The Loneliness Researcher Is Not So Lonely Anymore

Currsnt Enmments@ EUGENE GARFIELD INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION* 3501 MARKET ST PHILADELPHIA PA 19104

The LoneMsms Researcher Is Not So Lonely Anymore

Number 5 February 3, 1986

Being alone is a state resulting in a va- should be no more of an embarrassment riety of consequences, including loneli- than hunger, 1 ness and solitude. While solitude is To learn more about loneliness, Ru- thought to promote individuality, cre- benstein and Shaver published a ques- ativity, and self-awareness, loneliness is tionnaire in a 1978 Sunday supplement a painful state marked by a distinct lack of several East Coast newspapers. More of satisfying social relationships. This than 25,000 people responded, indicat- essay deals with the psychosocial issues ing that large portions of the popu- of loneliness and solitude. I have made a lace—regardless of sex, socioeconomic concerted effort to steer away from the level, race, and religious group—are in- medical model of loneliness as a symp- deed lonely. 1 tom of clinical depression, as this model The incidence of loneliness was deals with complex behavioral, biologic, studied by Richard Maisel, then at the and genetic problems. Instead, my in- Laboratory of Community Psychiatry, tent is to describe a phenomenon that Harvard Medical School, who asked re- can affect everyone at some point in spondents in a national telephone survey time, even the most physically and men- if they had felt lonely within the past tally fit. week. z Eleven percent of the respondents reported loneliness. The survey showed that severe loneliness was less Loneliness fikely among married people. Ten per- All of us experience loneliness at some cent of the married women and 6 per- point in our lives. The impact of being cent of the married men reported loneli- alone vanes according to the experi- ness, while among unmarried men and ences we each have had along the way to women, 27 percent of the female and 23 maturity. Once considered a sign of percent of the male respondents admit- inadequacy, loneliness is leaving the ted to loneliness. Robert S. Weiss, pro- realm of embarrassing affliction and is fessor of sociology, University of Massa- gaining recognition as a widespread and chusetts, Boston, notes that loneliness is complex problem. Carin Rubenstein, severely distressing and “is a condition then associate editor, Psychology To- that is widely distributed... .“3 (p. 9) day, and Philip Shaver, professor of psy- To characterize how loneliness feels chology, University of Denver, Colora- and to learn the words most often used do, compare loneliness with hunger. Just to define it, Rubenstein and Shaver con- as our bodies signal a need for food by ducted a series of interviews with people sensations of hunger, our emotional sys- who described themselves as lonely. A tems signal a need for emotionally sus- list of 27 words or phrases describing taining ties by the sensations of loneli- feelings associated with loneliness was ness. Using this analogy, loneliness compiled from the interviews, shown in

