicycle more than pedbikeimages.org/Mike Cynecki upper-income Americans, and the fastest growth in bicycling is occurring among people of color. Limited transportation options for low-income individuals and families lead to restricted employment possibilities, missed doctors’ appointments, low school attendance, and many other deleterious effects, and safe and convenient walking and bicycling are a significant piece of overcoming these challenges. In addition, there are many benefits of active transportation, particularly for health and air quality in low-income communities and communities of color.

4 Section II delves into the statistics and realities different aspects of transportation inequity, looking at regarding transportation inequities, setting out the youth bicycle programs, equitable bike share programs, real-life consequences of our unsafe streets and Safe Routes to School work, community organizing dysfunctional systems. The section describes the higher initiatives, police profiling, and more. rates of traffic-related injuries and fatalities experienced The report closes by summarizing some of the lessons by low-income communities and communities of color. that emerge from this survey of work across the United This section goes on to look at the disparities in the States. Around the country people are working in many physical environment for walking and bicycling in different ways to create communities where health, such communities, and explores the range of factors equity, and active transportation options come together. that can create negative experiences for people of color We salute the work that has improved the health and and low-income people while walking and bicycling – safety of low-income neighborhoods and communities higher crime rates in many low-income neighborhoods, of color across the country, and look forward to seeing racial profiling by police, slurs and harassment, and these efforts blossom further in years to come. discriminatory treatment by drivers.

In Section III, we explore how the active transportation movement is working to increase its understanding of equity. We also look at the role of the equity movement, as well as the transit-focused transportation equity movement, and the increasing recognition of the relevance of active transportation to their efforts. This section notes the positive momentum of increasing collaboration, as well as the considerable need for additional partnership and learning. We then turn to a wide range of policies and initiatives where equity and active transportation intersect. In Section IV, we explore the governmental structures that currently determine our transportation infrastructure and note the structural challenges that can make it difficult to advocate for equity or active transportation, not to mention equitable active transportation. In Section V, we survey the many issues where equity and active transportation intersect in our local communities. We begin by wrestling with the real and recurring challenges of gentrification and displacement. We then explore diverse and varied initiatives on the ground that are focused on addressing pedbikeimages.org/Mike Cynecki

5 SECTION I Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

“Walking and bicycling have a huge impact on the lives of low-income people and people of color.”

Mike MacKool

Active transportation is sometimes described as a easier or harder – have a huge impact on the lives of “white thing.” People may characterize advocacy low-income people and people of color. around walking and bicycling infrastructure as a Low-income people and people of color currently manifestation of privilege, describe bicycle lanes as walk and bicycle at rates that are similar to or higher “white stripes of gentrification,” or portray walking than the rest of the population, and those rates are and bicycling issues as a distraction from – or, growing more rapidly.4,5 The obstacles encountered worse, competition for resources for – the real issues in our car-centric society for those who do not have affecting people’s lives.2,3 consistent access to a car affect these populations Such concerns arise from complex cultural, historical, more profoundly, limiting access to daily needs and and political currents. The goals, experiences, beliefs, to upward mobility. And the health and community and competing preferences and priorities that they benefits of active transportation have the potential express are worthy of discussion and engagement. to significantly address some of the disparities But, notwithstanding the importance of those points, that are deeply detrimental for many low-income the reality is that walking and bicycling – and the communities and communities of color. policies that make these forms of transportation

6 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

Who Walks and Bicycles? African Americans, are more likely to bike that people of color have a more positive or walk to school than whites or higher- view of bicyclists than whites.14 In understanding why walking and income students.9 bicycling matter for achieving health The data that we have on bicycling trips equity and equity of opportunity, the first Overall bicycling rates are low in the is limited, but seem to show that the thing to know is that low-income people United States, but they are on the rise, with type of bicycling trip that occurs for and people of color currently engage in a doubling in the number of commuters different racial and income groups may significant levels of walking and bicycling. bicycling between 2000 and 2009.10 vary, with the consequence that the data Low-income people have the highest rates Looking at commute trips, Latinos and commonly collected on employment- of walking and bicycling to work.6 The Native Americans have a slightly higher related commute trips may miss many 15 very highest rates of walking and bicycling rate of bicycling than whites, while rates people of color. Since commutes only to work are seen among those who make are a little lower for African Americans.11 account for 20 percent of trips, commute under $10,000 per year, though rates However, growth in bicycle ridership is data offers a limited understanding of the 16 remain high for those making under occurring most rapidly among African travel choices of any demographic group. $25,000 per year. For walking to work, Americans and Asian Americans, with Additionally, state and local data may vary people of mixed race and Asian Americans Latinos and whites following.12 Between – for example, in California, data suggest show the highest rates, Latinos show 2001 and 2009, bicycle trips by Latinos, that recent immigrants, Latinos, and whites 17 moderately high rates, and whites and African Americans, and Asian Americans have the highest bicycling rates. A survey African Americans show the lowest rates.7,8 grew from 16 to 23 percent of all bike trips in San Francisco found that although only Children from low-income households and in the United States.13 Perhaps it should 12 percent of low-income women owned 18 children of color, particularly Latinos and come as no surprise, then, that polls show cars, 34 percent owned bicycles. Another very significant aspect of understanding the role of walking and African American % GrowthGrowth inin 100 bicycling for transportation is the fact that these modes, particularly walking, are NumberNumber ofof Asian American % 80 very common as one leg of a trip that also BicyclingBicycling Trips Trips includes other forms of transportation. Latino % Whether people are parking cars and by Race 50 then walking down the street, or taking a by Race bicycle to the train station, many trips 2001-2009 White % 2001-2009 22 include walking or bicycling that is not counted for data reporting purposes. When it comes to active transportation National Household Travel Survey and equity, we particularly need to 2008-2012 understand how walking and bicycling Walking &Walking Bicycling & B icyclingto Work to Work by Householdby H ouseholdIncome Income 2008-2012 Less than $10,000 Low income Americans have $ $ 10,000 - 14,999 the highest rates of walking and $15,000 - $24,999 bicycling to work, and bicycling is $25,000 - $34,999 growing most rapidly among people $35,000 - $49,999 of color. Most transit riders are walk $50,000 - $74,999 low to moderate income, and more bicycle than 60 percent walk to or from $75,000 - $99,999 HOUSEHOLD INCOME transit. The safety and convenience $ $ 100,000 - 149,999 of walking and bicycling is vitally $150,000 - $199,999 important for low-income people $200,000+ and people of color. 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION

Source:U.S. U.S. Census Census Bureau, Bureau, American American Community Community Survey Survey 7 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates? intersect with public transportation use. Damaging Effects of As a whole, a high percentage of public transportation users are low to moderate Limitations on Mobility income, with two-thirds of riders having Walking and bicycling matter for equity “Nationally, the United States household incomes of less than $50,000 because they are modes that low-income remains a country where many per year, and 20 percent of riders having people and people of color actually use. a household income of less than $15,000 But they also matter because these same forms of transportation are 19,20 per year. While the largest group of groups of people are often more dependent effectively still segregated— public transportation users are white, at on these modes. Low-income individuals whites and minorities 41 percent, African Americans make up generally have more limited ability to own, 21 33 percent of public transit riders. Asian fuel, maintain, or access a personal vehicle ride different kinds of Americans and Latinos appear to use – and the consequences are striking. transportation, resulting in an transit in numbers that are closer to their proportion of the national population.22 Despite increases in rates of active unequal ability to reach jobs, transportation, the car is still the primary education, and a better life.” Walking is the primary way that people form of transportation in our society. From get to and from their transit stops, with 60 the sprawling, low-density design of many Corinne Ramey “America’s Unfair Rules of the Road”35 percent of riders walking from their origin communities to decisions about resource to their transit vehicle, and 64 percent allocation and public infrastructure, walking to their destination once they get policymakers often seem to assume that off transit.23 Just under half of transit users Latinos and a third of low-income African everyone has a car. But in reality, there are Americans lack access to a car, compared have a car available when making a transit more than 10 million households – just 27 trip (45%); but more than two-thirds with 12 percent of low-income whites. under 10 percent – without access to an Age is also a factor, with children unable of transit riders’ households own a car, automobile.25 The percentage is higher leaving around 30 percent that do not.24 to drive and 20 percent of older adults not among Latinos, African Americans, and owning cars.28 Without cars, many people The upshot? Walking and bicycling are Asian Americans, with 20 percent of rely on walking, bicycling, and transit to important transportation modes for low- African Americans, 13 percent of Latinos, get to jobs, schools, the doctor, the grocery income children and adults, as well as and 12 percent of Asian Americans store, and other essential destinations – or 26 children and adults of color. These groups lacking access to a car. Although lack forgo these basic necessities. already use these modes for a meaningful of car ownership is far more frequent number of trips, and the rates of use for low-income Americans, there are How does this affect people’s lives? appear to be growing more rapidly than for racial disparities among this population Lack of transportation options lead to white or upper-income Americans. too; more than a quarter of low-income 3.2 million American children per year

AccessAccess to Automobiles:Automobiles: Access to to Automobiles: Automobiles: AllAll AmericansAmericans by by Race Race Low-Low-IncomeIncome Americans Americans by byRace Race

100% 100%

95.4% 96.3% 81% 88.9% 75% 67%

50% 50%

% % 33 % 25 % % 19 12.1% 13.7 POPULATIO N 0% POPULATIO N 0% 4.6 White Latino African American White Latino African American

no access access no access access

Source: PolicyLink, Convergence Partnership and Prevention Institute, 2009. Source: PolicyLink, Convergence Partnership and Prevention Institute, 2009. PolicyLink, Convergence Parntership and Prevention Institute, 2009

8 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

Walking & Bicycling to Work Walking and Bicycling to Work, What is transit and why are by byAvailable Available Vehicles Vehicles 2008-20122008-2012 we talking about it? 16% walk This report uses “transit” to describe forms of shared bicycle 12% transportation available for use by the general public, including buses, subways, light rail and commuter 8% trains. Transit is often referred to as “public transit,” “mass transit,” or “public transportation.” While most 4% of this report is focused on the state of equity and active transportation, transit is integral to supporting % 0 walking and bicycling, and plays no 1 2 3+ vehicle vehicle vehicles vehicles a key role in creating healthy and equitable communities. For trips too VehiclesVehicles AvailableAvailable far to walk or bicycle alone, the bus or train is the most viable option to U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey getting from place to place without a car. And trips using transit have an inherent active transportation missing a scheduled health care visit or The ability to get to work affects decisions not making an appointment at all.29 In about where you work and live, what kind component—people walk or bicycle Massachusetts, nearly half of Latinos across of job you can take, how much money you to and from the transit stop. the state routinely prioritize paying for make, how much of your day is spent on transportation over basic necessities.30 your commute, and how much money you In Boston, African Americans spend spend on transportation versus other needs an average of 66 more hours a year like housing, educational opportunities, commuting by bus – waiting, riding, and health care, food, and so on. New analyses transferring – compared to white bus show that commute time is the single riders.31 Nearly 30 million people in the strongest factor in the odds of escaping United States live in low-income areas poverty.37 where the nearest supermarket is more than a mile away – a long distance to carry Approximately 15 percent of people groceries without a car.32 Nationally, low- without access to an automobile walk to work, compared to four percent for income neighborhoods and neighborhoods 38 of color are fifty percent less likely to those with access to a car. Around three have even one recreational facility in their percent of people without access to a car community than white and high-income bicycle to work, compared with less than neighborhoods.33 Children of color living in half a percent of people with access to a poverty with no access to a car suffer from car. People with lower incomes also report the worst access to parks and to schools walking and bicycling to work more. playing fields in Los Angeles County.34 Among those making less than $10,000 per year, almost eight percent walk to work But the effects may be most marked in and two percent bike to work, while less the realm of employment. Employment than two percent walk and less than a half is crucial to economic stability and class percent bike to work among those making mobility, as well as health and well-being.36 more than $50,000 per year.39

9 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

Nationally, approximately 42 percent of Many people must undertake extreme people earning less than $25,000 per measures to access employment.44 In early year rely on transit to get to work – and 2015, a Detroit man made headlines for as discussed in more detail subsequently, walking 21 miles to his job every day, Annual Income most transit trips also include walking trips because he was unable to afford to repair AnnualSpent on Incomeon one Spentend or the other. Yet many transit or replace his old car, and bus routes 45 Transportation systems are not robust enough to connect covered only part of his journey. The on Transportationpeople to the places they need to go. As story highlights the disconnect between a result, a lack of viable transit options where many low-income workers live and can severely limit social and economic where there are job opportunities. Many mobility.41 More than 60 percent of jobs Americans must spend hours each day on today are% in suburban areas where transit transportation – hours that could be spent service22 is less frequent or nonexistent, working, going to school, enjoying time % which makes it especially hard for people with their families, or taking care of their 42 to reach jobs without access to a car.42 health – and many others miss out on job The frequency of service is also an issue, opportunities that could better their lives.46 especially for trips outside of traditional work hours, as most transit routes cater to The heavy reliance by low-income people morning and evening commuters, creating and people of color on walking, bicycling, particular hardship for low-wage workers and transit underscores the importance of making these transportation systems both Annual IncomeLow-income Spent whoMiddle-income work different shifts throughout the day or night.43 robust and equitable. on TransportationHouseholds Households

“In a large, continuing study of upward mobility based at Harvard, 22% commuting time has emerged as the single strongest factor in the % odds of escaping poverty. The longer an average commute in a 42 given county, the worse the chances of low-income families there moving up the ladder. The relationship between transportation and social mobility is stronger than that between mobility and several other factors, Low-income Middle-income like crime, elementary-school test scores or the percentage of Households Households two-parent families in a community, said Nathaniel Hendren, a Harvard economist and one of the researchers on the study.” The Leadership Conference New York Times, Education Fund, April 2011 “Transportation Emerges as Crucial to Escaping Poverty”40

TransitTransit RRidershipidership by Income Level % by Income Level 25 2005-20092006-2010 % 42 under $25,000 14% $25,000 - $49,999 19% $50,000 - $74,999 $75,000+

Source: American Community Community Survey, Survey 2005-2009 10 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

Importance of Active Transportation Active Transportation and Disability Equitable access to active transportation The topic of active transportation and equity for people with disabilities is worthy matters for another set of reasons too. It matters because when people walk of an entire report of its own. A full 30% of people with disabilities report that and bicycle to get around, there are transportation is a problem for them; for more than half of these individuals, enormous benefits to their personal transportation poses a major problem.63 Moreover, people with disabilities exist health, community well-being, and the environment that we all rely upon. within every other group of people, and so, for example, individuals of color who have a disability may experience the intersection of different challenges or other

Health: Obesity, Chronic barriers unique to people of color who have disabilities. Studies of people with Disease, and Mental Health disabilities show that the use of public transportation is fairly low, and disability Walking and bicycling have both physical is not usually identified as the reason for low use. Instead, barriers in the and mental health benefits. Active pedestrian environment emerge as the most significant transportation problems transportation is an affordable way for encountered by people with disabilities.64 In light of the problems with absent people to be physically active, resulting in reduced risk for obesity and overweight and inadequate pedestrian infrastructure highlighted throughout this report, it and numerous chronic diseases. Currently, comes as no surprise to learn that people with disabilities experience substantial more than one-third of American adults are challenges in safely navigating these environments. As a result, the National obese,47 and physical inactivity is one of the primary contributors to obesity.48 Some Council on Disability has identified passage of a federal Complete Streets policy of the leading causes of preventable death, as one of its key goals in transportation policy.65 including heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer, have One lawsuit set forth the challenges: been linked to obesity.49 To make matters worse, these conditions affect low-income [M]ore than 400,000 New Yorkers with hazardous curb ramps that are communities and communities of color with ambulatory disabilities and broken or too steep, which often end disproportionately, and have the potential more than 200,000 people with up forcing persons using wheelchairs to shorten lives and impair the ability to thrive and achieve. More than 38 percent vision disabilities continue to be to modify travel plans, avoid whole of Latino youth and almost 36 percent excluded from the pedestrian culture areas with inaccessible streetscapes, of African American youth are obese that is so critical to community life in or roll over curb ramps with barriers that or overweight.50 People in low-income communities have lower activity levels and New York City, because nearly all of threaten to topple a wheelchair. The higher body mass indexes.51 the City’s sidewalks and pedestrian majority of curb ramps in the City also Currently, fewer than 10 percent of routes are dangerous and difficult have no required detectable warnings Americans get the recommended amount for people with disabilities. Dangers or contrasting features that signal to of weekly activity needed to receive the include corners at pedestrian blind and low-vision pedestrians that they substantial health benefits of physical activity.52 crossings without curb ramps are about to leave the sidewalk and enter for wheelchair users or corners the path of vehicle traffic.66 But walking and bicycling are ways in Transit Ridership which people can get sufficient physical by Income Level activity as part of their daily lives. For Recommendations for addressing these challenges include ensuring that local example, almost one-third of transit users governments are building and maintaining pedestrian facilities that provide safe 2006-2010 get their entire recommended amount of access between destinations and to transit; addressing enforcement issues physical activity just by walking to and from transit stops.53 Conversely, people such as parked cars blocking sidewalks; and enforcing mandates related to who travel by car are more sedentary, the Americans with Disabilities Act. Other policy options include using all of the which is associated with chronic disease tools of transportation planning to encourage new and retrofitted sidewalks and premature death.54 People who live in more multimodal communities exercise and crossings – zoning and subdivision codes, comprehensive plans, and more and are less likely to be overweight transportation prioritization plans.67 than those who live in automobile- oriented communities.55 Adults who get

11 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

Active Transportation and Disability “In the past, the city’s philosophy has been that the communities that already bike the most deserve the most resources. That just perpetuates a vicious cycle where cycling grows fast in some neighborhood and not others. Biking leads to better physical and mental health, safer streets, more connected communities, and support for local businesses. Black communities are the ones that need those benefits the most.” Olatunji Oboi Reed, Slow Roll Chicago58 Michael Baker International

around by walking or bicycling have lower Community & Economy poverty, though ensuring that the benefits weight and blood pressure, and are less of multimodal infrastructure accrue to likely to become diabetic.56 The same Active transportation not only benefits low-income residents is an important benefits appear in state-by-state statistics personal health and well-being, but and complex effort, as discussed further as well, as states with the highest levels the social and economic health of below. Commercial districts often rely of bicycling and walking have the lowest communities. When streets are places on walkability to attract customers. rates of obesity, high blood pressure, and where people can interact with one When people are able to spend less on diabetes.57 another, rather than just places for cars, transportation, they are able to spend more they become valuable public spaces that on other needs like housing and health Active transportation has also been shown contribute to community cohesion. care. And when as a society as a whole we to provide benefits to mental health and Physical improvements for walking and spend less on transportation, we are able psychological well-being. Studies in to invest in other public assets – often the San Francisco Bay Area found that bicycling enhance the public realm, leading to more interaction between neighbors.68 disparately available in rich versus poor increasing the amount of people walking areas – like parks. Nationally, the average and bicycling to 15 percent would reduce People are more likely to linger in outdoor environments that support walking and annual operating cost of a bicycle is $308, dementia and depression citywide by six compared to $8,220 for a car.73 Roadways to seven percent.59 Another study showed bicycling and to interact with other members of the community, encouraging cost an average of about $550 annually that overall psychological well-being was per capita, about half of which is funded significantly higher for commuters who residents to become engaged in community 69 through general taxes, meaning the cost walked or bicycled compared to those who issues. Per capita crime rates tend to decline in more compact, mixed, walkable of building and maintaining roads is on commuted by car or transit; time spent everyone, not just drivers.74 Walking and driving had a negative association with communities, partially due to residents 70 bicycling require less space and impose less 60 looking out for each other. psychological well-being. wear and tear on roadways, and so cost less As discussed further below, creating At the same time, walking and bicycling per mile. A typical urban parking space 71,72 walkable, bikeable communities instead can boost local economies. Such costs about $500 to $3,000 per year.75 of automobile-dependent communities local economic development is badly Walking doesn’t require any parking and has been shown to reduce overall injuries needed to help low-income people get 10 to 20 bicycles can typically be stored in and fatalities related to transportation. and keep jobs and lift families out of the space required for one automobile.76 One study showed that a pedestrian’s risk of being in a collision declines 34 percent if walking and bicycling double in their community.61 American cities with higher per capita bicycling rates tend to have much lower traffic fatality rates for all road users than other cities, and per capita collisions between people driving, walking, and bicycling decline as walking and bicycling increases.62

12 Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?

Environment and Other Public Health Effects Shifting from cars to walking and bicycling largest effects on low-income people and can go a long way in conserving energy, people of color, who suffer the greatest curbing air pollution and long term health exposure to the extreme weather events impacts due to pollution, and reducing and high and low temperatures that are climate change. Half of all trips taken by a feature of climate change.83 Climate Americans are three miles or less (with change is caused in part by human 40% two miles or less and 28% one mile activities releasing large amounts of carbon or less), but 72 percent of trips three dioxide and other greenhouse gases miles or less are taken by car, illustrating into the atmosphere.84 Transportation the significant potential for reducing emissions, largely from cars and light emissions.78 When just one percent of trips duty trucks, account for 27 percent of our shift from being by car to being by active overall greenhouse gas emissions.85 So transportation, fuel consumption can be by replacing car trips with walking and reduced by two to four percent.79 Motor bicycling, greenhouse gas emissions can be vehicle emissions represent 31 percent of reduced. Someone who rides a bicycle four total carbon dioxide, 81 percent of carbon miles to work, five days a week, avoids monoxide, and 49 percent of nitrogen 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions oxides released in the United States.80 each year.86 One study found that travel Nitrogen oxides from traffic-related air by residents in the Atlanta region’s least Michael Baker International pollution have been associated with the walkable neighborhoods generated onset of childhood asthma, as well as about 20 percent higher carbon dioxide exacerbating asthma symptoms.81 Active emissions than travel by those who live in transportation is most likely to be used the most walkable neighborhoods.87 for short trips and can replace some of The multitude of benefits that active the most polluting car trips.82 Walking transportation affords to individuals, and bicycling produce virtually no air “Equity is the superior communities, and society as a whole pollution. growth model.” underscores the need for equitable access More recently, there has been attention to to transportation options beyond the Angela Glover Blackwell, PolicyLink77 climate change and the impacts climate automobile. change will have on national and global health. Such effects will tend to have the

Mike MacKool

13 SECTION II Transportation Inequities in America

In the previous section, we described why active transportation matters for low-income people and people of color – the high use of and dependence upon these modes of travel and the public health and community benefits to be gained from further use. But those facts tell only half the story. When it comes to meeting fundamental needs like health care and education, people of color and low-income people in the United States typically fare far worse than white people and well-to-do populations. Transportation is no exception to this rule.

pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden

A variety of overlapping challenges mean that income communities and communities of color; getting around by foot or bicycle is likely to be the disparities in the physical environment for harder, more disagreeable, more dangerous, and walking and bicycling in such communities; and less healthy if you are poor or a person of color. In the different factors that can more negatively affect this section, we discuss the higher rates of traffic the experiences of people of color and low-income related injuries and fatalities experienced by low- people while walking and bicycling.

