SCIENCE CHINA Earth Sciences

• RESEARCH PAPER • June 2011 Vol.54 No.6: 798–822 doi: 10.1007/s11430-011-4180-7

Mesozoic contraction deformation in the Yanshan and northern Taihang mountains and its implications to the destruction of the North China Craton

ZHANG ChangHou*, LI ChengMing, DENG HongLing, LIU Yang, LIU Lei, WEI Bo, LI HanBin & LIU Zi

State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

Received August 5, 2010; accepted January 30, 2011

Mesozoic contraction deformation in the Yanshan and Taihang mountains is characterized by basement-involved thrust tec- tonics, basement-cored buckling anticlines and ductile thrust and nappe tectonics. Most of these deformations are orientated west-east, west-northwest and northeast to north-northeast. The contraction deformations began in the Permian, continued through the Triassic and Jurassic and terminated in the Early Cretaceous, and constitute an important part of the destruction of the North China Craton. It is estimated, from balanced cross-section reconstructions, that the north-south shortening of the central part of the Yanshan belt before 135 Ma was around 38%. The initial crust thickness, pre-dating the major contraction deformation in late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, was estimated to be around 35 km based on paleogeographic characteristics. Assuming that the inferred depth of ductile thrusting deformation, 20–25 km, was the crust thickness involved in the contrac- tion deformation, and also assuming that the N-S contraction deformation was accommodated by vertical crust thickening, the thickness of the crust after the contraction deformation was expected to be around 47–50 km. This was the approximate crust thickness required for the eclogitization of the lower crust for delamination. The gravity potential accumulated by the isostatic uplift of the thickened crust, together with the decrease in crustal strength caused by the coeval magmatisms associated with the contraction deformation, led to the subsequent extensional collapse of the middle and upper crust although the regional stress regime associated with the plate interactions remained constant. It is inferred that the Mesozoic contraction deformations in the Yanshan and Taihang mountains were not only a significant tectonic process contributing to the destruction of the craton in middle and upper crust but also stimulated delamination at a deep level and the extension of the shallow crust. In other words, both the suspected delamination of the lower crust and upper mantle and the well constrained extension deformations of the shallow crust in the eastern North China Craton during the late Mesozoic are a consequence of crust thickening due to pre- vious contractions. Extensional deformations could be expected to occur independently in the shallow crust, and are not nec- essarily associated with or responding to delamination at a deep level.

North China Craton, Yanshan belt, Taihang Mountain, contraction deformation, gravitational collapse

Citation: Zhang C H, Li C M, Deng H L, et al. Mesozoic contraction deformation in the Yanshan and northern Taihang mountains and its implications to the destruction of the North China Craton. Sci China Earth Sci, 2011, 54: 798–822, doi: 10.1007/s11430-011-4180-7

The destruction of the North China Craton (NCC) involves gether with significant changes in the lithospheric composi- the voluminous thinning (>120 km) of the lithosphere to- tion and thermal state (gradient) and extensive tectonic de- formations [1–8]. A series of progressions and achieve- ments regarding the temporal and spatial aspects of the *Corresponding author (email: [email protected]) geological processes of lithospheric thinning have been

© Science China Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 earth.scichina.com www.springerlink.com Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 799 made and have mainly been based on investigations into lized basements and overlying supracrustal sequences. The igneous activities during the destruction of the NCC. Most contraction deformations differ profoundly from the fore- researchers agree that the peak lithosphere thinning oc- land fold-and-thrust belt associated with the subduction or curred around 130–110 Ma [9–13]. The start of the litho- collisional orogens that developed mainly within the sedi- spheric thinning, however, remains controversial, and in- mentary prism along the former continental passive margins. cludes the end of Paleozoic [13], the Late Carbonifer- Even though a competence contrast exists between the su- ous-Late Triassic [14], Late Triassic [11] (225–205 Ma), pracrustal sequences and the underlined rigid basement, it Early Jurassic [9, 10, 12] (190–180 Ma), Late Jurassic [1, seems that this contact in this area could not serve as an 15] (160 Ma), Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (160–140 Ma) effective decollement. The contraction deformations in the [5], and the end of the Early Cretaceous (100 Ma) [16]. Yanshan belt and Taihang Mountain are characterized by Three different geodynamic models, the lithosphere de- basement-involved deformations. lamination model, the thermal-mechanical and chemical erosion model, and the mantle alteration and replacement 1.1 Large-scale basement-involved thrust tectonics model, have been proposed to account for the lithospheric thinning. Large-scale basement-involved thrust tectonics are one of Most researchers who support the delamination model the important structural styles in the Mesozoic contraction maintain that there was a profound crust thickening prior to deformations around the Yanshan belt and Taihang Moun- the delamination although they disagree with each other on tain. The Shangyi-Chicheng-Fengning-Longhua-Lingyuan- the timing, extent, tectonic level and pattern of the delami- Beipiao fault which bounds the north side of the “Yan-Liao nation. Lines of evidence including the petrological and Depression” (Figure 1) is one of the most important and geochemical characteristics of the igneous rocks [4, 17–19], largest basement-involved thrust tectonics [28–32]. The the distribution of adactic rocks [19–26], and mantle xeno- high grade metamorphic rocks within the “Inner Mongolia liths from volcanic rocks [27] have been used to support the Uplift” were thrust southward above the Middle Proterozoic existence of a thickened crust. The processes and mecha- sedimentary sequence and Mesozoic terrestrial sedimentary nisms for crust thickening, however, remain unclear. rocks along this fault zone. In the last decade, the strongly The Mesozoic contraction deformations were widespread deformed ductile shear zones along the fault system have around the eastern NCC, and some deformations have been been recognized as being south-vergent thrusting. The syn- studied for more than a century. They developed during the deformation metamorphic mineral assemblages and the in- time period between the stable craton (~457–460 Ma) and ferred P-T conditions of the mylonites developed within the the mobilized or destroyed craton (130–110 Ma) in the ductile shear zones suggest that they formed under upper eastern NCC and spatially coincide with the extensive de- amphibolite facies, equivalent to 20–25 km below the crust struction of the NCC. However, the roles these contraction surface [33–35]. 40Ar/39Ar dating of the syndeformational deformations played in the crust thickening and destruction biotites and hornblends from the thrust ductile shear zone of the NCC have not been determined. Our research aims to identified the late Permian (ca. 263 Ma) [36] and Middle evaluate the contribution of the contraction deformations to the extensional deformation in the shallow crust and the Jurassic (163 Ma) [35]. The synkinematic sedimentation suspected lower crust delamination, and the implications of features and deformations of the foredeep sequences in front this destruction process to the NCC, involving investiga- of the thrust system [37–41] imply that they underwent tions and reviews into the structural style, and the temporal south-directed brittle thrusting during and after the sedi- and spatial evolution of the contraction deformations and mentation of the Tuchengzi Formation in the Late Jurassic. the resulting shortening and thickening of the Yanshan belt The thrust faults which have developed around Xiahua- and the northern Taihang Mountain. In the present study, yuan and the Jiucaigou-Xiaosuangou area in northwestern the Taihang Mountain belt refers to the area lying between Hebei Province and Yanqing County in Beijing, share the the eastern boundary of the Ordos Basin and the western same characteristics of basement-involved deformations boundary of the Bohai Bay-North China Basin rather than [32]. The Xinglong thrust tectonics in the central Yanshan the exact geographical region of the Taihang Mountain. belt [42–45], and Anjiang-Mengjiazhuang thrust in western Chengde County (Figures 2 and 3(a)) have characteristics of both basement and cover sequences being involved in the 1 Structural styles of the contraction deforma- contraction deformations. tions In the eastern part of the Yanshan belt, in addition to the previously mentioned Lingyuan-Beipiao thrust [30], the The Mesozoic contraction deformations within the Yanshan Xifengkou-Yuerya-Baoshenmiao thrust (XBT) exposed in belt and northern Taihang Mountain developed from typical Qianxi and Kuancheng counties in Hebei Province and platform crust structures with strong and rigid crystal- Lingyuan in western Liaoning Province are also base- 800 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