33 Table 1, and this list was included in Table 1: Rubenstein and Sha\er’s list of the 27 their newspaper questionnaire. The re- words or phrases describing feelings people often associate with loneliness. spondents were asked to circle all the feelings that described their sense of 1. LIONn on myself 15. Longing to he loneliness. Four categories were identi- 2. Sad with one special 3. LJnable to perssuffering from despera- 7, Insecure 19. Unattractive tion had experienced broken attach- 8. Afraid 20. Isolated, alone 9. Melancholy 21. Desperate ments such as divorce or death. They de- 10, Bored 22. Abandoned scribed themselves as panicked, help- I I. Ashamed of 23. Desire ICIbe less, abandoned, afraid, and without being lonely somewhere else hope. Loneliness resulting from unful- 12. Without hope 24. Panicked 13. Stupid, 25. Resigned filling social interaction produced feel- incompetent 26. Help[ess ings of impatient boredom. These feel- 14. Depressed 27. Angry, resenlful ings were characterized as an “edgy restlessness, a ‘nothing to do, nowhere to go’ need for intimacy during childhood. The kind of feeling. ”1 (p. 11) Both seff-depre- late Harry Stack Sullivan, formerly of cation and depression were associated the Washington School of Psychiatry, with prolonged periods of loneliness. Washington, DC, believed that, from Self-deprecation was experienced as preadolescence on, people need “inti- anger at oneself, while depression, a re- mate exchange with a fellow being, signed, passive state, was marked by whom [they] may describe as a chum, self-pity, friend, or loved one. ”s (p. 261) Loneliness, like anger or elation, is a Sullivan believed that loneliness could subjective feeling, making it difficult to be traced to childhood, when social define and its causes hard to isolate. skills and a self-concept are formed. Consequently, a wide variety of defini- When opportunities to develop social tions and explanations have been of- skills are inadequate, perhaps due to the fered. However, Letitia Anne Peplau, lack of playmates, children find it diffi- professor of psychology, University of cult to relate to their peers. Their social California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and awkwardness may lead to rejection and Daniel Perlman, Department of Psy- a negative self-concept, resulting in chology, University of Manitoba, Win- loneliness they may carry throughout nipeg, Canada, propose that there are life.~ (p. 262) three basic aspects of loneliness: it is Anot~er psychodynamic model draws subjective (in that being alone doesn’t from the attachment theory of John necessarily mean loneliness); it is dis- Bowlby, Tavistock Institute of Human tressing; and it is marked by a perceived Relations, London. From extensive deficiency in social relationships.q studies of mother-infant interactions in humans and other primates, Bowlby concludes that for an infant to feel se- Causes of Loneffness cure, it must have complete faith in the Many psychosocial theorists have availability and tenderness of an attach- speculated on the causes of loneliness. ment figure, such as the mother. An in- Psychodynamic theorists emphasize the fant whose needs are met only sporadi- effects of childhood experience on later cally may come to regard others as un- life. These theorists propose that loneli- predictable and potentially hostile. This ness results from an unmet basic human distrust of others is maintained through-

34 out adulthood, resulting in Loneliness.b importance of both personal and situa- Weiss, following Bowlby’s work, sug- tional factors. Weiss distinguishes two gests that the absence of an attachment kinds of loneliness: social and emotion- figure is the essential element in at least al. The loneliness of social isolation oc- one form of loneliness.J (p. 18) Bowlby’s curs when an individual has an inade- three-volume work, A ttuchment and quate supply of friends, relatives, and Loss, is highly cited,7 and was the sub- acquaintances with whom to share com- ject of a Citation Classic@ commentary.s mon experiences, Individuals suffering Bowlby was one of the most-cited social- social loneliness feel bored, alienated, sciences authors between 1969 and and out of the mainstream, Emotional 1977.9 isolation occurs when an individual The idea that a tendency toward lone- lacks a partner or close friend with liness is developed early in life is sup- whom to be intimate, resulting in feel- ported by Rubenstein and Shaver’s sur- ings of anxiety, restlessness, and empti- vey. Lonely respondents described their ness.3 parents as distant and untrustworthy A cognitive approach to loneliness of- more often than did nonlonely respon- fered by Peplau and Perlman focuses on dents. In addition, the study indicated personal desires and preferences con- that people whose parents had divorced cerning social relations. Two people when they were young were especially with similar social-interaction patterns prone to loneliness as adults. Rubenstein may give opposite answers when asked and Shaver attribute this to children whether they are lonely because each often interpreting parental divorce as may have different perceptions of and abandonment, planting the seeds for preferences for their social relations. 13 distrust and alienation. 10 Sociologists examine the societal fac- Londfness and Depression tors, such as social mobility and compet- itiveness, that can cause loneliness. Loneliness is often mistaken for a David Riesman, Department of Sociolo- form of depression. While studies show gy, Harvard University, and colleagues that loneliness may be closely related to theorize that society since World War II depression, the two are not the same. In has shaped individuals to be “other-di- his doctoral research at UCLA, Martin rected. ” Individuals, in their search for E. Bragg compared a group of students acceptance, become driven by the opin- who were both lonely and depressed ions of others and experience constant with a demographically similar group anxiety about themselves and their rela- who were lonely but not depressed. tionships. 1I These groups were identified by their One of the first postwar books to reflect scores on questionnaires, The study re- a seff-conscious society, The Lonely vealed that the lonely and depressed G-o wd: A Study of the Changing Amer- people have suffered both social and ican Character by Riesman and col- nonsocial disappointments, while the Ieaguesl 1 has been cited over 760 times lonely and nondepressed people suf- since 1966. This book was the subject of fered only social disappointments. 14Ac- a 1980 Citation Cfassic commentary in cording to Weiss, “In loneliness there is which Riesman noted that it used a drive to rid oneself of one’s distress by “materials from philosophy, history, integrating a new relationship; in de- popular culture, psychoanalysis, as well pression there is instead a surrender to as sociology, [and] gave it an audience it.”3 (p. 15) among educated people generally. ”lz Peplau and colleagues suggest a mod- Weiss has taken an interactionist ap- el for the relationship between loneli- proach to loneliness, emphasizing the ness and depression. According to Pep-