14 Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

Higher Rates of “Many areas have been neglected from a transportation Injuries and Fatalities standpoint. We need to devote much more energy on providing safe transportation options for everyone. People walking and bicycling in low- income communities and communities of Walking is a basic human right.” color suffer much higher injury and fatality Scott Bricker, Director of America Walks102 rates than the general population. Latino and African American pedestrian fatality People Killed While Walking rates are about twice that of whites.88 People Killed While Walking Fatality rates for people bicycling are 23 by IncomeIncome percent higher for Latinos than whites, and 30 percent higher for African Americans than whites.89 State and local data can Low-Income 2x as likely show even greater disparities. In North Carolina as a whole, for example, African Americans make up 21 percent of the High-Income population, but 40 percent of all crashes. But in Wilmington, NC, African Americans represent fewer than 20 percent of the Governing, August 2014 population, yet black children make up 72 percent of pedestrian crash victims.90 ChildrenChildren Killed Killed While While Walking Walking An analysis of 22,000 collisions in

America found that pedestrian fatality African American rates in low-income metro areas are 2x as likely approximately twice that of more 91 affluent neighborhoods. A study in one Latino % metropolitan region showed that the 40 more likely number of people on foot injured in the poorest census tracts was 6.3 times higher White than in the richest census tracts.92 The story was similar for people on bicycles, with the number of injuries 3.9 times Dangerous by Design, 2011 higher in poor areas than in rich ones.93 Interestingly, people riding in cars were People Killed Killed While While Walking Walking also more vulnerable in the poorest areas – the number of injured motor vehicle occupants was 4.3 times greater in poor African American 2x as likely areas than in rich ones.94 Many cities have made pedestrian safety a priority, but their efforts rarely focus on poorer areas.95 Latino 2x as likely Low-income children are at great risk from these trends. In Manhattan, a study White found that of the ten intersections where the most collisions that killed or injured Governing, August 2014 children walking or bicycling occurred, nine were near public housing.96 The study also found that although children make BicyclistsPeople Killed Killed While onBicycling the Road up the same percent of the population in East Harlem and the Upper East Side, African American % they comprise 43 percent of victims of car 30 more likely crashes with bicycles and pedestrians in

East Harlem and less than 15 percent in Latino % the Upper East Side.97 23 more likely

White

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001 15 Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

Addressing Additional Challenges for People Who Are Homeless

Millions of Americans are homeless every day, many of them children.135 By definition they are low income; they are also disproportionately people of color.136 And they still need transportation. In fact, transportation is especially critical because getting to job interviews – and a job is key to escaping homelessness. And like everyone else, people who are homeless also need transportation to get to medical appointments, access government services, get children to school, and take care of everyday needs. For a homeless person, access to a bicycle can be transformative, allowing them to take control of their lives, while at the same providing all the health benefits of active transportation.

A key issue is the transportation needs Lack of transportation is There are a few programs around the of homeless students. According to the country that provide bicycles to people National Center on Family Homelessness, the number one barrier that who are homeless, either as straight nearly 2.5 million children were homeless homeless children and youth out donations or through “earn a bike” at some point in 2013.137 In California programs, like Freewheel Bike Program alone, it is estimated that there are face in attempting to enroll in in Pinellas County, Florida (operating nearly 270,000 homeless public school and attend school regularly.142 under the Homeless Emergency Project students.138 These children, already in Clearwater),144 the Delta Bike Project stressed by the trauma of homelessness, in Mobile, Alabama,145 and Full Cycle, a often suffer even more, and do worse One particular transportation challenge nonprofit bike shop in south Minneapolis academically, if they also have to start facing people who are homeless is the that not only provides bicycles to youth at a new school.139 While a federal law lack of a safe place to store a bicycle. who are homeless, but also has six-month requires schools to provide transportation Leaving bikes outside at night, even paid internships for homeless youth for homeless students to their “school of if locked, is risky. At the same time, that include training in bike repair and origin,”140 implementation is spotty and homeless shelters can be unsafe for bikes business skills (such as resume writing, hampered by limited resources, and many too because they do not usually have a interviewing, sales, customer service, parents and youth are uninformed about secure storage place for bikes. To date, and professionalism).146 the law.141 Active transportation equity this issue has received little attention. activists and homeless activists can join together on these issues.

Lincoln, Nebraska has a homeless bicyclist who . . . camp[s] out at a local park . . . It’s winter now, but one reason he cites for NOT going to a shelter is that he is afraid his bike will be stripped. . . it is his lifeline. He isn’t going inside until he’s satisfied his bike will be safe.”143

“A recent survey of homeless Without those two wheels … “[One homeless] participant people shows that thirty “I would not be able to keep used his refurbished bike to percent of the responders this job … or the apartment.” spend the day filling out job identified transportation Keith Harmon applications and found work and access to transportation homeless for over a year, Chicago148 within a week.” as a significant barrier to Cycling Forward program for employment.” homeless youth ages 11-24, Seattle, WA149 Bob Erlenbusch, Executive Director of the Sacramento Housing Alliance in Sacramento, CA147

16 Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

Disparities in the Physical Infrastructure for property owner. Either model may have Environment for Walking Walking the potential to lead to sidewalks in worse repair in low-income parts of town. and Bicycling While almost 90 percent of high-income areas have sidewalks on one or both sides Major arterial roadways and highways are Significant disparities in transportation of the street, in low-income communities also far more concentrated in low-income infrastructure for walking and bicycling that percentage drops to 49 percent.98 areas.103 Such high-speed roads pose far discourage people from using these Streets with street lighting are also greater dangers to people walking, and are modes and make it far less safe when significantly more common in high- harder and less pleasant to traverse by foot they do. Transportation infrastructure income areas (75%) than in low-income or bike than smaller streets. One study is the physical built environment —the communities (51%).99 showed low-income neighborhoods had sidewalks, roads, bike lanes, train tracks, twice as many intersections with major A similar pattern is seen for other types and the like – that allow people to get thoroughfares, requiring residents on foot of features that make streets safer and around. While many factors contribute to to navigate high-speed, high-traffic zones. more inviting for people walking, such as collisions involving people walking and In addition, poorer neighborhoods had traffic islands, curb bulb outs that shorten bicycling, inadequate infrastructure plays a more four-way intersections, which lead to crossing distances, traffic circles, and other large role. more injuries of people walking and driv- features that slow traffic; while much less ing due to the greater number of points of There is tremendous variation across the common in all communities, these are conflict.104 The speed and traffic volume of United States in terms of the type and still found almost three times as often in a street is key to its safety. Children are six quality of transportation infrastructure high-income areas compared with low- times more likely to be involved in crashes and other physical environment features income communities.100 Similarly, streets on streets with high traffic volumes com- are present in different communities. But with marked crosswalks are significantly pared to streets with low traffic volumes, when compared across income, racial, and more common in high-income areas (13%) and four times more likely to be involved ethnic lines, it becomes apparent that there than in low-income communities (7%).101 in crashes when crossing high-speed roads are significant disparities in the presence Another factor that affects pedestrian than low-speed roads.105 of infrastructure that supports healthy comfort and safety is the maintenance active transportation. Beyond sidewalks, of sidewalks and other features. In bike lanes, and other basic infrastructure some communities, local government needed for walking and bicycling, other is responsible for maintenance of these aspects of the physical environment features, and in other areas sidewalk “You don’t see highways contribute to – or detract from – the repair is the responsibility of the adjacent running through the Upper comfort and safety of people walking and bicycling. In this subsection, we discuss East Side of Manhattan.” disparities in infrastructure for walking Joshua Shank and bicycling, as well as disparities in Eno Center for Transportation109 neighborhood aesthetics and air quality.

CommunitiesCommunitie with sS idewalkswith Sidewalks

high income 90%

low income 49%

Bridging the Gap, Income Disparities in Street Features that Encourage Walking, 2012

17 pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

Infrastructure for Bicycling CommunitiesCommunities high income % Bicycle friendly infrastructure is also 14 harder to find in low-income areas. In withwith R eRquequirementsirements Chicago, for example, the affluent north low income % side of the city features significant bicycle- forfor Bike Bike Lanes Lanes 5 friendly infrastructure, including protected bike lanes and bike sharing stations, while Bridging the Gap, Using Local Land Use Laws neighborhoods in the south and southwest to Facilitate Physical Activity, 2012 have hardly any protected bike lanes and no bike sharing stations.110 Similarly, in streets. Abandoned buildings and cars, Los Angeles, data gathered by the Los “Poor communities, frequently litter, graffiti, and broken streetlights and Angeles County Bicycle Coalition revealed windows create an environment that is communities of color but that neighborhoods with the highest unwelcoming to walking and bicycling.115 not exclusively, suffer percentage of people of color had a lower Not only is this level of blight physically distribution of cycling facilities.111 New disproportionately [from unpleasant, but it signals that “no one York City’s bicycle network “is currently really cares about or regulates” the public industrial air pollution]. most built out in the city’s wealthiest space, contributing to safety concerns If you look at where our neighborhoods.”112 Although similar and discouraging active transportation.116 disparities are found in other cities across industrialized facilities end One study of a project to clean, maintain, the country,113 this pattern is not universal. and create urban green space in vacant to be located, they’re not lots showed that these changes decreased in the upper middle class “[T]he number of injured stress in residents and increased physical neighborhoods.” activity, while also leading to lower levels pedestrians, cyclists, and motor of violent crime.117 In fact, stress responses Carol Browner Former Secretary of the vehicle occupants would be were lower simply in response to walking U.S. Environmental Protection Agency125 greatly reduced in the poorest in view of a greened vacant lot.118 neighborhoods if intersections Other low income neighborhoods may not toxins into the air are often sited near in these areas were similar be blighted, but may simply lack many poor residential areas – but rarely, if ever, of the amenities that make a walking or near wealthy ones. Study after study has to those in the wealthiest bicycling experience actively pleasant – found clear correlations between income, neighborhoods.” things like regular shade trees, landscaping ethnicity, and the degree of pollution strips that provide a buffer between in the environment.120 The greater the Study of traffic injuries in Montreal, Canada114 someone walking and cars passing by, concentration of Latinos, Asian Americans, attractive yards to admire, seating to stop African Americans, or poor residents in and rest, concealed locations for garbage an area, the more likely that potentially Comfort and cans and recycling, tended pedestrian dangerous compounds such as vanadium, Attractiveness of access to nearby trails, and so on. Instead, nitrates and zinc are in the mix of fine Neighborhood Environment a walk in these neighborhoods may be particles they breathe.121 Whether a walking or bicycling experience characterized by an abundance of concrete, is pleasant, safe, and comfortable is affected gaudy signs advertising unhealthy by the neighborhood environment. When products, parking lots and shopping “Childhood asthma is rampant someone drives through a neighborhood, strips interspersed among houses, and they pass through quickly, in a contained other features that may be unpleasant for in Clairton [a town in vehicle, without experiencing the small walking. Pennsylvania that is home details. In contrast, a person walking or to U.S. Steel Clairton Coke bicycling experiences the neighborhood differently, and is much more affected by Air Pollution Works], but a lot of families small factors that influence their comfort in the hardscrabble town don’t and enjoyment. When low-income people and people of color do walk and bicycle for have medical coverage. In some Some low-income residential transportation, they are far more likely to homes, the whole family shares neighborhoods have been blighted by be subjected to unhealthy air along the a single inhaler.” years of neglect, poverty, and lack of way.119 Due to land costs and historical investment, compared to well-kept discrimination, refineries, coal plants, Tom Hoffman Western Pennsylvania Director, wealthier neighborhoods with tree-lined and other industrial facilities that spew Clean Water Action130

18 Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

In fact, African Americans are 79 Disparate Experiences percent more likely than whites to live in neighborhoods where industrial air Discourage Walking and pollution poses high health dangers,122 Bicycling and are three times more likely to die from In addition to the inequities described asthma than whites.123 Living in a majority above, residents of low-income white neighborhood is associated with communities and communities of color lower air pollution exposures, whereas often have negative experiences which Latino communities had the highest air discourage walking and bicycling. In this pollution exposure levels.124 section, we describe some of the factors that can inequitably affect the experience “Evidence suggests that not of walking and bicycling: crime, racial only do people get hospitalized profiling, harassment, slurs, micro aggressions, and discriminatory treatment but they die at higher rates by drivers, all of which are most likely to in areas with significant air affect low-income people and people of pollution.” color, potentially discouraging them from walking and bicycling or making those pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden Dr. John Brofman activities stressful, unpleasant, or dangerous. Director of Respiratory Intensive Care at MacNeal Hospital, Berwyn, Illinois.131

Higher Crime Rates

Areas along major roads and highways are High rates of crime are a challenge in also exposed to higher levels of pollution. some low-income neighborhoods and Traffic-related pollution most affects communities of color. High levels of those within about 300 to 500 meters of crime and violence not only make it more “Modesto Sanchez told a major road or highway.126 Studies have dangerous for residents to walk places and lawmakers of the Massachusetts shown that people of color are also more be physically active outside, but fear of likely to live within close proximity (150 crime is also a significant obstacle to using Legislature about the day he meters) to major highways, putting them active transportation.132 and his friend rode their bikes at higher risk of exposure to traffic-related One analysis found that “people restricted down the street on which pollution and resulting in higher rates of their physical activity and outdoor time 127 Sanchez lived, only to be respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. due to violence and fear of violence, A study in Portland showed that small causing people to walk and bike less stopped and frisked within detours of one block to lower-volume frequently.”133 Not surprisingly, people who minutes by Boston police roadways significantly reduce pollution described their neighborhood as “not at concentrations.128 officers. One officer asserted, all safe” were three times more likely to be ‘People in your hood ride bikes Further, the polluted air that low-income physically inactive during leisure time than people and people of color are more likely those who described their neighborhood to shoot people.’ Modesto, to breathe, when they do walk and bicycle as “extremely safe.”134 In another study, 31 who was 16 years old at the for transportation, takes a heavy toll on of 32 mothers in a high crime area would time, and his friend were their health. Exposure to unhealthy air is not let their 9-13 year old daughters go linked to asthma, bronchitis, and cancer, outside after school for play or physical found to be doing nothing and worsens existing lung and heart activity because of fear of unpredictable wrong. Embarrassed, shocked, 135 disease, all of which disproportionately drug and gang-related violence. In some and hurt, Modesto asked for affects poor people and people of color.129 cases, children’s fear of crime even causes them to skip going to school as well as to an explanation. The officer miss other opportunities to participate in responded, ‘We had to stop you. 136 other events and activities, which can You look suspicious.’” “People do not want to walk affect students’ educational achievement, participation, social engagement, and stress Nusrat Choudhury because they fear for their safety. levels. The psychological impact of living “People in Your Hood Ride Bikes to Shoot People”149 They see drugs, gangs, dogs.” in a community with high levels of crime and violence can also lead to depression Community Leader138 and stress that is also linked to lower levels of physical activity.137

19 Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

Racial Profiling People of color are also at higher risk of getting harassed by law enforcement while bicycling or walking than their white counterparts. Like the experience of “driving while black,” people of color are similarly targeted by police for “bicycling while black” or “walking while black.”139 Stop and frisk policies are centered around police officers’ stops of people walking. Many or most incidents of racial profiling and police brutality begin while someone pedbikeimages.org/Nina Walfroot is walking or bicycling, although the interference with transportation is rarely highlighted if and when the incident becomes public. “[Stop and frisk] reduces your self-confidence. It’s no different than Stories of being stopped and harassed getting robbed. Getting put up against a wall, it’s no different than abound.140 New York City’s extensive and someone stealing your stuff. It can be traumatizing. For the police, controversial stop and frisk program, the they let you go, it’s no harm, no foul. But it can make children feel the subject of court orders, involved more stops of black youth and men (168,000) community has given up on their chance to be successful.” in 2011 than the total city population of Gemar Mills black men in that age range (158,000).141 Principal of Malcolm X Shabazz High School, Newark, New Jersey150 In Chicago, in the summer of 2014, police made more than 250,000 stops that did not lead to arrest – making stops in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where an Harassment, Slurs, and at a rates four times as often per capita investigation found that 86 percent of Micro Aggressions as New York at the height of its stop and tickets given for riding an unregistered frisk policies.142 A full 72 percent of stops bike were given to African Americans (who Racial micro aggressions are brief verbal or were of African Americans, though they make up 31 percent of the population), nonverbal communications that convey racial constitute only 32 percent of the city’s while hardly any such tickets were issued slights or hostility (intentionally or not) to 151 population. The stops are most likely in in predominantly white or touristy sections a person of color. Many people of color communities of color, but are particularly of the city.144 Not only were people of color experience such indignities while walking and likely to target African Americans in white targeted for ticketing but in some incidents bicycling. Examples include white pedestrians neighborhoods. their bikes were confiscated, leaving them crossing the street to avoid walking by a 152 stranded.145 person of color, white pedestrians markedly Although not addressed in many analyses ignoring a person when passing on the of racial profiling, youth and adults of Such patterns are found throughout the sidewalk, and similar encounters.153 Lawrence color on bicycles are frequently singled out United States. In New York City, a study Otis Graham, an African American lawyer for particular attention by stop and frisk showed that 12 of the 15 neighborhoods and father, recently wrote about the effects practices. Bicycle laws, such as registration with the most citations for riding on on his 15-year-old son of having two adult requirements, sidewalk riding prohibitions, sidewalks were predominantly Latino white men in a car stop him and call him a and helmet laws, are often discriminatorily or African American, while 14 of the 15 racial slur while he was walking by himself in enforced. For example, in Tampa, Florida, with the fewest were primarily white.146 a leafy suburb near his boarding school.154 80 percent of bicycle tickets given by In Dallas, Texas, an analysis showed His son was frightened and hurt, but white police are to African Americans, who that, excluding downtown, 96 percent school administrators minimized the incident, make up 25 percent of the population.143 of citations under a bicycle helmet law characterizing it as an unfortunate one- Officers are encouraged to use these minor took place in census tracts with majority time event that should simply be forgotten. violations as an excuse to stop and search population of color.147 In 2006, a federal Yet the longer-term effects on the teen anyone they can in low-income black appeals court found enough evidence to meant he no longer made eye contact with neighborhoods, even though 80 percent go to trial in a case alleging that police others when out walking, did not want to of the stops identify no criminal activity. were discriminatorily seizing the bicycles walk anywhere unaccompanied, and felt In white neighborhoods, few tickets are of black teens and targeting them for “vulnerable and resentful” whenever he had given for bicycling infractions, and when harassment when they rode through the to walk somewhere by himself. Whether an tickets are given, it is often to individuals white Detroit suburb of Eastpointe.148 isolated incident or a regular occurrence, who are black. A similar situation exists this type of experience can create a hostile environment for walking and bicycling.

20 Section II: Transportation Inquities in America

The Consequences of Inadequate Infrastructure

A heartbreaking news story in 2011 involved Raquel Nelson, the bus, they crossed to the median to wait for a break in the a mother of three in Atlanta, Georgia, who was prosecuted traffic. Her son pulled out of her hand to cross when others for jaywalking and vehicular homicide after her 4-year-old ran ahead and was hit by an oncoming car. son A.J. was struck by a car and killed when they were Poor urban planning and a failure to provide for the needs crossing the street. A.J.’s death occurred when the family of public transit riders caused A.J.’s death. But prosecutors was hit by an intoxicated hit and run driver while they were charged and convicted Nelson of vehicular homicide for crossing a large arterial.106 The family had just gotten off the jaywalking. Nelson, an African American college student bus after a grocery shopping trip. Although their apartment and working mother, was convicted by an entirely white jury building was directly across the street from the bus stop, the without a single member who had ever relied on public transit nearest crosswalk was three-tenths of a mile away, requiring for transportation.107 After a national outcry and appeals, an additional walk of more than half a mile with groceries and most of the charges were eventually dropped.108 small children. Instead, like everyone else who had gotten off

Discriminatory Treatment “I’ve walked down the block from where I live and by Drivers had a white woman cross the street and go to the The effects of conscious and unconscious other side and continue up.” prejudice affect the safety and convenience 155 of pedestrians of color in other ways 22-year-old African American female participant in micro aggressions study as well. One small study sought to understand whether discriminatory treatment by drivers might bear some responsibility for higher pedestrian injury and fatality rates for people of Effects of Transportation Inequities color.156 Researchers found that there were significant differences in driver behavior The overall effects of the transportation inequities set out here are to white and black pedestrians, with twice to discourage poor people and people of color from using active as many cars passing African Americans in crosswalks without stopping, and a 32 transportation. People are less inclined to walk and bicycle if there is percent longer wait time. Further research little or no pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly infrastructure, the traffic is is warranted, not only to better understand intimidating, they are worried about crime and micro aggressions or whether the same results are seen in about harassment from officers, the air is polluted, and many destinations different environments and regions, but 132 also to explore whether similar behavior are located far away. affects pedestrians who appear to be poor At the same time, the United States has experienced an enormous or homeless. Street infrastructure that signals more aggressively to drivers that increase in obesity, with low-income people and Latinos and African stopping for pedestrians is not optional Americans suffering the highest rates.158 Obesity is linked to many serious may assist in overcoming discriminatory diseases, including hypertension, multiple cancers, and type 2 diabetes. treatment, but will likely only diminish it And children of color suffer the highest obesity rates of all, constituting rather than remove it. “ground zero” of the obesity epidemic.159 The need to act in support of active transportation and equity is clear.

21 SECTION III State of the Movements: Active Transportation and Equity

In light of the clear need for a strong focus on the intersection of equity and active transportation, one might imagine that there would be a robust movement working to address these issues. But in fact, equity in active transportation has been low on the radar of both the national active transportation movement and the equity world. This is not to say that there has not been related advocacy – indeed, local community groups have wrestled and advocated around these issues for decades – but the work has been only sporadically recognized by the larger movements.

