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EMOTION DYNAMICS of SOLITUDE I EMOTION DYNAMICS OF SOLITUDE i Emotion Dynamics of Solitude: How Spending Time Alone Affects the Way We Experience and Manage Affect by William E. Hipson A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2021 William E. Hipson EMOTION DYNAMICS OF SOLITUDE ii Abstract Whether we are meeting friends or scrolling through social media, we spend most of our time entrenched in social activity. This is not surprising, as people tend to happier when they are with others. But is it possible that spending time alone can also make us feel better in some situations? The goal of this dissertation is to explore how solitude affects the way we experience and regulate emotions in daily life. Through the lens of emotion dynamics, solitude is conceptualized as a context in which emotions are deactivated, such that solitude helps reduce heightened emotional arousal (e.g., stress, excitation). However, the effects of solitude on emotions may be different depending on how one spends their time alone and their dispositions toward solitude. This dissertation research uses a Bayesian approach to explore the situational and individual factors that underlie the emotion dynamics of solitude. Study 1 examined the relation between solitude and change in emotions over the course of a negative event. Study 2 examined how solitary activities modulate the relation between solitude and emotion. Finally, Study 3 uses an experience sampling paradigm to examine how solitude predicts emotion regulation strategy choice and effectiveness. Results are integrated into a larger contextual model that provides a deeper understanding of the complex relations between solitude and well-being. EMOTION DYNAMICS OF SOLITUDE iii Acknowledgements This dissertation would never have been possible without the support and encouragement of many important people in my life. Most of all, I am deeply grateful to my supervisor Rob Coplan. Rob, you made me a better scientist by challenging me academically and encouraging me to take on any opportunity. I am proud to consider you both a colleague and a friend. I am also thankful for the members of the Coplan Lab; in particular, Kristen Archbell, Laura Ooi, Lori Watanabe, and Bowen Xiao, who all supported and encouraged me at various stages in this journey. I am looking forward to the day that we can all get together and enjoy all-you-can-eat sushi. I am also grateful to other academics who have been instrumental throughout my studies. Daniel Séguin who first inspired me to study Developmental Psychology, and Saif Mohammad who broadened my scientific perspectives and set me on a career path in Data Science. I also give my thanks to Tom Hollenstein who, when my plans for data collection were shattered by the pandemic, graciously donated his data. I have also had unending support from my family. To my wife, Erika. You have been by my side every step of this journey. You shared in my celebrations and gave encouragement when things were difficult. This accomplishment is ours. I also thank my cat, Hershey, who may not have contributed intellectually to this project, but is a true companion and always listens attentively during my practice talks. Finally, Mom and Dad, I thank you both for your unending love and support, and of course, for standing by my decision to switch to Psychology. EMOTION DYNAMICS OF SOLITUDE iv Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ x Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................... 4 Defining Emotion...................................................................................................................................... 5 Basic emotions .......................................................................................................................................... 7 Dimensional theories of emotion .............................................................................................................. 8 Conceptual Issues in the Definition of Solitude ...................................................................................... 14 Solitude and Emotions ............................................................................................................................ 18 Emotion Dynamics .................................................................................................................................. 22 Inertia. ................................................................................................................................................. 23 Regulation. .......................................................................................................................................... 26 Emotion Regulation Strategy Selection .............................................................................................. 30 Emotion Regulation Strategy Effectiveness........................................................................................ 32 Emotion and Emotion Regulation in the Context of Solitude ................................................................. 34 Solitude and Change in Emotion ............................................................................................................ 37 Seeking comfort in the face of adversity............................................................................................. 38 Solitude as avoidance coping. ............................................................................................................. 40 Solitude as restorative. ........................................................................................................................ 41 Moderators of the Association between Solitude and Change in Affect ................................................ 46 Solitary activities. ............................................................................................................................... 46 Extraversion and preference for solitude. ........................................................................................... 49 Solitude and Strategy Selection .............................................................................................................. 52 An Integrative Perspective on the Contextual Model of Solitude and Emotions .................................... 53 What is Bayesian Statistics? ................................................................................................................... 54 Why Use Bayesian Statistics? ................................................................................................................. 56 Reason 1: Distributions over point estimates ...................................................................................... 56 Reason 2: Regularization and model flexibility .................................................................................. 57 Reason 3: Bayesian workflow – infer, compare, simulate .................................................................. 57 Addressing the Criticisms of Bayesian Statistics .................................................................................... 58 EMOTION DYNAMICS OF SOLITUDE v Bayesian Workflow ................................................................................................................................ 59 Step 1: Model diagnostics ................................................................................................................... 59 Step 2: Interpretation of model coefficients ........................................................................................ 60 Step 3: Visualizing and simulating the posterior ................................................................................ 60 Step 4: Model comparison .................................................................................................................. 60 Comparing Frequentist and Bayesian Designs: A Practical Example ................................... 61 Frequentist Approach .............................................................................................................................. 63 Visualizing model predictions ............................................................................................................ 69 Bayesian Approach ................................................................................................................................. 71 Interpretation of model coefficients ...................................................................................................
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