35 Iau, individuals tend to cope with loneli- treat the causes of loneliness by remov- ness by trying to determine its cause. De- ing the roadblocks between an individu- pression may develop if the causes for al and social fulfillment. Peplau and loneliness are considered unalterable. 15 Perlman propose a cognitive approach (p. 56) For instance, if someone views to therapy that promotes strategies for loneliness as a result of ugliness or unmov- improving individuals’ perceptions of ability, they may believe change is im- their social relations. These strategies possible, Since loneliness is considered may include doing more tasks that are permanent, depression may result, per- enjoyed when alone, changing the stan- haps causing withdrawal and decreasing dards for who is acceptable as a friend, the likelihood of forming a relationship making fuller use of existing relation- that would aflay loneliness. I have dis- ships, or reducing the perceived impor- cussed the debilitating mental condition tance of a social deficiency. 13 of depression in past essays. 16 A cognitive-behavioral therapy devel- In recent studies, loneliness has been oped by Jeffrey E. Young, now at the closely correlated with disease, includ- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia ing alcoholism. James J. Lynch, scientif- University, challenges lonely people to ic director, and William H. Convey, con- question their assumptions about them- sulting clinician, Psychophysiological selves and their behavioral patterns. Clinic and Laboratories, Institute of Psy- Young’s therapy focuses on the chiatry and Human Behavior, University thoughts, beliefs, and expectations peo- of Maryland School of Medicine, Bahi- ple have toward activities that cause more, propose that isolation and lack of them dkcomfort. The individuals are companionship are the greatest contrib- asked to describe their assumptions utors to illness and premature death. about the activities. By studying the fac- Lynch and Convey believe that loneli- tors leading to the assumptions, individ- ness brings on self-destructive behavior uals can decide whether they are cor- such as recklessness, increased smoking, rect. In this way, each problem and its and excessive drinking. 17 Vincent J. underlying assumptions are resolved so Nerviano, then at the Psychology Ser- that individuals can initiate and deepen vice, Eastern State Hospital, and Wil- relationships without abnormal discom- liam F. Gross, Psychology Service, Vet- fort .2° erans Administration Hospital, Lex- Certain therapies focus strictly on be- ington, Kentucky, cited alcohol depen- havioral elements. James P. Curran, dence as a means used to overcome feel- Brown University Medical School, Vet- ings of loneliness. 18The problems of al- erans Administration Hospital, Provi- coholism have been discussed in past es- dence, Rhode Island, found that social says.19 In addition, if loneliness con- awkwardness and anxiety can be re- tinues for an extended period of time, duced through social-skills workshops. the long-term emotional upset can cause These workshops use role-playing tech- sleeplessness, anxiety, and poor eating niques and self-observation with video- habits. This may alter physioneuro- tapes to help people develop better in- chemical processes in the body, causing terpersonal relationships. Attention is the immune system to break down, in- given to basic skills, such as initiating creasing the susceptibility to disease. IT conversations, handling periods of silence, and using nonverbal communica- tion.zl Minimizing Loneliness

There is no simple antidote that will Loneliness Vemrs Soiitude cure the distressing effects of loneliness. It is necessary, I believe, to distinguish Instead, numerous therapies attempt to oneliness from sofitude. In his essay