“Transportation is back as a major civil rights issue. Today’s focus is not on getting a seat at the front of the bus but on making sure the bus takes us where we need to go.” Angela Glover Blackwell, PolicyLink178

In recent times, national active transportation for enjoying bicycling and walking for recreation organizations have shown increased attention or as a transportation preference, but not from the to equity, with a new focus on health equity, the experience of low-income communities walking and need for improved transportation in low-income bicycling in unsafe conditions through pure necessity. communities, and the need for increased internal One positive trend is the increased number and diversity and reform. But this emerging trend comes influence of bicycling and walking advocates of color. after decades of bicycling and walking advocacy But struggles over direction, power, and priorities from a middle class lens – advocacy stemming from within the active transportation movement remain. the real challenges related to limited safe options 22 Section III: State of the Movements: Active Transportation and Equity

At the same time, there is a growing at the federal level, in both the functioning interest in the topic of transportation of the U.S. Department of Transportation 176 equity within the social justice and and in the federal transportation bill. Integrating Equity into equity movements – but the focus of this interest to date has been less on active Currently, there is increased interest Bicycle Advocacy transportation than on transit justice. by transit justice advocates and equity Such transportation equity efforts have advocates more broadly in active The League of American Bicyclists seen many victories over the years. transportation and equity. In 2014, both (the League) has developed a the NAACP and the National Organization One key initiative is the Transportation report called Integrating Equity Equity Network, a national network of Black Elected and Legislative Women of more than 400 organizations in 41 (NOBEL-Women) passed national into Bicycle Advocacy, which states advocating for public transit that resolutions committing to the importance reports on an organizational equity of active transportation and equity, and links low-income communities to jobs assessment and their internal and opportunities; equitable systems of spelling out specific action steps. efforts to increase distributing transportation funding; and Joint initiatives are helping to build trust and economic growth through transportation ensure that equity and active transportation their commitment to equity, diversity, 175 employment opportunities. The similarly are prioritized within both movements. and inclusion. The report provides a named Transportation Equity Caucus Excellent initial steps have been taken, but look into one organization’s internal unites a long list of partner organizations much work remains to be done. that stand together on core equity demands processes around changing its culture. One important aspect of this work has been the creation of “We didn’t come into this because we were interested in an Equity Advisory Council, with transit… [We were] interested in serving the most vulnerable members with deep experience people of L.A. County. We want to make sure the transit build working with women, youth, and out increases opportunity — more housing, more jobs, and a communities of color to promote healthier environment — for low-income residents.” bicycling, which has advised the Ann Sewill, California Community Foundation177 League on how to improve the equity orientation of its programs and structure.

In a parallel effort, the League also Platform of the Transportation Equity Network produced a report on The New 1. Economic growth for all through increased access to transportation-related jobs Movement: Bike Equity Today, 2. Access to opportunity through increased funding for mass transit which discusses the growing 3. Accountability in government through increased community input into local and diversity in the local bicycling state planning and funding processes movement and showcases bicycle 4. Sustainable development through smart and equitable growth advocacy community leaders and

- The Transportation Equity Network Platform179 professionals from a variety of racial and economic backgrounds as they discuss challenging experiences, Transportation Equity Caucus Principles areas of inspiration, and their 1. Create affordable transportation options for all people rightful place in the movement. 2. Ensure fair access to quality jobs, workforce development, and contracting opportunities in the transportation industry 3. Promote healthy, safe, and inclusive communities 4. Invest equitably and focus on results

- Transportation Equity Caucus, Statement of Principles180

23 SECTION IV TRANSPORTATION PLANNING, POLICIES, AND INVESTMENTS: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

America needs a transportation system that supports health and encourages physical activity, supports access to employment and educational opportunities, and ensures that everyone can get where they need to go safely and conveniently – not only by car, but also by walking, bicycling, and taking public transportation. But to get there from here will require large-scale changes in transportation investment at the federal and state level, as well as smaller steps focused on equitable development and land use and infrastructure improvements to increase safety and equity in communities across the United States.

Michael Baker International

The good news is that there are people working place, and which communities benefit. Government across the country to make this vision a reality. In policies – laws and regulations, transportation plans, the next two sections, we explore the governmental and bicycle/pedestrian/multimodal plans – play an structures that currently determine our transportation important role in guiding such decisions. One key infrastructure, and the many initiatives focused on aspect of achieving transportation equity is getting addressing different aspects of transportation inequity. transportation projects and funding channeled to communities that need it the most. We explore In this section, we review the laws and policy how current policies have created the uneven and structures at the federal, state, regional, and local inequitable landscape we see today, how communities level that steer and shape our transportation and land are incorporating equity considerations into their use systems. Agencies and lawmakers make critical transportation policies, and where such policies provide decisions regarding how transportation funding is avenues to advance active transportation equity. spent, what types of transportation investments take 24 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Federal and State Transportation Investments The federal transportation bill, which Today, some of the emphasis of federal is generally reauthorized every two transportation investments has changed. to six years, provides the majority of Over the past ten 10-20 years, federal Past Isn’t Past in Baltimore transportation funding in the United transportation bills have provided a States. For most of the twentieth century, larger role for regional decision making, In Baltimore, the repercussions resulting in more local control, and have transportation investments were largely of eminent domain, freeway determined at the state and federal dedicated small but crucial investments level, with the federal and state highway toward walking and bicycling. Now, some expansion, gentrification, systems as prime goals.156 Together with decisions about which communities receive foreclosures, and the dismantling transportation investments from the federal other federal and state policies, these of public housing have eliminated investments had a series of intended and transportation bill are split between state unintended effects: to prioritize travel departments of transportation and regional safe and healthy mobility for many by cars over public transit, walking, metropolitan planning organizations underserved communities and cut (MPOs). Approximately 1.5 percent of or bicycling; to encourage white and them off from the ability to meet middle class flight from central cities; to federal transportation funding goes to divide urban communities, particularly support sidewalks, bicycle lanes, trails, and their basic needs. This was no African American communities, by other aspects of active transportation – a accident or oversight. In 1944, small percentage in light of the percent of building freeways through them; and Robert Moses, a dominant national to support and prioritize the growth of trips made by walking and bicycling, but auto-dependent suburbs. Although these very valuable. voice on the planning and build out federal investments supported America’s of urban expressways, was talking economy and connected communities from about slums and the poor people coast to coast, they played a large role in discouraging walking and bicycling and of color who inhabited them when contributing to residential segregation by he said, “The more of them that are race and class. wiped out the healthier Baltimore will be in the long run.”158 From 1951 to 1971, 80 to 90 percent “Those in power make decisions about transportation planning, of the 25,000 families displaced in resulting in ill-planned bus routes, transportation more likely Baltimore to build new highways, to benefit those with cars than those without, and bleak schools and housing projects were environmental costs. In some cities, roads continue to pull apart black.159 Today, many of those neighborhoods, prioritizing commuters over communities.” same communities no longer have Corinne Ramey direct access to job corridors or “America’s Unfair Rules of the Road”157 activity centers, and one in four school aged children and one in four African Americans in the city live in a food desert.

25

pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Every few years there is a policy debate preferences. A PolicyLink report describing on the next federal transportation bill, equity as the “superior growth model” The Transportation and along with it a philosophical debate encouraged a focus on infrastructure Alternatives Program about what modes should be prioritized. investments that provide job opportunities In recent years, walking, bicycling, and for low-income workers and benefit to In 2012, Congress passed the transit have received greater prominence disadvantaged communities, to ensure that federal transportation bill known as in these conversations, but voices for we are lifting people out of poverty while these can be drowned out by the focus on also creating greater access to economic the Moving Ahead for Progress in the America’s “crumbling infrastructure” and opportunity.164 Because many low- 21st Century Act (MAP-21). This bill lack of funding to fix many of our roads, income and economically disadvantaged combined funding for existing major bridges, airports, and other transportation populations rely on active or public networks.161 The American Society of transportation to get around, greater active transportation programs (Safe Civil Engineers gave the United States investment in these modes supports an Routes to School, Transportation infrastructure network a D+ grade in its equity growth model. Enhancements, and Recreational 2013 report card.162 Many state and federal discussions of transportation funding Approaches to increasing the equitable Trails) into the new Transportation center around fixing highways and bridges investment of transportation funds can Alternatives Program (TAP), and cut first – projects with big dollar signs. In target federal funds, state funds, or both. One approach is to set aside a percentage funding by 30 percent to the total some cases, proposals eliminate money for pedestrian and bicycle projects entirely. By of a larger pot to be dedicated to low- combined program.160 MAP-21 also one estimate, in 2010, Americans spent income or high-needs communities. In gave states the option to transfer 4.8 billion hours stuck in traffic, wasting 2013, California enacted a law creating an Active Transportation Program up to half of the funds to highway 1.9 billion gallons of fuel, for a total cost of $101 billion.163 But active transportation from state and federal funding. The purposes. In addition, under MAP- facilities are less costly than many larger law expressly requires that 25 percent 21, states or communities must construction projects, and can help reduce of funds must benefit disadvantaged communities.166 For a project to count provide a 20 percent match for congestion on roads and bridges by shifting many drivers to other modes. toward the disadvantaged communities Transportation Alternative Program funding requirement, the “project must funds, creating a new barrier for Many advocates have called for overall clearly demonstrate a direct, meaningful, infrastructure investments to address and assured benefit to a [disadvantaged] low-income communities. longstanding social equity issues in our community.”167 Proposed projects are also communities, and acknowledge changes scored and evaluated using criteria that The Safe Routes to School National in demographics and transportation expressly address equity concerns.168 Partnership has a variety of resources on how to use TAP funds and how to overcome the equity barriers: “As the country witnesses the • Using the Transportation Alternatives emergence of a new racial Program of MAP-21 to Impact Your Local Community: An overview of and ethnic majority, equity— how local communities can access TAP long a matter of social justice funds. and morality—is now also • Integrating Safe Routes to School an economic imperative. into the Transportation Alternatives Program: Reducing Barriers for The nation can only achieve Disadvantaged Communities: An and sustain growth and analysis and case studies detailing how prosperity by integrating all states have assisted local communities in overcoming the barriers generated into the economy, including by the match requirement. those who have too often been • Overcoming Obstacles in left behind.” Underserved Communities: A short overview of approaches that state DOTs PolicyLink, “America’s Tomorrow: Equity Is the Superior Growth Model”165 have taken to overcome equity hurdles pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden to low-income communities accessing federal transportation dollars for Safe Routes to School.

26 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Regional Transportation Without adequate measures to ensure that their interests have seen lesser play in Planning voting is proportional to population, the the transportation planning decisions effect of this is to provide a greater voice that MPOs are responsible for making. Metropolitan planning organizations for suburban residents. Suburban MPO board constituents tend to be more affluent and white, and thus (MPOs) develop and adopt policy for The 2006 Brookings analysis of the 50 have different transportation concerns federal transportation spending within largest metropolitan areas showed that, and priorities than low-income urban their region, including spending on relative to the populations of the MPO constituents.173 Particularly in light of the active transportation. MPOs are regional jurisdictions, suburban communities and resource-constrained environment and government entities that are charged by white residents experienced considerable high demand for transportation dollars all the federal government with transportation over-representation in MPO votes. 170 around, this distribution of voting power planning for urbanized areas with On average, only 29 percent of board has led to suburban freeway expansions populations of more than 50,000 residents. votes represented urban jurisdictions, and vehicle investments winning out. MPOs often also undertake regional-level despite the fact that 56 percent of planning for housing, job centers, and residents within the MPO regions lived Low-income populations and people of transportation linkages between the two. in the urban jurisdictions – while the color are not usually fully represented Because MPOs directly control funding majority of votes (55 percent) represented in other government entities setting for many transportation projects, and can suburban jurisdictions.171 In addition, transportation policy – from local play a large role in how our communities more than 88 percent of MPO voting transportation commissions to state are shaped, it behooves us to ensure equity members were white.172 Because urban transportation departments and considerations are at the core of their areas, where low-income residents and legislatures. These inherent biases decision-making process. people of color are typically concentrated, inevitably affect transportation policies and are underrepresented on these boards, exacerbate transportation inequities.

Institutional Biases in Metropolitan Planning Organization Structure Who Has a Say in To a large extent, transportation policy Transportation Policy? is determined and implemented by government agencies. But whether because of institutional priorities, representational MetropolitanShare of Votes of structures, or other causes, these entities 16% PlanningMPO Boards Organization can have a built-in bias against prioritizing 29% the real needs of low-income communities. Board Votes MPOs, which exercise control over significant federal funds and transportation Urban projects, are a case in point. 55% Suburban An analysis by the Brookings Institution Other non-local explains how MPO board composition entities has tended to create an “inherent bias” in the regional MPO planning and funding processes; the way that boards are often structured means they are commonly dominated by suburban communities with a strong preference for road and freeway expansion.169 ResidentialShare of Population Breakdown within MPO Jurisdiction How does this occur? MPOs can of the Metropolitan take different forms, based on state Planning Organization determinations. Decision making generally 44% occurs through boards of directors, usually 56% Urban consisting of elected and appointed officials from the city and county Suburban governments in the region, as well as state officials and transit providers. Many MPO boards consist of representatives from each local government within the MPO borders. Brookings Institution, 2006

27 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Equity and Metropolitan Funding and Regional As described earlier in this report, many Planning Organizations Planning with an transportation challenges arise from the Equity Lens distances between housing and jobs and Under Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the lack of transportation between them. MPOs cannot discriminate on the basis of With the MAP-21 transportation bill These challenges don’t stop at city or race, color and national origin in programs came greater responsibility for MPOs in county boundaries; regional coordination 174 that receive federal funds. MPO policies regards to planning and funding active and planning is needed to grapple and plans, including long-range 20-30 year transportation improvements. Under with issues such as transit networks, transportation plans, which are typically MAP-21, each state was required to jobs-housing balance, and regional updated every four to five years, provide allocate 50 percent of its Transportation improvements for active transportation, an important opportunity to address equity Alternative Program (TAP) funds to MPOs. such as commuter bikeways that cross issues at the federal level, particularly MPOs serving a population of at least city and county lines. In some states, since a non-discrimination analysis is 200,000 must coordinate a competitive like California, MPOs not only plan for already required by law. Unfortunately, grant process for the TAP funds. This transportation, but also engage in planning lax enforcement and vague guidance requirement offers an opportunity to better regarding the location of housing and job mean that Title VI requirements are integrate active transportation needs into centers, as they are all intertwined. Ways in 175 limited in effect, and funding of active the regional transportation planning and which MPOs can support local cities and transportation typically represents a tiny funding processes and pushes decisions counties in increasing active transportation 176 fraction of overall spending. around smaller projects like improvements include developing regional Safe Routes to for walking and bicycling to a more local Some MPOs, most notably in the School strategic plans, coordinating larger level, where community members have Boston, Chicago, San Diego, and San projects such as bikeways that connect more opportunities for direct input. Francisco metropolitan areas, are taking housing in one area with employment Each MPO determines its own priorities equity concerns more seriously.177 The centers in another, sharing best practices, and process for selecting which active Metropolitan Transportation Commission and providing technical assistance to local transportation projects receive funds, (MTC), for example, which serves the transportation departments. It is important so scoring criteria can include equity nine-county San Francisco Bay area, works that MPOs are held accountable for seeking considerations. For example, the Knoxville with a diverse Regional Equity Working out community input and considering the MPO awards additional points to projects Group to integrate equity concerns into diverse needs of all community members and programs that serve communities of many aspects of its transportation plan. in these regional planning efforts. concern – places with a high concentration This has involved considerations such as of people meeting certain characteristics, setting performance targets with equity including older adults, those living in in mind, outreach initiatives, and a households with no motor vehicles, people community-based transportation planning with disabilities, racial minorities, and process.178 While imperfect, this type of people living in poverty.179 effort creates opportunity for discussion, prioritization, and change.

CommunitiesCommunities with with MarkedMarked Crosswalks Crosswalks high % income 13

low % income 7

pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden Source:Bridging U.S. the Census Gap, Income Bureau, Disparities American in Street Community Features Survey that Encourage Walking, 2012

28 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

City and County Policy discussions about future infrastructure perform data analysis and other technical investments. Making sure that equity is work to understand current mobility How our towns, cities, and rural areas built into each component of these plans is and forecast how greater investments look on the ground is influenced by many crucial. in walking and bicycling may improve factors – development decisions, federal or hinder overall community mobility. and state transportation investments, How does comprehensive planning Particularly with direction and advocacy, economic and demographic factors, even advance equity and active transportation? such analyses can provide key insights in topography – but the law, policies, plans, First, these plans often include a public local and regional transportation equity and practices of towns, cities, and counties outreach component, where community issues. Third, these plans often end with play a dominant role in what our streets members are invited to public meetings recommendations and an evaluation look like and who can travel safely on to address their concerns about walking, section, which can be used to measure them. Communities can adopt general bicycling, and transportation needs, and progress and identify funding sources. policies that prioritize equity throughout asked for input on where they would place Such plans can also be used to hold their municipal activities. One example new facilities. Second, these plans require government accountable if there is a lack is seen in a 2014 executive order in King dedicated staff and hired consultants to of implementation. County, Washington, which required development of an Equity and Social Justice Strategic Innovation Priority Plan.180 King County’s first Equity and Social Equity in the Seattle Bicycle Plan Justice Annual Report, issued in November 2014, included an analysis of “Access The City of Seattle put equity front underserved populations and to Safe and Efficient Transportation.”181 and center in its 2014 Master relatively low levels of bicycle In addition to standalone policies, incorporating equity into specific Bicycle Plan. Equity is one of five facilities.186 transportation-related policies is also goals set out in the plan, and crucial. Most importantly, project selection is defined as providing “equal criteria are weighted in favor of bicycling access for all through projects that (1) serve “populations Comprehensive Planning public engagement, program that are historically underserved, and Bicycle and delivery, and capital investment.”183 including areas with a higher Pedestrian Planning The Bicycle Plan explains: “This percentage of minority populations, A good starting place for encouraging goal emphasizes the importance investments in equitable active households below poverty, people of making investments throughout transportation is through a community’s under 18, people over 65, and 182 the city and connecting every comprehensive planning process. households without access to an Although such processes can be slow, neighborhood. It also promotes imperfect, and may feel divorced from automobile,” and (2) provide “a the idea that people in every implementation, they are often the health benefit for people in areas neighborhood should have a underpinning of transportation and land with the greatest reported health use decisions that can have wide-ranging, voice in helping to design their long-term effects. Comprehensive planning needs, represented by obesity communities’ best bicycle processes frequently include pedestrian, rates, physical activity rates (self- facilities.”184 bicycle, or multimodal master plans, which reported), and diabetes rates.187 can be key to ensuring that pedestrian and bicycling needs are part of policy To help achieve this goal, the Specifically, projects that address Bicycle Plan includes an equity equity get 20 extra points (the analysis that highlights the existing other four goals earn between five Integrating Safe Walking uneven distribution of bicycle and 40 points each).188 Finally, the and Bicycling from the National facilities throughout the city185 Bicycle Plan expressly includes Partnership and National Center and develops a connected bicycle equity in its performance measure for Safe Routes to School contains network that serves all areas of targets, setting a benchmark of more information on how to integrate Seattle, emphasizing areas that “[z}ero areas of city lacking bicycle walking and bicycling to school into have a high density of historically facilities by 2030.”189 comprehensive planning.

29 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

RoadRoad TTypeype Affects Affects Kids Kids on Footon Foot Hit by Hit Cars by Cars

Active Transportation Equity: High A Scan of Existing Traffic Volume 6x Master Plans more collisions Low with kids walking on Traffic Advocacy Advance’s Active high traffic roads Volume Transportation Equity: A Scan of Existing Master Plans looked at National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2012 bicycle and pedestrian master plans Finally, a plan provides documentation that perform well in a technical analysis from 38 communities to understand of a commitment to improve equity and but have real-world adverse effects on the how they defined and measured walking and bicycling in a community. community. It fits together with other plans for the 190 equity. The project surveyed community and signals that equitable Creating enforceable active transportation the plans for explicit mentions of active transportation is an essential plans that are responsive to the community ingredient to community well-being. is essential, and many communities are equity, including the word “equity” working toward these goals. Historically, along with several associated Although working to improve these policies have not expressly terms describing race, family comprehensive plans and multimodal considered whether transportation plans is a worthwhile effort, there are investments and projects are being characteristics, and income. certainly shortcomings to existing equitably distributed. When policies fail processes. Many plans are aspirational, to recognize and address equity issues, Equity was mentioned in with recommendations and performance even jurisdictions that embrace active approximately half of the plans. Even measures that are largely abstract and transportation can inadvertently reinforce where the term was found, it was not required to actually materialize. existing transportation inequities. The Some multimodal plans sit as standalone case study of Portland, Oregon (in this often undefined or left vague in the plans, separate from formal planning section) illustrates how easily this can plans. When equity was defined, documents like the comprehensive plan happen. While Portland invested heavily there was little information about the or capital improvement plan, where in bicycle infrastructure, the policies actual funding sources are identified and guiding its decisions did not require the process that created the definition. policies can ensure investments include city to consider whether its investments active transportation. Moreover, although were equitably benefitting all residents. The report also looked at equity- a planning department may create the Instead, the city relied on criteria that, related performance measures plan, public works departments or parks while objectively neutral and reasonable, within these plans, since and recreation departments may be had the effect of strongly favoring affluent, responsible for aspects of implementation, predominantly white neighborhoods and performance measures define and they may not be as receptive to the leaving other areas of Portland behind. how success for a stated goal ideas in the plan. In terms of community Recognizing this, Portland, and some will be judged and tracked. The engagement, while almost all planning processes include public meetings and other local, county, and state jurisdictions, report found that equity-related planning board hearings, the format, have started to expressly address performance measures were mostly location, and scheduling for these meetings equity considerations in their active transportation policies, through goals, related to infrastructure in areas often limits participation to a select few who have the time and passion to provide specific equity criteria for project selection, identified as high-priority within the input. Most meetings provide a general and requiring that high needs areas receive plans. The report concluded with overview of the planning process and a guaranteed percentage of investments. Ideally, these policies are developed with a discussion of tools that can be an opportunity to provide feedback on specific documents, but very little chance the full input and involvement of the used for community outreach and for community members to interact with community. The best plans are those that data collection related to equity agency staff or provide direct input on involve the community from day one, and that address equity throughout the data objectives for bicycle and pedestrian community priorities early in the process. Many plans include a public comment analysis and recommendations in both an master plans. period, but there is often no responsibility integrated fashion and also as a standalone to incorporate community concerns, consideration. which can result in investment decisions

30 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Case Study: Rectifying Inequities in Bicycle Transportation in Portland, Oregon

Portland, Oregon, is well known for embracing bicycling and walking and has invested tremendously in active transportation. Its experience over the last 20 years, however, shows that without conscious attention to addressing transportation inequities, new programs and initiatives can reinforce or worsen existing inequities.

