Enhancement of the Viewer Experience: a Virtual and Augmented Reality Practice

Enhancement of the Viewer Experience: A Virtual and Augmented Reality Practice

By Ernesto Tanaka Montoya

Supervised by Prof. Bartolomeo Corsini Prof. Giancarlo Zappoli

Politecnico di Milano Sustainable Architecture and Landscape Design

Polo Terrioriale di Piacenza, 2019

The most dangerous phrase in the language is ‘we have always done it this way’. -Grace Hopper (American Computer Scientist)

Abstract

Several disciplines are profited with the help of Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR). Thanks to an era where technologies are approachable and more accessible, a relationship can be forged to create more memorable productions in architecture. The main aim of this dissertation is to study how AR and VR can be integrated in architecture to create an interface that involves real-time simulation and interaction with multiple senses. To accomplish this, a research would be necessary, covering the history of AR and VR, their milestones and the acceptance of them in other fields with the user. Moreover, a background is compulsory to understand new tendencies, way of thinking and different points of view. Additionally, with help of film aesthetics and the spatial art of cinema, examples of VR and AR mechanics applied in architecture are showed with the reference of “Blade Runner” by Ridley Scott to demonstrate how a richer experience can be created. Further research could be developing to still discover other factors that would be helpful to build more affinity between them.

Abstract (Italian)

Diverse discipline si sono servite dell’aiuto della Realtà Virtuale e della Realtà Aumentata. Grazie a un’era dove le tecnologie sono disponibili e più accessibili, in architettura può essere formata una correlazione per creare eccezionali elaborazioni. Lo scopo principale di questa tesi è studiare come AR e VR possono essere integrate in architettura per creare un’interfaccia che coinvolge simulazione in tempo reale e interazioni con svariate percezioni. Per raggiungere tale obbiettivo, sarebbe necessaria una ricerca, che includa la storia di VR e AR, le loro fasi e la loro approvazione in diverse campi con l’utente. E’ necessario un contesto per capire le nuove tendenze, i modi di pensare e i diversi punti di vista. Inoltre, con l'aiuto dell'estetica cinematografica e dell'arte spaziale del cinema,esempi di nuovi meccanismi di VR e AR applicati in architettura sono mostrati con riferimento al film “Blade Runner” di Ridley Scott per dimostrare come può essere creata un’esperienza più ampia. Ulteriori ricerche possono essere sviluppate per scoprire altri fattori che potrebbero essere d’aiuto per costruire una maggiore analogia tra di loro.

Index

Abstract ...... 3 Abstract (Italian) ...... 3 List of Acronyms ...... 6 Introduction ...... 7 1 Bright and Apocalyptic future ...... 8 1.1 Dissimilar Immersions and Productions...... 8 1.1.1 Futurism ...... 8 1.1.2 Dada ...... 20 1.1.3 Apocalyptic Thoughts ...... 38 1.2 Brief History of CAD and CAM ...... 49 2 Virtual Reality ...... 56 2.1 Introduction ...... 56 2.2 History of Virtual Reality ...... 59 3 Augmented Reality ...... 68 3.1 Introduction ...... 68 3.2 History of Augmented Reality...... 70 4 Blade Runner Project ...... 75 4.1 Before Creating a Cult Following ...... 76 4.2 Nostalgic Interiors (VR & Image Tracking) ...... 83 4.2.1 Rick Deckard’s Apartment ...... 83 4.2.2 Tyrell’s Office ...... 103 4.3 Dystopian Scenery (Object Scanner) ...... 112 4.3.1 Hades Landscape ...... 112 4.3.2 Tyrell Pyramid ...... 121 Conclusion ...... 130 Table of Figures ...... 131 Bibliography and Web-links ...... 135

List of Acronyms

VR Virtual Reality AR Augmented Reality HMI Human-Machine Interface HCI Human-Computer Interaction CAD Computer-Aided Design CAM Computer-Aided Manufacturing CGI Computer-Generated Imagery HMD Head-Mounted Display UI User Interface GUI Graphical User Interface POV Point of View DPI Dots Per Inch NC Numerical Control CNC Computer Numerical Control BIM Building Information Model LEEP Large Expanse, Extra Perspective NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Introduction

Cinema, being the envy of static arts, has the opportunity to be a prototype of architecture. Set designers have the ability to construct its own spaces, lights, shapes and movements. Nevertheless, architecture is a potential film, a space created where each individual has their own fable, their own tale to be narrated and the artistic of the space is always changing.

In times when film has anticipated the built forms of architecture and the city, is evident that architecture can take inspiration in cinema and cinema can represent the aesthetic of architecture. When the film Blade Runner by Riddle Scott was released in 1982, the team, who designed a chaotic Los Angeles city, predicted what nowadays we can see in cities like Shanghai or Tokyo, an atmosphere of neon lights, billboards screens and buildings showing their guts.

VR and AR can combine the spectator path of cinema and the spectator path of architecture. The cinematic path is referred as the “eye” of the viewer who is guided by an imaginary track and details can be lost, while the architectural path the spectator is free to move and observer in all directions.

For this dissertation VR and AR will be created with ideas and references of cinema to enhance an architectural project.

1 Bright and Apocalyptic future

1.1 Dissimilar Immersions and Productions.

Before the creation of artificial realities aided by computers or machines, the idea of immersing the viewer was always present and the search for new ways of expression was in the mind of artist, which could have been or not conformed with the current events and traditional fashions, as it happened in Futurism and Dadaism. In these art movements, artists wanted to carry away the spectator to be “inside” of the art piece which is one of the primordial intentions in VR and AR. Moreover, different ways of appreciating and developing art were established during these periods to create a spark of intrigue on the masses, what VR and AR is presently causing in different fields.

1.1.1 Futurism

In the early 20th century, young Italian writers and artists, frustrated by a decaying culture and impotent nation, emerged determined to celebrate industrialization. Futurism was officially commenced in 1909 when the manifesto “Founding and Manifesto of Futurism” by Filippo T. Marinetti was published in a French newspaper. He expressed that “Mythology and the Mystic Ideal” of the past were no longer a way to thinking for the new century and the beginning of a new millennium. Dynamism, modern, audacity, youth, insurgent, were ideals to be part of the movement giving priority to technology, speed, industrialization and objects such as cars, airplanes or propellers. In addition, they celebrated the war, “the world’s only hygiene”1, and supported Italy’s entrance to the upcoming World War I, this created an ambiguity between art and Italian Fascism, comparable to have female participants while mainly was an antifeminine movement2.

Futurism began as a literary avant-garde with poems, novels, and journals which were vital and easy to spread for this social group. However, Futurists swiftly entered in fields of advertising, visual arts, performances, clothing, even in meals. Artists practiced with the fragmentation of form, the undoing of time and space, motion and dynamism and flying perspectives. Their style evolved from Cubism and fragmentation to a mechanical language and aerial imagery.

A considerable number of Manifestos were published after Marinetti’s with declarations such as: traditional color and form cannot capture dynamism, abolition of punctuation, use of sounds of artillery in music, shock the audience in theatre, abandon decorative excess, take

1 Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism. Le Figaro. France. 1909. 2 Valentine de Saint-Point. Manifesto of Futurist Woman. Response to Filippo Marinetti. 1912.

8 inspirations from machines and no longer from nature, and some with declarations of fascism and race discrimination.

3 4 5

6 7 8

3 F.T. Marinetti. The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism. Published in Newspaper Le Figaro. 1909. Paris. 4 Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, Giacomo Balla and Gino Severini. Manifesto of the Futurist Painters. Published as a leaflet in Poesia 1910. Milan. 5 F.T. Marinetti. Technical Manifesto of Futurist Literature. 1912. Milan. 6 Luigi Russolo. The Art of Noises: Futurist Manifesto. Letter to Francesco Balilla Pratella. 1913. Milan. 7 F.T Marinetti. Manifesto of Futurist Cooking. Published in the Turin Gazzetta del Popolo .1930. Milan. 8 Giacomo Balla and Fortunato Depero. Futurist Reconstruction of the Universe. 1915. Milan

Figure 1 Giacomo Balla. Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash. 1912. Oil on canvas. Albright–Knox Art Gallery, New York.