36 “Loneliness and Solitude,” the late Har- solitude and not in crowds, that God vard theologian Paul Tillich contrasts best likes to reveal Himself most inti- the pain of loneliness to the glory of soli- mately to men .“z~ tude. “In the moments of solitude, Henry David Thoreau removed him- something is done to us. The center of self to the remote Walden Pond for 26 our being, the inner self which is the months to find solitude. He reasoned, “I ground of our aloneness, is elevated to love to be alone. I never found the com- the divine center and taken into it. panion that was so companionable as Therein we can rest without losing our- solitude. ”z7 (p. 335) selves.”z2 (p. 553) Psychologist Peter Suedfeld, Univer- Thomas Parkinson, professor of En- sity of British Columbia, Vancouver, glish, University of California, Berkeley, Canada, has observed that solitude is believes that solitude nurtures the imagi- regarded by many tribes in North and nation by allowing the freedom for con- South America, Africa, Asia, and Aus- templation and exploration.zJ Psychia- tralia as the means for reaching a higher trist Albert J. Lubin, Stanford University level of consciousness considered neces- Medical Center, California, wrote an es- sary on the route to adulthood. These say on the productive influence loneli- tribes each have rituals that force ado- ness had on Vincent van Gogh, who lescents to leave the community to wan- realized both the torment and the cre- der alone for a period of time. Depend- ative aspect of being alone. While ire ing upon the tribe, the goal of the en- termed himself “a prisoner who is con- forced solitude may be to dream a magic demned to loneliness,’’z’t (p. 511) van dream, to communicate with ancestors Gogh gave credit for his accomplish- or gods, or simply to experience the ments to seIf-isolation: “I agree with oneness of the universe. ?a what I recently read in Zola: ‘If at pres- Tribal members believe that the hallu- ent I am worth something, it is because I cinations or illusions experienced after am alone..., ‘ “24(p.508)Art was the sin- periods of solitude are caused by the su- gle activity through which van Gogh pernatural. However, Suedfeld found could turn loneliness into the solitude reports of similar responses to enforced that provided reflection, study, and fan- solitude by isolated convicts in modem tasy. In a letter to his brother Theo, the Western prisons. Prisoners experiencing artist explained his life of poverty and prolonged isolation have reported rever- neglect as “a good way to assure the soli- ie, fantasy, and refigious conversions at- tude necessary for concentrating on tributed simply to being alone.~ whatever study preoccupies me.’”24 Meditating in solitude has also pro- (p. 509) duced interesting experiences, as I have Solitude is often considered a cher- discussed in an earlier essay.zg In Realms ished commodity. Psychiatrist Hza of the Unconscious: The Enchanted Veith, then at the Department of Frontier, V. V. Nalimov, Laboratory of History of Health Sciences, University Mathematical Theory of Experiments, of California, San Francisco, describes Moscow State University, writes that the Coptic Church of Ethiopia that creative scientific activity, even in its placed its monasteries on nearly inac- everyday manifestation, has features of cessible mountain tops. By restricting unconscious mediation. so access, the monastery ensured escape from the maddening crowds, a step con- Loneliness Research sidered necessary in becoming closer to God.zs In his book The Silent L~e, While loneliness has always been a Trappist monk Thomas Merton notes, common theme in literature, it is inter- “It is in silence and not in commotion, in esting to note that most of the published