When Portland adopted its first Bicycle Plan and an active transportation strategy is not currently built into decision- Master Plan in 1996, it prioritized called East Portland in Motion, which making processes. With the updates, a projects that would improve connectivity, brought visibility and attention to stakeholder workgroup recommended serve a high volume of people bicycling, transportation equity issues. Portland that health equity criteria be included and serve intensive land uses (e.g. also updated its Bicycle Plan to call for in the TSP, along with a framework to commercial areas). It also prioritized a network of family friendly bikeways score projects based on their impacts on projects that could be completed within a quarter mile of every city vulnerable populations.192 The result: economically because they could be resident that would allow 25 percent of Portland’s updated draft TSP calls for incorporated into roadway investments. all trips to be made by bicycle.191 Portland establishing transportation project While reasonable priorities, these criteria is also updating its Transportation System selection criteria that will advance equity had the effect of concentrating new Plan (TSP) as part of an update of its along with other goals.193 Portland’s draft bike infrastructure projects downtown Comprehensive Plan, which governs Comprehensive Plan also identifies equity and in the densely populated, compact Portland’s overall vision for growth as one of four guiding principles and neighborhoods to the north, where through 2035. Expected to be adopted integrates equity into other elements of it was easier to achieve connectivity, in 2015, the TSP sets out priorities for Portland’s Comprehensive Plan, many of serve a high volume of bicycles, and funding transportation projects for the which affect transportation.194 Portland is complete projects economically. But these next 20 years. Although the current TSP expected to finalize the updated TSP and neighborhoods were whiter and more includes references to equity, equity Comprehensive Plan in 2015. affluent. In contrast, the neighborhood of East Portland, which was predominantly low income with more residents of color, did not fit the bike plan priorities. East Portland’s more suburban layout and many gravel streets meant that connectivity and economical projects were more challenging. Existing bike lanes were disconnected and mostly located on heavy arterial highways, which was discouraging to people who might have considered bicycling. Without a focus on equity, disparities grew larger instead of smaller, and East Portland was left behind. To rectify this problem, Portland is now actively working to make equity a priority going forward. It engaged the community in developing an East Portland Action

pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden

31 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Zoning, Land Use, and important that such policies be adopted “Zoning is a policy tool with Complete Streets Policies by both low-income and higher-income communities. This may pose a problem, tremendous potential to Many other local laws and policies also since low-income communities are often address a broad swath of affect the equity and safety of walking and slower to update codes and laws because public health problems at the bicycling. Key aspects include Complete they are understaffed and under-resourced. Streets policies, zoning and subdivision Thus, state and regional policies that community level.” codes, design guidelines manuals, parks support and encourage the adoption Lauren M. Rossen and Keshia M. Pollack plans, and other internal policies. of Complete Streets policies can play a “Making the Connection Between Zoning and Health Disparities”198 What is a Complete Streets policy? The role in addressing inequity. In addition, core of a Complete Streets policy is that in jurisdictions that contain both well- to-do and low-income neighborhoods, Zoning and subdivision codes are another it requires that when a street is built or important part of ensuring walkable renovated, it is made complete – safe and inequities in infrastructure maintenance and investments may result in a Complete and bikeable streets. These codes set convenient for travel on foot, bicycle, out requirements for the design of car, by children, older adults, people Streets policy exacerbating active transportation disparities. This could occur future development. As a result, code with disabilities, and so on. To date, language that requires features that more than 700 towns, cities, counties, if the inadequate facilities in the rich part of town gradually get fixed, while those support bicycling and walking can create MPOs, and states have adopted Complete a major shift in the way roads are built 195 in the poor part of town do not, or get Streets policies. These policies are and maintained. However, lower-income an important step in transforming our fixed at a much slower rate. To ensure improvements to active transportation communities are less likely than upper- current system of designing streets mostly income communities to have zoning codes, for cars into a system where streets are equity in this regard, we need to encourage adoption of Complete Streets policies in subdivision codes, and other land use laws designed and built for everyone. In that require pedestrian or bicycle friendly order for Complete Streets policies to low-income communities; assess whether such policies have any negative effects on improvements – and in fact, may have play a role in addressing and remedying codes that are actively negative for walking inequities in active transportation, it is equity in practice; and work to encourage equitable investments of transportation and bicycling. resources.

Village of Walthill, Nebraska Sodus, New York

Sitting on the Omaha Reservation, the A community of less than 1,800 people, built a coalition in three months. The Village of Walthill has a population of just Sodus sits midway between Rochester goal of this process was to “change 780 residents, 80 percent of whom are and Syracuse. With no community center, the way residents of Sodus view their Native American. Many children in the the school has become the primary community and change the expectations village walk to school, and safety was a gathering place for community residents, the community ha[d] for infrastructure primary concern. Working with technical and accessibility is a priority. But many development.” The coalition worked to assistance from the Safe Routes to streets on the way to school have no successfully pass a sustainable, binding School National Partnership, the village sidewalks; in other areas, sidewalks Complete Streets resolution. Their successfully established a Complete are cracked and dangerous. Wanting to success shows how a small group of Streets ordinance. Walthill followed see improvements through adoption of concerned citizens could make a big up on the ordinance by submitting an a Complete Streets policy, Jay Roscup, impact on how their community will be application for safety funding for walking Project Director for the 21st Century constructed going forward. and bicycling improvements, and is Community Learning Center, and Sandra continuing to put the building blocks in Hamilton from the Village Planning Board place for healthy community design. brought together stakeholders and

32 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Of high-income communities, 91 percent Communities also need other policies, have land use laws that require pedestrian such as Safe Routes to School policies oriented infrastructure such as sidewalks, and other institutionalized directives, crosswalks, and so on.196 But only 58 that prioritize walking and bicycling and percent of low-income communities make it an essential part of transporta- have such requirements. In looking at tion planning. As with the zoning policies requirements for bike lanes, 14 percent described above, such policies are likely of higher-income communities have to exist differentially in low-income versus these, but only 5 percent of low-income upper-income communities. In addition, communities do.197 The lower rate of such policies need to dig into local condi- adoption and revision of land use policies tions and needs, actively addressing equity in low-income communities is one of the wherever relevant. factors that leads to more inadequate and unsafe facilities for walking and bicycling.

For more details about how zoning and subdivision codes can support active transportation, see these ChangeLab Solutions resources:

• Pedestrian Friendly Code Directory: Provides explanations and examples of different code components that support walking and public transportation.

• Move this Way: Making Neighborhoods More Walkable and Bikeable: Lays out the design needs of people walking and bicycling, common barriers in zoning and PeopleForBikes recently released a subdivision codes, the implications for health disparities, and strategies to overcome report on how to use protected bike these challenges. Streets with lanes to advance equity. The report profiles local advocates who are working toward protected bike lanes WhoLighting Has Streets with Lighting? in communities of color for reasons that include reducing asthma, increasing access to healthy food, and reinvigorating neighborhoods. The report also highlights national survey data from 2014 showing that African Americans and Latinos bicycle for both transportation and recreation at similar or slightly higher rates than white Americans, and that protected bicycle lanes would encourage riding by people of color. PeopleForBikes high-income low-income Building Equity: Race, Ethnicity, Class, and Protected Bike Lanes: An Idea Book communities communities for Fairer Cities.19

Bridging the Gap, Income Disparities in Street Features that Encourage Walking, 2012

33 Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments: How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go

Equity Atlases: Using Data and Maps to Understand Transportation Equity Issues

A specific kind of data visualization tool known as For equity atlases, the key component is also an equity atlas can help in analyzing and advocating mapping, but without collapsing different measures around transportation equity issues. Equity into single scores. Equity atlas mapping usually atlas reports map out the existing inventory of occurs at the regional scale, with the transportation transportation options, housing, jobs, schools, and network as a core component. Equity atlases provide other community amenities, allowing assessment of data that shows how communities are connected which neighborhoods are rich in resources and where by transit and other transportation modes, and there are gaps in goods and services.200 Another type highlight where regions are falling short in providing of data visualization tool is known as opportunity access to opportunity for low-income populations. mapping.201 Opportunity mapping aggregates different In particular, the tool provides a way to visualize dimensions of equity into summary scores, which the spatial relationship between seemingly disparate identify areas of high and low opportunity. issues like affordable housing and good jobs.

An equity atlas can:

1. Bring Together Stakeholders. their equity atlas to make the case affordable housing and community By visually mapping the relationships for greater investment in affordable investment near MARTA stations so that between different issues, stakeholders can housing near transit by highlighting low-income workers can live closer to the better see, for example, how preschool spatial disparities in existing affordable region’s jobs. facilities are laid out in a region and how housing stock. Advocates have also been 3. Steer Investment. Lastly, the data they do and don’t intersect with where able to identify where existing policies and maps contained in an equity atlas people work. An equity atlas can help such as rent control ordinances need to can help decision makers adjust their bring together regional stakeholders by be better enforced. Similarly, Atlanta’s activities and investments. In Denver, showing them how working together Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) creating an equity atlas has helped would better leverage their resources Collaborative is using its equity atlas to investors in the Transit-Oriented and capacity. For example, the Denver call out the region’s jobs-housing divide. Development (TOD) Fund identify Regional Equity Atlas served as the In Atlanta, most low-income workers sites near transit for affordable housing call to action for forming Mile High live in the western and southern parts of investments, highlight gaps in existing Connects, a collaborative of nonprofits, the city, far away from the region’s jobs small business and neighborhood funders, and financial institutions in the downtown and northern parts. By incentive programs, and promote the working to ensure that the region’s mapping job access disparity, the TOD use of a fund for sites near transit stations $7.8 billion investment in expanding Collaborative is using the equity atlas as a that are within food deserts. the transit system improves access to tool to convince local leaders to prioritize opportunity for all. All of these groups had been working on social equity issues for years, but the Equity Atlas helped them see how their work intersected. Links to Equity Atlases:

2. Drive Advocacy. An equity atlas can Denver: www.denverregionalequityatlas.org bring crucial attention to equity issues. In many cases, an equity atlas helps Los Angeles: www.losangelesequityatlas.org identify communities vulnerable to Portland: www.equityatlas.org displacement or gentrification because Atlanta: www.atlantaequityatlas.com of new real estate and infrastructure investments. For example, in Los Angeles, New York: http://prattcenter.net/research/transportation-equity-atlas the LA THRIVES collaborative is using National Equity Atlas: http://nationalequityatlas.org/

34 SECTION V STATE of the country Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

The previous section detailed many of the governmental policies that affect active transportation and equity, some functioning to advance equitable walking and bicycling, and others as obstacles. In this section, we turn our attention to the work on the ground. We look at advocates and initiatives that are wrestling with challenges and embracing opportunities related to equity and active transportation. Around the country, people are working in many different ways to create communities where health, equity, and active transportation options come together.

Michael Baker International

Gentrification and Active Transportation A core topic related to active transportation and community? Will the housing opportunities created equity involves gentrification and displacement by new developments be affordable to everyone who – the concern that new walkable neighborhoods, wants to live there, including long-time residents? bicycle lanes, and transit-oriented development This issue often comes to the fore around new bike will lead to displacement of existing residents lanes. Many low-income communities perceive a bike in low- to moderate-income neighborhoods. lane as a symbol of gentrification, not as a tangible Will new bike lanes or even improved sidewalks benefit to the neighborhood. This can come as a surprise make neighborhoods desirable to upper-income to active transportation advocates, who see safety demographics, leading to significant changes to the improvements and health benefits for local residents.

35 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Gentrification and displacement are as “transit-oriented development” or products of large economic and social TOD. Compact, mixed-use development Gentrification and forces. After decades of neglect and creates an environment where walking and Displacement disinvestment in urban areas, the new bicycling are safe and convenient ways resurgence of urban living has drawn in to get around, which results in a greater The terms “gentrification” and development dollars, political interests, demand for it. Yet transit and TOD can and a shifting kaleidoscope of interests. also have negative effects on surrounding “displacement” are often used Mayors and young professionals see neighborhoods, especially low-income interchangeably, but they can be the economic growth, vibrant city life, communities. Greater demand for living distinguished as two different and development activity as a sign of in these neighborhoods can lead to the improvement. But from the perspective displacement of existing low-income but related events that occur in of local residents who have lived in residents and small businesses as rents communities as they become underinvested areas, street infrastructure increase, and low-income residents can more attractive places to live. improvements can indicate rising rents experience other negative effects such as and displacement. Bike lanes and the elimination of bus routes that overlap Gentrification refers to the process improvements to sidewalks and crosswalks with new transit lines and the shifting of of communities changing socially often signal that the community has resources away from communities farther and economically, typically with gotten the attention of elected officials and from transit. developers as a “hot” neighborhood worth new residents and businesses investing more public dollars in, and so So what can be done? Real community moving into areas that were current residents don’t see these features as engagement can go a long way toward avoiding a negative reaction to new economically depressed or a socially valuable investment intended to benefit them. But residents’ concerns about active transportation investments. People were home to industrial or other displacement are coupled with a desire want to see improvements that relate to land uses incompatible with to see and direct meaningful investments the problems they experience in their neighborhoods, and they want to feel like residential living.202 This can in their neighborhoods. Low-income residents want to see their communities the improvements are intended to benefit cause the culture of a community flourish. Active transportation advocacy them. By bringing planning processes to to change, leading some older may not be driving displacement – but churches, community centers, schools, senior centers, and street corners, planners residents to no longer feel at street infrastructure investments are a factor in a larger struggle for control over and active transportation advocates home. Displacement is the physical neighborhoods. can work with community members to relocation of existing residents develop proposals that meet local needs. In Gentrification and displacement also arise addition, active transportation proponents who lived in these communities, in conjunction with transit improvements. need to be involved in local communities often because rents and the For the first time in decades, many and engage with concerns articulated overall cost of living increases regions are investing in upgrading their by the community, particularly around public transportation systems with affordable housing efforts. For those as these communities become modern technology like light rail and working in the space of equity and active more popular. In some cases, old bus rapid transit. Transit investments can transportation, affordable housing and apartment buildings and businesses provide a significant boost to economic anti-displacement efforts are a core part of development and revitalize urban the work. are bought out by developers and neighborhoods through what is known converted into higher-rent units or storefronts, which forces existing residents out. Gentrification can cause displacement, but there Debates over Gentrification’s Effects is considerable debate about A recent Slate article claimed that gentrification was a “myth,” that it typically whether displacement occurs in all bypasses low-income neighborhoods with a high concentration of poverty, and circumstances of gentrification.203 that it generally leaves residents better off than they were before.204 The article created an intense debate online, demonstrating how sensitive the issue has become for many communities.205 An article in The Atlantic focusing on the economic revitalization of Minneapolis206 was countered a few days later in the same publication, with the rebuttal claiming the city’s gentrification only benefited a certain slice of the population.207 36 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Top-down Culture of Transportation Planning Is at Odds with Community Engagement

When active transportation and equity concerns collide, a public at large, including active transportation advocates, frustration often arises over the failure to engage with the is excluded from these processes, or often included in community around planned facilities. The cultural clashes inconvenient and cursory ways. This is not to say that that occur here are exacerbated by a larger challenge with professional advocates don’t have a leg up over community transportation and community planning – their non-inclusive, members – the ability to attend daytime meetings and top-down, highly technical nature. Transportation planning devote time to mastering complex processes and jargon, as occurs through complex, multilayered, multijurisdictional well as the benefits of class, race, and professional privilege processes – just understanding who a decision maker is can certainly go a long way to helping to influence outcomes – be a challenge, much less navigating the circuitous pathways but these advantages still interact with processes that are to figure out how to weigh in and influence decisions. often deeply exclusive at their core. Working to demand creative, innovative, community-centered engagement Sometimes community members feel excluded from public processes will benefit active transportation and equity input processes – but it is worth emphasizing that the stakeholders along with the community at large.

Equity on the Since federal funding for Safe Routes to Low income children and Latino and School began in 2005,213 there have been African American children have the Route to School more than 17,000 Safe Routes to School highest obesity rates of any population Since 1969, the number of students initiatives funded around the country, group, and experience the most dangerous walking to school has dramatically and recent studies show conclusively pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure, declined as communities became less that Safe Routes to School programs and which discourages walking and biking friendly to walking and bicycling, and infrastructure improvements not only and contributes to disproportionately high parents became more concerned about decrease traffic injuries, but are also pedestrian and bicycling injury rates.215,216 stranger danger.208 In addition to the effective in getting more kids walking and Moreover, many low-income students have health benefits of walking and bicycling bicycling to school.214 no choice but to walk to school through to school,209 students who are physically hazardous traffic conditions, meaning they While Safe Routes to School programs experience greater exposure to the dangers active and those with a healthy weight are important everywhere, the most perform better academically, and have of unsafe routes to school. An analysis of compelling need is in low-income Safe Routes to School funding under the lower rates of stress, sleep problems, and communities and communities of color. depression. 210,211 2005 federal transportation bill shows that low-income students and schools appear to Safe Routes to School initiatives make it be getting a proportionate share of federal safer to walk and bike to school by funding Safe Routes to School resources. Of schools new and improved sidewalks, crosswalks, that benefitted from federal Safe Routes to bike lanes, and other pedestrian and Safe Routes to School National School standalone funding, 69 percent are bicycle infrastructure near schools. Safe Partnership offers a Low-Income Title I schools (schools with the highest Routes to School programs also support Resource Guide for volunteers percentage of low-income students), which activities that encourage walking and and professionals implementing is significantly more than the 57 percent bicycling to school, like supervised 217 Safe Routes to School in low- of schools nationally that are Title I. In “walking school buses” and “bike trains” addition, 47 percent of students enrolled income schools and communities. that make it safe and convenient for at schools receiving Safe Routes to School students to get physical activity on the way funds were eligible to receive free and to school.212 reduced price meals, which is very close to national figures.218

37 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

The Safe Routes to School National Partnership’s factsheet on Overcoming Obstacles in Underserved Communities describes a variety of effective approaches that state departments of transportation have taken to overcoming the hurdles that low-income communities experience in trying to access Safe Routes to School funding and to Safe Routes to School and implementation opportunities.

Despite those indications of funds project selection to favor schools which are School Siting getting to low-income communities, predominantly attended by low-income the greater need in those communities, students of color or recent immigrants.224 School siting is another area where equity and unmet need generally, means grants. and active transportation intersect in that it is important to ensure that Safe complex ways. The location of schools Routes to School funding and programs is integral to the success of Safe Routes prioritize underserved areas. At the to School initiatives. In addition, Chronic Absenteeism and school siting has enormous impacts on state level, California has taken the Safe Routes to School lead with legislation creating an Active neighborhood vitality – the proximity of a Transportation Program (ATP), which Lack of transportation can also pose school affects housing prices, desirability, requires that 25 percent of all funds in the a barrier to education. Transportation and community cohesion. But schools ATP benefit low-income communities.219 obstacles pose a key factor in chronic have also been a contentious zone of In the first cycle of the ATP, California also absenteeism, which is defined as missing difficult community and political fights dedicated a percentage of funds for Safe 10 percent or more of the school year, – over desegregation, school closings, Routes to School program.220 California, whether for excused or unexcused privatization, and more – and so the as well as some other states, also provides absences.225,226 Children who miss a seemingly simple notion that it is desirable technical application assistance to low- significant amount of school fall behind for students to live near enough to school income communities seeking Safe Routes on learning, with long lasting effects that they can walk or bicycle is not so to School funds but lacking access to the on academic achievement, graduation simple after all. 227 planners, engineers, and other resources rates, economic success, and health. How does school siting affect Safe Routes necessary to develop and implement Compared to more affluent students, to School? As discussed above, in order for 221 Safe Routes to School proposals. Such children who are in poverty are 25 percent most students to walk or bicycle to school, assistance is critical to ensuring that more likely to miss three or more days they must attend a school located within 228 low-income communities are equitably of school per month. Students who one to two miles of their home. Parents represented in Safe Routes to School walk and bicycle to school have higher report that the biggest factor that prevents levels of physical fitness and are healthier their children from walking or bicycling At the local level, cities and towns can 229 than others, while children who are 232 adopt Safe Routes to School policies that to school is distance from school. But overweight or obese have higher rates of in recent years, there has been a trend prioritize equity, as the City of Portland 230 school absenteeism. When students have toward locating schools on the outskirts did. Portland’s Safe Routes to School policy poor attendance, it can cost schools money sets two goals, to be achieved by 2035: of towns, due to a perceived need for and can translate into lower academic large schools with sizeable playing fields, first, that 75 percent of all elementary 231 achievement. Safe Routes to School outdated state reimbursement policies, school students will receive biking and programs can help deal with chronic walking education, and second, that 75 sprawling development approaches, and absenteeism. Walking school buses are one consideration of one-time land costs.233 percent of all elementary school students technique that has been employed to great will travel to school by foot or bike.222 As a result, today, two-thirds of schools success to address these problems. 234 The policy explains that while the Safe are located far from where children live. Routes to School “program is committed to achieving the goals in all schools ... [it] is especially committed to meeting the goals in schools with high percentages of students and families that have the highest risk of having inequitable access to transportation, including people of color, [and] people experiencing poverty.”223 The policy goes on to incorporate equity considerations into all phases of the Safe Routes to School program, including strongly weighting the criteria used for