The principles of Futurism and dynamism were combined at the beginning of the movement to allude light, sound and smell. Using techniques of Divisionism and Cubism, futurist painters were developing their own distinctive style to illustrate modern times and aggressive symbols like cars or trains.

Figure 2 Giacomo Balla. Street Lamp. 1909. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York.

While examining movement, other artists were finding ways to achieve the representation of dynamism following the most “Futurist” direction. Interested in merging reactions of different senses in a painting, they managed to demonstrate this synesthetic condition with shape and colours (Figure 3). The studies of athletic bodies were also part of the beginning of Futurism, but most important was the familiar situation for active Futurist, riots (Figure 5).

Active scenes were inevitable and not limited to a single agent, one must be more aware of actions than of actors. “Everything moves, everything runs, everything rapidly evolves”9 also the strokes played an important role, trying to connect with the viewer’s perception, “We will put the spectator in the centre of the painting”Invalid source specified..

Figure 3 Luigi Russolo. Music. 1911. Oil on canvas. Estorick Collection of Modern Italian Art, London.

9 Umberto Boccioni. The Futurist Painting: Technical Manifesto. 1910. Milan.

Figure 4 Carlo Carrà. Funeral of the Anarchist Galli. 1910-11. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York.

Figure 5 Umberto Boccioni. The City Rises. 1910-11. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York.

The attempts that paintings could demonstrated new problems and expressions were successful, they showed to the public that Futurist painting was more than abusive speech and theory. However, to people educated in the art of Paris, the effort was weak and unsuccessful. This provoked some sort of support of Futurism, giving an encouragement to painters to more critical judgements of their experiments in painting. Now with a clearer idea of what their painting could achieve, Futurists worked in their own directions, but this time they had help from a journal called Lacerba, which assisted to keep them focus on Futurism ideologies.

Figure 6 Giacomo Balla. Abstract Speed and Sound. 1913. Oil on canvas. Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.

Figure 7 Giacomo Balla. Mercury Passing Before the Sun as Seen Through a Telescope. 1914. Oil on canvas. Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.

Giacomo Balla, after showing his initial divisionism works, The Street Light (Figure 2), and the playfulness of Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash (Figure 1), he freed himself from rendering solid objects, trying to close the gap between spectator and object. Being a visual painter focused on essence of light or essence of motion, he did several studies on bird’s flight, movement of people, cars, lights, wheels, even the motion of stars.

Furthermore, Umberto Boccioni linked his geometrical world with a realm of flesh and muscular activity. He claimed “…Spiritualization will be obtained through pure mathematical values”10. Anyhow, he knew that he couldn’t follow a rigid pattern, he suggested that to show that the form is alive, it must be in continuous evolution.

Figure 8 Umberto Boccioni. Materia. 1912. Oil on canvas. Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.

10 Letter to Barbatani. 12 February 1912. Primi espositori di Ca' Pesaro, p. 118.

With Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, he expressed an optimistic new and modern world. The object demonstrates his term of “physical transcendentalism” crating a bridge between the palpable plastic and the spiritual plastic.

Figure 9 Umberto Boccioni. Unique Forms of Continuity in Space. 1913. Sculpture in bronze. Museum of Contemporary Art, São Paulo.

Architecture was a potential field to generate what Futurist painters accomplished in symbols. With the ideas of “Manifesto of Futurist Architecture” that buildings would have shorter lifespan than humans, each generation should build their own city and architecture should make use always of the newest scientific knowledge, this will force an architect to condemn even his own early creations as obsolete. While considering the previous Futurist doctrine, art must forget about its past, for monumental buildings was a discord considering the nature of them.

Figure 10 Mario Chiattone. Bridge and Study of Volumes. 1914. Ink and watercolor.

Fascinated with the modern city, architects wanted to project into the future, not the garden city but the industrial city. Antonio Sant’Elia, with the same attitude as Futurist painters, claimed “We must invent and remake the Futurist city to be like a huge tumultuous shipyard, agile, mobile, dynamic in all parts; and the Futurist house to be like a gigantic machine”11. They desire to have an environment where the man can understand it, to have a pleasing visual combination. Elevators would be on the outside, buildings built of concrete, glass and steel, showing their structure and mechanical function, streets would be on several levels joined by escalators, facilities for air and rail travels. Although, Futurist designs were never built, they served to transmit theirs visions to others.

Figure 11 Antonio Sant'Elia. Station for Trains and Airplanes. 1914. Pencil and ink.

11 Antonio Sant’Elia. Manifesto of Futurist Architecture. 1914.

Figure 12 Top. Antonio Sant’Elia The New City. 1914. Ink.

Figure 13 Bottom left. Antonio Sant'Elia. The New Station for Milan. Ink.

Figure 14 Bottom right. Antonio Sant'Elia. Dirigible Hangar. 1913. Ink.

1.1.2 Dada

In 1916, when modernist abstraction seemed to claim domain in painting, the movement Dada was a reaction to “humiliate” art (Tzara, 1957). Dada gained its name in Zurich 1916, even though activities and attitudes that identified it were seen since 1912. Dada emerged during the World War I (Jul 1914 – Nov 1918). The technological advances in weaponry, communications, and transportation were results of unprecedented loss of human life. For the disillusioned artists of the Dada movement, the war merely confirmed the degradation of social structures that led to such violence. From 1916 until the mid-1920s, artists in Zurich, New York, Cologne, Hanover, and Paris declared an all-out assault against not only on conventional definitions of art, but on rational thought itself. In “The beginnings of Dada,” poet Tristan Tzara recalled, “were not the beginnings of art, but of disgust”.

Figure 15 Marcel Duchamp. L.H.O.O. 1919. Color reproduction of Mona Lisa altered with pencil. First published in 391 magazine.

Artists in the Dada movement were critical of the dominant social structures and political strategies that led to World War I. To them, the carnage of war was proof enough that the rationalism and order of civilization was an illusion. Rather than preventing mass destruction, many believed that the acceptance of reason as the supreme authority in matters of opinion, belief, or conduct had permitted the slaughter of millions. Moreover, the war created a less productive field for Dada which it was dissolved in the early twenties. Jean Arp in “De plus en plus je m'eloignais de l'esthetique" wrote that Dada “wished to destroy the hoaxes of reason and to discover an unreasoned order". To critique the systems that shaped society, Dada artists inclined to create new ways of making art, embracing chance, accident, and improvisation.

Figure 16 Picture of premiere of Apollinaire's Mamelles de Tiresias and drawings of Serge Férat, June 24, 1917.

Spontaneous gestures like going down to the streets and scream to random people were small gestures of Dada and Surrealism. In the premiere of Apollinaire's Mamelles de Tiresias (Paris 1917), Jacques Vaché, a Dadaist provocateur par excellence, interrupted the audience dressed as an English officer and threatening to “shoot up”. “If it was realism to shoot a human being because he wore a German uniform, it would be superrealism to apply the principle more broadly”.

Figure 17 Jacques Vaché, Jan 1, 1915

Not all artists were so extreme. “Programmed” acts for Dada with constructive and collective actions would replace radical acts of improvisation and anarchy. Accepting that the end of the bourgeois world was given, artists were more concerned with what would come afterwards and that a new better world was to be implemented. With the aid of Freudian theory, they would systematize Dada's concern with the irrational, concentrating in “corrupt” the middle-class culture through automatism and dream interpretation methods then art would be of interest and provide revelations.

"The Dadaist considers it necessary to come out against art, because he has seen through its fraud as a moral safety valve." wrote Richard Huelsenbeck in “En avant Dada: A History of Dadaism". To question art in general, the term “Anti-Art” was used which tends to conduct rejection from a good position of art. Dada pioneers such as Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia seemed to reject out of hand the premises of modern painting as they stood on the eve of World War I.

Anti-art implied primarily anti- Cubism, the rejection of a tradition. Dadaist were opposed to the presence of “Pure Painting” and its autonomy.

Figure 18 Francis Picabia. Portrait of Cézanne. 1920. Whereabouts unknown, recreated in cannibale, Paris.

Marcel Duchamp was the principal pioneer of Dada, he sacrificed paints, brushes and canvas almost to create an anti-art in a period when painting had assumed great conviction as a way of life. In 1912, before Dada gained its name, Duchamp was more interested in ideas than in merely visual products, though retaining palette colors and fragmentary planes of Cubism.