ng-Xiaojiahui thrust fault; thrust ng-Xiaojiahui lt; JXF, Jixian thrust fault; SBT, Shenshan-Baicaogou thrust sys- fault; MST, Miaoshan thrust fault; NCT, Nan- n thrust fault; FHT, Fuping-Houyu thrust fault;thrust fault; FHT, Fuping-Houyu thrust FLF,n thrust system; HXT, Huangli thrust system; Mountain. BNT, Babaoshan-Nandazhai thrust fault; BST, ust fault; ZST, Zhaobei-Sunzhuang thrust fault; ALA, An- LQS, Longpangou-Qianlingjian syncline; MLYA, Malanyu syncline; MLYA, Longpangou-Qianlingjian LQS, huipu thrust system; THT, Tanghekou thrust system; TZT, system; thrust Tanghekou THT, system; huipu thrust gzhuang-Wangzhuangpu thrust fau gzhuang-Wangzhuangpu e; huang Syncline; ZLA, Zhangjia- ZLA, huang Syncline; Xuanhua-Liujiaz icline; XLS, thrust fault; XMT, Xiahuayuan-Mayukou thrust system; XZT, system; thrust fault; XMT, Xiahuayuan-Mayukou thrust shan thrust system; DET, Dayukou-Emaokou thrust system; DWT, system; thrust Dayukou-Emaokou DET, system; shan thrust nclin ; QJT, Qianjiadian thrust fault; ngjiatai-Nantai thrust ngjiatai-Nantai nshan belt and northern Taihang kanzi-Nangongyingzi-Tangshenmiao Hongluosi thrust system; ST, S system; thrust Hongluosi line; WMA, Wufengzhai-Matou ant Wufengzhai-Matou line; WMA, ngsi-Beikou thrust fault system oyang- Beipiao thrust system; JWT, Jin Beipiao thrust system; oyang- o thrust fault; MNT, MNT, Me fault; o thrust ngnianmiao ngnianmiao fault zone; FDT, Fanshi-Dongsha st fault; ZLT, Zhongersi-Longwangmiao thr ZLT, Zhongersi-Longwangmiao st fault; Fuping sy Jinlingsi-Yanshan anticline; JYS, thrust fault; CXDT, Changcao-Xiayunling-Daan thrust aosuangou-Jiucaigou thrust fault; XLT, Xinglongaosuangou-Jiucaigou raction deformations in the Ya ticline; TJS, Tiaojishan sync Tiaojishan TJS, ticline; ; HLF, Huashiligou fault; HNT, He jiatun thrust system; QBT, Qiji huangguo thrust system; JCBT, Jianchang-Cha huangguo thrust system; acun-Zhuangwang thrust fault; DNF, Damiao-Nia LKF, Lengkou fault zone; LNT, Loufan-Niangshenmia zone; LNT, fault LKF, Lengkou Gubeikou-Pingquan fault zone Gubeikou-Pingquan T, Xifengkou-Baoshenmiao thrust system; XJT, thrust system; T, Xi Xifengkou-Baoshenmiao Sketch map illustrating the distribution of major tectonic cont

HYGT, Huangyaguan thrust fault; HZT, Huiling-Z Fengning-Longhua fault zone; GPF, Fengning-Longhua zone; fault Lingyua-Beipiao LBF, tem; SCF, Shangyi-Chicheng fault zone; SLT, Shalingzi SCF,fault; SSHT, thrust Shangyi-Chicheng fault tem; Shisanling-Shangzhuang- Taiyu-Zhuahutai thrust fault; XB Dongzhai-Wenling thrust fault;Dongzhai-Wenling DZT, Duji Nuanchitang-Tian NTT, system; fault thrust yangzhai-Chenjiazhuang Yangpo-Yanjiawan YYT, thru thrust fault; Yuwan-Lucaogou YLT, system; Xizhoushan thrust CDS, Chengde syncline; FPA, anticline; BHS, syncline; Baihuashan tuoling-Ligezhuang Figure 1 fault; CHT, Caojiapu-Huangtuliang thrust fault; CDT, Chengde Beiye-Shangshe thrust kou-Longguan anticline. anticline. kou-Longguan an Pianguan-Wuzhai syncline; PWA, Ningwu-Jingle NJS, anticlinorium; Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 801 ment-involved (Figures 1 and 2). The Hekanzi-Nangong- field observations in the eastern foothills of the northern yingzi thrust and the Jianchang-Chaoyang thrust have thin- Taihang Mountain in Yixian, Mancheng and Tangxian skinned thrust features with only the supracrustal sequences counties. The mapping results and identified outcrop-scale involved in contraction deformations in the central part of folds and faults within the regional scale folds imply that the thrust system [32, 46, 47]. However, if these thrusts are the folds were formed by buckling derived from north- followed southwest to northern Qinglong County, Hebei west-southeast contractions rather than bending. Only un- Province, it can be seen that they are also characterized by conformity, rather than large-scale low-angle detachment basement-involved thrusting (Figure 3(b)). In the Hon- faults, has been recognized between the crystallized base- gluoxian and Nanpiao area near southern end of western ment and overlying supracrustal sequences. A north dipping Liaoning Province, both Archaean basement terrains and thrust fault system has been mapped along the contact of the overlying supracrustal sequences of the Changcheng System basement and supracrustal sequences near the southern were involved in the thrusting deformation [30] (Figure 1). hinge zone of the Fuping anticline. The basement terrain In the northern part of the Taihang Mountain, the Meso- was placed southward on top of the Cambrian and Ordvi- zoic thrust tectonics west to the Cenozoic Datong basin cian sequences (Figures 1 and 4(b)). In the central part of the Fuping uplift a south dipping thrust fault that placed [48–50] (Figure 3(c)) and the Xizhoushan thrust system middle Proterozoic sequences northward on top of the southeast of Xinzhou, Dingxiang and Wutai counties [51] Cambrian red shale strata (Figure 4(c)) was identified. (XZT) (Figure 3(d)) share these basement-involved charac- These tectonic deformations indicate that the Fuping anti- teristics. cline underwent polyphase contraction deformations with north-south and northwest-southeast oriented contr- actions 1.2 Basement-cored anticlines during the Mesozoic. It is not a metamorphic core complex formed as a result of late Mesozoic extension. The basement-cored anticline is the distinctive structural In summary, the Malanyu anticlinorium in the central style of Mesozoic contraction deformations in the Yanshan Yanshan belt and the Zanhuang and Fuping uplifts in the and northern Taihang mountains. The Malanyu anticli- northern Taihang Mountain are basement-cored buckling norium (Figures 1 and 2) was originally interpreted to be the anticlines or thick-skinned folds [76] rather than extensional result of north-south contractions during Indosinian or early metamorphic core complexes. Yanshanian movement. However, it has been reinterpreted by many researchers since the mid-1990s as an important extensional metamorphic core complex [52–58], and a typi- 1.3 Large-scale overturned folds and ductile thrust cal result of Mesozoic continental extension in eastern tectonics China [59, 60]. Detailed mapping around the Malanyu anti- The ductile thrust shear zone along the Shangyi-Chongli- clinorium in past few years as part of our research reveals Chicheng fault in the western part of the Yanshan indicates that the expected features of the metamorphic core complex deep crust contraction deformations [28, 33, 35, 36]. In ad- model such as large-scale low-angle detachment and high-angle normal faults above and shallow dipping ductile dition, large-scale overturned folds or fold nappes and duc- shear zones cannot be identified in this area [61–63]. Tec- tile thrust shear zones have been recognized in the central tonic deformations in the northern limb [64] (Figure 4(a)), part of the Yanshan belt, north of Beijing, as base- southern limb and western hinge zone [65], however, sug- ment-involved Sihetang fold nappe tectonics and Sihetang gest that it is a basement-cored anticlinorium formed by ductile shear zones [77], respectively. The thicknesses of north-south contraction deformations. the overturned limbs of the Sihetang fold nappes and Si- The Fuping and Zanhuang uplifts in the northern Taihang hetang ductile shear zones are estimated to be around 15 Mountain were originally interpreted as gneiss domes until and 6 km, respectively [77, 78]. These folding and thrusting the mid-1990s, when they were reinterpreted as Mesozoic deformations imply that extensive contraction deformation and Cenozoic metamorphic core complexes by Niu et al. and thickening of the shallow crust occurred in the central [66–69]. The regional scale folds exposed in this region and western Yanshan belt during Late Jurassic and Early were considered to be formed as a result of bending [66–69]. Cretaceous. The fundamental differences in the composition This new interpretation has been cited by several research- of the plutonic rocks during this period have been deter- ers as one of a series of important extensional deformations mined to be related to crust thickening due to contraction in the NCC during the late Mesozoic [59, 60, 70]. However, deformations [77]. These ductile shear thrusts and fold the latest studies into tectonic deformations in the northern nappe tectonics together with the ductile and ductile-brittle Taihang Mountain [51, 71–74], together with thermal- geo- thrusting developed around the Shangyi- Chicheng fault chronological research [75] do not support the metamorphic zone indicate that middle and upper parts of the crust were core complex model mentioned above. A series of thrust involved in contraction deformations from the end of the faults and related folds have been mapped during our recent late Paleozoic to the late Mesozoic. 802 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