38 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Schools sited near where children live not only helps kids walk and bicycle to school, but can also support children’s Walking School Buses Improve Attendance physical activity and community well- being after school hours by providing Why would the kids who lived closest to school – all within one mile – have the a convenient location for play, athletic highest rates of chronic absenteeism? The answer became clear when health activities, community meetings, and emergency centers, with shared use workers realized that Providence School District in Rhode Island doesn’t provide agreements promoting good uses of nearby school bus service to families living within one mile of school. Transportation was 235 amenities. an obstacle to attendance for many of these children – they couldn’t take the In an added twist, economic and political bus and many did not have a family car, and their parents often worked morning pressures to close schools are having shifts and weren’t available to walk or drive them to school. The students lived negative effects not only on walkability, but also the welfare of students of color.236 close enough to walk to school, but families weren’t comfortable letting their Analyses have shown that school closures elementary kids walk alone. disproportionately affect schools with high percentages of low-income students Staff at Providence Children’s Initiative (PCI), a program of Family Service of 237 and students of color. When a low- Rhode Island, came up with the idea of starting a walking school bus program performing school closes, students are not likely to be transferred to better- with volunteer adult chaperones to accompany the kids to school. The first step performing schools where they will learn was reaching out to the families to explain the idea and get them on board. PCI and thrive; rather, they are commonly got little response to flyers transferred to schools with similar or worse academic records. In addition, sent home with the students they now must travel further, sometimes announcing the walking school through hostile gang territory, while their buses. Then they tried calling neighborhoods lose the community center offered by the local school.238 homes, but many of the numbers were out of order. At the same time, high levels of neighborhood segregation and uneven Finally, they went door-to-door. investments in local schools mean that After visiting with the families without a more nuanced approach and explaining the walking ensuring equity in school siting, walkable neighborhood schools have the potential to school bus program, PCI found increase school segregation and exacerbate that there was solid support 239 educational inequity. Digging into this for starting a program that challenge, advocates have concluded that walkability and diversity in schools are would allow students to walk to compatible outcomes, with advocacy for school safely. the following three joint demands: The first walking school bus started in September 2012, and the program has • Investing in quality public education for all children in all communities; since expanded to two schools, four routes, and 30 kids who walk to and from school every day. Since the program started, 100 percent of participating • Engaging in community and school planning to prioritize health and students have improved their attendance at school. walkability; “The kids love it. Our volunteers are on a consistent schedule so the students • Integrating neighborhoods economically can get to know them, and they also get to meet local ‘celebrities’ who walk and racially by diversifying housing options while protecting existing with them sometimes, such as the Providence Police, the State Police, and even residents.240 the Governor. Plus, with recess time getting cut, walking to school gives them a Once again, one of the key lessons is that chance to get more exercise and be outside,” said Allyson Trenteseaux, program in order to promote active transportation and policy coordinator at PCI. while supporting equitable outcomes, advocates must embrace the larger goals The program is so successful that there is now a waitlist of students who want of potential partners, supporting strategies to participate. The only thing holding PCI back from adding more routes is a and advocacy around quality education as well as residential diversity. shortage of volunteers. 39 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Community Organizing Chinatown residents being older than 60 years old. Of those surveyed, the Many initiatives that address equity and majority of older adults used walking as active transportation begin as community their primary mode of transportation, organizing or service programs, with the emphasizing the importance of making focus on improving walking and bicycling streets in Chinatown safe for walking for conditions for low-income residents residents of all ages. emerging organically out of the work. For example, in 2013, the Asian Pacific Islander Obesity Prevention Alliance “In our community, violence (APIOPA) launched Bike to China, a prevention is a priority, the program to promote physical activity high unemployment rate is a among Asian Pacific Islander youth in Los Angeles. High school students from priority, and things that take Chinatown bicycled 5,000 miles in one away from those priorities summer, roughly the distance from Los are considered frivolous. For other community organizing Angeles to China, while studying how But a comprehensive bike initiatives, the active transportation the built environment affects physical element is built in from the start. Slow activity. The students led public officials strategy that connects Roll Chicago is an example of this type of on tours of their communities and people allows people to shop organization. A nonprofit organization in gave recommendations for safer routes locally and live healthier Chicago, Slow Roll Chicago was “[i]nspired for Chinatown residents to walk and by the energy, diversity, and spirit of the bicycle. In 2014, APIOPA added a Bike lives, and contributes to our Slow Roll Detroit rides.”241 As Slow Roll to Japan program with Little Tokyo high communities being safer and Chicago’s website explains: “Jamal Julien school students. APIOPA then went on more economically viable.” and Olatunji Oboi Reed founded Slow to conduct multilingual surveys, finding Roll Chicago in September of 2014. They that Chinatown has one of the highest Olatunji Oboi Reed explicitly set out to use the movement and 246 populations of elderly residents in greater Slow Roll Chicago bicycles as vehicles for social change.”242 Los Angeles, with almost 20 percent of The organization has a three-fold strategy: hosting community bike rides; providing youth and family activities; and engaging in bicycle equity advocacy. Shortly after their founding, Slow Roll Chicago and four Tour de Dreams other black-led, Southside-based bicycling organizations sent an open letter to City The Tour de Dreams, now in its seventh year, is a 540 mile bicycle ride in California of Chicago Mayor’s Bicycle Advisory undertaken each summer in support of undocumented college students. Since Council pointing out the inequitable distribution of bicycling infrastructure, 2009, students from California’s colleges and universities have come together education, and resources in Chicago, each summer to ride from UC Berkeley to UCLA to demand educational and civil and requesting seven specific steps to 243,244 rights access for undocumented students. The ride raises awareness about the redress these inequities. In response, Chicago Department of Transportation goals, dreams, and obstacles encountered by undocumented students, and also Commissioner Rebekah Scheinfeld raises money for tuition.247 The students who initiated the ride turned to the bicycle acknowledged that more effort needs to be as a way to speak out because many of them were undocumented and, in the made to promote bicycling in communities that don’t already have high ridership, and words of Evelyn Martinez, an organizer of this year’s tour, “They didn’t have a way promised that equity would be strongly to get around the community… Rather than breaking the law and driving [without a considered in prioritizing future projects.245 license], or standing on corners and waiting for buses, they decided to take their Slow Roll Chicago’s state and local advocacy continues on behalf of African 248 mobility into their own hands and ride bicycles.” The ride serves as a fundraiser, American and low-income communities political action, and embrace of access and mobility.249 in Chicago specifically and Illinois more generally. “It is representative of the power and potential we all have to be self-sufficient, to move freely, without fear.” Tour de Dreams rider Irene O’Connell250

40 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Parents Working to At the same time, local university students Change Garden Grove, working on a neighborhood revitalization California project approached a parent group from The National Active one of the elementary schools to better Transportation Diversity In Garden Grove, California, where 28 understand the dynamics of the local percent of the population is Vietnamese neighborhood. The parent group was Task Force and 37 percent is Latino, parents are primarily made up of Vietnamese residents The Safe Routes to School National leading the charge to make sure their and functioned like a parent teacher children, friends and neighbors have safe organization, building bridges between Partnership has convened a National places to walk – a campaign they did not Vietnamese parents and the school Active Transportation Diversity Task originally plan on taking on. In 2012, an administration and supporting children’s Force since 2012. This task force, initiative to address pedestrian access and education. The parent group talked about connectivity emerged out of two parent- community ties and culture, but also spoke composed of organizations focused led efforts to improve the health of their up about a dangerous street their children on active living, health equity, children and communities. had to cross in order to get to the school and racial justice, among others, The initiative first started with Champion campus. has forged new partnerships and Moms, a group of “promotoras” providing In response to the issues, the promotoras classes in nutrition and physical activity asked the local public health department commitment, explored many of the under the Network for a Healthy California to conduct a walk audit as they sought to issues laid out in this report, and Champions for Change program. better understand the process for making ignited a national conversation on (Promotoras are Latino community changes to the streets and sidewalks. The members who receive specialized training students and parents from both groups equity and active transportation. to provide basic health education in the successfully gathered signatures for a community without being a professional petition and presented their ideas to the health care worker.) As these women city public works department, working were educating their neighbors on how with the department to develop a new to buy and cook healthy food and how crosswalk and traffic signal that will allow to get the recommended amount of daily more children to walk and bicycle to exercise, they repeatedly heard concerns school safely. about lighting, traffic speeds, and sidewalk maintenance that were discouraging people from walking in their neighborhood.

41 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Bike Ownership Native Kids Ride Bikes: and Repair Programs Integrating Urban Another way to provide low-income Experiences with the residents with access to a bike is through programs that collect donated bicycles and Teachings of the Elders then give them to residents (along with a helmet and other supplies) in exchange for Artist and Michigan State assistant completing a bike safety or maintenance professor Dylan Miner uses bicycles class, helping to refurbish the bike, or as the canvas for his community volunteering. Michael Baker International art project Anishnaabensag Such “earn a bike” programs are usually Biimskowebshkigewag: Native Kids run by nonprofit bicycling organizations such as the Community Cycling Center, Ride Bikes, exploring the intersection in Portland, Oregon, which provides this need, but much more is needed. One of transportation, experiences of low-income adults with a bike in example is the Boston Bicyclists Union urban Native American youth, and exchange for completing a bike safety which operates a “Bike to Market” program and maintenance training course,251 and which provides free or low-cost bike sacred Anishinaabeg teachings.262 FreeRide! in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in repairs in low-income neighborhoods. Bicycles become the linkage which participants receive a free bike in Other Boston area groups, such as the between youth and the elders, exchange for repairing it and volunteering Commonwheels Bicycle Co-Op, Rozzie hours.252,253 Local governments can also get Bikes, and the Yawkey Bike Club have with relevancy to both previous involved in such programs. One example is also organized free bike repair stations.257 and current generations of Native Boston’s “Roll It Forward” program, which In the San Francisco Bay Area, an Americans. Local Native American offers donated, refurbished bicycles to low- innovative BikeMobile program hosts free income and homeless people in exchange bicycle repair clinics at schools, libraries, middle and high school students for attending a bicycle safety educational recreation centers, and community events, worked with Michigan State workshop.254 San Francisco recently focusing on low-income areas.258 However, University students and Native amended its code to require the San the program, funded by the Metropolitan Francisco Police Department to turn over Transportation Commission, the Solano American artists to construct seven recovered bicycles to the city’s Department Transportation Commission, and Safe lowrider bicycles that signify the of Human Services, which facilitates Routes to School, is set to expire in June 259 seven sacred teachings of the community bike builds, where community 2015. members refurbish the recovered bicycles elders. Miner created the project In a rarer model, the City of Albuquerque’s for low-income residents.255 after returning from a residency Parks and Recreation Department operates Obtaining a bike, however, is just the first a community bicycle shop that provides program at the Smithsonian step. The ability to maintain and repair skills and safety classes and also bicycle Institution’s National Museum of bikes is often an underappreciated barrier maintenance and repair.260 Build-a-bike the American Indian where he to active transportation in low-income classes are focused on youth, and teach communities and communities of color.256 bike mechanics as well as safety. Earn-a- explored indigenous culture and Many low-income areas do not even have bike classes are for adults. They cost $10, the bicycle as a sustainable means a bicycle repair shop. Without access and require adults to complete a safety and of transportation. Miner says, to affordable repairs, bikes can become maintenance class. In return, they get a useless. Even a flat tire can become an refurbished bicycle, helmet, and lock. The “By envisioning the bicycle from insurmountable barrier. In some locations, program works with local high schools to an Indigenous perspective, this organizations have stepped in to meet provide work/study opportunities. project redirects the discourse on sustainable transportation and has a positive influence on Native health when more youth ride bicycles.”263 “Sometimes having a bike doesn’t help the parents because it costs a lot to get it repaired.” Participant in barriers to bicycling focus group held by Community Cycling Center, Portland, Oregon261

42 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Bicycle Programs Cycles of Change, in Oakland, California Bike Works Seattle, follows a similar model.265 for Youth a nonprofit with youth and Other youth programs operate out of a Bike programs designed specifically for adult oriented programming, youth in underserved areas not only community bike repair shop and also offer introduce them to a healthy form of active training and employment opportunities. provides a two-week unit Gearin’ Up Bicycles in Washington, D.C., transportation, but also empower them with on physics concepts, opportunities to develop self-confidence for example, offers six- to eight-week classes and self-sufficiency. In addition to these in which children ages eight and older demonstrated through refurbish and earn a bike. Teens can also immediate benefits, people who start bicycles, for local bicycling when they are young are more get hands-on training in bike mechanics likely to continue using active transportation and customer service leading to potential high schools each year.270 as an adult. employment at Gearin’ Up Bicycles or other bike stores.266 Still other programs may be focused around a short-term project. In some cases, informal programs involve a few people in the community simply Jack and Jill of America reaching out to youth to organize rides, like Eastside Riders Bike Club in Los Angeles.267 Jack and Jill of America is a membership organization formed The Youth Bike Summit is an annual three-day conference that brings together during the Great Depression with participants from different backgrounds the goal of instilling values and to “network, learn, and explore how the developing leadership skills for Michael Baker International bicycle is a catalyst for positive social change.”268 The summit, co-organized by African American children. The youth, is a diverse and inclusive space that organization holds a biennial brings together hundreds of young people “There’s a lot that you can do teen leadership summit aimed at to turn learning and discussion into actions with the bicycle, using it as a that benefit their health and empowerment. supporting leadership building, tool to teach people... When volunteer service, and civic duty. At Youth-oriented bike programs make we’re working with youth, we an important contribution to active the 2014 summit, one of the tasks say it’s all about the bike... But transportation equity and more are needed combined community service with in low-income areas and communities of in reality it’s not [just] about a challenge called “Build a Bike” color. The job opportunities are meaningful, the bike. It’s about everything with an analysis by the U.S. Bureau of Labor with teens working in teams to put else. It’s all the other life Statistics finding that “bicycle repairer” is together youth bikes to be donated among the top 85 growing occupations and lessons and skills that can be to local low-income children. As projecting 2,700 additional jobs for bike obtained by using the bicycle.” mechanics by 2022 – an increase of about 25 a National Active Transportation 269 Katie Lupo percent from 2012. Diversity Task Force Member, Co-Founder of Gearin-Up which runs Earn a Bike programs and other bicycle-related job training Jack and Jill reached out to the 271 “Now we do the Youth Leadership programs for youth in Washington, D.C. Safe Routes to School National Retreat every year. We pull five Partnership to partner and expand Typically operated by nonprofits, youth or six students from each [bike] bike programs in underserved communities the premise of the Build a Bike club so we have 20 to 25 students are growing around the country. Some are from just a leadership activity into operated as bike clubs. The Major Taylor for the weekend. We talk about an opportunity to talk about health Project bike club, for example, operated by leadership, personal power, race, Cascade Bicycle Club in Seattle, Washington, and safety. Youth and parents diversity, food justice, equity, operates after school bike clubs in multiple were provided with information schools where students go on weekly rides, social justice. We always relate and training materials on bicycling participate in community building projects, it back to the bike and how the and learn about bike safety, nutrition, in their communities and regional bike affects each of those areas.” map-reading, route design, stretching, leaders were empowered to talk and the impact of bicycling in their Ed Ewing communities. Students can also participate Director of Diversity and Inclusion, Cascade Bicycle about health and accessibility issues in an eight-week “earn a bike” class Club, & Co-Founder of the Major Taylor Project, a in their states back home. program that uses bicycling to empower underserved 264 that teaches bike mechanic skills. youths in the Seattle area.272 43 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Changing the Culture of Recreational Bicycling Slow Roll Detroit It is not uncommon to hear negative stereotypes about bicycling in communities Slow Roll Detroit is a weekly Monday night community-based group bicycle of color. Some view bicycling as a leisure ride. Started in 2011, Slow Roll has grown to be one of the world’s largest activity for the well-to-do while others dismiss it as a mode of last resort for weekly bike rides, averaging around 2,000 riders, and last season had up the poor, to be avoided if at all possible. to 4,000 people participating in some rides. Slow Roll has a welcoming, Others may not even think about bicycling parade-like atmosphere, with a highly diverse community of all races, as an option because they don’t see other people who look like them riding bicycles. backgrounds, men and women, all ages, Millennials to Baby Boomers, Sometimes women feel they will be unsafe families and kids, Detroiters and suburbanites alike. Slow Roll Detroit or conspicuous on a bicycle. And many has created real change in Detroit by building a movement and sense of are not aware of how bicycling can help 274 improve their health and community. community, with bicycling as the forum that brings it all together. Around the country a number of grassroots ridership groups, organized by people of color, for people of color, have formed to encourage members of their community to ride bicycles and to make bicycling more visible. In addition to leading rides, many groups also using bicycling as vehicle for raising broader health, equity, and other community issues; some also take on an advocacy role. A Red, Bike and Green chapter in Atlanta, GA, for example, helped successfully lobby for a fairer distribution of bike lanes and more equitable funding provisions in pending bike legislation.273 Sometimes such groups create communities and rides that are only for members of the specified group; other times they join larger more diverse rides with a core constituency. Either way, these groups are redefining people’s image of what it means to be a bicyclist in the Mike MacKool United States.

Selected Bicycling Groups for Riders of Color The New Movement: Black Women Bike Ovarian Psyco-Cycles Bike Equity Today East Side Riders Red, Bike and Green Read profiles of many of the biking Local Spokes: Lower East Side and Richmond Spokes groups organized by and for people Chinatown Bicycling Coalition of color in the League of American Slow Roll Detroit Los Ryderz Bicyclists’ The New Movement: Slow Roll Chicago Major Taylor Bicycling Clubs Bike Equity Today, an October 2014 The National Brotherhood report. Bikesanas del Valle of Cyclists

44 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Addressing Crime, Fear of “Advocates in the field of Crime, and Racial Profiling healthy eating and active Crime and fear of crime create an living have pivotal roles to environment that is hostile to walking and play—recognizing the impact bicycling and detrimental to community well-being. Traditionally, crime has been of violence, raising their considered primarily a safety issue for voices to broaden advocacy law enforcement to address. In recent efforts, and undertaking years, however, there has been increasing recognition that crime is not just a safety cross-cutting strategies to issue; addressing crime is also a critical help eliminate the causes of to public health and to successfully violence and chronic disease.” promoting healthy living, healthy eating, 276 and active transportation efforts. Nor can Prevention Institute crime be effectively addressed by police alone. Thus, community leaders are bringing together advocates, researchers, Such a strategy involves engaging discussed in the opening sections of this nonprofit and government agencies, and government agencies, youth, schools, report, people of color and low-income other stakeholders from many sectors. businesses, and others to create individuals are exposed to racial profiling These stakeholders are coming together to opportunities to build community, provide by police as well as vigilantes while take a comprehensive approach to crime – alternatives to crime, and develop a more walking and bicycling. Addressing this 277,278 an approach that supplements traditional positive physical environment. reality requires a multipronged approach enforcement measures with prevention This type of holistic approach, along that takes on unfair policing practices, measures that aim to reduce the likelihood with progressive police initiatives community habits that contribute to of crime happening in the first place.275 such as community policing, not only profiling, and the potential complacency reduces violence but also helps achieve of white active transportation proponents. transportation equity by creating safer One arena for collaboration is in advocacy places for low-income people to walk and for the removal of unnecessary laws bicycle. imposing requirements on bicycling. Because local bicycling restrictions vary Making neighborhoods safer directly widely and often are not based on sound supports the use of active transportation; evidence of safety or other benefits, such conversely, active transportation programs laws can discourage bicycling or impose The Safe Routes to School National and infrastructure also improve safety. unnecessary barriers, while also giving Everything from bike paths and bike Partnership has produced a report police an ever-present excuse to stop parking to traffic calming measures and riders of color. Avoiding the imposition on violence prevention and Safe better sidewalks helps get more people of burdensome or unnecessary laws Routes to School efforts. The out and about, and thus helps create a on bicycling – not to mention other safer environment – especially when the unnecessary laws – may assist in reducing report, Taking Back the Streets infrastructure is designed with crime 279 racial profiling of riders of color. The and Sidewalks: How Safe Routes reduction in mind. Detroit-based story in the sidebar provides Selected Bicycling Groups for Riders of Color to School and Community Safety Addressing racial profiling and police an example of how and why to work on Initiatives Can Overcome Violence brutality are also crucial objectives related such issues. to equity and crime prevention. As and Crime, catalogues how Safe Routes to School programs have been structured to protect “One of the things we created, and are launching as a non-profit children from crime and decrease right now, is a bike depot in a low-income community…It’s had a violence in communities, discusses big impact [in] improving the feeling of safety on the street. It has related and more distant violence also gotten more people out volunteering, working with kids, as prevention initiatives, and highlights well as bicycling in the community. It helped balance things out— opportunities for greater partnership people feel safer.” between safe routes proponents and From Prevention Institute’s Addressing the Intersection: violence prevention advocates. Preventing Violence and Promoting Healthy Eating and Active Living280

45 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Joining Together to Remove Barriers

In 2009, the Detroit Greenways The partnership gave momentum to Coalition and other active the active transportation advocates, transportation advocates partnered who went on to get a multimodal with the Detroit Coalition Against plan passed by the City Council. The Police Brutality to get the city council Greenways Coalition and Coalition to repeal an ordinance requiring Against Police Brutality have continued city-issued licenses to ride bicycles. to partner, with the Greenways The ordinance was on the books, Coalition hosting a group bike ride and but had not been enforced. Then, discussion about policing on Belle Isle police indicated that they intended to State Park for the Coalition Against start enforcing the requirement as a Police Brutality, Detroit bike clubs, and tool to combat drug dealing. As the the regional and statewide chief of state police began ticketing unlicensed parks. The groups continue to work on riders, despite the fact that bicycle removing outdated bicycle ordinances, licenses weren’t even yet available, and are working with youth to get laws many in Detroit were concerned that that restrict bicycling for young people the ordinance was simply providing off the books. an excuse for stopping and harassing young men of color.

At the same time, active transportation advocates also objected to the ordinance, because they saw it as placing an unnecessary barrier to use of active transportation. As Todd Scott, executive director of the Greenways Coalition explained, “The major reason for us was we are trying to reduce the barriers to people for riding bikes – we want to get them in people’s hands.” The two organizations teamed up to successfully demand Mike MacKool that City Council repeal the law, despite opposition by the police Ron Scott, the city’s most prominent department. Todd Scott said, “We had Detroit Police watchdog, had purchased organized a protest ride, but since City a bicycle as part of his opposition to Council removed the ban, it turned into the licensing requirement, and has now a celebration ride.” become an avid bike rider and bicycle advocate, too.305

46 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Bike Share Programs share programs roll out with little or no outreach to underserved neighborhoods to Bike share programs provide new develop community support. opportunities to use a bike to easily get Better Bike Share around to jobs, doctors’ appointments, and The glaring inequities in bike share Partnership errands without having to own, maintain, programs have garnered significant media or store a bike. When bike share stations attention, and many bike share programs Members of the Better Bike are now actively trying to reduce these are strategically coordinated with public Share Partnership (BBSP) that transit, they can greatly ease the challenges barriers through a range of different collaborated on Indego are also of completing the first or last leg of a strategies, including siting more stations longer trip or commute, making even more in low-income areas, providing discounted continuing to work on bike share memberships and alternatives to credit destinations accessible by transit. Since equity issues around the country. 2010, when Washington D.C., Denver, and card and bank account requirements, 285 One member, for example, The Minneapolis started the first large-scale and doing community outreach. Bublr, bike share programs in the United States, the bike share program in Milwaukee, National Association of City Wisconsin, is offering a new, simplified, they have been growing in popularity, and Transportation Officials (NACTO), is dozens of additional cities have followed and less expensive fee system that is collecting and disseminating best suit.282 designed to make it more affordable for residents of all income levels.286 practices on bike share, including For low-income people, bike share These efforts need to be encouraged equity strategies. Another member, programs have a lot of apparent potential. and strengthened in order to effectively The ability to afford a bicycle and to keep overcome existing barriers. PeopleForBikes, is providing grant it maintained and in good condition can money to different communities to be a serious obstacle to bicycling – as can Philadelphia is leading the way with its finding room to securely store a bike.283 new bike share program, named Indego, develop and implement strategies launched in April 2015. Using combined that increase bike share in The recent wave of bike share programs, public and private funding, Indego was underserved areas. PeopleForBikes however, have ended up primarily serving deliberately designed to be the most male, affluent, white riders, and thus have equitable bike share program in the is also funding a “storytelling effort” reinforced transportation inequities instead country from inception, and if successful, to better communicate the ongoing of mitigating them. As has been amply will serve as a model for others. Fully challenges and achievements of documented, there are significant barriers one-third of its 60 bike share stations are preventing low-income riders and riders of located in low-income neighborhoods.288 grantees in real time through blogs, color from being able to take advantage of It will also have a cash option available articles, images, and videos.291 bike sharing. First, it is common to see few to any resident; no credit card or bank These efforts should continue the bike stations located in low-income areas; account required. Community involvement instead, stations are sited in more affluent was also a priority: focus groups were momentum to make bike share areas or tourist-oriented areas that will held with low-income residents to identify programs live up to their potential produce the most revenue to help ensure barriers, residents were asked for input to significantly contribute to an financial viability. In addition, the cost of on station locations, neighborhood using the bike share program, along with “ambassadors” were hired to introduce the equitable active transportation credit card or bank account requirements, program, and low-income students and system. also excludes many people from benefiting artists created murals highlighting the new from the system.284 Moreover, most bike bike stations.289

“The rates of low-income ridership of all bike- share programs around the world is pitifully low. So we can only do better.” Caroline Samponaro Transportation Alternatives, New York287

“Our bike share [program] will be accessible to underserved communities from day one.” Carniesha Fenwick-Kwashie Grant Manager of the Mayor’s Fund for Philadelphia290

47 Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

Key Role for Public Transit with local public works and planning departments, which can be a difficult An Abundance of Unattractive, Most of this report has focused on the state and rocky process. LA Metro recently Dangerous Bus Stops of equity and the active transportation published a First and Final Mile Strategic movement. But public transportation Plan with recommendations on how to Streetsblog’s “sorriest bus stop” is integral to supporting walking and connect transit riders to their origins and contest received many entries. bicycling, and plays a key role in creating destinations via walking and bicycling. The healthy and equitable communities. report acknowledges the limited role of Submissions showed bus stops with Nationally, transit ridership is highest Metro in implementing the recommended no sidewalk leading up to them, on among low-income households, and many improvements.293 Denver’s Mile High highways, on busy arterial streets, endure long commutes via transit to get to Connects coalition has also made it a work or other destinations because of gaps priority to advocate for first and last mile interfering with bicycle lanes, with in the network. Because many of the issues connections to Denver’s growing mass no markers, without safe crossings, that transit justice advocates are working transit network, as well as make sure that snowed in, and more.295 The award on overlap with equity issues in active bus riders are not left behind by new rail transportation, and because transit and investments.294 winner featured a bus stop on a four walking and bicycling are closely linked lane divided highway with nothing more forms of transportation, there are great than a sign to mark it – no sidewalk, no opportunities for collaborative efforts. Equitable Development, bench, no set back from the highway, Transit, and Active no way to cross the highway. The sign Transportation Investing in Transit sat near a drainage ditch in an empty Necessitates Greater At a broader level, the importance field, with no street in sight.296 Investments in Walking of supporting neighborhoods while and Bicycling preventing displacement has given rise to a As many communities consider new movement around equitable development. The success of transit is largely dependent The goal of equitable development is transit options, active transportation on how easily people can access it. to make sure that communities get advocates can play an integral role Research studies regularly find that the investment, infrastructure, and in addressing first and last mile providing easy pedestrian and bicycle resources they need, but in ways that access to stations will encourage higher ensure that everyone benefits. Equitable connections, especially in low-income transit ridership, especially at employment development is often framed as a solution neighborhoods where transit use centers where people are less inclined to to the problems of gentrification and 292 is high and the path to the nearest walk long distances. Thus, many transit displacement. agencies and local planning departments A key component of equitable stop is frequently unsafe. This work focus on “first and last mile” connections development is mixed-income housing provides an opportunity to bring to the transit network. Yet many have located in close proximity to transit struggled to invest in the infrastructure nontraditional partners such as public stations, usually within a half-mile. There necessary to create safe walking and is a major shortage of affordable housing health, environmental justice and social bicycling conditions. One challenge arises across the United States, and because justice stakeholders into transportation because most transit agencies do not many low-income households take transit, have authority over the land surrounding planning conversations, as it is a walk or bike, they can save money on their stations, requiring coordination natural place where these sectors’ transportation costs by living in places work intersects and everyone can see a benefit from greater access to the transit system.