Figure 19 Marcel Duchamp. Nude Descending a Staircase. 1912. Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.

“I wanted to put painting once again at the service of the mind. And my painting was, of course, at once regarded as "intellectual" "literary" painting. It was true I was endeavoring to establish myself as far as possible from "pleasing" and "attractive" physical paintings… The more sensual appeal a painting provided, the more animal it became, the more highly it was regarded.” -Marcel Duchamp

Figure 20 Marcel Duchamp. The Passage from Virgin to Bride. 1912. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York.

Retaining a narrative not a plastic invention, not original nor Dadaistic, Duchamp next step was to use reduction using any point, line, symbol (conventional or not) to say what the artist wants to say. In 1913, Duchamp became obsessed with real machines. He executed the Chocolate Grinder, a simple perspective study of a real object with a set of aesthetics of a tree- dimensional object in a flat field. The solution was taking a step to Trompe-l'œil, a deceive the eye French technique that uses realistic objects to create an optical illusion. The path of becoming an “engineer” for Duchamp and create “Readymade” anti-art was clear.

Figure 21 Marcel Duchamp. Chocolate Grinder. 1913. Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.

Readymade, man-designed objects commercially produced with status of anti-art, were intended to be devoid of any aesthetic interest to create ideas of irrational and extrasensory experience of a world beyond the common plane. Duchamp described them as “fourth- dimensional” claiming that if a shadow is a two-dimensional projection of a three-dimensional form, a three-dimensional object must be a projection of a fourth-dimensional form.

Figure 22 Marcel Duchamp. Bicycle Wheel. Replica MoMA New York, original lost in 1913.

Although, depending on the observer’s expectation and mind set, almost any three- dimensional form can be seen as a sculpture, readymades were intended to be devoid of any aesthetic interest. Considering that readymades were depending on the eye of the spectator if they decide is art of not, Duchamp desisted to making them. Moreover, a solution to seek the anti-art perspective was to stop being an artist.

Before Duchamp took this drastic solution to become from “anti-artist” to “engineer”, He returned to painting. To summarize his attitude of anti-art and painting.

Figure 23 Marcel Duchamp. Tu m'. 1918. Oil & graphite in canvas, safety pins, nut and bolt. Yale University Art Gallery, Connecticut.

Tu m’ is a “dictionary” to his ideas. Showing shadows and reflections of his previous works, mixed with Trompe-l'œil and real safety pins, taking consideration in recapitulating the span from the shadow of an object to the illusion of an object to the object itself.

Francis Picaba, as Duchamp, was avoiding the context of Cubism but in a less extreme way with the idea that painters should represent emotions of our minds that are formed by objects and not the object itself. He wrote that no longer properties of objects can “be expressed in a purely visual or optical manner” therefore a new language to experience “the objectivity of the subjectivity”12. Picaba wanted an art that move forward to an entirely fantasy view. “We wanted something new, something that nobody had ever seen before”.

The Armory Show in 1913 helped Picaba to pass from Cubist to Dada. In the International Exhibition or Modern Art, the public were eager to know the worst in the Cubist and Futurist room, “There most of them are obliged to laugh, others are struck dumb with an open mouth stare, and a few seized with deep despair”13. While others were afraid of the exhibition, that something is wrong with the era, for the rest, the exhibition was a complete success with 1300 painting, sculptures and decorative works from almost 300 Cubist, Fauvist and Impressionist artists.

12 For and Against: Views on the International Exhibition Held in New York and Chicago (New York: Association of American Painters and Sculptors, Inc.) 13 Harriet Monroy for The Chicago Tribune. February 20th Edition. 1913.

Figure 24 Francis Picabia. Edtaonisl. 1913. Oil on canvas. Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois. Inspired by the exhibition, Picabia created 3 large paintings but still having aesthetics of Cubism. His style of machinist started in 1915 with a series of drawings with isolated objects showing part of its technology. The anti-art of these works appeared like catalogue illustrations and newspaper advertisements reinforced the lack in originality in themselves, but in a closer look the drawings are different from their commercial models and have a piece of Cubism discipline.

Figure 25 Francias Picabia. lei, C'est Ici Stieglitz. 1915 Pen and red and black inks. Published in 291 magazine, New York.

"Picabia found in anti-painting a formula of black humor which gave him free rein to express his rancour against men and events, an inexhaustible vein of plastic and poetic sarcasms.”14

14 Gabrielle Buffet-Picabia, Aires . . ., op. cit., p. 35.

Figure 26 Man Ray. The Rope Dancer Accompanies Herself with Her Shadows. 1916. Oil on canvas. MoMA online Collection.

Following Duchamp’s ideas of eliminating brush and traditional paints, Man Ray continued to explore new ways of creating images combing effects of spray gun with pen drawing or helped with readymade objects.

Figure 27 Man Ray the Enigma of Isidore Ducasse. 1920. Cloth and rope over sewing machine. Reconstructed, National Gallery of Austria, Austria.

In Zurich (1916) were given lectures, poetry, dances, pranks with audience participation, in general Dada gestures by a group of poets and artists; Hugo Ball, Jean Arp, Marcel Janco, Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara. This group baptized “Dada” with accidentally discovering the word in a dictionary, they also claim that “Dada is irony,” “Dada is anti-art,” “Dada will kick you in the behind”. The name Dada was either chosen at random by stabbing a knife into a dictionary, or consciously selected for a variety of connotations in different languages. Nevertheless, the gestures, previous showed in Paris and New York, would be expand in Zurich, Germany and France.

“We lost confidence in our culture. Everything had to be demolished” -Marcel Janco

Figure 28 Marcel Janco. Wood Relief. 1917. Wood. Private Collection.

“For us, art is not an ending itself… but is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in.” -Hugo Ball

Figure 29 Hugo Ball at Cabaret Voltaire. Zurich. 1916. By unknow photographer, public domain.

“We were seeking an art based on fundamentals, to cure the madness of the age, and find a new order of things that would restore the balance between heaven and hell.” -Jean (Hans) Arp

Figure 30 Jean Arp. Egg Board. 1922. Painted Wood Relief. Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany.

Dada and Surrealist thought that to create an art that would return or be connected to man, they should create a language with the ability to provoke normal physiological function and self-awareness. In Berlin (1917) Dada works were less interested in the plastic arts. In a city where food was insufficient, despair was spreading and authorities where unable to control the situation. Dada gestures were more aggressive and more politically oriented, most of them were intentionally ephemeral: posters, propagandistic inventions, spontaneous pieces. The most powerful contribution was the elaboration of photo-collage, which involves a combination of images from different sources like newspapers or magazines.

Figure 31 Raoul Hausmann. Head. 1923. Collage. National Museum of Art, Washington. 31

Figure 32 Raoul Hausmann. Tatlin at Home. 1920. Pasted papers and gouache. Moderna Museet, Stockholm.

Figure 33 Hannah Höch. Cut with the Kitchen Knife. 1919, Collage of pasted papers. Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany

Figure 34 Paul Citroen. Metropolis. 1923. Collage of photographs, post cards and prints. Thomas Walther Collection. Gift of Thomas Walther

Photomontage eliminates any needs to draw or paint; the mass media will provide all the material necessary. One could attack the conventional values and attitudes with distortions of its own reality. The man on the street could be shocked to see the components of a familiar letter of his newspapers and posters running berserk.

Figure 35 Photo: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Berlin. 1920.

Figure 36 Max Ernst. The Hat Makes the Man. 1920. Gouche, pencil, oil and ink on cut-and-pasted paper. MoMA, New York

In Cologne, Max Ernst was creating collages and sculptures wanting to go beyond painting. For him, collage style is “a meeting of two distant realities on a plane foreign to them both”.

Figure 37 Max Ernst. Démonstration Hydrométrique à Tuer par la Température. 1920. Collage of pasted papers.

Kurt Schwitters converted his house into an improvised collage from his Dadaist desire to merge art with life that he called “Merzbau”.

Figure 38 Kurt Schwitters. Merzbau. 1924-1933. Photo: Wilhelm Redemann, 1933.