2 Spatial distribution of contraction deformations 2.1 West-east contraction deformations Contraction deformations extending west-east and west- The contraction deformations in the Yanshan belt and Tai- northwest can be observed in the northern Taihang Moun- hang Mountain can be divided into two groups based on tain and the Yanshan belt. The west-east striking structures their orientations of nearly west-east to west-northwest and within the Yanshan belt are representative contraction de- northeast to north-northeast. formations.

Figure 2 Tectonic map of the central Yanshan belt. 1, Mesozoic plutons; 2, major thrust fault; 3, blind and inferred thrust fault; 4, master normal fault; 5, strike-slip fault; 6, hinge line of anticline; 7, hinge line of syncline; 8, geological boundary line. CDT, Chengde thrust; DNF, Damiao-Niangniangmiao fault zone; FLF, Fengning-Longhua fault zone; GPF, Gubeikou-Pingquan fault zone; MXF, Miyun-Xifengkou fault zone; HYGT, Huangyaguan thrust fault; JXT, Jixian thrust fault; LKF, Lengkou fault zone; XBT, Xifengkou-Baoshenmiao thrust system; XLT, Xinglong thrust fault; CDS, Chengde syncline; MLYA, Malanyu anticlinorium. Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 803

Figure 3 Photo pictures of contraction deformation. (a) Basement-cored anticline in the hanging wall of the Anjiang-Mengjiazhuang thrust fault, west of Chengde City, Hebei Province. Ar, Archanea; Chc, Changcheng Formation of Changcheng System. (b) Archaean crystallized basement (Ar) thrust on top of the Middle Proterozoic Wumishan Formation (Jxw) of the Jixian System, Zhangjiadian Town, Qinglong County, Hebei Province. JCBT, Jianchang- Chaoy- ang-Beipiao thrust fault. (c) Archaean crystallized basement (Ar) thrust over Cambrian-Ordvician sequences along Dayukou-Emaokou thrust fault (DET), west of Datong, Shanxi Province. (d) Archaean crystallized basement (Ar) thrust over Cambrian-Ordvician sequences along Xizhoushan thrust fault (XZT), strata overturned in the footwall, southeast of Xinzhou, Shanxi Province, northern Taihang Mountain. 804 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

Figure 4 Photo pictures of contraction deformation. (a) Thrust fault and associate folds in the north limb of the Malanyu anticlinorium, Longjingguan village, Zhunhua, Hebei Province Chc, Changzhougou Formation; Chch, Chuanlinggou Formation; Cht, Tuanshanzi Formation. (b) Early Proterozoic meta- morphic basement (Pt1) and overlying Changcheng System (Ch) thrust on top of the overturned Cambrian sequences along Beiye-Shangshe thrust fault (BST), south end of the Fuping Anticline, northern Taihang Mountain. (c) Wumishan Formation (Jxw) was placed on top of the Cambrian red shale along the Zhongesi-Longwangmiao thrust (ZLT), Sehnxianshan, central Fuping anticline. (d) Changzhou Formation thrust over Cambrian system along the Day- ingzi-Panjiadian thrust (DPT), west of Chengde County, Hebei Province. (e) EW extending overturned anticline around Kulongshan, Kazuo County, Liaon- ing Province. (f) EW extending syncline developed within Cambrian sequence, Fenghuangshan, southeast of Chaoyang, west Liaoning Province. (g) Com- plex folds within the Ordvician sequence in the footwall of Dayukou-Emaokou thrust fault, west Datong, Shanxi Province. Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 805

The contraction deformations within the central Yanshan west-east extending folds and thrust faults were overprinted belt consist of a series of nearly west-east trending thrust by following north-northeast striking thrusts and folds. faults and folds (Figures 1 and 2). The master thrust fault Similar west-east trending structures were found in many zones are, from north to south, the Fengning-Longhua, places in south western Liaoning Province such as Wafang- Damiao-Niangniangmiao, and Gubeikou-Pingquan faults dian Town in Lingyuan (Figure 5), north of Goumenzi and are characterized by south-vergent or oblique thrusting Town, southeast of Wushijiazi Town in Kazuo County [31]. Large-scale folds include the Chengde syncline and (Figure 4(e)), west and south of Nangongyingzi Town, Fen- Malanyu anticlinorium (MLYA) (Figure 2). The thrust ghuagshan in the southeast of Chaoyang (Figure 4(f)), the faults exposed in the northern and southern limbs of the hanging wall of the Jianchang-Chaoyang thrust southwest Chengde syncline were originally interpreted to be a folded of Chaoyang, Hekanzi Town in Lingyuan, and Zhangjiadian thrust fault with a displacement of more than 35 km [79]. Town in Qinglong County, Hebei Province. These This interpretation has been challenged by studies in Meso- previously formed west-east trending structures have been zoic sedimentary facies [80, 81] and tectonic deformations discontinuously exposed as they were deformed and de- [82–84] in recent years. However, a more reasonable model stroyed by the following northeast to north-northeast ex- has not been proposed to account for the origin of the com- tending contractions and extensional deformations. plicated structures in the central Yanshan belt. Our mapping results, together with geochronological 2.2 Northeast trending contraction deformations dating, suggest that the Damiao-Liugou fault (DLF) in the northern limb of the Chengde syncline formed around 2.2.1 Taihang Mountain 147–135 Ma, as did the Jiyuqing-Yingbeishan thrust fault (JYT) in the southern limb. They have consequently been The northeast trending contraction deformations, dominated reinterpreted as out-of-syncline thrust faults associated with by thrust faults and regional scale folds in the northern Tai- the Chengde syncline rather than a folded thrust fault. The hang Mountain, can be divided into three belts from west to thrust faults exposed near the eastern hinge zone and the east as follows. Anjiang-Mengjiazhuang thrust fault (AMF) (Figures 2 and The western belt runs from Lishi northward through Da- 3(a)) and the Dayingzi-Panjiadian thrust fault (DPT) (Figure tong in Shanxi Province to the west of Huaian County in 4(d)) at the western end of the southern limb of the Chengde northwest Hebei Province. This belt consists of three seg- syncline placed the crystallized metamorphic basement and ments from south to north: the Yangpo-Yanjiawan thrust overlying Changcheng system southward on top of the Pa- system (YYT), the Dayukou-Emaokou thrust system (DET) leozoic and Late Jurassic Tuchengzi Formation, and led to a and the Xiaosuangou-Jiucaigou thrust (XJT) (Figure 1). The large amount of shortening and thickening of the shallow vergence varies in each segment. crust in the region. The YYT system extends northeast and placed crystal- A series of nearly west-east and north-northwest extend- lized basement southeastward on top of Cambrian- Ordovi- ing contraction deformations have been recognized in the cian cover sequences. The Pianguan-Wuzhai uplift was north-northeast extending Taihang Mountain in recent years. thrust southeast on top of the overturned western limb of the The west-east striking folds and thrust faults were found in Ningwu-Jingle syncline (NJS) along the Yuwan-Lucaogou a region 32 km wide in the north-south direction and 177 thrust system (YLT) (Figure 1). km long in the east-west direction around Shijiazhuang, The DET system is characterized by northwestward Xinzhou and Jingle County in the central Taihang Mountain basement-involved thrusting in the hinterland to the east (Figure 1). Most of the axial surfaces of the folds in this (Figure 3(c)) and extensive folding of supracrustal se- region dip to the north. One of the thrust faults is the quences in the frontal part to the west (Figure 4(g)). A wedge Beiye-Shangshe thrust fault (BST) which placed crystal- shaped thrust and fault-bend fold have been recognized in lized basement on top of the Paleozoic cover sequence between the thrusting and extensive folding (Figure 6(a)). In (Figure 4(b)). Also, west-northwest trending thrust faults contrast, the thrust fault in the southern part of the central such as the Fuping-Houyu (FHT), Mengjiatai-Nantai (MNT) segment near Wujiayao Town presents a reverse movement and Zhongersi-Longwangmiao thrusts (ZLT) (Figure 4(c)) along the foliation-paralleling faults within the basement ter- were identified in the central part of the Fuping anticline. In rain and crosscuts upward into the supracrustal sequence to- the northern part of the Fuping anticline, the basement and ward the southeast (Figure 6(b)). The XJT system in western overlying cover sequences were thrust northward on top of Huaian County in northwest Hebei Province displays base- the Jixian System, Paleozoic strata and Late Jurassic Tu- ment-involved northwest-directed movement [32]. chengzi Formation along the Jingzhuang-Wangzhuangpu The NJS is one of the best preserved large scale Meso- thrust (JWT) and Shuipu thrust (ST) (Figure 1). zoic folds in the northern Taihang Mountain. This syncline Geological mapping in the northeast to north-northeast together with the associated thrust faults in its limbs forms trending eastern part of the Yanshan belt in western Liao- an important part of the contraction deformations in the ning Province revealed that a series of west-northwest and northern Taihang Mountain. The NJS extends 160 km 806 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