48

pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice

with multiple transportation options. became more desirable due to its role in Affordable Housing and But market forces often don’t provide relieving the market pressures of the two Sustainable Communities affordable housing near transit stations downtowns it connects, Minneapolis and without federal grants or tax subsidies to St. Paul.302 They created an Investment Program developers. And the rising popularity of Framework Plan303 and a health impact living in walkable neighborhoods or near assessment304 to address their concerns and One recent success in funding transit creates market conditions that can spell out how to address them over time. equitable development has been displace existing residents.298 Communities have had varied success with California’s Affordable Housing Along the Gold Line in Los Angeles, equitable development, and it remains a and Sustainable Communities community work on the ground significant policy challenge. Funding for program.305 The program’s funding counteracted threats of displacement to affordable housing is limited and subsidy preserve affordable housing. The Gold programs are always on the chopping comes from the California cap- Line opened up a connection across the block in state and federal budgets. Yet and-trade revenue, and the first LA River to Boyle Heights, making the safe walking and bicycling are an integral round of grants will be awarded neighborhood more popular for downtown component of equitable development, workers and others who desired close given the high proportion of people at in mid-2015. Grants can be proximity to downtown LA. In addition, lower incomes who walk and bicycle. used to fund affordable housing the City of Los Angeles then made plans Furthermore, while many transportation development near transit stops/ to revitalize the LA River by creating investments take a long time to come to new bike trails. But the larger changes fruition, they are intricately planned and stations, infrastructure to support afoot meant that the neighborhood saw regulated by government agencies, and the affordable housing projects, these plans as a threat rather than an most of these processes provide regular public transit access, pedestrian or amenity.299 Community stakeholders have opportunities for input. It is important worked to preserve affordable housing for walking and bicycling advocates to be bicycle network improvements, and and build new units as the neighborhood at the table with other advocates fighting associated active transportation undergoes changes and sees improvements for affordable housing, transit, economic and transit ridership programs. to its infrastructure.300 The Alliance for development, and other equity concerns Community Transit in Los Angeles recently that will make our communities safer and published a paper with recommendations more livable places. for preserving affordable housing in South Los Angeles and other low-income communities and communities of color along planned transit lines, using lessons from the Gold Line.301 Additional Resources on Equitable Development In the Twin Cities region, advocates along • PolicyLink, Equitable Development In addition, it provides links to case the Green Line (formerly the Central Toolkit: A resource for tools and studies from all types of communities Corridor) mobilized to protect residents solutions to address issues that that have been successful in and small businesses along the light rail route from displacement, both during and arise with transportation investments addressing displacement and creating after construction, as the neighborhood and equity concerns new affordable housing opportunities

• Center for Transit-Oriented near transit. “Equitable development is an Development, Mixed-Income • ChangeLab Solutions, Preserving, approach to creating healthy, Transit-Oriented Development Protecting, and Expanding vibrant[] communities Action Guide: Provides a great Affordable Housing: A Policy of opportunity. Equitable source of information on potential Toolkit for Public Health outcomes come about when solutions to gentrification and • Enterprise Community Partners, smart, intentional strategies displacement issues. The website Preserving Affordable Housing are put in place to ensure that features dozens of tools that can Near Transit everyone can participate in be used to create and preserve • Principles of Equitable and benefit from decisions affordable housing and mixed-income Development that shape their neighborhoods housing and to prevent displacement. and regions.” PolicyLink, Equitable Development Toolkit297 49 Conclusion

Transportation is a fundamental aspect of everyday Increasing the safety and convenience of walking life. The transportation inequities spelled out in and bicycling will reduce air pollution and asthma this report are not just a matter of convenience. rates, address climate change, and support friendlier Rather, they have serious and far-reaching impacts streets and neighborhood cohesion – but for low- on the safety, health, and quality of life of millions income families without a car, it will require decades of children and adults in our country. Because the of focused effort and enormous investments for dominant orientation of our transportation system walking, bicycling and transit to truly provide is getting well-to-do people around by car, there are equitable access to active transportation. At the same serious challenges we must overcome if we are to time, millions of low-income Americans are walking successfully address these disparities. and bicycling in unsafe conditions right now.

50 This report reviews a wide array of challenges and opportunities to improving active transportation while increasing the equity of our transportation system. Key lessons include the following:

• Advocates and agency staff must support can thrive. Active transportation how market forces work in relation real, meaningful community engagement advocates can act as real allies on to walking, bicycling, and transit for both governmental and organizational strategies and advocacy around quality investments, communities can decision making, projects, and programs. education, affordable housing, residential proactively plan for and advocate for Governmental institutions tend to have diversity, and more. This work won’t be community needs. Transportation a top-down approach, but including a distraction – instead, it will bring new planning is deeply esoteric – it people in the decisions that affect partners and collaborators who will, in is important to have community them is key to understanding needs, turn, support core active transportation organizations and experts who can avoiding unintended consequences, concerns. analyze proposals and policies and and acting in ways that are respectful of translate them for local residents, and community knowledge and expertise. • In light of the considerable concerns then translate community demands Don’t rely on inviting the community around gentrification and displacement, back into technical lingo and policy to come to you – go to them. Engage it is worth emphasizing this persistent provisions. communities early in the process, bring reality: for those who are working in the questions to communities and make space of equity and active transportation, • Work in this area requires the creation sure that there are real benefits for those affordable housing and anti-displacement of deep and lasting collaborations, communities in participating in events efforts need to be a fundamental part of coalitions, and partnership. This will and feedback sessions. Be aware of why the work. require people to take actions, engage with issues, and create relationships that the community may feel distrust towards • Active transportation proponents and government and others, and work to may not be familiar and comfortable – agency personnel should prioritize but the work will be better for it. create a basis for trust and joint efforts. learning, growth, and capacity building • One of the key recurring lessons of work with regard to equity work. Both as a • Equity is the touchstone for this work. in this arena is that in order to promote personal matter and in their professional In initial planning, equity must be a key active transportation while supporting roles, there may be need for exploration goal as initiatives and approaches are equitable outcomes, active transportation of implicit biases, privileges, and developed; work should be evaluated advocates need to embrace the larger historical roles to help ensure that midstream to ensure that it is focused on goals of potential partners. Don’t ignore stakeholders are ready to engage non- identified needs, community voice, and or dismiss fears around gentrification, defensively and openly with equity other key considerations of equity. In the school siting, and police brutality – take partners. end, the results of these efforts should these concerns seriously, own them, and be assessed to see whether in fact they • Advocates and community stakeholders advanced equity, and as new initiatives be part of the solution. This engagement play an important role in ensuring is part of realizing a vision of a vibrant, are developed once more, they should equitable development in our incorporate the lessons learned. healthy, equitable society where everyone neighborhoods. By understanding

Demands for both equity and active transportation are We look forward to supporting, participating in, and growing louder every day. This report lays out why there learning from future initiatives to make our streets safer is great need for work at this intersection, identifies the for low-income communities and communities of color. policies and practices that such work can influence, Safe and effective transportation options are not a nicety and highlights the inspiring efforts already under way. for low-income families, but a necessity.

51 1 Max Applebaum, Andrew Camp, Conor Clarke et 18 Mary Brown, “Why Aren’t Women on Wheels?” San al., Beyond the Backlash: Equity and Participation Francisco Bicycle Coalition, http://www.sfbike. in Bicycle Planning: Executive Summary (May 2011) org/?women_mb. Endnotes at v, http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ccpd/repository/ files/es_beyond-the-backlash-2011.pdf. 19 John Neff & Larry Pham, “A Profile of Public Transportation Passenger Demographics and Travel Many of these resources can be 2 Paul M. Davis, “Are Bike Lanes Expressways to Characteristics Reported in On-Board Surveys,” Gentrification?” Shareable, August 30, 2011, 2007, American Public Transportation Association, found in our library of resources http://www.shareable.net/blog/are-bike-lanes- http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/ expressways-to-gentrification. Documents/transit_passenger_characteristics_ on the Safe Routes to School text_5_29_2007.pdf. 3 April Streeter, “Fixing Urban Biking’s White Bias, National Partnership’s website at Part II,” Good, 12/29/10, http://magazine.good.is/ 20 Mike Maciag, “Public Transportation’s Demographic articles/fixing-urban-biking-s-white-bias-part-ii. Divide,” Governing, February 25, 2014, http://www. www.saferoutespartnership.org governing.com/topics/transportation-infrastructure/ 4 Brian McKenzie, “Modes Less Traveled—Bicycling gov-public-transportation-riders-demographic-divide- and Walking to Work in the United States: 2008– for-cities.html. 2012,” American Community Survey Reports, 2014, http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/acs-25. 21 John Neff & Larry Pham, “A Profile of Public pdf. Transportation Passenger Demographics and Travel Characteristics Reported in On-Board Surveys,” 5 League of American Bicyclists, “The New Majority, 2007, American Public Transportation Association, Pedaling Towards Equity,” http://www.ssti.us/wp/ http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/ wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Sierra-+-LAB-bike- Documents/transit_passenger_characteristics_ equity_report-May-2013.pdf. text_5_29_2007.pdf.

6 Tanya Snyder, “Low-Income Americans Walk and 22 John Neff & Larry Pham, “A Profile of Public Bike to Work the Most,” Streetsblog, May 8, 2014, Transportation Passenger Demographics and Travel http://usa.streetsblog.org/2014/05/08/low- Characteristics Reported in On-Board Surveys,” income-americans-walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most/. 2007, American Public Transportation Association, http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/ 7 Brian McKenzie, “Modes Less Traveled—Bicycling Documents/transit_passenger_characteristics_ and Walking to Work in the United States: 2008– text_5_29_2007.pdf. 2012,” American Community Survey Reports, 2014, http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/acs-25.pdf. 23 John Neff & Larry Pham, “A Profile of Public Transportation Passenger Demographics and Travel 8 In this report, we use the term “African American” Characteristics Reported in On-Board Surveys,” to refer to individuals who identify as black. Most 2007, American Public Transportation Association, of the statistical references exclude Latino blacks http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/ from the data reflecting population trends for African Documents/transit_passenger_characteristics_ Americans. Likewise, the term “white” generally text_5_29_2007.pdf. does not include white Latinos. We also use the term “Latino” to describe people whose family 24 John Neff & Larry Pham, “A Profile of Public origins are from Mexico or Central or Southern Transportation Passenger Demographics and Travel America rather than the term “Hispanic.” Characteristics Reported in On-Board Surveys,” 2007, American Public Transportation Association, 9 McDonald, N., “Critical factors for active http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/ transportation to school among low-income and Documents/transit_passenger_characteristics_ minority students: Evidence from the 2001 National text_5_29_2007.pdf. Household Travel Survey,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34, 341-3, 2008. 25 Commuting in America 2013: The National Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends, 10 John Pucher, Ralph Buehler, Mark Seinen, “Bicycling 2013, American Association of State Highway Renaissance in North America? An Update and and Transportation Officials,http://traveltrends. Re-appraisal of Cycling Trends and Policies,” transportation.org/Documents/B7_Vehicle%20 Transportation Research Part A 45 (2011): 459 and and%20Transit%20Availability_CA07-4_web.pdf. Figure 4, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/ TRA960_01April2011.pdf. 26 Ibid.

11 League of American Bicyclists, “The New Majority, 27 Judith Bell & Larry Cohen, “The Transportation Pedaling Towards Equity,” http://www.ssti.us/wp/ Prescription: Bold New Ideas for Healthy, Equitable wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Sierra-+-LAB-bike- Transportation Reform in America,” PolicyLink, equity_report-May-2013.pdf. Convergence Partnership and Prevention Institute, 2009 (Statistics republished from Steven Raphael 12 Ibid. and Alan Berube, “Socioeconomic Differences in Household Automobile Ownership Rates: 13 Ibid. Implications for Evacuation Policy,” paper prepared for the Berkeley Symposium on “Real Estate, 14 Ibid. Catastrophic Risk, and Public Policy,” March 23, 2006. 15 Alliance for Biking and Walking, “Benchmarking Report,” 2012 http://www. 28 Linda Bailey, “Aging Americans: Stranded Without peoplepoweredmovement.org/site/index.php/site/ Options,” Surface Transportation Policy Project, memberservices/2012_benchmarking_report/; April 2004, www.transact.org/report.asp?id=232. Pucher, J., and J. Renne, “Socioeconomics of Urban Travel: Evidence from the 2001 NHTS,” 29 Irwin Redlener et al., “The Growing Health Care Transportation Quarterly, 57, 49-77, 2003; Van Access Crisis for American Children: One in Four Lenthe et al., in Krizek, K., et al., Walking and at Risk,” The Children’s Health Fund, 2007, http:// Cycling International Literature Review, 2005. www.childrenshealthfund.org/sites/default/files/ WhitePaper-May2007-FINAL.pdf. 16 Tanya Snyder, “Low-Income Americans Walk and Bike to Work the Most,” Streetsblog, May 8, 2014, 30 Stephanie Pollack, Liz Williams, Russ Lopez, http://usa.streetsblog.org/2014/05/08/low- and Ivette Luna, “The Toll of Transportation,” income-americans-walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most. Northeastern University, Dukakis Center for Urban & Regional Policy, November 2013. http://www. 17 Nancy McGruckin, “Walking and Biking in California: northeastern.edu/dukakiscenter/wp-content/ Analysis of the CA-NHTS,” Institute of Transportation uploads/2013/11/The-Toll-of-Transportation-Final- Studies, University of California, Davis (2012): Report.pdf. 25, Table 13, http://publications.its.ucdavis.edu/ publication_detail.php?id=1661. 52 Endnotes

31 Eric Moskowitz, “Wide Racial Gap Exists on 45 Detroit Free Press, January 31, 2015, http:// 62 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits Speed of Boston-area Commutes,” Boston.com, www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/ and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, November 24, 2012. http://www.boston.com/ oakland/2015/01/31/detroit-commuting-troy- February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf. news/local/massachusetts/2012/11/24/wide- rochester-hills-smart-ddot-ubs-banker-woodward- racial-gap-exists-speed-boston-area-commutes/ buses-transit/22660785/ . 63 Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Committee on Disability oW7hHJ0IFWluX6eQI15QPL/story.html. in America; Field MJ, Jette AM, editors. The Future 46 Mikayla Bouchard, “Transportation Emerges as of Disability in America. National Academies 32 M. Ver Ploeg, et al., Access to Affordable and Crucial to Escaping Poverty,” New York Times, May Press 2007. Sandra Rosenbloom, “Transportation Nutritious Food: Updated Estimates of Distance 7, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/ Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities.” to Supermarkets Using 2010 Data, United States upshot/transportation-emerges-as-crucial- http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11420/. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research to-escaping-poverty.html?smid=pl-share&_ Service, 2012. r=1&abt=0002&abg=1. 64 Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Committee on Disability in America; Field MJ, Jette AM, editors. The Future 33 Gordon-Larsen, P., Nelson, M., Page, P. & Popkin, B. 47 Centers for Disease Control, “Adult Obesity Facts,” of Disability in America. National Academies 2006. Inequality in the Built Environment Underlies http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html. Press 2007. Sandra Rosenbloom, “Transportation Key Health Disparities in Physical Activity and Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities.” Obesity. Pediatrics. 117(2): 417. 48 Mayo Clinic, Diseases and Conditions: Obesity, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11420/. http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ 34 The City Project, HEALTHY PARKS, SCHOOLS AND obesity/basics/causes/con-20014834. 65 National Council on Disability, “Transportation COMMUNITIES: Mapping Green Access and Equity Update: Where We’ve Gone and What We’ve for Southern California, 2011. 49 Centers for Disease Control, “Adult Obesity Facts,” Learned,” 2015, http://www.ncd.gov/ http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html. publications/2015/05042015/. 35 Corinne Ramey, “America’s Unfair Rules of the Road,” Slate, 2/27/15, http://www.slate.com/ 50 Cynthia L. Ogden, PhD et al., “Prevalence of High 66 National Council on Disability, “Transportation articles/news_and_politics/politics/2015/02/ Body Mass Index in U.S. Children and Adolescents, Update: Where We’ve Gone and What We’ve america_s_transportation_system_discriminates_ 2007-2008,” Journal of the American Medical Learned,” 2015, http://www.ncd.gov/ against_minorities_and_poor.single.html. Association, 303(3): 242-249, doi:10.1001/ publications/2015/05042015/. jama.2009.2012. 36 Mikayla Bouchard, “Transportation Emerges as 67 Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Committee on Disability Crucial to Escaping Poverty,” New York Times, May 51 Katie M. Heinrich et al., “How Does the Built in America; Field MJ, Jette AM, editors. The Future 7, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/ Environment Relate to Body Mass Index and Obesity of Disability in America. National Academies upshot/transportation-emerges-as-crucial- Prevalence Among Public Housing Residents? Press 2007. Sandra Rosenbloom, “Transportation to-escaping-poverty.html?smid=pl-share&_ Journal of Health Promotion. 2008, 22(3):187-194. Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities.” r=1&abt=0002&abg=1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11420/. 52 Laura Sandt et al., “Leveraging the Health Benefits 37 Mikayla Bouchard, “Transportation Emerges as of Active Transportation: Creating an Actionable 68 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits Crucial to Escaping Poverty,” New York Times, May Agenda for Transportation Professionals,” TR and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 7, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/ News, May-June 2012, http://onlinepubs.trb.org/ February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf. upshot/transportation-emerges-as-crucial- onlinepubs/trnews/trnews280.pdf. to-escaping-poverty.html?smid=pl-share&_ 69 Laura Sandt et al., “Leveraging the Health Benefits r=1&abt=0002&abg=1. 53 Laura Sandt et al., “Leveraging the Health Benefits of Active Transportation: Creating an Actionable of Active Transportation: Creating an Actionable Agenda for Transportation Professionals,” TR News, 38 American Community Survey, Modes Less Traveled- Agenda for Transportation Professionals,” TR May-June 2012. Bicycling and Walking to Work in the U.S., 2008- News, May-June 2012, http://onlinepubs.trb.org/ 2012, http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/ onlinepubs/trnews/trnews280.pdf. 70 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits acs-25.pdf; see also Streetsblog, May 8, 2014: and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, http://usa.streetsblog.org/2014/05/08/low- 54 Laura Sandt et al., “Leveraging the Health Benefits February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf. income-americans-walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most/. of Active Transportation: Creating an Actionable Agenda for Transportation Professionals,” TR 71 Smart Growth America, “Complete Streets Stimulate 39 American Community Survey, Modes Less Traveled- News, May-June 2012, http://onlinepubs.trb.org/ Local Economy,” http://www.smartgrowthamerica. 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February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm. 42 Adie Tomer, Elizabeth Kneebone, Robert Puentes, pdf (including annualized land, construction and and Alan Berube, “Missed Opportunity: Transit 58 John Greenfield, “Advocates Request a Fair Share of operating costs). and Jobs in Metropolitan America,” Brookings Bike Resources for Black Communities,” Streetsblog Institute, 2011, http://www.brookings.edu/~/ Chicago, 12/19/14, http://chi.streetsblog. 76 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits media/research/files/reports/2011/5/12-jobs-and- org/2014/12/19/advocates-request-a-fair-share-of- and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, transit/0512_jobs_transit.pdf. bike-resources-for-black-communities/. February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf.