1.1.3 Apocalyptic Thoughts

Different appreciations of different futures have been represented through time, some of them showing positive scenarios by cause of an optimistic economy, being in a comfort scheme or having “technological” advances or even in rough times to cheer and lie to society. Likewise, we have gloomy versions as a result of climate changes, catastrophic events, predicted wars, or artist’s emotional torments. While the forecast or predictions can depend of the lived era and area, sparse groups would show an opposite thinking of the upcoming dates. Although apocalyptic predicaments have existed since biblical times and considering that the etymology meaning of apocalypse (apokaluptein) is to uncover or to be reveal, this chapter will be more focused in a contemporary age.

He has arisen, who has long been asleep, Arisen from the depths of the cellars deep. In the twilight he stands, huge and unknown. And he crushes the moon in his black hand….

In the night he drives the fire across the fields, A red dog howling with wildly gaping jaws….

The dark plains are everywhere in flames….

And the flames devour forest after forest….

A great city sank down in yellow smoke, Threw itself without a sound into the belly of the abyss….

On the reflection of storm-shredded clouds, In the dark, cold barrenness of death The night withered away while he with the flames Trickles pitch and fire down upon Gomorrah.15

15 Georg Heym. Der Krieg (The War). 1911. Poem

In a period before the outbreak of the First World War, where a strangely hot summer unlike any other occurred16, Ludwig Meidner painted his first apocalyptic landscape17. Even though he never belonged to any of the major artistic groups of the era (cubism, expressionism, art-nouveau) and has not been the attention of public popularity, he manifested the emotional circumstances of a Germany near to war as well as his colleagues.

Figure 39 Ludwig Meidner. I and the City. 1913. Oil on canvas. Museum for German and Austrian Art, New York.

16 Ludwig Meidner cited in Grochowiak. 1966. 17 Eberhard Roters. The Painter’s Nights. 1989.

After finding academic training dull, losing his parents financial support, been disappointed by Paris18, one of the center with major artistic activity, he returned to Berlin to focus on his urban and suburban environment, surrounded and oppressed by constructions and industrialization. He found in the next years (1907-1911) a paralyzed and strangled state of mind, his paintings suggested a preoccupation for the city.

Figure 40 Ludwig Meidner. Subway Construction in Berlin. 1910. Oil on canvas. Museum Ludwig, Cologne.

Figure 41 Ludwig Meidner. Gas Tank in Berlin-Schöneberg. 1911. Oil on canvas. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Germany.

18 Meidner to Franz Landsberger, January 3, 1907, Meidner-Landsberger Correspondence, Leo Baeck Institute, New York; cited in Scheyer. 1971.

Meidner shared his thoughts and writings with other artists that had the same feeling of upcoming bleak events forming the Neopathetische circle. Poems by Georg Heym, Hans Davidsohn (with his pseudonym Jacob Van Hoddis) helped his development of apocalyptic landscape.

The bourgeois' hat flies off his pointed head, the air re-echoes with a screaming sound. Tilers plunge from roofs and hit the ground, and seas are rising round the coasts (you read).

The storm is here, crushed dams no longer hold, the savage seas come inland with a hop. The greater part of people have a cold. Off bridges everywhere the railroads drop.19

Literature was not the only a factor in his forming, "the great Romantics (who are) my most sublime models: Hans Multscher, Griinewald, Altdorfer, Urs Graf, Bosch, Bruegel the Elder, Rowlandson, Wiertz, Gericault, Daumier, van Gogh!!!, Ensor,"20.

Figure 42 Hieronymus Bosch. The Garden of Earthly Delights. 1503-4. Oil on oak panels. Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid.

19 Jakob van Hoddis. Weltende (End of the World). translated in Hamburger and Middleton 1964, 49. 20 Ludwig Meidner's Journal entry for August 9, 1915; published in Kunz 1973, 34.

Figure 43 Ludwig Meidner. The Burned-Out (Homeless Ones). 1912. Oil on canvas. Museum Folkwang, Germany.

Figure 44 Ludwig Meidner. Apocalyptic Vision. 1912. Oil on canvas. Museum Judengasse, Germany.

The Futurist movement also affected his style. Diverse aspects were taken to made them for his own use, including fracturing, lines of force and interpretation of forms. Although Meidner criticized the Futurist’s painting as “shabby goods”21 and saw war as an evil force, he applauded their manifestos and agreed to represent the discord of man and his urban environment (Figure 39).

Figure 45 Ludwig Meidner. Wannsee Railroad Station. 1913. Ink. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, California.

For Meidner the city was breathtaking but also a beast that devoured its inhabitants alive. The Futurist movement also affected his style. In contrary of focusing on specific, glorious aspects of metropolis, his paintings emphasize the general aspects, with vitality and terror, of the modern city. Being a night owl, working in his studio with the glow of gaslight, undisturbed, he thought that ash has a color scale of its own: rusty brown, ocher yellow, black, dark gray, light gray, white, chalky, pale. This is the palette of death and graves, of the underlying earth. It is the foundation of all his apocalyptic landscapes.22 The scenes didn’t spring from his imagination, he had long been carrying them within himself, the apocalypse appears in Meidner’s paintings as the fruit of the city.

21 Ludwig Meidner. An Introduction to Painting Big Cities. 1970. Originally published as “Anleitung zum Malen von Grossstadtbildern” in 1914. 22 Ludwig Meidner. Vision des apokaiyptischen Sommers. 1920. 6-7,

Less obvious, but nonetheless important, a Norwegian artist’s, Edvard Munch, paintings influenced on Mediner, with the dark outlines, stillness and awe of nature (Figure 46Figure 46; the exemplify of isolation and constant motion (Figure 48).

Figure 46 left above, Edvard Munch. Train Smoke. 1900. Oil pm canvas. The Munch Museum, Oslo. Figure 47 right above, Ludwig Meidner. Landscape. 1913. Oil on canvas. Marvin and Janet Fishman Collection, Milwaukee. Figure 48 left below, Edvard Munch. Evening on Karl Johan Street. 1982. Oil on canvas. Rasmus Meyer Collection, Norway. Figure 49 right below, Ludwig Meidner. Street in Wilmersdorf. 1912. Drypoint. Collection of the Grunwald Center, California.

Franz Marc, Max Beckmann and Wassily Kandinsky were among his equals who illustrated apocalyptic themes. For them, the modern apocalypse was necessary for the rise of a new and pure world. Franz Marc created a powerful apocalyptic image23, Fate of the Animals which was not affected by Futurist aesthetics like Meidner’s, there does not seem to have any influence between these two artists. What corresponds to Wassily Kandinsky, with was with Marc in a group of artists called Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), he integrated apocalyptic representation as a note of redemption and exorcism to the world.

23 Frederick S. Levine. The Apocalyptic Vision: The Art of Franz Marc as German Expressionism. New York; Harper and Row, 1979.

Figure 50 Franz Marc. Fate of the Animals. 1913. Oil on canvas. Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland.

Figure 51 Wassily Kandinsky. Horsemen of the Apocalypse I. 1911. Oil paint behind glass. Lenbachhaus, Munich.

As for Max Beckmann, one of the most meaningful influence on Meidner. Beckmann was a contemporary German painter focused during the distressing experience of war on urban themes and postwar society. Meidner felt interest in some works that Beckmann produced in which the theme was a contemporary, not historical nor biblical, apocalypse. These works contain the somber coloring and agitate rhythm; however, they lack the force of Meidner’s in putting the viewer in the scene.

Figure 52 Max Beckmann. Scene from Destruction of Messina. 1909. Oil on canvas. Saint Louis Art Museum, United States.

Figure 53 Max Beckmann. The Sinking of the Titanic. 1912. Oil on canvas. Saint Louis Art Museum, United States.

Despair and military imagery became more relevant in Meidner’s visions with the First World War approaching and its outbreak. In his last paintings of the series, there is more hellish and dark views, ghouls looking for salvation, which comes closest to a biblical apocalypse.

Figure 54 Ludwig Meidner. Apocalyptic Landscape. 1916. Oil on canvas. Ostdeusche Galerie, Germany.

Figure 55 Ludwig Meidner. The Last Day. 1916. Oil on canvas. Berlinische Galerie, Berlin.

To culminate, Meidner had an internal harmony, regardless of what he lived, or even more, those experiences helped him to reach a serene sense, even though he was a devout on his religion and at that time he was labeled as “degenerate” and some of his works where destroyed and confiscated, moving and escaping “for us there is no real home after all that has happened”24 he said speaking about his religion, “peace of mind was achieved, my years of struggle were over”25. Nowadays when radical thoughts are more frequent and more popular, when the fear of a new global war is nearby, we can see how powerful and timeless Meidner’s images are and, of course, new art will be created for this fear and for these oppressions.