Figure 5 Tectonic sketch map around Wafangdian Town, south of Lingyuan, western Liaoning Province. Q, Quaternary; K1j, Jiufotang Fm.; K1y, Yixian Fm.; J2t, Tiaojishan Fm.; J1s, Shuiquangou Fm.; J1d, Dengzhangzi Fm.; J1g, Guojiadian Fm.; P, Permian; C-P, Carboniferous-Permian (undivided); O2, Mid- dle Ordovician; O1, Lower Ordovician; Qn, Qingbaikou System; Jxt, Tieling Fm; Jxh, Hongshuizhuang Fm.; Jxw, Wumishan Fm.; Jxy, Yangzhuang Fm.; Chg, Gaoyuzhuang Fm.; Chd, Dahongyu Fm.; Chc, Changzhougou Fm. along a northeast strike in a 25 km wide zone with a flat (Figure 1). hinge zone and steeper limbs. The thrust faults in both limbs, The central belt is composed of three segments and is including the Dongzhai-Wenling thrust fault (DWT) in the exposed in the central part of the Taihang Mountain. The northwest limb (Figures 1, 6(c)) and the Dujiacun-Zhuang- southern segment consists mainly of the Xizhoushan thrust wang (DZT) and Shenshan-Baicaokou thrust faults (SBT) in system (XZT) [51], along which the basement terrain was the southeast limb, display as out-of-syncline thrust faults over-thrust southeastward on top of Cambrian and Ordovi- Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 807