37 research on loneliness has been pro- who are, even if in the recent past they duced only in the last 10 years. In fact, had been lonely themselves.”s (p. 11) Peplau and Perlman observed that of 208 Another barrier to early loneliness re- publications in English on loneliness search might have been the lack of a available between 1932 and 1977, only 6 valid approach for collecting data. Since percent were published before 1960.4 loneliness is difficult to manipulate in a The early works on loneliness were laboratory, the highly valued experi- primarily commentaries by clinicians mental method cannot be used. Conse- based on patient observation. However, quently, other methods needed to be de- Sullivan; s the late Frieda Fromm-Reich- vised. And because few researchers mann, then at the Chestnut Lodge Sani- were working on loneliness, the issues tarium, Rockville, Maryland;sl and the had not yet been defined explicitly nor late Margaret Wood, then of Mississippi was there work to be built upon. d State College for Women,32 were pio- Today a variety of measuring tech- neers in identifying loneliness as a niques have been developed, suggesting legitimate research topic. that the inability to assess loneliness is no During the 1960s, over 60 new publi- longer a barrier to further research. The cations on loneliness appeared, with early scales that were developed had a many using empirically based documen- variety of problems such as a lack of in- tation. But it was Weiss’s 1973 publica- ternal consistency and external validity tion of Loneliness: The Experience of criteria. In addition, most techniques Emotional and Socia[ Isolations that were lengthy, ranging from 38 to 75 brought attention to the field of questions. loneliness. Daniel Russell, University of Iowa, Reasons for the lack of early research Peplau, and colleagues addressed the on loneliness are varied. Peplau and deficiencies in early measuring scales Perlman speculate that people were em- and in 1978 developed the UCLA Loneli- barrassed to be lonely and subsequently ness Scale.ss,s4 This measurement meth- were not particularly open about their od is designed to identify several com- feelings of loneliness. Investigators mon themes characterizing the exper- might have felt uncomfortable research- ience of loneliness for a broad spectrum ing loneliness for fear that people would of individuals. These experiences in- believe they were researchhg an unre- clude such factors as the antecedents solved personal problem. d While this ex- and the consequences of loneliness. planation is appealing, it does not ac- Tests proved that the UCLA Loneli- count for the active research in areas ness Scale had high internal consistency, that cause pain and intense anxiety such making it a reliable instrument. In addi- as venereal disease or the phenomenon tion, when examined in relation to sever- of grief or dying. al validity criteria, the loneliness scale Weiss proposes that people severely score was highly significant. underestimate their own past experience with loneliness and consequently down- Loneliness Research Fronts play the role it has played in the lives of others.j Sullivan observed that periods As a multidisciplinary topic, loneli- of loneliness are later difficult to recall. ness research is published in journals He noted that loneliness was “an experi- spanning several social-science disci- ence which has been so terrible that it plines, as shown in Table 2. We devel- practically baffles clear recall.”s (p. 261) oped this table by determining which Weiss remarks that “we might expect journals published loneliness research that those who are not at the moment most frequently, ensuring that psychol- lonely will have little empathy for those ogy, sociology, and psychiatry were all

38 Table 2: A selected list of journals in which lution of a field through time. If core kmeliness research appears. A = name of journal, B = 1984 impact factor. Fir$l year of publication documents in a 1983 research front con- appears in paren [hews tinue to achieve the required citation and co-citation thresholds in 1984, a A B linkage is formed. In the case of loneliness, research fronts on “Sociological Acts Sociolog]ca (1955) 0.44 and psychological studies of loneliness American Journal of Psychoanalysis 11’441) 0.05 and social behavior” (#83-8892) and 4’Re- American Journal of Sociology ( 1895) 1.34 Journal of Clinical Psychology ( 1945) 0.48 search in the psychological correlates of Journal of Consulting and Clinical 2.07 loneliness” (#84-8977) share highly cited Psychology ( 1968) core documents, including Peplau and Journal of Personality {1932) I .08 Journal of Personality and Social 1.75 Perlman’s book Loneliness: A Source- Psychology (1965) book of Current Theory, Research and Journal of Psychology ( 1936) 0.18 Therapy.js Journal of Social Psychology (1929) 0.38 Journal of Youth and Adolescence (19721 0.37 As the research-front data suggest, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 0.66 loneliness is now recognized as a legiti- (1975) mate research area, and studies have in- Psychiatry ( 19.%1 0.39 Psychological Bullctin( 1904) 3,43 tensified in recent years, perhaps as a re- Psychological Reports ( 195S) 0,23 sult of improved measurement tech- Psychology Today (1967) 0.24 niques. Yet this topic still remains a Psychosomatic ( 1960) 0.91 Social Problems (1953) 0.64 frontier open for exploration. Further Social Research (1934) 0.25 research is needed to illuminate new Social Work ( 1956) 0.79 strategies that will help people become more satisfied with their social relation- represented. In addition, we examined ships. the Science Citation Indexm Journal Ci- tation Reportsm (JCR@ ) to see what ***** journals cited and were cited by this list. A search of ISI@’s files shows two research fronts dealing with loneliness. My thanks to C.J. Fiscus, Lisa Ho[- Linkages between research fronts from /and, and Lori Perkins for their help in year to year enable us to follow the evo- the preparation of this essay. @19861sl

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