24 Ludwig Meidner to Franz Landsberger. February 21. 1934. Meidner-Landsberger Correspondence. Leo Baeck Institute, New York; cited in Scheyer 1971. 57. 25 Ibid. 83.

1.2 Brief History of CAD and CAM

During life itself, tools have been created to aid human activities. Sadly, through conflict, technological advancements were more frequently produced on behalf of nations putting an enormous amount of resources into them. Subsequently, some military tools can evolve into non-military devices for example magnetron, the device which powers the radar, helped with the invention of microwaves or telecommunications which later gave the idea for the Internet.

For CAD (Computer-aided design) and CAM (Computer-aided Manufacturing), they improved in response to the investments in war. Although this study is more focused in design and non-military purposes, as Albert Einstein said “I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones” considering war as a regression in human evolution. CAD and CAM evolved more for the competition of ideas and enterprises to give a better and faster way to have the final product. This dissertation consists of some important milestones of CAM and CAD, their beginnings, the roots of AR and VR, and some aspects of GUI (Graphical User Interface).

After the Second World War and in the first years of the cold war, the US Air Force developed SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) a supercomputer with one of the first graphic systems. This blockhouse of large computers and networking equipment was to track and to know the trajectory of any aircraft or object in-flight from radar data. Moreover, operators used light guns or light pens to interact its CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display to select a target on-screen and obtain information, one of the first sign of human-computer interaction.

Figure 56 Light Pen. Computer History Museum. 1996. Figure 57 The SAGE Blockhouse. Peace Museum. 2013.

In 1957, Patrick Hanratty, considered the father of CAD, built the first commercial NC (Numerical Control) programming system, which kindled what is CAD nowadays. NC machines could transform raw materials like wood, metal, or plastic according to previous instructions given with non-computer and manual control was required by levels, hand wheels or cams. The big improvement to NC was the introduction of computer to created CNC (Computer Numerical Control). In essence, NC and CNC are the same, only the latter one is computer-aided. For CNC, punched cards or punched tapes were needed to create instructions and then to manufacture the subsequent part. The introduction of CAD and G-codes led CNC and CAM machines to success.

Figure 58 IBM Punched Card. 1928.

After his success in NC programming language, he moved to work in 1961 for General Motors Research Laboratories and helped to create DAC (Design Automated by Computer), a useful and unique CAD system in the automobile industry, the first one with interactive graphics.

Figure 59 DAC drawing. Video presentation. 1964

Ivan Sutherland did a move up for CAD with his project called “Sketchpad: A Man- Machine Graphical Communications System” in his thesis at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 1960-63. The software was a revolution for human-computer interaction, and it was recognized as one of the very first interactive CAD systems. Sketchpad ran on TX-2 computer, one of the biggest hardware at that time, designed to test the cooperation between the user and the machine. This computer was not batch or punched card oriented, like early computers, it was interactive. In other words, the hardware did not work through commands given by text or numbers, instead the directions were given by buttons and a light pen with real-time results displayed on the screen. Being one of the first steps for CAD industry, the project was a formidable advance in GUI, it supported drawing directly on the screen. Points, lines, arcs, basic elements and shapes were able to be drawn. 3D drawings and views were also possible to be create in sketchpad, Sutherland helped to create the option “hidden lines” in 3D views and have the opportunity of more realistic rendering. In addition, a considerable feature was the constraint system that sketchpad supported, the ability to create perfect or “closed” polygons was achievable thanks to this system that snapped and joined endpoints. It also included the interface of move, rotate, scale, pan, zoom in and out, that nowadays are mandatory elements in any design software. Sutherland’s contribution in HMI was not only the sketchpad, moreover, he developed a 3D environment viewer which was some of the first works done in VR technology.

Figure 60 Ivan Sutherland demonstrating Sketchpad. From a video presentation in Lincoln Labs. 1963.

Figure 61 Graphical representation of drawing and constraints. Ivan Sutherland's thesis. 1963

Patrick Hanratty continued his commitment in CAD with ADAM in 1971 at his new formed company, MCS (Manufacturing and Consulting Services). ADAM, Automated Drafting and Machining, was the first commercially software with interactive graphics design, drafting and manufacturing system. The software was a success in behalf of it was built in a very popular language programming called Fortran, originally developed by IBM, making it to run on virtually any machine. Hanratty continued supporting ADAM and he upgraded it to run in 16-bit and 32-bit computers making it more accessible. Further, MCS’s innovations included the ability to create automatically a 3D solid from a 2D drawing, creation of components and translate them to be made using NC machining. The impact of Hanratty is still visible nowadays: around 90% of commercial drafting software can trace their roots back to ADAM.

With these two characters, Hanratty and Sutherland, the informatic revolution in CAD/CAM has started. The size of the computers was reduced because of the micro-electronics and microchips, although process was slow considering the amount of money required for the hardware, therefore it was not affordable to the masses. Like CATIA, the first 3D CAD software, launched in 1977 but only for aerospace design on hardware with trade-secret protection or under patent. CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) is still in use until these days, after the years the program was not limited to aerospace, it was used for automotive and shipbuilding fields, and to design electrical and HVAC systems.

Figure 62 CATIA, firsts versions. Dassault Systemes. 2019.

In 1973 Xerox PARC introduce the term of “Personal Computer” or PC with their Alto computer. With GUI, the Xerox’s Alto was a step to bring computers to traditional life and work, however the boost of PC occurred in 1981 when IBM presented their desktop computers and the idea of becoming in terms with computers started to grow. Macintosh entered to the scene with their Apple Lisa in 1983, presenting a better and friendly GUI, these computers were more popular in small business, universities and few houses, because the market was focused on “IBM compatibility”. Slowly but steadily, the notion of having a computer at home was not more science fiction and the fear of being left behind by technology or be replaced by a computer also expanded.

For CAD, the hike of PC gave birth to AutoCAD by Autodesk, one of the most significant 2D, some years later 3D as well, design software for microcomputers instead of mainframe computers and minicomputers. A 3D CAD/CAM software called Pro/ENGINNER took ideas from Sutherland’s Sketchpad making it easy to use and interact with. Moreover, it provided a suit of design, analysis and manufacturing capabilities, which cut down or simplify product development processes since they are working in parallel and without the need of a data converter.

Thanks to the competition more software was developed such as: STEP, a data transferor to exchange 3D design between CAD software; SolidWorks by Dassault Systemes that succeeded in ease of use, allowed more users to take advantage of 3D CAD technology; Solid Edge by Siemens providing solid modelling, assembly modelling, and 2D orthographic view. The list can continue until nowadays giving the user more options to design.

The upcoming and continuous advances in hardware/software/technology keep CAD and CAM in a leading position. While for CAD diverse branches were created like digital arts or 3D modelling for the entertainment industry, or even BIM (Building Information Model) which emerge from Cad to dedicates for designing and constructing buildings.

On the other hand, for CAM, the traditional way of creating a product, which is subtractive manufacturing, is seeing a new prospector: additive manufacturing or commonly called 3D printing. In the traditional manufacturing, the product is obtained removing portions from a complete piece of material until you have the desired form, with the additive manufacturing layers of material are added to achieve the final model. Modern 3D printing has always been very useful for rapid prototype development, but it is starting to make its impact on the manufacturing world as well. Both computer-aided occurrences are important for the field of virtual and augmented reality, as well as the advances in user interface. Virtual worlds are created thanks to software and hardware with CAD to have an experience of mixed realities.

2 Virtual Reality

2.1 Introduction

The creation of an immersive world where interaction, stimulation of senses, learning, recreation, just to, is possible considering the advances in technology and the attention taken to include the viewer or spectator. The computer is no more a television with a typewriter attached to it, is a human-machine collaboration capable of generate an artificial realm with multi sensorial events able to engage and absorb the user.

Figure 63 The three I of virtual reality. Burdea C. Grigore. Virtual Reality Technology. 1993.