Figure 6 Photos of contraction deformation. (a) Footwall ramp and flat of the Dayukou-Emakou thrust and the relict of a fault-bend fold in the hanging wall, west of Emaokou village, Huairen County, Datong, Shanxi Province. (b) Basement-involved thrust fault and related folds in the southern segment of the Da- yukou-Emaokou thrust. (c) Cambrian-Ordvician sequence thrust over the Carboniferous coal-bearing sequence along the Dongzhai-Wenling thrust fault in the west limb of Ningwu-Jingle syncline. (d) Secondary faults in the hanging wall of the Xizhoushan thrust fault, southeast of Xinzhou, Shanxi Province. (e) Chloritic breccias developed along the secondary faults in the hanging wall of the Xizhoushan thrust fault, southeast of Xinzhou, Shanxi Province. (f) Wumishan Forma- tion (Jxw) of Jixian System thrust over Xiamaling Formation (Qnx) of Qingbaikou System along the secondary thrust faults in the hanging wall of the Xiahua- yuan-Mayukou thrust fault, west of Zhuolu county, Hebei Province. (g) Folds in close view at the top part footwall of the fault in Figure 6(f). 808 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 cian sequences and resulted in the overturn of the footwall western hills of Beijing is expected to be connected with the strata (Figure 3(d)). Several klipes were found along this Jixian fault (JXF) to the north of Tianjin (Figure 1). belt in previous research [51]. Brittle sheared deformations were observed near the bottom of the hanging wall (Figure 2.2.2 Eastern Yanshan belt 6(d)) and 20 cm thick chloritic breccias were found on the fault zone (Figure 6(d)). The middle segment is exposed in The east-west trending central Yanshan belt gives way to the south of Guangling County in Shanxi Province. The the northeast extending eastern Yanshan belt and forms a Archaean basement and overlying Changcheng and Jixian salient to the southeast near the boundary between Hebei Systems were over-thrust southeastward on top of Cambrian and Liaoning provinces. Some basement-involved thrust and Ordovician sequence and the Late Jurassic Tuchengzi faults have developed in this area and formed a thrust sys- Formation (Figure 1). The northern segment is located at the tem—the Dazhangzi-Sandaohe-Baoshenmiao thrust system, northwest boundary of the Cenozoic Huailai-Yanqing Basin, which repeats the Jixian System three times (Figure 2). and comprises the Xiahuayuan-Mayukou thrust system The northeast extending thrust tectonics in western (XMT) (Figure 1). The Jimingshan thrust and nappe tecton- Liaoning Province are characterized by basement-involved ics lies in the middle of the system. This segment differs processes in the northwestern region and thin-skinned from the middle and southern segments of this belt with fold-and-thrust style tectonics in the southeastern region. northwestward thrusting of the middle Proterozoic sequence The thrust system consists, from northwest to southeast, of on top of the Middle Jurassic Tiaojishan Formation and the Yangzhangzi-Wafangdian thrust (YWT), the Hekanzi- Late Jurassic Tuchengzi Formation [32]. Numerous secon- Nangongyingzi-Tangshenmiao thrust system (HNT) and the dary thrust faults were observed in the hanging wall terrains Jianchang-Chaoyang-Beipiao thrust system [30] (JCBT) (Figure 6(f) and (g)). The basement metamorphic rocks (Figure 1). These thrust faults are southeast-vergent, and the were found to be placed on the Changcheng System and Late Cretaceous Sunjiawan Formation was involved in the Mesozoic strata [32]. thrust to the east of Beipiao. The JCBT formed before the The eastern belt extends along the eastern part and foot- middle of the Early Cretaceous as it was crosscut by the hills of the Taihang Mountain, and includes the Jincheng- Heishan pluton with a zircon U-Pb age of 116 Ma to the Huolu fault zone, thrust tectonics in Quyang, Tangxian and east of Jianchang County [30]. Yixian counties in Hebei Province and the western hills of Detailed mapping has been conducted around Wafang- Beijing. This belt can be followed northeast to the northwest dian Town, south of Lingyuan, western Liaoning Province, of Huairou County, Beijing and the southeast of Chicheng as the strata and deformation traces are well preserved and County, Hebei Province (Figure 1). Of these contraction exposed in this region when compared with those in other deformations, the thrust tectonics in the western hills of areas (Figure 5). Beijing have received the most attention in the past century. This region is dominated by northeast trending thrust In contrast, the frontal normal fault zone in the east of the faults, fault-related folds and redeformed high-angle normal Taihang Mountain has been studied by only a few research- faults bounding a Cretaceous fault basin. The thrust faults in ers [71, 85, 86], and the contraction deformations in this this region form part of the YWT system (Figure 1), with region have received very little attention [87]. Recent map- the Changcheng and Jixian Systems placed southeastward ping in this region indicates that the northwest-vergent along the YWT on top of Paleozoic and overlying the Guo- thrusts and related folds dominate the contraction deforma- jiadian and Dengzhangzi formations. To the north, the YWT tions in the west of Yixian County, Hebei Province and the system was overlain by Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks of western hills of Beijing. At least three generations of con- the Yixian Formation (123–124 Ma) [30, 88]. The box-like traction deformations can be identified in northern Quyang anticlinorium exposed near the Shangbaichigou and Habaqi County and western Tangxian County. The contraction de- villages in the northern part of the mapping area consists of formations began with southward thrusting, followed by three subordinate anticlines with four thrust faults in their northeast trending basement-involved folding and thrusting, hinge zones. The thrust fault (TF2) located at Shangbaichi- and terminated with southeast-directed thrusting (Figure 1). gou, northwest of Habaqi village is the largest of these four The Caojiapu-Huangtuliang thrust system (CHT) in the thrust faults. It occurred lower in the Wumishan and Tieling Miaofengshan region is the northeastern counterpart of the formations and propagated upward, terminating within the northeast trending contraction deformations of the eastern top of the Neoproterzoic Qingbaikou system. The thrust part of the Taihang Mountain. The northeastern counterpart fault (TF3) exposed in the Mengzhangzi, southeast of Mu- to this belt consists of a series of thrust fault systems in- jianggou village served as a back-thrust fault to thrust TF4 cluding the Shisanling-Xiazhuang-Shangzhuang-Hongluosi and formed a pop-up structure with TF4 (Figure 5). These thrust system (SSHT), the Tanghekou thrust system (THT), features suggest that the anticlinorium formed as a result of the Shalingzi thrust system (SLT) and the Qianjiadian thrust fault-propagation folding. system (QJT) in northern Beijing and Hebei Province. The A west-northwest to west-east extending anticline occur- Babaoshan-Nandazhai thrust fault (BNT) to the south of the ring along Dayushulin, Shenjiatun, and Yushudixia villages Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 809 has been identified in the central part of the mapping area. in the contraction deformations, which are either cut by or The anticline was overprinted by the following northeast to crosscut the thrust faults. Direct age dating of syndeforma- north-northeast trending folding and thrusting. In the hang- tion minerals from ductile shear zones could provide the ing wall of the YWT, this anticline is seen as overturned timing for some localities in the Yanshan belt. Using this with the Gaoyuzhuang Formation of the Changcheng Sys- methodology, the ages of many thrust faults in the Taihang tem at its core to the west of Jingshang Village (Figure 5). Mountain and the Yanshan belt have been inferred as shown In contrast, in the footwall of the YWT the Wumishan For- in Table 1. For the remaining contraction deformations, mation of the Jixian System formed the core of the anticline. such as those developed in the northern Taihang Mountain, The map-view pattern of the YWT footwall became more the timing could only be inferred from the youngest strata complex with the juxtaposition of north-northeast extending involved (Table 2). folding and thrusting. A syncline, Permian in its core and Table 1 shows that contraction deformations in the Yan- associated with this previously formed anticline, is located shan belt and northern Taihang Mountain occurred over a along the line of Guozhangzi village, Beizhuanghu village, period of more than 130 Ma from the end of the Paleozoic, and Niuyingzi Town. Only the hinge zone of this syncline is through the Triassic and Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. exposed around Hongshilashan to the southeast of Niu- Triassic thrust faults were only identified in south western yingzi Town, as most of it has been covered by a later Liaoning Province with both eastward and westward low-angle thrust fault and overlying thrust sheet. The over- movement directions [89–92]. printing of northwest-west to west-east trending structures Thrusting vergence varied profoundly during the Jurassic. by subsequent northeast to north-northeast extending folds North-south contractions dominated the Early and Middle and thrusts was indicated by the stereoprojection of the Jurassic and resulted in the formation of the Qingshuihu- bedding planes (Figure 7). The earlier north-northwest ex- Shangzhuangzi thrust fault (QST) [93], the Xiadianzi- tending structures and the following northeast to north- Pingquan thrust fault (XPT) [94] and the Kulongshan thrust northeast trending contraction deformations are illustrated [78, 95] in the south of Kazuo County, western Liaoning on Figure 7, below, by the light gray circle (Figure 7(a)) and Province. An exceptional thrust during this period was the dark gray circle (Figure 7(b)), respectively. northeast vergent Lengkou thrust system [96]. In the Late Jurassic, however, both the north-directed Chengde thrust (CDT) [93–97] and the southwest-ward thrusting and fold 3 Timing of contraction deformations nappe tectonics [77, 78] in Yunmengshan, north of Beijing, occurred in the central Yanshan belt. The thrust faulting The timing of the brittle contraction deformations comes formed during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous from geochronological dating of the igneous rocks involved [99–101] suggests that northsouth contractions occurred at

Figure 7 Stereoprojection of the bedding planes around Wafangdian Town, south of Lingyuan, western Liaoning Province (Lower hemisphere, n=969). (a) Stereoprojection of poles to bedding planes; (b) stereoprojection of bedding planes. 810 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

Table 1 Timing of thrust faults and folds from dating of involved volcanic and plutonic rocks in the northern Taihang Mountain and Yanshan belt Geological time Timing of deforma- Name of thrust Thrusting direction Age data resources scale tion (Ma) This research, see text for Mengjiatai-Nantai thrust (MNT) 125– NNE detail Jianchang-Chaoyang-Beipiao thrust (JCBT) 136–116 SE [30, 99] Caojiapu-Huangtuliang thrust (CHT) 138–118 NW [78] K 2 1 Xiahuayuan-Mayukou thrust (XMT) 130– NW [32, 100] Tanghekou thrust (THT) 136– NW [99] This research, see text for Folds and thrust in west of Yixian County 137–131 NW detail Sihetang fold nappe and Miyun Reservior ductileshear 143–127 S [77, 78] zone (SHT) Chengde thrust (CDT) 153–135 NNW [80, 94, 101] 147–136 [97, 99] Chengde syncline (CDS) 153–135 [94] J -K 1 3 1 Hekanzi-Nangongyingzi thrust (HNT) 153–136 SE [97, 99] Gubeikou-Pingquan fault zone (GPF) 148–132 S [78] (central part) Babaoshan-Nandazhai thrust (BNT) 157–128 NW [78, 98] Yangzhangzi-Wafangdian thrust (YWT) 162–124 SEE [30, 88] Yunmengshan overturned folds and thrust 151–143 SW [77, 78] Shisanling-Hongluosi thrust (SHT) 161–151 NNW [77, 78] Xinglong thrust (XLT) >148 NNW [44, 78] Qingshuihu-Shangzhuangzi thrust (QST) >158–160 S [93] Xiadianzi-Pingquan thrust (XPT) >161 S [94] J Shangyi-Chicheng ductile shear zone 163 S [35] Lengkou fault zone (LKF) 174–168 NE [96] Kulongshan thrust of Kazuo County >173 SSE [78, 95] >180 [78] Unamed thrust S 197–180 [94] <230 SEE [89–92] T Shuiquangou thrust of Lingyuan County >230 W [89, 92] P Shangyi-Chicheng ductile shear zone 263 S [36]

Table 2 Timing of thrust faults from the ages of involved strata in the northern Taihang Mountain and the Yanshan belt

Name of thrust fault Youngest strata involved in the thrust deformation Thrusting direction