43 Dukakis Center for Urban and Regional Policy, 59 California Department of Public Health, Health and 77 Angela Glover Blackwell, “Equity is the superior Stephanie Pollack. Maintaining Diversity In America’s Environmental Benefits of Active Transportation and growth model,” 2/20/14, http://redf.org/equity- Transit-Rich Neighborhoods. 2010 – http://nuweb9. Complete Streets, http://sgc.ca.gov/docs/funding/ superior-growth-model-angela-glover-blackwell- neu.edu/dukakiscenter/wp-content/uploads/TRN_ Health_and_Environmental_Benfits_of_Active_ policylink/. Equity_final.pdf. Transportation_and_Complete_Streets_12.23.pdf. 78 Darren Flusche, “National Household Travel Survey – 44 Angie Schmitt, “Man Walks 21 Miles to Commute 60 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits Short Trips Analysis,” 2010, http://www.bikeleague. Each Day Because of Detroit’s Awful Transit,” and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, org/content/national-household-travel-survey-short- Streetsblog, February 3, 2015, http://usa. February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf. trips-analysis. streetsblog.org/2015/02/03/man-walks-21-miles- for-work-each-day-because-of-detroits-terrible-transit/ 61 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits . and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf. 53 Endnotes

79 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits 95 M. Maciag, Pedestrians Dying at Disproportionate 110 John Greenfield, Why Don’t the South and West and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Rates in America’s Poorer Neighborhoods, Sides Have a Fair Share of Bike Facilities? February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf. Governing (August 2014), http://www.governing. Streetsblog Chicago (Dec. 23, 2014), http://chi. com/topics/public-justice-safety/gov-pedestrian- streetsblog.org/tag/shawn-conley/. 80 Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, deaths-analysis.html. Environmental Benefits of Walking and Bicycling, 111 The New Majority: Bicycling Towards Equity, League http://www.pedbikeinfo.org/data/factsheet_ 96 Transportation Alternatives, “Child Crashes: An of American Bicyclists and Sierra Club (2013) environmental.cfm. Unequal Burden,” 2012, http://transalt.org/sites/ Available at: http://www.bikeleague.org/sites/ default/files/news/reports/2012/Child_Crashes_ default/files/equity_report.pdf. 81 Michael Jerrett et al., Traffic-Related Air Pollution An_Unequal_Burden.pdf. and Asthma Onset in Children: A Prospective Cohort 112 Max Applebaum, Andrew Camp, Conor Clarke et Study with Individual Exposure Measurement, 97 Transportation Alternatives, “Child Crashes: An al., Beyond the Backlash: Equity and Participation 2008, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ Unequal Burden,” 2012, http://transalt.org/sites/ in Bicycle Planning: Executive Summary (May 2011) PMC2569108/. default/files/news/reports/2012/Child_Crashes_ at v, http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ccpd/repository/ An_Unequal_Burden.pdf. files/es_beyond-the-backlash-2011.pdf. 82 Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, Environmental Benefits of Walking and Bicycling, 98 K. Gibbs, S. Slater, N. Nicholson, et al., Income 113 Kyle Minaulli, St. Paul Bicycle Plan Widens http://www.pedbikeinfo.org/data/factsheet_ Disparities in Street Features that Encourage its Scope, The Line (October 15, 2014), environmental.cfm. Walking – A BTG Research Brief. Chicago, http://www.thelinemedia.com/devnews/ IL: Bridging the Gap Program, Health Policy stpaulbikeplan101502014.aspx. 83 Seth Shonkoff et al., “Environmental Health and Center, Institute for Health Research and Policy, Equity Impacts from Climate Change and Mitigation University of Illinois at Chicago (2012), http:// 114 Patrick Morency, Lise Gauvin, Céline Plante , et al., Policies in California: A Review of the Literature,” www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/02fpi3/ Neighborhood Social Inequalities in Road Traffic California Climate Change Center, 2009, http:// btg_street_walkability_FINAL_03-09-12.pdf. Injuries: The Influence of Traffic Volume and Road www.energy.ca.gov/2009publications/CEC-500- Design, Am J Public Health, 102(6): 1112–1119 2009-038/CEC-500-2009-038-D.PDF. 99 Ibid. (June 2012), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3483951/. 84 U.S. EPA, Climate Change: Basic Information, 100 Ibid. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/basics/. 115 Salinas Comprehensive Strategy for Community- 101 Ibid. wide Violence Reduction 2013-2018 at 17, Available 85 U.S. EPA, Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, online: http://www.future-futuro.org/sites/default/ http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/ 102 M. Maciag, Pedestrians Dying at Disproportionate files/resources/SalinasSWP_2013-2018.pdf. sources.html. Rates in America’s Poorer Neighborhoods, Governing (August 2014), http://www.governing. 116 L. Cohen, R. Davis, V. Lee, et al., Addressing the 86 Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, com/topics/public-justice-safety/gov-pedestrian- Intersection: Preventing Violence and Promoting Environmental Benefits of Walking and Bicycling, deaths-analysis.html. Healthy Eating and Active Living, Prevention http://www.pedbikeinfo.org/data/factsheet_ Institution, at 9 (quoting Loukaitou-Sideris A. Is it environmental.cfm. 103 Sara Fecht, Accident-Zone: Poorer Neighborhoods safe to walk?: Neighborhood safety and security Have Less-Safe Road Designs, Scientific American considerations and their effects on walking. Journal 87 Ibid. (May 3, 2012 http://www.scientificamerican.com/ of Planning Literature. 2006;20(3):219-32). article/accident-zone-poorer-neighborhoods/; Available at: http://www.nmpha.org/Resources/ 88 M. Maciag, Pedestrians Dying at Disproportionate Patrick Morency, Lise Gauvin, Céline Plante , et al., Documents/Addressing%20the%20Intersection%20 Rates in America’s Poorer Neighborhoods, Neighborhood Social Inequalities in Road Traffic of%20violence%20and%20healthy%20eating.pdf. Governing (August 2014), http://www.governing. Injuries: The Influence of Traffic Volume and Road com/topics/public-justice-safety/gov-pedestrian- Design, Am J Public Health, 102(6): 1112–1119 117 Charles C. Branas, Rose A. Cheney, John M. deaths-analysis.html. (June 2012), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ MacDonald, Vicky W. Tam, Tara D. Jackson, and articles/PMC3483951/. Thomas R. Ten Have, “A Difference-in-Differences 89 League of American Bicyclists, “The New Majority, Analysis of Health, Safety, and Greening Vacant Pedaling Towards Equity,” http://www.ssti.us/wp/ 104 Sara Fecht, Accident-Zone: Poorer Neighborhoods Urban Space,” Am. J. Epidemiol. 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Culture-of-Health-through-Active-Transportation-web. HS 811 614). Washington, DC: National Highway pdf. Traffic Safety Administration,http://www.google. 119 Centers for Disease Control, “Residential Proximity com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&c to Major Highways — United States, 2010,” 91 M. Maciag, Pedestrians Dying at Disproportionate d=1&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ Rates in America’s Poorer Neighborhoods, nhtsa.gov%2Fstaticfiles%2Fnti%2Fpdf%2F811614. su6203a8.htm. Governing (August 2014), http://www.governing. pdf&ei=m8bkVJ0cze-gBMmogbAO&usg=AFQjCNEe com/topics/public-justice-safety/gov-pedestrian- 7ZzGYdbTZ0SG4oAhmPrC0FSZcw&sig2=NYw4I_oiF 120 Miranda R. Jones, Ana V. Diez-Roux, Anjum Hajat, deaths-analysis.html. uqpxVEjoybkHg&bvm=bv.85970519,d.cGU. et al., Race/Ethnicity, Residential Segregation, and Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution: The Multi-Ethnic 92 Patrick Morency, Lise Gauvin, Céline Plante , et al., 106 Greg Bluestein, “Raquel Nelson Fights Murder Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), American Journal Neighborhood Social Inequalities in Road Traffic Charges In Son’s Jaywalking Death In Georgia,” of Public Health (Nov. 2014) Vol. 104, No. 11, pp. Injuries: The Influence of Traffic Volume and Road Huffington Post, 4/17/12,http://www. 2130-2137; David Pace, Minorities Suffer Most Design, Am J Public Health, 102(6): 1112–1119 huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/17/raquel-nelson- from Industrial Pollution: Associated Press (Dec. 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54 Endnotes

122 David Pace, Minorities Suffer Most from Industrial 134 J. Williams, supra, at 389-90. 154 Transportation Equity Network, “What We Want: The Pollution: Associated Press (Dec. 14, 2005), http:// TEN Platform,” http://www.transportationequity.org/ www.nbcnews.com/id/10452037/ns/us_news- 135 How Many People Experience Homeless, National what-we-do/background.html. environment/t/minorities-suffer-most-industrial- Coalition for the Homeless (July 2009), http://www. pollution/. nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/How_Many.html. 155 Transportation Equity Caucus, “Statement of Principles,” http://equitycaucus.org/About/ 123 Holly Mead, Lara Cartwright-Smith, Karen Jones, 136 Facts and Figures: The Homeless, NOW on PBS StatementofPrinciples. et al., Racial and Ethnic Disparities in U.S. Health (June 26, 2009), http://www.pbs.org/now/ Care: A Chartbook, Wake Forest University shows/526/homeless-facts.html. 156 Brookings Institution, 2006. An Inherent Bias? School of Medicine (March 2008), http:// Geographic and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of www.commonwealthfund.org/usr_doc/mead_ 137 American’s Youngest Outcasts, A Report Card Metropolitan Planning Organization Boards. racialethnicdisparities_chartbook_1111.pdf. on Child Homelessness, American Institutes http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/ for Research (Nov. 2014), http://www. files/reports/2006/6/01transportation%20 124 Miranda R. Jones, et al., “Race/Ethnicity, Residential homelesschildrenamerica.org/mediadocs/280.pdf. sanchez/20060124_mpos.pdf. Segregation, and Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA),” 138 Bohnia Lee, Thousands of School Children 157 Corinne Ramey, “America’s Unfair Rules of the American Journal of Public Health November 2014: Homeless in Fresno County, The Fresno Bee (Sept. Road,” Slate, 2/27/15, http://www.slate.com/ Vol. 104, No. 11, pp. 2130-2137. doi: 10.2105/ 10, 2014), http://www.fresnobee.com/welcome_ articles/news_and_politics/politics/2015/02/ AJPH.2014.302135. page/?shf=/2014/09/10/4116464_thousands-of- america_s_transportation_system_discriminates_ school-children-homeless.html. against_minorities_and_poor.single.html. 125 David Pace, Minorities Suffer Most from Industrial Pollution: Associated Press (Dec. 14, 2005),http:// 139 Transporting Children and Youth Experiencing 158 Raymond A. Mohl, “The Interstates and the Cities: www.nbcnews.com/id/10452037/ns/us_news- Homelessness, National Center for Homeless Highways, Housing, and the Freeway Revolt,” http:// environment/t/minorities-suffer-most-industrial- Education (2014), http://center.serve.org/nche/ www.prrac.org/pdf/mohl.pdf. pollution/. downloads/briefs/transportation.pdf. 159 Emily Badger, “The long, painful and repetitive 126 Health Effects Institute, New HEI Report on 140 McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act (Subtitle history of how Baltimore became Baltimore,” Exposure to Traffic Finds Evidence of Health Effects VII-B), 42 U.S.C. §§ 11431-11435 (2001). The Washington Post, 4/29/2015, http:// on Children Near Major Roads, and Continuing Data www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/ Gaps, 2010, http://pubs.healtheffects.org/getfile. 141 Education Barriers for Homeless Youth, National wp/2015/04/29/the-long-painful-and-repetitive- php?u=551. Network for Youth, https://www.nn4youth.org/wp- history-of-how-baltimore-became-baltimore/. content/uploads/IssueBrief_Education.pdf. 127 Centers for Disease Control, “Residential Proximity 160 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, to Major Highways — United States, 2010,” 142 See Education For Homeless Children And Youth “Integrating Safe Routes to School into the http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ Program Title VII-B Of The McKinney-Vento Homeless Transportation Alternatives Program: Reducing su6203a8.htm. Assistance Act, As Amended By The No Child Left Barriers for Disadvantaged Communities,” http:// Behind Act Of 2001: Non-Regulatory Guidance, U.S. saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ 128 James Pankow, Miguel Figliozzi and Alexander Dep’t. Of Education (July 2004), https://www2. srts_brief_TAP_MatchingBrief.pdf. Bigazzi (2014), Evaluation of Bicyclists Exposure ed.gov/programs/homeless/guidance.pdf. to Traffic-Related Air Pollution along Distinct Facility 161 See, for instance, The Hill, March 2, 2015. Types, Transportation Research And Education 143 Priscilla Handy, Comment on Tom Foculoro, Bicycle “On infrastructure, we can’t wait any longer” Center (TREC) at Portland State University, http:// Paper: ‘Cycling Forward’ empowers homeless youth http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/ ppms.otrec.us/media/project_files/NITC-RR-560. with bike fixing skills (April 10, 2012),http://www. transportation/234273-on-infrastructure-we-cant- pdf. seattlebikeblog.com/2012/04/10/bicycle-paper- wait-any-longer ` cycling-forward-empowers-homeless-youth-with-bike- 129 Cheryl Katz, Unequal exposures: People in poor, fixing-skills/. 162 American Society of Civil Engineers, 2013. non-white neighborhoods breathe more hazardous America’s Infrastructure Report Card. http://www. particles, Environmental Health News (Nov. 1, 144 Freewheel Bike Program, http://www.ethep. infrastructurereportcard.org/. See also Washington 2012), http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ org/?page=freewheel_bike. Post, March 19, 2013. “U.S. Infrastructure Gets D+ ehs/news/2012/unequal-exposures. in Annual Report.” 145 Delta Bike Project, http://www.deltabikeproject. 130 Cheryl Katz, Unequal exposures: People in poor, org/. 163 Brookings Institution, 2013. Crumbling Infrastructure non-white neighborhoods breathe more hazardous Has Real and Enduring Costs. http://www. particles, Environmental Health News (Nov. 1, 2012) 146 Full Cycle, http://fullcyclebikeshop.org/about-us/. brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2013/01/23- at 1, http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/ crumbling-infrastructure-galston. news/2012/unequal-exposures. 147 Sandra Hamameh, Wheels to Work: A Unique Transportation/Employment Program Drives 164 PolicyLink, 2012. Equity is the Superior Growth 131 http://www.nbcnews.com/id/10452037/ns/us_ to End Homelessness in Sacramento, Model: http://www.policylink.org/find-resources/ news-environment/t/minorities-suffer-most-industrial- Legal Services of Northern California, library/americas-tomorrow-equity-is-the-superior- pollution/#.VO9kWuFShS0. Race Equity Project, http://equity.lsnc. growth-model-summary. net/%E2%80%9Cwheels-to-work%E2%80%9D-a- 132 Jennifer Swanson, Arnelle Ramirez, Kipling Galllion, unique-transportationemployment-program-drives-to- 165 Sarah Treuhaft, Angela Glover Blackwell, and Manuel Increasing out of School and Out of Class Physical end-homelessness-in-sacramento/. Pastor, “America’s Tomorrow: Equity Is the Superior Activity among Latino Children, Salud America! (July Growth Model: Summary,” PolicyLink, http://www. 2013) at 6-7, http://www.communitycommons. 148 Denise Crosby, Bikes put homeless on road to policylink.org/sites/default/files/SUMMIT_FRAMING_ org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Active-Play- opportunity, The Chicago Tribune (March 27, 2015), SUMMARY_WEB.PDF. Research-Review.pdf; Dan Reed, Poor bike/ped http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/aurora- links push Metro commuters to park-and-rides, beacon-news/news/ct-abn-crosby-bikes-st-0330- 166 Cal.Str. & H.Code § 2380 (2013). The implementing Greater Greater Washington (Sept. 4, 2013), 20150330-story.html. regulations define “disadvantaged community” http://greatergreaterwashington.org/post/20056/ as (1) a community that has a median household poor-bike-ped-links-push-metro-commuters-to-park- 149 Christine Soja, Cycling Forward Helps Youth Ride income is less than 80% of the statewide and-rides/; Virginia Lee, Leslie Mikkelsen, Janani On, BicyclePaper.Com, http://bicyclepaper.com/ median, (2) an area identified as among the most Srikantharajah, et al., Strategies for Enhancing articles/370-Cycling-Forward-Helps-Youth-Ride-On. disadvantaged 25% based on a state environmental the Built Environment to Support Healthy Eating health screening tool, or (3) an area in which at and Active Living, Healthy Eating Active Living 150 Transportation Equity Network, http://www. least 75% of public school students are eligible Convergence Partnership (2008), http://www. transportationequity.org/. to receive free or reduced-price meals under the calendow.org/uploadedfiles/publications/ National School Lunch Program. 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Atlanta/Physical-Activity-for-Low-Income-Populations- 153 The Leadership Conference Education Fund, 2011. The-Health-Trust.pdf; Dorothy Pekmezi, Brooke Where We Need to Go: A Civil Rights Roadmap to 168 Id. at 14. Barbara, Jamie Bodenlos, et al., Promoting Physical Transportation Equity http://www.protectcivilrights. Activity in Low Income African Americans: Project org/pdf/docs/transportation/52846576-Where- LAPS, Journal of Health Disparities Research and We-Need-to-Go-A-Civil-Rights-Roadmap-for- 55 Practice, Vol. 3 (2)(Fall 2009). Transportation-Equity.pdf. Endnotes

169 Brookings Institution, “An Inherent Bias? Geographic 186 Ibid. 206 The Atlantic, February 16, 2015. “The Miracle and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Metropolitan of Minneapolis” http://www.theatlantic.com/ Planning Organization Boards,” 2006, http:// 187 Id.at 105. magazine/archive/2015/03/the-miracle-of- www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/ minneapolis/384975/. files/reports/2006/6/01transportation%20 188 Seattle Bicycle Master Plan: Implementation sanchez/20060124_mpos.pdf. Plan (2015-2019), http://www.seattle. 207 The Atlantic, February 21, 2015. “Minneapolis’s gov/transportation/docs/bmp/ White Lie” http://www.theatlantic.com/business/ 170 Brookings Institution, “An Inherent Bias? Geographic BMPImplementationPlanMarch2015.pdf. archive/2015/02/minneapoliss-white-lie/385702/. and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Metropolitan Planning Organization Boards,” 2006, http:// 189 Seattle Bicycle Master Plan at 113. 208 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/ “What is Safe Routes to School? Background and files/reports/2006/6/01transportation%20 190 Advocacy Advance, Active Transportation Statistics,” www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/ sanchez/20060124_mpos.pdf. Equity: A Scan of Existing Master Plans, 2015, default/files/pdf/What-is-SRST-factsheet-REVISED- http://www.advocacyadvance.org/docs/ 06-14-11-w-footnotes.pdf. 171 Brookings Institution, “An Inherent Bias? Geographic ActiveTransportationEquityScan.pdf. and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Metropolitan 209 Physical Activity and Health, Centers for Disease Planning Organization Boards,” 2006, http:// 191 Portland Bicycle Plan for 2030 (March 2010), Control and Prevention, http://www.cdc.gov/ www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/ https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/ physicalactivity/everyone/health/index.html?s_ files/reports/2006/6/01transportation%20 article/289122 cid=cs_284; The Importance of 60 Minutes or sanchez/20060124_mpos.pdf. More of Daily Physical Activity, Surgeon General’s 192 Health Equity and the Transportation System Plan: Perspectives, Public Health Reports (Sept.–Oct. 172 Thomas W. Sanchez, “An Equity Analysis of Recommendations for the City of Portland (March 2013), Vol. 128, http://www.publichealthreports. Transportation Funding,” Race and Regionalism 2012), ftp://ftp02.portlandoregon.gov/PBOT/ org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3002; Getting 15:1 (Fall 2008). http://www.urbanhabitat.org/ Sara%20Schooley/Health_TSP_report_031312.pdf. the Wheels Rolling: A Guide to Using Policy to node.2812 Cited in All Aboard at 8. Brookings Create Bicycle Friendly Communities (Aug. 2013) Institution, “An Inherent Bias? Geographic 193 2035 Comprehensive Proposed Draft, City of at 16, http://changelabsolutions.org/sites/ and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Metropolitan Portland (July 2014) at 157 (Policy 9.58), http:// default/files/Getting_the_Wheels_Rolling_Toolkit- Planning Organization Boards,” 2006, http:// www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/497457. FINAL_20130823_0.pdf; I. Lee, E. Shiroma, F. www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/ Lobelo et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major files/reports/2006/6/01transportation%20 194 Id. passim. non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis sanchez/20060124_mpos.pdf. of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 195 National Complete Streets Coalition, http://www. (2012) 380:219-29, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 174 42 U.S.C §§ 2000d - 2000d-7. smartgrowthamerica.org/complete-streets. pmc/articles/PMC3645500/.

175 K. Manaugh, M. Badami, A. El-Geneidy, Integrating 196 Bridging the Gap, “Using Local Land Use Laws to 210 Shore, Stuart, Michael Sachs, Jeffrey Lidicker, et social equity into urban transportation planning: Facilitate Physical Activity,” Research Brief March al., Decreased scholastic achievement In overweight A critical evaluation of equity objectives and 2012, http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_ middle school students, Obesity 16 (2008): 7, measures in transportation plans in North America,” asset/5q86hg/btg_land_use_pa_FINAL_03-09-12. 1535-1538; Dann Vinther, Children Who Walk to Transport Policy (published online 25 Nov. 2014), pdf. School Concentrate Better,” Science Nordic, Nov. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ 30, 2012, http://sciencenordic.com/children-who- S0967070X14002145; A. Karner, D. Niemeier, Civil 197 Bridging the Gap, “Using Local Land Use Laws to walk-school-conentrate-better. rights guidance and equity analysis methods for Facilitate Physical Activity,” Research Brief March regional transportation plans: a critical review of 2012, http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_ 211 “Exercise for Children,” MedlinePlus, National literature and practice,”Journal of Transport Geography asset/5q86hg/btg_land_use_pa_FINAL_03-09-12. Institutes of Health, last updated Sept. 19, 33 (2013) at 128. Available at: http://www.ssti.us/ pdf. 2012, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2013-karner-civil exerciseforchildren.html; “Changing Diet and +rights+guidance+critical+review.pdf. 198 Lauren M. Rossen and Keshia M. Pollack, “Making Exercise for Kids,” American Psychological the Connection Between Zoning and Health Association, http://www.apa.org/topics/children/ 176 http://equitycaucus.org/About/StatementofPrinciples. Disparities,” ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5, healthy-eating.aspx; Rothon C., et al., “Physical Number 3, 2012, http://www.jhsph.edu/research/ activity and depressive symptoms in adolescents: 177 Manaugh, supra. centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-a- a prospective study,” BMC Medicine 8 (2010): 32, livable-future/_pdf/research/clf_reports/zoning%20 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/8/32. 178 See Equity Analysis, Plan Bay Area, http:// health%20disparities%20Rossen%20Pollack.pdf. planbayarea.org/plan-bay-area/plan-elements/equity- 212 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, http:// analysis.html; Draft Equity Analysis Report, Plan Bay 199 People for Bikes, Building Equity: Race, Ethnicity, saferoutespartnership.org/national/policy-background. Area (March 2013), http://planbayarea.org/pdf/ Class, and Protected Bike Lanes: An Idea Book Draft_Plan_Bay_Area/Draft_Equity_Analysis_Report. for Fairer Cities https://www.dropbox.com/s/ 213 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, http:// pdf. l2wxv9pz9utrien/EquityReport2015.pdf?dl=0. saferoutespartnership.org/national/policy-background.