Virtual reality is composed of three I: Immersion, Interaction and Imagination, as showed in Burdea’s diagram in his book “Virtual Reality Technology”. Immersion is created by giving the user stimulation of their senses, this can be achieved with images, sounds, smells, change of temperature, or other incentive to put the user in a non-physical world. The interaction is how the virtual world will respond with the user, like the ability to track the user’s motions or actions, developers have discovered that users feel a stronger sense of telepresence when interaction is easy and interesting, even if is not photorealistic, a poorly designed interaction can drastically reduce the sense of immersion. While for imagination, is to give solutions to real problems in the fields where VR is applied, for example in medicine, military, engineering, etc. How the developer of the VR application will resolve the problem or how the user will perform in the virtual world, that will depend in the human imagination. Other authors suggest a forth “I”, Intelligence. With more challenging applications and process, imagination is not enough to resolve the problem or create applications, intelligence is required to fill this gap.

Figure 64 A comparison of HCI. Improved from The World Through the Computer by Jun Rekimoto and Katashi Nagao. 1995.

Through time HCI was improving, since the sketchpad and Xerox’s ALTO to nowadays desktop and laptops computers, in VR the human-machine interaction must be absorbing. In Virtual Reality the real world is not interacting directly with the user, a computer or machine is needed to transport the user to this artificial realm, therefore, the immersion is complete. When the user has interaction with both real world and computer at the same time, Augmented Reality is established. The user can obtain data or information from the environment by a machine or device and not being complete isolated from the real world. Ubiquitous Reality is where interactions with several computers or intelligent devices is happening. The difference between Augmented Reality and Ubiquitous is that the latter one is not necessarily displaying information from a physical object, is the seamless integration of information services as we accomplish goals throughout our work and personal lives. A good example would be an intelligent house connected to the server that knows when the user is in each space of it, when to regulate the temperature, turn off or on the lights, play music, etc. Ultimately, Augmented Virtuality is the interaction of the user with the real world but completely through a machine. In other words, is the real-time representation of the actual world elements inside a virtual environment, such as having a video call or monitoring an object faraway on a computer screen to give maintenance, etc.

A simple Virtual System Architecture is composed with a software and databases, a VR engine, one or multiple Input/output devices, the user and the task. In this system is where the three “I” can be found.

Software & Databases: In this state is where the creation of the virtual world, with imagination and intelligence, is conceived. With help of CAD, not only artificial spaces can be created, also information and data are uploaded to be accessible in various ways for the next step.

VR Engine: A software or set of tools to process data done in the previous step then build the immersion for the user.

I/O Device: A gear receiving information from a VR Engine with feedback necessary to interact with the virtual environment. Illustrations can be a phone giving the tracking of the eye view and GPS data, a glove or motion controller to now the presence and movement of the user, or even a complete 4D theater to give a multisensorial experience.

User: The person using the I/O device having the virtual or augmented experience.

Task: Goal to be achieved. From a training, programing, military simulation, medical procedure simulation, teleoperation, or a simple videogame.

Figure 65 VR modeling cycle. Adapted from Burdea and Coiffet Virtual Reality Technology. 1993

2.2 History of Virtual Reality

The computer has been a great aid to Virtual Reality, but the idea of creating an artificial world or to transport the viewer to another scene has been in the mind of the human being much before the invention of such machine. As showed before, in Futurism where artists wanted to put the spectator inside of the painting or where art is not enough to represent the real world in Dada, involve the viewer always has been present. Immersion can be seen in panoramic paintings in the years 1970-80s where people were tricked with this technique or in dioramas of the same years.

Considering the three “I” and the VR system architecture, we can come back to the discovery of stereopsis, stereo images and the 3D displays created by Charles Wheatstone in 1832 and improved by David Brewster in 1849 with the first 3D portable device.

Figure 66 Stereoscope. Charles Wheatstone. 1838

In 1938 Charles Wheatstone presented the stereoscope after several experiments on principles of stereopsis which is the perception of depth and 3D elements obtained from the visual information from the two eyes of the subject. The principal is to have the same image twice so each eye can see one reflected in the central mirror then the brain can fuse the two images and create the depth perception of a 3D solid object.

David Brewster fascinated by Wheatstone’s invention, in 1849 developed a smaller and portable version stereoscope. The contribution was the use of lenses to unify the images instead of mirrors, this allowed the reduction of size. The design was not of interest of the people until 1851, when a new design was created and captive the attention of Queen Victoria and its popularity incremented.

Figure 68 Brewster's Stereoscope. Jules Duboscq. 1851. Figure 67 Brewster's Stereoscope. David Brewster. 1849

These two previous devices were the root of the popular 3D experiences, 3D theaters and the View-Master in the beginning and middle of 1900 respectively . For the early 3D motion pictures, the film was projected on two screens then merged with help of a stereoscope to create the illusion of 3D.

Figure 69 Sketch of Stereoscope 3D Film. IGN Article. 2010.

The popularity of 3D movies increased in 1950’s thanks to anaglyph glasses and polarized glasses. In the former one, the 3D effect is achieved by using filters of color, usually red for the left eye and cyan for the right eye, then the brain fuse both images to create perception of depth. For polarized glasses the principal is similar, except the filtration is not by colors, is by light. Each lens is polarized to block the incoming light to produce the 3D effect.

Figure 71 Polarized 3D glasses. RealD. 2015. Figure 70 Anaglyph 3D glasses. 1952.

In 1955, the future of cinema was presented. Morton Heilig, considered the father of VR, created The Sensorama Machine, a simulator that projects a 3D motion picture capable of have smell, stereo sound, wind and even vibrations on the seat. All of this to increase the immersion of the viewer.

"Thus, individually and collectively, by thoroughly applying the methodology of art, the cinema of the future will become the first art form to reveal the new scientific world to man in the full sensual vividness and dynamic vitality of his consciousness." -Morton Heilig

Figure 72 Sensorama. Morton Heilig. The Cinema of the Future. 1955.

Before Sensorama was patented in 1962, the first Heilig’s patent was the Telesphere Mask in 1960, an HMD that provides stereoscopic TV and stereo sound. As his patent mentions, Telesphere Mask is “directed to improvements in stereoscopic-television apparatus for individual use” with “a hollowing casing, a pair of optical units, a pair of television tubes units, a pair of ear phones and a pair of discharge nozzles, all coacting to cause the user to comfortably see the images, hear the sound effects and to be sensitive to the air discharge of said nozzles”

Figure 73 Telesphere Mask. Morton Heilig. Credit of Picture: Marianne Heilig

The device was one of the first of its kind, having elements to be easily adjustable and comfortable to the head without the necessary use of hands, television tubes units were to project tv images, instead of today that VR HMD are connected to PC or smartphone. As well as Sensorama, it provided to the spectator air currents and odors. Wistfully, both Heilig inventions were commercial failures. Nevertheless, they were pioneers, Sensorama as a root of 4D cinemas and Telesphere Mask as present-day VR headsets.

Figure 74 Telesphere Mask. Morton Heilig. Patent 2,955,156 page 3. 1960.

Thus, Immersion was starting to be stablish for VR, still Interaction was necessary. Another root for VR was the flight simulators. Edwin Albert Link, with experience in flying and in his family business of piano and organ, he developed a flight trainer simulator in 1931. The “Link Trainer” grew slowly in acceptance, but more as a carnival ride that for real pilots’ trainer, however, few years later U.S Army became interested in the machine and in the World War II the simulator widespread and trained over 500,000 pilots. With The responsive movements and realistic controls made the trainer a good example in where interaction was more important that immersion without getting rid of artificial practice.

Figure 76 Link Trainer. Canada Aviation Museum. Public Domain. 2010.

Figure 75 Link Trainer. Patent 1,825,462 page 1. 1931.

With the responsive movements and realistic controls made the trainer a good example in where interaction was more important than immersion without getting rid of artificial practice. In 1961, Philco Corporation designed “Headsight”, a helmet that tracked the movement of the head, the main objective was to be used with a remote-controlled closed- circuit video system for remotely viewing dangerous situations. In fact, their system used a head mounted display to monitor conditions in another room, using magnetic tracking to monitor the user’s head movements.