Nanyangzhai-Chenjiazhuang thrust fault (NCT) Tuchengzi Formation (J3t) SE

Shuipu thrust fault (ST) Tuchengzi Formation (J3t) NE

Xiaosuangou-Jiucaigouthrust system (XJT) Tuchengzi Formation (J3t) NW

Dayukou-Emaokou thrust system (DET) Yungang Group (J2-KY) NW

Yuwan-Lucaogou thrust system (YLT) Anding Group (J2A) SE

Dujiacun-Zhuangwang thrust system (DZT) Anding Group (J2A) SE

Shenshan-Baicaogou thrust system (SBT) Anding Group (J2A) SE

Loufan-Niangniangmiao thrust system (LNT) Anding Group (J2A) NW

Ningwu-Jingle syncline (NJS) Anding Group (J2A) approximately the same time as north- west-southeast con- mations dominated the mid-Early Cretaceous except for the tractions. SHRIMP U-Pb dating was used to identify the north-northeast vergent Mengjiatai-Nantai thrust (MNT), timing of thrusting and folding in the west of Yixian County, which crosscut the Mapeng pluton around 125±3 Ma (zir- Hebei Province, and indicates that the youngest volcanic con, U-Pb). rocks involved formed at 137±2 Ma, while the granodiorite The youngest strata involved in the thrusting and folding which crosscut the folds and thrust faults formed around led by the northwest-southeast contractions in the northern 131±3 Ma. This implies that the northwest-southeast con- Taihang Mountain and western hills of Beijing indicate that traction deformations in this region occurred between 137 the folds and thrust faults formed around the Middle and and 131 Ma. These northwest- southeast contraction defor- Late Jurassic, and before the Early Cretaceous (Donglingtai Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 811

Formation) (Table 2, Figure 1). cross-section varied significantly from the southern limb of Malanyu anticlinorum north through the segment between the Miyun-Xifengkou fault and the Gubeikou-Pingquan 4 Crust thickening caused by contraction de- fault to the area between the Gubeikou-Pingquan fault zone formations and the Chengde thrust. These variations are reflected in the deformed cross-section (Figure 9) but not in the recovered To quantitatively understand the crust thickening effect of cross-section. The total thickness of the supracrustal se- the Mesozoic north-south and northwest-southeast contrac- quence involved in the contraction deformation ranges from tion deformations in the Yanshan and Taihang mountains, 7.5 to 12.4 km. Using 10 km as the average thickness of the balanced cross-section techniques were used to investigate shallow crust involved in the contraction deformation in the the thrusts and folds in south western Liaoning Province central Yanshan belt, and assuming that the shortening was and the central Yanshan belt. accommodated by thickening, the deformed shallow crust would have thickened to 16.16 km, and the amount of thickening is estimated to be around 6 km. 4.1 Contraction deformations south of Lingyuan, It should be noted that the above estimations are only western Liaoning Province approximate as some factors affecting the estimations have A series of northeast to north-northeast extending thrust been ignored. First, the Fengning-Longhua fault zone, faults and thrust-fault related folds developed in the west of which is regarded as the northern boundary of the Yanshan Liaoning Province [46, 47, 30] (Figure 1) followed by pro- belt, was not included in the construction of the cross- sec- found extension deformations in the Cretaceous. Detailed tion. The relic of the Changcheng System in the footwall of the Fengning-Longhua fault zone shares the same lithology mapping was conducted in south of Lingyuan, western and stratigraphy as its counterpart to the south of Chengde Liaoning Province (Figure 5). Two west-northwest oriented but it is not as thick [31]. Thus, a large-scale basement- cross- sections were constructed across this region (Figure cored anticline with unroofed supracrustal sequences in a 8). The western end of cross-section AB was covered by hinge-zone was identified between the Fengning-Longhua Cretaceous Jiufotang and Yixian formations and due to a fault zone and the Chengde thrust [31]. As there is less con- lack of constraints on the geometry of the previous contrac- trol of the exact positions of the eroded part of the su- tion deformation, the length-constant recovery was only pracrustal sequence in the hinge zone of the anticline, this applied to the better controlled part of the cross-section. The could enlarge the errors in the estimation of the shortening, length of the deformed part of the cross-section is estimated as the displacement of the Fengning-Longhua fault zone and to be 16.63 km, while the length of the recovered cross- the anticline deformation are not included. This could lead section is estimated to be 34.11 km. Consequently, the to a lower estimation than the actual estimation of shor- shortening along this cross-section is inferred to be about tening. 51.25%. The post- and pre-dated lengths of cross-section Second, some of the important thrust tectonics with CD are 18.83 and 31.75 km respectively, implying that the large-volumes of shortening were not included in the shortening along this cross-section is around 41%. The cross-sections for contraction evaluation. This includes the overall thickness of the strata involved in this contraction Xinglong thrust, which placed high grade metamorphic deformation is around 6.9 km. If the shortening is assumed basement rocks on top of Carboniferous coal sequences to be accommodated by vertical thickening, the deformed with at least 13 km of horizontal shortening [84]. The Xin- shallow crust is expected to have thickened to 11.6–14.2 km, glong thrust is estimated to lead to 36.6% shortening and and the amount of thickening is inferred to be 4.7–7.3 km. It 5.2 km of shallow thickening of the local crust. The north- is important to note that the shortening and thickening west extending Lengkou fault zone in the southern limb of caused by the previous north-south contraction in this re- the Malanyu anticlinorium, which placed the Archaean gion was not involved in this estimation. basement on top of the Proterozoic and Paleozoic cover sequence and resulted in the ductile shear deformation of 4.2 North-South contraction in central Yanshan belt the Yangzhuang Formation in the footwall [96], was also not included in the cross-section. These omissions could A cross-section was constructed along a line between lead to lower estimations of the shortening and thickening. Chengde and Fengrun in the north and northeast Hebei Third, the thickness of the basement involved in the con- Province in the central part of the Yanshan belt to evaluate traction deformation was not included in any of the estima- the shortening and thickening due to north-south contrac- tions described above. However, basement-involved folding tions (Figure 9). The lengths of the cross-section post- and and thrust faulting are one of the fundamental characteris- pre-dating the deformation are 148.4 and 239.1 km respec- tics of the Mesozoic contraction deformations in the Yan- tively, with the shortening estimated to be 37.94%. shan belt and Taihang Mountain as described at the start of The thickness of the supracrustal sequence involved in this paper. The volume of the basement involved in the con- the contraction deformation along the Chengde-Fengrun traction deformations and the style of the deformation 812 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 r locations, abbreviations are the same the same as those locations, are r abbreviations wn, south of Lingyuan, western Liaoning Province. See Figure 5 See Figure fo western Liaoning Province. Lingyuan, south of wn, To Wafangdian around cross-sections and restored deformed Two Figure 8 Figure in Figure 5. 5. in Figure

Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 813 , Tiaojishan Fm.; C-T, Carbeniferous-Trassic (undivided); Carbeniferous-Trassic C-T, Fm.; t , Tiaojishan 2 , Changzhougou Fm., Chuanlingou Fm., Tuanshanzi Fm. and Fm. Tuanshanzi Fm., Chuanlingou Fm., Changzhougou , c-d t , Tuchengzi Fm.; J 3 , Zhangjiakou Fm.; J Fm.; Zhangjiakou , z 1 K

, Gaoyuzhuang Fm. of Changcheng System; Ch System; of Changcheng Fm. Gaoyuzhuang , g oic (undivided). cross-section in the central Yanshan in the central belt. cross-section Qingbaikou System; Jx, Jixian System; Ch Jixian System; Jx, System; Qingbaikou nd Early Proteroz Chengde-Fengrun and restored Deformed Figure 9 Qn, (undivided); Cambrian-Ordovician C-O, (undivided); Ar, Archaean a Dahongyu Fm.