179 Knoxville Regional Transportation Planning 200 Bill Sadler, Putting Equity on the Map. Living Cities, 214 Noreen C. McDonald, Ruth L. Steiner, Chanam Organization, http://www.knoxtrans.org. April 2014. https://www.livingcities.org/blog/540- Lee, et al., (2014) “Impact of the Safe Routes putting-equity-on-the-map-measuring-access-to- to School Program on Walking and Bicycling,” 180 King County, Advancing Equity and Social Justice opportunity-with-an-equity-atlas. Journal of the American Planning Association, through development of a Strategic Innovation Priority 80:2, 153-167, https://planning.unc.edu/people/ Plan and Executive department actions, ACO 9-2 201 Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity, faculty/noreenmcdonald/McDonald_etal_JAPA_ (10/4/14) http://www.kingcounty.gov/operations/ http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/opportunity- SRTSEvaluation.pdf. Turner L, Slater S, Chaloupka policies/executive/administrationaeo/aco92aeo. communities/mapping/. FJ, “Elementary School Participation in Safe Routes aspx. to School Programming is Associated with Higher 202 Causa Justa, 2014. Development without Rates of Student Active Travel to School - A BTG 181 Equity and Social Justice Annual Report, http:// Displacement: Resisting Gentrification in the Research Brief, ” Bridging the Gap, (2014). www.kingcounty.gov/elected/executive/equity- Bay Area. http://www.liberationink.org/content/ social-justice.aspx. development-without-displacement-resisting- 215 Bridging the Gap, “Research Brief: Income gentrification-bay-area Disparities in Street Features that Encourage 182 For more information on ways to incorporate active Walking.” March 2012, http://www. transportation and Safe Routes to School into 203 Washington City Paper, February 20, 2015. bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/02fpi3/ comprehensive plans, see the National Partnership’s The “Gentrification Myth” Myth.http:// btg_street_walkability_FINAL_03-09-12.pdf; Sara report on Integrating Safe Walking and Bicycling www.washingtoncitypaper.com/blogs/ Fecht, Accident-Zone: Poorer Neighborhoods have to School into Comprehensive Planning http:// housingcomplex/2015/02/20/the-gentrification- Less-Safe Road Designs, Scientific American (May saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ myth-myth/ 3, 2012), http://www.scientificamerican.com/ SRTS_brief_IntegratingCompPlan-FINAL.pdf. article/accident-zone-poorer-neighborhoods/. 204 Slate, January 2015. “The Myth of Gentrification.” 183 Seattle Bicycle Plan at 28 (2010), http://www. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/ seattle.gov/transportation/docs/bmp/apr14/ politics/2015/01/the_gentrification_myth_it_s_ SBMP_21March_FINAL_full%20doc.pdf. rare_and_not_as_bad_for_the_poor_as_people. single.html. 184 Id. at 28. 205 See, for instance, Grist, February 5, 2015. “Who 185 Id.at 18-22. Says Gentrification is a Myth?”http://grist.org/ cities/who-says-gentrification-is-a-myth/.

56 Endnotes

216 Jennifer Swanson, Arnelle Ramirez, Kipling Galllion, 229 Davison, Kirsten K., Werder, Jessica L. and Lawson, 242 Slow Roll Chicago, website, About Slow Roll Increasing out of School and Out of Class Physical Catherine T. “Children’s Active Commuting to Chicago, http://www.slowrollchicago.org/about/. Activity among Latino Children, Salud America! (July School: Current Knowledge and Future Directions.” 2013) at 6-7, http://www.communitycommons. Preventing Chronic Disease. 5.3 (2008): A100; 243 Rachel Cromidas, Group urges infrastructure parity org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Active-Play- Mendoza JA, Watson K, Nguyen N, Cerin E, on South, West sides, Redeye, (Jan. 18, 2015), Research-Review.pdf; Virginia Lee, Leslie Mikkelsen, Baranowski T, Nicklas TA. “Active Commuting to http://www.redeyechicago.com/news/redeye- Janani Srikantharajah, et al., Strategies for School and Association with Physical Activity and unfriendly-bike-lanes-south-west-sides-20150119- Enhancing the Built Environment to Support Healthy Adiposity among U.S. Youth.” J. Phys Act Health. story.html#page=1; Michael Anderson, Black Eating and Active Living, Healthy Eating Active 8.4 (2011): 488-49; Cooper AR, LB Andersen, N Chicago bike advocates call for protected lanes to Living Convergence Partnership (2008), http:// Wedderkopp, AS Page, and K Froberg. “Physical spread south and west, PeopleforBikes (Dec. 12. www.calendow.org/uploadedfiles/publications/ activity levels of children who walk, cycle or are 2014), http://www.peopleforbikes.org/blog/entry/ publications_stories/builtenvironment.pdf. driven to school.” American Journal of Preventive black-chicago-bike-advocates-call-for-protected-lanes- Medicine 29 (2005): 3, 179-184. to-spread-south-and-w. 217 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, “Integrating Safe Routes to School into the 230 Geier AB, Foster GD, Womble LG, McLaughlin J, 244 An Open Letter, “12.10.14 Black Bicycle Transportation Alternatives Program: Reducing Borradaile KE, Nachmani J, Sherman S, Kumanyika Organizations Presentation to the City of Barriers for Disadvantaged Communities,” http:// S, Shults J., “The relationship between relative Chicago Mayor’s Bicycle Advisory Council,” saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ weight and school attendance among elementary https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B8tOk7_ srts_brief_TAP_MatchingBrief.pdf. schoolchildren.” Obesity. August 2007;15(8):2157- upXv5anZzeVpfbXBFY1JiOWUySW9TZ2Fpdk 61. xUaEg0/view. 218 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, “Integrating Safe Routes to School into the 231 Balfanz, Robert, and Vaughan Byrnes, “The 245 John Greenfield, “Advocates Request a Fair Share of Transportation Alternatives Program: Reducing Importance of Being in School: A Report on Bike Resources for Black Communities,” Streetsblog Barriers for Disadvantaged Communities,” http:// Absenteeism in the Nation’s Public Schools,” Chicago, 12/19/14, http://chi.streetsblog. saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ 2012, p. 24, http://new.every1graduates. org/2014/12/19/advocates-request-a-fair-share-of- srts_brief_TAP_MatchingBrief.pdf. org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/ bike-resources-for-black-communities/. FINALChronicAbsenteeismReport_May16.pdf. 219 California Transportation Commission, 2015 246 Rachel Cromidas, Group urges infrastructure parity Active Transportation Program Guidelines, http:// 232 Martin S., Lee S., and Lowry R., “National Prevalence on South, West sides, Redeye, (Jan. 18, 2015), www.catc.ca.gov/programs/ATP/2015/Final%20 and Correlates of Walking and Bicycling to School,” http://www.redeyechicago.com/news/redeye- Adopted%202015%20ATP%20Guidelines.pdf. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(2): unfriendly-bike-lanes-south-west-sides-20150119- 98-105, 2007. story.html#page=1. 220 California Transportation Commission, 2014 Active Transportation Program Guidelines, http://www. 233 Salvesen D., Good Schools – Good Neighborhoods, 247 Tour de Dreams, Facebook page, https://www. catc.ca.gov/programs/ATP/2014_ATP_Guidelines_ CURS Report No. 2003.03, Center for Urban and facebook.com/tourdedreams. adopted_032014.pdf. Regional Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2003, http://curs.unc.edu/curs-pdf- 248 “Dream Riders,” Good TImes, August 7, 2013, 221 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, downloads/recentlyreleased/goodschoolsreport. http://www.gtweekly.com/index.php/santa-cruz- “Addressing the Needs of Low-Income Communities: pdf; see also Kuhlman R, Helping Johnny Walk to news/36-santa-cruz-business-news/4984-dream- Best Practices from and for State SRTS Programs,” School: Policy Recommendations for Removing riders.html. 2009, http://saferoutespartnership.org/state/ Barriers to Community-Centered Schools, www. state-resources/addressing-the-needs-of-low-income- preservationnation.org/issues/historic-schools/ 249 Tour de Dreams, Facebook page, https://www. communities. helping-johnny-walk-to-school/helping-johnny-walk-to- facebook.com/tourdedreams. school.pdf. 222 City of Portland Safe Routes to School Policy 250 “Dream Riders,” Good TImes, August 7, 2013, (March 2012) at ii, http://www.portlandoregon.gov/ 234 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, http://www.gtweekly.com/index.php/santa-cruz- transportation/article/373691. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. news/36-santa-cruz-business-news/4984-dream- KidsWalk: Then and Now – Barriers and Solutions. riders.html. 223 Ibid. 2008. Available at: www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/ kidswalk/then_and_now.htm. 251 Community Cycling Center, http://www. 224 Id. at 25. communitycyclingcenter.org/index.php/programs- 235 PolicyLink, Safe Routes to School National for-adults/ 225 Chang, Hedy and Romero, Mariajose, “Present, Partnership, and ChangeLab Solutions, “Maximizing Engaged and Accounted For: The Critical Walkability, Diversity, and Educational Equity in 252 Free Ride, “Adult Earn a Bike,” http://freeridepgh. Importance of Addressing Chronic Absence in U.S Schools,” http://www.policylink.org/sites/ org/programs/adult-earn-a-bike/ the Early Grades,” National Center for Children in default/files/WALKBILITYANDDIVERSITY_FINAL_ Poverty, 2008, http://www.nccp.org/publications/ AUGUST62013.pdf (discussing benefits and 253 Profiles of “earn a bike” programs can also be pdf/text_837.pdf. barriers to smart school siting, and providing an found in The New Movement: Bike Equity Today, action agenda for overcoming the tension between League of American Bicyclists (Oct. 2014) at 41-43, 226 UC Davis Center for Regional Change, “Factors walkability and diversity in school locations). http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/The_New_ Influencing School Attendance for Chronically Absent Movement_Report_Web.pdf. Students in the Sacramento City Unified School 236 National Opportunity to Learn Campaign, “The District (SCUSD),” Chronic Absenteeism Issue Brief Color of School Closures,” 2013, http://www. 254 Boston Bikes, http://www.bostonbikes.org/ Series, July 2014, http://explore.regionalchange. otlcampaign.org/blog/2013/04/05/color-school- programs/roll-it-forward/overview ucdavis.edu/ourwork/publications/chronic-absence- closures. scusd/factors-influencing-school-attendance-for- 255 Elizabeth Brotherton-Bunch, Victory for Biking in San chronically-absent-students-in-the-sacramento-city- 237 National Opportunity to Learn Campaign, “The Francisco Underserved Neighborhoods (March 19, unified-school-district-scusd. Color of School Closures,” 2013, http://www. 2014), http://www.preventobesity.net/inside-track- otlcampaign.org/blog/2013/04/05/color-school- march-20-c. 227 Chang, Hedy and Romero, Mariajose, “Present, closures. Engaged and Accounted For: The Critical 256 Understanding Barriers to Bicycling Project, Importance of Addressing Chronic Absence in 238 Marisa de la Torre and Julia Gwynne, “When Schools Community Cycling Center (July 2012) at 15, http:// the Early Grades,” National Center for Children in Close: Effects on Displaced Students in Chicago www.communitycyclingcenter.org/wp-content/ Poverty, 2008, http://www.nccp.org/publications/ Public Schools,” Consortium on Chicago School uploads/2012/07/Understanding-Barriers-Final- pdf/text_837.pdf. Research, University of Chicago, 2009, http:// Report.pdf ccsr.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/ 228 Ready, Douglas. “Socioeconomic Disadvantage, CCSRSchoolClosings-Final.pdf. 257 See http://www.bostonbikes.org/programs/bike-to- School Attendance, and Early Cognitive market/ Development: The Differential Effects of School 239 PolicyLink, ChangeLab Solutions and Safe Routes to Exposure.” Sociology of Education 2010 83(271), School National Partnership, “Maximizing Walkability, 258 See http://www.bayareabikemobile.org/about-the- http://www.attendancecounts.org/wordpress/wp- Diversity and Equity in U.S. Schools,” 2013, http:// bikemobile/ content/uploads/2010/04/Ready-2010-2.pdf. www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/ pdf/Lib_of_Res/WalkbilityandDiversity_final_ad.pdf. 259 See http://localmotionca.com/bikemobile.html; http://www.bayareabikemobile.org/about-the- 240 PolicyLink, ChangeLab Solutions and Safe Routes to bikemobile/ School National Partnership, “Maximizing Walkability, Diversity and Equity in U.S. Schools,” 2013, http:// 260 City of Albuquerque, Esperanza Community Bike www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/ Shop, http://www.cabq.gov/parksandrecreation/ pdf/Lib_of_Res/WalkbilityandDiversity_final_ad.pdf. recreation/bike/esperanza-community-bike-shop.

241 Slow Roll Chicago, website, About Slow Roll 57 Chicago, http://www.slowrollchicago.org/about/. Endnotes

261 Understanding Barriers to Bicycling 277 Lori Dorfman & Lawrene Wallack, “Moving from 290 Anita Hamilton, Has Philadelphia Made a Bike Project, Community Cycling Center (July Them to Us: Challenges in Reframing Violence Share that Can Get the Entire City Biking? Fast 2012) at 15, Available online: http://www. Among Youth,” Berkeley Media Studies Group, Company (March 30, 2015), http://www. communitycyclingcenter.org/wp-content/ 2009. fastcoexist.com/3044431/world-changing-ideas/ uploads/2012/07/Understanding-Barriers-Final- has-philadelphia-made-a-bike-share-that-can-get-the- Report.pdf 278 Davis, R.A. & Tsao, B. (2014). Multi-Sector entire-city-biking. Partnerships for Preventing Violence: A Guide 262 Dylan Miner, Exhibition: Anishnaabensag for Using Collaboration Multiplier to Improve 291 April Corbin, Better Bike Share Partnership Aims Biimskowebshkigewag: Native Kids Ride Bikes, Safety Outcomes for Young People, Communities to Increase Equity and Access in Bike Share (Jan. http://uima.uiowa.edu/native-kids-ride-bikes/. and Cities. Prevention Institute. http://www. 22, 2015), http://nacto.org/2015/01/22/better- preventioninstitute.org/component/jlibrary/article/ bike-share-partnership-aims-to-increase-equity-and- 263 Dylan Miner, Exhibition: Anishnaabensag id-359/127.html. access-in-bike-share/. Biimskowebshkigewag: Native Kids Ride Bikes, http://uima.uiowa.edu/native-kids-ride-bikes/. 279 Larry Cohen, Rachel Davis, Virginia Lee, et al., 292 Cervero, Lund, Willson. “Travel Characteristics of Addressing the Intersection: Preventing Violence TOD in California,” January 2004. 264 See http://www.cascade.org/learn/major-taylor- and Promoting Healthy Eating and Active Living (May project; Ed Ewing: Race, Equity, and Empowerment 2010) at 16, http://www.preventioninstitute.org/ 293 LA Metro, First and Last Mile Strategic Plan. http:// by Bike, The Bicycle Story (June 26, 2014), component/jlibrary/article/id-267/127.html. media.metro.net/docs/First_Last_Mile_Strategic_ http://www.thebicyclestory.com/2014/06/ed- Plan.pdf. ewing/#more-849. Other bike clubs named after 280 Larry Cohen, Rachel Davis, Virginia Lee, et al., Major Taylor, an African American, who became a Addressing the Intersection: Preventing Violence 294 Mile High Connects website (2015), Available at world champion bicyclist in 1889, operate in other and Promoting Healthy Eating and Active Living (May http://milehighconnects.org/projects/improve-first- cities around the country, including Denver, CO, New 2010) at 19, http://www.preventioninstitute.org/ and-last-mile-connections-in-neighborhoods-and-job- York, and Chicago, Ill. component/jlibrary/article/id-267/127.html. centers/.

265 Cycles of Change, http://www.cyclesofchange.org/ 281 “Committee votes to drop bike license fines.”http:// 295 Angie Schmitt, “It’s Time to Vote for the Sorriest programs/bike-clubs/ www.m-bike.org/blog/2008/07/28/committee- Bus Stop in America,” http://usa.streetsblog. votes-to-drop-bike-license-fines/. org/2015/02/06/its-time-to-vote-for-the-sorriest- 266 Gearin’ Up Bicycles, http://gearinupbicycles.org/ bus-stop-in-america/; see also Streetsblog, January index.html 282 ChangeLab Solutions, Getting the Wheels 27, 2015. http://usa.streetsblog.org/2015/01/27/ Rolling: A Guide to Using Policy to Create Bicycle help-streetsblog-find-the-sorriest-bus-stop-in- 267 The New Movement: Bike Equity Today, League of Friendly Communities (Aug. 2013) at 82, http:// america/. American Bicyclists, 2014, at 15, http://bikeleague. changelabsolutions.org/bike-policies. org/sites/default/files/The_New_Movement_ 296 Angie Schmitt, “St. Louis Stunner Runs Away Report_Web.pdf. 283 Understanding Barriers to Bicycling Project, With the Vote for America’s Sorriest Bus Stop,” Community Cycling Center (July 2012), Available Streetsblog, 2/13/15, http://usa.streetsblog. 268 Youth Bike Summit, About the Youth Bike online: http://www.communitycyclingcenter.org/wp- org/2015/02/13/st-louis-stunner-runs-away-with-the- Summit, http://youthbikesummit.org/youth-bike- content/uploads/2012/07/Understanding-Barriers- vote-for-americas-sorriest-bus-stop/. summit-2014/about-the-youth-bike-summit/. Final-Report.pdf. 297 PolicyLink, Equitable Development Toolkit, 269 Wogan, J.B., “Can Cities Change the Face of Biking,” 284 Michael Kodransky and Gabriel Lewenstein, http://www.policylink.org/equity-tools/equitable- Governing, March 24, 2014, http://www.governing. Connecting Low-Income People to Opportunity development-toolkit/about-toolkit. com/topics/urban/gov-can-cities-change-face-biking. with Shared Mobility (Dec. 2014), Institute html. for Transportation & Development Policy, 298 The Leadership Conference Education Fund, 2011. Available at https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/ Getting Home: Transportation Equity and Access to 270 Wogan, J.B., “Can Cities Change the Face of Biking,” uploads/2014/10/Can-Shared-Mobility-Help-Low- Affordable Housing http://www.civilrightsdocs.info/ Governing, March 24, 2014, http://www.governing. Income-People-Access-Opportunity-.pdf; ChangeLab pdf/docs/transportation/getting-home-july21.pdf. com/topics/urban/gov-can-cities-change-face-biking. Solutions, Getting the Wheels Rolling: A Guide to html. Using Policy to Create Bicycle Friendly Communities 299 KCET, June 2014. “Mayor Garcetti Addresses at 83 (Aug. 2013), http://changelabsolutions.org/ Gentrification Concerns Along L.A. River”http:// 271 Sarah Ann Hughes, Gearin’ Up Aims To Bring Job bike-policies. www.kcet.org/socal/departures/lariver/confluence/ Opportunities With Used Bikes To Trinidad, dcist river-notes/mayor-garcetti-addresses-gentrification- (April 30, 2014), http://dcist.com/2014/04/ 285 Michael Kodransky and Gabriel Lewenstein, concerns-along-la-river.html. used_bike_non-profit_to_set_up_shop.php. Connecting Low-Income People to Opportunity with Shared Mobility (Dec. 2014), Institute 300 Referenced in CTOD, Rails to Real Estate. 272 Ed Ewing: Race, Equity, and Empowerment for Transportation & Development Policy, by Bike, The Bicycle Story (June 26, 2014), Available at https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/ 301 Alliance for Community Transit, 2015. Transit for All: http://www.thebicyclestory.com/2014/06/ed- uploads/2014/10/Can-Shared-Mobility-Help-Low- Achieving Equity in Transit-Oriented Development. ewing/#more-849. Income-People-Access-Opportunity-.pdf; http://www.allianceforcommunitytransit.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/02/ACT-LA-Transit-for-All- 273 The New Majority: Pedaling Towards Equity, League 286 April Corbin, Bublr bike share to offer single-ride Achieving-Equity-in-Transit-Oriented-Development.pdf. of American Bicyclists and Sierra Club (May 2013 and monthly pass only, PeopleforBikes (March 13, ), http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/equity_ 2015), http://www.peopleforbikes.org/blog/entry/ 302 Referenced in CTOD, Rails to Real Estate. report.pdf. bublr-bike-share-will-offer-single-ride-and-monthly- pass-only. 303 Center for Transit-Oriented Development, 2010. 274 Slow Roll Detroit, http://www.slowroll.bike/; Mike Central Corridor Investment Framework. http:// MacKool, Detroit Bike City, email communications 287 NPR Morning Edition, Shifting Gears to www.funderscollaborative.org/partners/investment- with author, May 8, 2015. Make Bike-Sharing More Accessible (Dec. framework-group/our-strategy 12, 2013), http://www.npr.org/blogs/ 275 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Conference codeswitch/2013/12/12/243215574/shifting- 304 PolicyLink and ISAIAH, 2012. Healthy Corridor for Report, The Role of Community Safety in Obesity gears-to-make-bike-sharing-more-accessible. All: A Community Health Impact Assessment for Prevention: Exploring How Exposure to Crime and Transit-Oriented Policy in Saint Paul, Minnesota. Violence Affect Physical Activity and Healthy Eating: 288 Making Bike Share Reflect Philly, PlanPhilly http://isaiahmn.org/2012/01/healthy-corridor-for- A Summary for Practitioners (Sept. 22-23, 2011), (Dec. 2, 2014), http://planphilly.com/ all/. http://www.rwjf.org/content/dam/farm/reports/ eyesonthestreet/2014/12/02/making-bike-share- program_results_reports/2013/rwjf403167; Larry reflect-philly; http://www.rideindego.com/. 305 Strategic Growth Council, Affordable Housing Cohen, Rachel Davis, Virginia Lee, et al., Addressing Sustainable Communities Program. Guidelines the Intersection: Preventing Violence and Prooting 289 Anita Hamilton, Has Philadelphia Made a Bike available at http://sgc.ca.gov/s_ahscprogram.php Healthy Eating and Active Living (May 2010), http:// Share that Can Get the Entire City Biking? www.preventioninstitute.org/component/jlibrary/ Fast Company (March 30, 2015), http://www. article/id-267/127.html. fastcoexist.com/3044431/world-changing-ideas/ has-philadelphia-made-a-bike-share-that-can- 276 Larry Cohen, Rachel Davis, Virginia Lee, et al., get-the-entire-city-biking; Samantha Wittchen, Addressing the Intersection: Preventing Violence Joy Ride: Philadelphia’s bike share is coming and Prooting Healthy Eating and Active Living (May this spring, Keystone Edge (March 12, 2015), 2010) at 5, http://www.preventioninstitute.org/ http://www.keystoneedge.com/features/ component/jlibrary/article/id-267/127.html. bikeshareindegophiladelphia031215.aspx; Bicycle Coalition Hiring Bike Share Ambassadors in Several West Philly Neighborhoods, West Philly Local. Com (Feb. 10, 2015), http://www.westphillylocal. 58 com/2015/02/10/bicycle-coalition-hiring-bike-share- ambassadors-in-several-west-philly-neighborhoods/. 2323 Broadway Ave., Ste 109B Oakland, CA 94612

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