Later, in 1965, Ivan Sutherland with his student Bob Sproull built “A head-mounted three-dimensional display”. An HMD capable to project a perspective image to the user as they move. The display was not connected to cameras or CCTV, I was linked to a computer to have real-time changes of the view as the tracking system reacts to the movement of the users’ head. This tracking system was to heavy that the display was attached to the ceiling with a mechanical arm, which inspired to be called “The sword of Damocles”. In summary, “The sword of Damocles” was able to present a 3D wired image, the hidden line was difficult to compute, which track the movement of the head and change the perspective of the 3D wired image thanks to be tethered to a computer.

Figure 77 The Parts of the Three-Dimensional Display System. Ivan Sutherland. 1968.

Figure 78 A head-mounted three-dimensional display. Fall Joint Computer Conference. 1968.

A great improvement in the lenses of HMD was the creation of the LEEP (Large Expanse, Extra Perspective) optics developed by Erick Howlett in 1979 and provided the basis for most of the current VR helmets available today. The lens gave a very wield field of view stereoscopic image, having high resolution in center and lower in the perimeter.

Figure 79 First LEEP Photograph. Eric Howlett. 1979.

Virtual Images

Le Right 90 direct eld

140 corneal eld

Compressed real images lm or video source

Figure 80 FoV of LEEP. Design by Eric Howlett. 1979.

Nasa and VPL (Virtual Programming Languages) were Howlett’s best customers. The former incorporated LEEP optics in their NASA VIVED (Virtual Visual Environment Display), the latter one commercialized the Data Glove.

The Data Glove was another way of interaction. The wired glove is an input device with electronic sensors to monitor the hand’s movements and then transform them into data. The Sayre Glove by the Electronic Visualization Laboratory, a research lab at the University of Illinois where students of art and engineering collaborate, was the precursor in 1977. Thomas G. Zimmerman incorporated optical flex sensor to track the bending of the fingers and ultrasonic and magnetic to capture the hand position. NASA also used this technology and in 1989 a new version of the Data Glove was available to the masses by Nintendo and Mattel.

Figure 82 Power Glove. Nintendo. 1989. Figure 81 Data Glove. Thomas G. Zimmerman. Patent 4,988,981 page 2. 1991.

NASA combined LEED optics and data glove technology to create VIVED later be VIEW (Virtual Interface Environment Workstation) in partnership with VLP Research, Inc. The VIEW is an HMD which can projects artificial worlds generated by a computer or give you a view of a real environment transmitted from video cameras.

Figure 84 VIEW with Data Glove and Data Suite. Picture Figure 83 VIVED. NASA. 1983. from www.nasa.gov. 2019.

3 Augmented Reality

3.1 Introduction

One of the HCI world is Augmented Reality, a reality where the real environment and the virtual reality can be seen at the same time. Burdea’s diagram of the three I can be also applied for AR, while the immersion, likewise VR, can be multisensory, it is not completely total, on the contrary, AR permits the user to see the real world and it brings digital components to it. Thus, AR overlaps the user’s realities instead of replacing the actual world and simulate a new one like VR would do.

Figure 85 Reality-Virtuality Continuum. Reference to "A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual Displays" by P. Milgram and A. F. Kishino. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems. 1994.

AR needs a display to enhance natural environments or situations and offer perceptually enriched experiences. The display can be head-mounted, head-ups, handheld or cast it by a projector.

Re nal Display

Handheld Spa al Op cal Display See Through Dispaly HMD

Projector

Real Object Real Object Real Object

Figure 86 Display Taxonomy. Bimber, O. & Raskar R. Spatial augmented reality: merging real and virtual worlds. CRC Press. 2005.

The AR Architecture is like the Virtual system Architecture. Expanding a bit more the system architecture, it will be composed of host processor connected to the network, the data base 3D model or data, the VR or rendering engine, the frame buffer, the user with the display device and a movement tracker, and the real object to superimpose the virtual object.

To Network

Host Processor: The central computer which serves as a focal point for the collection of data, and Host often for the provision of services which cannot Processor economically be distributed.26

Database Model: A collection of data that can be accessed for the users of a computer system Database Head and be shared. Model Tracker Rendering Engine: A software to create the text or images to be displayed. Rendering User Frame Buffer: A part of the system to storage Engine and the data of the frames to be displayed or to keep holding. An example is the graphic card memory in a computer.

Frame Display Head Tracker: It can be any device to track Bu er Device the user’s movement.

Display Device: Depending of the immersion of AR. In a HMD can be through glasses, in a handheld device can be through the screen of the Virtual Object device.

Virtual Object: The final data to enhance the real world. Real Object

26 Definition of Host processor in computer science from The Free Dictionary by Farlex. 2019.

3.2 History of Augmented Reality.

VR and AR share some milestone in their history, such as Heilig’s Sensorama or Sutherland’s head-mounted three-dimensional display (the sword of Damocles). Moreover, the intention of merging real object with artificial ones has been seen in times before the aiding of computers.

In 1862, the English scientist John Henry Pepper and the inventor Henry Dircks popularized the phantasmagoric effects of objects appear to fade in or out. This effect is called Pepper’s ghost and consist in having two rooms, one that people can see into or the stage, and a second that is hidden to the side, the "blue room", and united by an acrylic glass or plastic film, when the light in the “blue room” is higher than the empty room, the object to project appears in the empty room. This effect took reference to Giambattista della Prota’s Camera Oscura.

Figure 88 Camera Oscura Principle. Artist Unknow. 1600s Figure 87 Pepper's Ghost. The World of Wonders. 1865. Archive Photos. After the Second World War, in 1958 the firsts HUD, Head-up Display, were developed for military aircrafts. The HUDs were transparent displays that projected data, such as altitude or speed, without moving the head to look away from the front. They evolve from the reflector sight, which is an illuminated aim superimposed on the field of view, like the aim in reflex cameras. After some years, the Head-up Display was implemented for commercial passenger aircraft and then in space shuttles.

Figure 90 Diagram of Grubb’s reflector sight prototype. Howard Figure 89 HUD. From a co-pilot. Telstar Grubb. 1900. Logistics. 2005.

At the same time of the “Headsight” by Philco Corporation in 1961 and the “Sword of Damocles” by Ivan Sutherland in 1968, Thomas Furness III was working in an HMD for the United States Airforce. His work eventually evolved in Super Cockpit, a software that put the user inside of a simulator through an HMD, a Data Glove and a Data Suit.

Figure 91 The Super Cockpit. Thomas Furness III. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. Vol 30 No 1. SAGE Publications. 1986.

Myron Krueger established a laboratory to create an artificial reality without been attached to helmets or gloves in 1974, it was called Videoplace. Using video cameras to capture the movement of the user, projectors and special hardware to reflect silhouettes capable of interact with the artificial environment. This was a root for the 3D cameras and scanners.

Figure 92 Videoplace. Myron Krueger. Permanent Exhibition State Museum of Natural History at the University of Connecticut. 1994.

It was until 1990 when the term “Augmented Reality” was invented by the researcher of the Boeing Company, Thomas Caudell. Caudell and his colleague, David Mizell, created the first AR experience for industrial purposes with the help of an HMD to superimpose a computer- generated diagram of the manufacturing process and work as wired instructive.

Few years later, Louis Rosenberg at the US Air Force developed “Virtual Fixtures” with the purpose of overlay virtual data on a workspace to enhance human performance. Virtual Fixtures was also able to remotely manipulate task, controlled by an upper-body exoskeleton.

Figure 93 Experimental Setup for Telepresence Performance Assessment showing operator and workspace. 1992.

Augmented Reality stated to appear in the media. In 1994, Julie Martin created a AR theatre production called “Dancing in Cyberspace”, featuring dancers and virtual objects in the stage. In 1998, the 1st and Ten line computer system was broadcasted during a live NFL game.

Furthermore, a big step to have AR for the public was the release of the open-source computer tracking library, ARToolKit. It was originally developed by Hirokazu Kato of Nara Institute of Science and Technology in 1999 and it was one of the first SDKs for mobile.

Several companies such as: Microsoft with HoloLens; Google with Google Glass and Google Cardboard; Magic Leap, Sony, etc. are creating SDKs, devices and applications to improve the AR world in marketing, entertainment, training, architectural, medical, industrial or in field of productivity.

Figure 94 VR Infrastructure. Tipatat The VR Fund. 2018.