814 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

within the basement remains unclear. The thickness of the thickness prior to the contraction deformation (T0), the cover sequence involved in folding and thrusting, and the thickness of the crust involved into the contraction defor- relic of the Changcheng System in the hinge zone of the mation (H0) and the rate of shortening (εs) can be identified Malanyu anticlinorium around Guanlanyu Town in Xing- (Figure 10). long County, suggests that the relief of the contact between Broadband seismic investigations reveal that the crust the Archaean basement and cover sequence exceeds 13 km thickness of the current Yanshan belt is around 30–37 km (Figure 9(a)). The tectonic regime indicates that this tec- [106]. Paleogeographic studies indicate that a shallow ma- tonic relief is the result of basement-cored folding and rine sedimentation environment dominated the eastern NCC basement-involved thrusting rather than extensional defor- during the Late Carboniferous and earliest Permian fol- mation. If the thickness of the basement involved in the lowed by alternations between marine and terrestrial sedi- Mesozoic folding and thrusting deformation was taken into mentations in the Permian, with only terrestrial sedimenta- account in estimating the crust thickening due to contraction, tion in the Triassic [107–112]. This suggests that the eastern the volume of crust thickening would be much greater than NCC was close to sea level during the Late Paleozoic and that calculated above. earliest Mesozoic. Global crustal-thickness maps [113] and The total amount of shortening was assumed to be Airy isostatic equilibrium calculations [114, 115] imply that accommodated by vertical thickening, with lateral extrusion the crust thickness of the stable continental interior area was and erosion excluded from the model. This may lead to around 35–45 km, while the crust thicknesses of the conti- some degree of over estimation of crust thickening. Al- nental margins and the areas close to sea level were 30–35 though right lateral strike-slip deformations were reported and 30 km, respectively. It can therefore be assumed that along the Gubeikou-Pingquan fault zone and the Mi- the paleocrustal thickness of the eastern NCC and Yanshan yun-Xifengkou fault zone [102, 103], the volume of lateral belt in the Triassic was around 35 km. extrusion coeval with the north-south contraction has not The ductile thrusting deformation of the amphibolite fa- been constrained so far. Consequently, the assumption that cies along the Shangyi-Chicheng fault zone in the latest crust thickening had a major role in the horizontal shorten- Paleozoic and Middle Jurassic [33–36] together with the ing could be regarded as reasonable. Sihetang ductile shear thrusting in late Mesozoic [77, 78] indicate that the crust thickness involved in the contraction 4.3 Crust thickening caused by contraction deforma- deformations in the Yanshan belt is around 20–25 km. tions Based on the shortening rate in the central Yanshan belt described above, it is estimated that the crust thickness after To evaluate the crust thickening caused by Mesozoic con- the contraction deformations was about 47–50 km (Table 3), traction deformations, a model of shortening accommodated which is similar to the crust thickness required by the tec- by thickening was used, as shown in Figure 10. In the tonic model for lower crust eclogitization [17, 104, 105]. If model: H0 is the thickness of the crust involved in the con- the crust thickening caused by the late Paleozoic plutonism traction deformation; L0 and L1 are the length of the crust in the “Inner Mongolian Uplift” [116–120] and the possible pre-dating and post-dating the contraction, respectively; and 40–45 km thick crust in the Middle Jurassic Tiaojishan vol-

ΔL is the amount of shortening. The rate of shortening, εs, is canisms were both considered, a much greater crust thick- expressed by ness would be expected after the contraction deformations, meeting the crust thickness requirements for lower crust εs=ΔL/L1=(L0−L1)/L0. (1) eclogitization. This is important as extensive contraction Assuming that the amount of shortening was completely deformations were widely recognized in the Yanshan belt accommodated by vertical thickening of the crust, the after the Tiaojishan volcanism. amount of crust thickening (ΔH) is expected to be 5 Discussion ΔH×L1=H0×ΔL=H0×(L0–L1). (2) Substituting eq. (1) into eq. (2) gives: 5.1 Tectonic state of the eastern NCC after the con- traction deformations Δ=H0×[ε/(1−ε)]. (3) The extensive north-south and northwest-southeast trending The crust thickness after the contraction (T1) is given by contractions in the north of the north-northeast extending Taihang Mountain, the east-west trending Yanshan belt, and T1=T0+ΔH=T0+H0×[εs/(1−εs)], (4) Bohai Bay and the North China Basin [121–123] occurred where T0 is the crust thickness prior to the contraction de- from the end of the Paleozoic through to the Early Creta- formation. ceous and resulted in substantial crust thickening. These Therefore, the crust thickness after the contraction de- widely developed tectonic deformations indicate that the formation can be estimated if factors such as the initial crust eastern NCC lost its stable state and mobilized in the Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 815

Figure 10 (a) Estimation of the crust thickness after contraction deformation with partial crust involved in the contraction deformation. (b) Crust thicken- ing variations with varied original crust thickness, volume of the crust involved in the contraction deformation, and rate of shortening. Shadow zone in figure (b) shows the range of crust thickness expected by eclogitization of the lower crust [17, 104, 105].

Table 3 Estimations of crust thickening due to contraction deformations with varied crust thicknesses involved the contraction deformation and a constant shortening rate inferred in the central Yanshan belt

Crust thickness before contract Thickness involved in the con- Amount of thickening of the Crust thickness after contraction Shortening rate deformation (km) traction deformation (km) crust (km) deformation (km) 35 10 6 41 35 15 9 44 35 20 12 47 37.94% 35 25 15 50 35 30 18 53 35 35 21 56 late Paleozoic and early and middle Mesozoic. The Yanshan developed in eastern China during the Late Triassic and belt is usually interpreted to be an intraplate (or intraconti- Jurassic with gradually varied geographic distributions nental) Yanshan orogenic belt [124–127], while the Taihang [106]. Evidence of paleoelevation is still needed to support Mountain are described as the Taihangshan tectonic belt or this hypothesis of a Yanshannian plateau. It is generally intraplate Taihangshan orogenic belt [128, 129]. However, accepted that a plateau usually has an abnormally thick the contraction deformations of these two regions described crust, although the mechanisms and processes of uplift for a in this work suggest that they underwent the same tectonic plateau remain controversial [132]. Many process such as deformations prior to the Cenozoic. As a minimum, the crustal thickening through horizontal shortening, uplift de- northern Taihang Mountain share the same tectonic contrac- rived from magmatic injection, delamination of the litho- tion deformation characteristics with the Yanshan belt until sphere, lateral intracrustal flow, mass removal via surface the end of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. processes, and rebounding isostatic equilibriums, could It has been proposed that a plateau existed in the eastern have an important role, individually or together, in raising a NCC during the late Yanshannian based mainly on geo- plateau [112, 133–139]. The crust thickening caused by chemical investigations of Mesozoic igneous rocks. This contraction deformations from the Triassic to the Creta- plateau rose rapidly during the Middle and Late Jurassic and ceous, together with the concurrent thermal uplift effect of collapsed after the Early Cretaceous [19–25, 130, 131]. Pa- voluminous plutonism favor for tectonic model of a plateau leogeographic studies reveal that a North China Highland hypothesis at the beginning of the Early Cretaceous. 816 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6

5.2 Temporal and spatial relationship between the con- extension [113]. Partial melting within the thickened crust traction deformation and late Mesozoic extension could serve as an important trigger for the extensional col- lapse of the orogen [162, 163]. The contraction deformations in the Taihang Mountain and Crust thickening, caused by the contraction deformations, the Yanshan belt from the end of the Paleozoic to the start prepared the mass and driving force for the following ex- of the Cretaceous were followed by profound and wide- tension deformation and collapse of the orogenic belts. Plu- spread extension deformations. In addition to the well tonism concurrent with the contraction deformation would documented metamorphic core complexes mainly formed significantly weaken the crust and made it much easier for during 130–110 Ma [77, 78, 140–148], the extension de- the collapse of the orogen because of a thickened crust. If formations are characterized by high-angle normal faults these factors were accompanied by the removal of the tec- and related fault-basins in more widespread regions. Analy- tonic stresses supporting the crust thickening due to changes sis of the sedimentary facies indicates that the sedimentation in the interactions between tectonic plates, a gravity trig- controlled by fault-basins commenced at the end of the gered extensional collapse would occur. Thus, extensional Early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation [149–151]. The ig- collapse because of a thickened crust should be considered neous activities of the Yixian Formation (126–120 Ma) as part of the process of tectonic extension in the Yanshan [152–154] and the Zhangjiakou Formation occurred far belt and northern Taihang Mountain from the late Meso- away from the extent of the fault-basins, which is broadly zoic. compatible with the sequence of volcanism and rifting pre- Analogue modeling suggests that the initial temperature dicted by the active rifting model [155, 156]. The late of the Moho surface is an important factor controlling the Mesozoic extensions in the northern part of the NCC were time period between the contraction and following exten- part of the extension deformations of the late Mesozoic and sion in the orogenic belt. The extension will occur immedi- Cenozoic [60, 143, 157] and were undoubtedly affected by ately following the end of the contraction if the temperature the geodynamic plate tectonic settings of East Asia from the at the Moho surface exceeds 700°C. If the temperature at late Mesozoic. The extension deformations were interpreted the Moho surface is less than 450°C the extension will be to result from either the roll-back of the western Pacific delayed by up to 100 Ma from the end of contraction de- subduction zone [157], slab break-off from the subducted formation [164]. The time between the contraction and ex- Mongol-Okhotsk oceanic plate and consequent gravitational tension deformations in the Yanshan belt during the Meso- collapse of the collision orogen [158], or delamination of zoic was relatively small [32, 100, 142], suggesting that the the mantle lithosphere [146, 147]. However, regional and temperature of the Moho surface during the Mesozoic was local tectonic deformations are either a direct response to relatively high. This may imply that the upwelling of hot the interactions between tectonic plates, or the result of re- material from the deep part of the lithosphere or astheno- gional tectonic settings, and need to be documented further. sphere contributed to the decrease in crust strength. Investigations of extensional tectonics in orogenic belts indicate that the gravitational instability of the thickened 5.3 NCC destruction process inferred from contraction crust, derived from the previous contraction deformations, deformations and the decrease in strength caused by partial melting in the deep part of the thickened crust are fundamental controls for The estimation of crust thickening due to north-south con- the extensional collapse and plutonism of orogens. The tractions in the Yanshan and northern Taihang mountains process of contraction deformations followed by plutonism implies that the crust thickness after the contraction defor- and extensional deformations in the orogenic belt has been mations was approximately that required for eclogitization identified in many orogens around the world and is regarded and delamination of the lower crust [114]. Thus, the con- as a common feature of orogenic processes [61, 159]. The traction deformation served as a tectonic preparation for the gravitational potential derived from the thickening and up- delamination of the lower crust. The crust thickening caused lifting of the orogenic belt serves as one of the main driving by the contraction deformation also made it possible for the forces for subsequent tectonic extension [113, 132, 160, following extensional collapse. It could be inferred, there- 161]. The collapse of the orogen could occur due to this fore, that both the delamination of the lower crust and the gravitational potential even when the stress regime con- extensional deformation in the shallow crust were a conse- trolled by the tectonic plates remains constant [160, 162]. quence of the thickened crust, and the extensional deforma- The gravitational potential could accumulate and become tions were not necessarily a response to the delamination of large enough to stimulate and trigger the collapse of the the lower crust. orogen when the crust thickened to double the normal A diagram illustrating the NCC destruction process (Fig- thickness of the continent [113] or exceeded 50 km [132]. If ure 11) has been created based on studies of contraction this type of orogenic or plateau collapse was accompanied deformations and their relationships with associated geo- by the removal of mantle lithosphere, a back-arc basin such logical processes. It indicates that the crust in the northern as the Mediterranean could form at the end of the tectonic Taihang Mountain and the Yanshan belt was profoundly Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 817 thickened from the Late Triassic to the earliest Cretaceous formation of Bohai Bay and the North China Basin during (230–135 Ma) (Figure 11(a)). The lithospheric thinning the Cenozoic (Figure 11(e)). indicated by igneous activities was broadly coeval with the The discussion above suggests that the upward ther- contraction deformations suggesting that the crust thicken- mal-mechanical erosion and mantle replacement process, or ing occurred concurrently with the lithospheric thinning and active rifting mechanisms, would have played a leading role the substantial uplift of the crust surface (Figure 11(b)). in the destruction of the NCC with little contribution from The crust thickening due to contraction deformations the lower crust delamination if the contraction deformations ended around 135–125 Ma, approximately during the vol- had not occurred, resulting in substantial crust thickening. canism of the Zhangjiakou and Yixian formations [88, 95, The contraction deformations and crust thickening prepared 98, 152, 165–169], while the lithospheric thinning occurred the way for the lower crust delamination. From this model, continuously. The isostatic equilibrium of the thickened the delamination of lower crust is not expected to occur crust together with the thermal uplift resulted in the maxi- earlier than the Early Cretaceous. The plutonism, volcanism mum uplift of the crust surface (Figure 11(c)). During and lithospheric thinning prior to the Early Cretaceous are 120–65 Ma, broadly coinciding with the sedimentation of considered to be controlled by thermal-mechanical erosion the Jiufotang Formation and the overlying Late Cretaceous and mantle replacement processes. Crust thickening caused sequence, numerous fault-basins developed, combined with by the contraction deformations is estimated to approxi- metamorphic core complex formations in local regions. The mately meet the requirements of the tectonic model for overall tectonic framework was observed as basin and range lower crust delamination and later extensional collapse of tectonics. The extreme lithospheric thinning occurred while an orogenic belt. The proposed delamination of the lower the ancient cratonic mantle lithosphere was replaced by the crust and the extensional deformations of the shallow crust newly formed asthenosphere, and the previously formed reflect two different aspects of the NCC destruction. Tec- eclogitized lower crust delaminated into the asthenosphere tonic extension is not necessarily a response to the delami- (Figure 11(d)). This process suggests that, if the lower crust nations of the lower crust as previously understood. delamination occurred during the destruction of the NCC [170], it should not be present earlier than this period. From 65 Ma, the lithospheric thickening and the cooling of the 6 Conclusions asthenosphere beneath the extremely thin old lithosphere together with thermal subsidence led to the depression of Mesozoic contraction deformations in the Yanshan belt and the entire former basin and range tectonic system and the Taihang Mountain are characterized by basement-involved

Figure 11 Diagrams of the NCC destruction process. UC, upper crust; LC, lower crust; LM, lithospheric mantle; A, asthenosphere; Ec, eclogite; Moho, Moholovichi discontinuity surface; SL, sea level (for reference only, not in the exact scale for vertical extent of the altitude above it and depth below it). 818 Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 thrust tectonics, basement-cored buckling anticlines and 1 Wu F Y, Ge W C, Sun D Y, et al. Discussion on the lithospheric ductile thrust and nappe tectonics. The contraction deforma- thinning in eastern China (in Chinese with English abstract). Earth Sci Front, 2003, 10: 51–60 tions are oriented from west-east, west-northwest and 2 Wu F Y, Xu Y G, Gao S, et al. Lithospheric thinning and destruction northeast to north-northeast. West-east and west-northwest of the North China Craton (in Chinese with English abstract). 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Lower crustal processes lead- inferred depth for the ductile thrusting of 25–25 km as the ing to Mesozoic lithospheric thinning beneath eastern North China: crust thickness involved the contraction deformation, and Underplating, replacement and delamination. Lithos, 2007, 96: assuming the north-south contraction deformation was ac- 36–54 9 Xu Y G. Roles of thermo-mechanic and chemical erosion in conti- commodated by vertical crust thickening, the thickness of nental lithospheric thinning (in Chinese with English abstract). Bull the crust after the contraction deformation was estimated to Mineral Petrol Geochem, 1999, 18: 1–5 be around 47–50 km. This thickness was approaching the 10 Xu Y G, Chung S L, Ma J, et al. Contrasting Cenozoic lithospheric critical crust thickness required by the eclogitization of the evolution and architecture in western and eastern Sino-Korean Cra- ton: Constraints from geochemistry of basalts and mantle xenoliths. J lower crust for the delamination model. 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Earth Sci-J China lamination in the lower crust. We suggest that the exten- Univ Geosci, 2006, 31: 1–7 sional deformations in the shallow crust should not be 19 Zhang Q, Wang Y, Qian Q, et al. The characteristics and tec- viewed as strong and direct evidence for the existence of tonic-metallogenic significances of the adakites in Yanshan period from eastern China (in Chinese with English abstract). Acta Petrol delamination in lower crust. Sin, 2001, 17: 236–244 20 Zhang Q, Wang Y, Wang Y L. Preliminary study on the components of the lower crust in east China Plateau during Yanshanian Period: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation Constraints on Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of adakite-like rocks of China (Grants Nos. 90814002, 40672150, 40272086). (in Chinese with English abstract). Acta Petrol Sin, 2001, 17: Zhang C H, et al. Sci China Earth Sci June (2011) Vol.54 No.6 819

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