4 Blade Runner Project

To culminate this dissertation, in this chapter the movie Blade Runner directed by Ridley Scott will be used as a reference to develop examples of VR and AR technology. Several versions of the film were released: the previous versions before the commercial release, the U.S. Theatrical Cut in 1982, the International Cut in the same year, the U.S. broadcast version in 1986, the unauthorized Director’s Cut in 1992 and Ridley Scott’s Final Cut in 2007. The Final Cut version of 2007 will be examined.

The story of Blade Running is in a dystopian Los Angeles in 2019, a dilapidated industrial metropolis in perpetuum darkness, low lights and constant acid rain. With this grimy atmosphere the director gave the idea of environmental issues, a marginalized society, death and the searching of humanity.

In this timeline, humans coexist with synthetic biological androids called replicants who are indistinct from humans. The replicants are created by Tyrell company, with the motto “more human than humans” but in the end, what is necessary to be human. Artificial animals are also created because wildlife is almost extinguished and real animals are luxury for few ones as a symbol of status.

There is no government, the society is ruled by companies and social status is always notorious. The higher class, the boss of Tyrell Company, always with warm colors, with the possibility to the sun and open spaces, meanwhile the rest is in an underworld situation. But technology is always there accessible for all classes, from the cooker of ramen to the person who generated biosynthetic eyes for the androids, making this a cyberpunk future.

Figure 95 Blade Runner Movie Poster. From the U.S Theatrical Version. 1982.

4.1 Before Creating a Cult Following

Blade Runner is an existential futuristic noir based in the science-fiction book “Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?” written by Philip Kindred Dick in 1968. The novel’s idea sprang when the writer read some diaries of Schutzstaffel (S.S.) men, Dick was astonished from the cruelty and absence of compassion of Nazi soldiers to other humans. Their lack of empathy made Dick to think that they couldn’t be referred to as human beings, though their exterior appearance were alike human, they had an emotionally flawed mind.

“For me android is a metaphor for people who are physiologically human but behaving in a non- human way……... I use such terms as android and robot, but I’m really referring to a psychologically defective or malfunctioning or pathological human being.” -Philip K. Dick

Figure 96 Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Philip K. Dick. Published by Doubleday. United States. 1968.

The script was written by Hampton Fancher, who modified Dick’s novel to make it less theological and more in environmental issues. Fancher was replaced for David Peoples then both were left by an uncredited Roland Kibbee who wrote the disliked voiceovers of the first Blade Runner version.

Visual effects were non-digital, they were around 90 special effects in the entire film. To accomplish this, miniatures and models were created, from the city landscape to small versions of the cars to make them fly. To merge the sets with the landscape, they used Matthew Yuricich’s matte paintings, a technique where the background are static artworks merged with live-action footage. With this technique, almost 16 shots had to be taken with different lightings and multipass exposures, also to motion controlled cameras were used to have the same movement again and again.

Figure 97 Making the Spinner. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982. Figure 98 Spinner. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982.

Figure 100 Blimp. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982. Figure 99 Making the Blimp. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982

Figure 101 Building Models. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982. Figure 102 Miniatures Cars. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982.

Figure 103 Matte Painting Exposure. Matthew Yuricich. From Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner. 2007.

Ridley Scott was aware of the budget and because of that he could not create visuals like 2001: A Space Odyssey by Stanley Kubrick. His main weapons were smoke, rain and darkness to transform a recognizable Warner Bros. street set to a retro-futurist collapsed Los Angeles. Syd Mead was their visual futurist designer, who elaborated concept for the vehicles and objects but with context like the buildings, the neon signs etc. Ridley Scott was impressed with his job that the environment of Syd’s concepts was taken as inspiration to the set design, Syd also participate doing mattes.

Figure 104 City Landscape. Syd Mead. Blade Runner. 1982.

Figure 105 Taxi design with context. Syd Mead. Blade Runner. 1982.

An excellent control of details, that Ridley Scott call “layering”, visual effects that were the best at its time, a distinguished casting, music by the Oscar-winner Vangelis, even with all that, the theatrical version in 1982 failed to recover its $28 million budget. Blade Runner suffered in its box office because it was released some days after E.T the Extra-Terrestrial by Steven Spielberg. The somber of the movie was not tasteful for the time when people of United States were expecting an action-pleasant futuristic movie, not a philosophical noir, even though a happy ending was included in this version.

Blade Runner years later was recognized as a cult film, one of the best science fiction and neo-noir movies. Equal to Metropolis by Fritz Lang in 1927, both films were not success at their released date, but they became acclaimed movies in the pacing time, influencing several more science fictions stories, videogames, animations etc. Other similarities, besides the idea of having android companionship, are that both are based in novels and both men who created the androids, J. F. Sebastian in Blade Runner and C. A. Rotwang in Metropolis, are somehow established in different atmospheres, the latter one living in the oldest hut in a industrial metropolis and the former one in decayed Bradbury Building from the outside but a magical world in the inside.

Figure 106 Metropolis. Movie Poster. Boris Konstantinovitch Bilinsky. 1927.

Figure 108 Sebastian's house. Blade Runner. 1982.

Figure 107 Rotwang's Hut. Metropolis. 1927.

Different from other movies where their vision of the future is far away from the here and now, Blade Runner achieved to merge a future with present things like the city and street landscape. Big billboard with known brands, multicultural crowded markets, neon signs, the filmmakers of Blade Runner foresaw these elements of a 21st century city. Ridley. Theanimated movie Akira, based on the manga of the same, by Katsuhiro Otomo in 1988 is a good example of the influence of Blade Runner. Otomo presented a post-apocalyptic Tokyo in 2019 (same year as the plot of Blade Runner) where dystopia and cyberpunk are everyday factors.

Figure 109 Akira. Katsuhiro Otomo. 1988.

For all the previous and more, Blade Runner grew into a success. Inspiring several media by its set design, vision of the future, music, environment. The plot can be the most outstanding of the film, in times where empathy is difficult to find, the question of what makes us human is always latent.

4.2 Nostalgic Interiors (VR & Image Tracking)

As part of the project an important space is going to be recreated, the apartment of the main character. VR for this project will be created through 360º imagery of the spaces, also AR with help of image tracking technology. To develop both exercises, the virtual system architecture is considered.

4.2.1 Rick Deckard’s Apartment

The space decoration was inspired by Ennis House designed by Frank Lloyd Wright located in Los Angeles. The set designer took a mold of the distinctives blocks of the house to build Deckard’s apartment in a studio set.

Figure 110 Ennis House exterior. Frank Lloyd Wright. Ennis House gallery. 2019.

Figure 111 Ennis House interior. Frank Lloyd Wright. Ennis House Gallery. 2019.

The inspiring house, as well as the apartment, were created as reference for temples, although for the latter one is in a claustrophobic sense. The sensation of fear, the darkness, the items lost in time, the shadows of a noir atmosphere, make this space memorable.

For the project several imageries were took from the movie to recreate the area, first in 2D and then modeling in 3D to create VR and AR experiences.

Figure 112 Deckard’s Apartment Living Area. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

Figure 113 Deckard’s Apartment Bedroom. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

Figure 114 Deckard’s Apartment Lobby. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982

Figure 115 Deckard’s Apartment Kitchen. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982

Figure 116 Deckard’s Apartment Bathroom. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982

Figure 117 Deckard's Kitchen. Syd Mead. 1982.

With help of the references the 2D plan was generated.

Taking consideration of the human proportions, 3D elevation and height can be assigned to develop the 3D model.

Living Room:

Kitchen:

Bedroom:

Lobby:

Creating the furniture and decorative to place them in the artificial space.

Living Room:

Kitchen:

Bedroom:

Lobby:

The 3D model must be cover with materials and textures. Depending of the material created, textures are mandatory to generate, such as: Diffuse texture, the main color of the material; Bump mapping, the simulation of bumping and wrinkles on a surface; Reflection bitmap, the simulation of the diffuse reflection of light; Displacement mapping, the negative of the diffuse texture to give a sense of depth and detail.

Bathroom Floor

Di use Re ect Bump Displacement

Bathroom Wall

Di use Re ect Bump Displacement

Bathroom Wallpaper Balcony Floor

Di use Di use

Living Room Floor

Di use Re ect Bump Displacement

Kitchen Floor

Di use Re ect Bump Displacement

Lobby Floor

Di use Bump Normal Bump

Bedroom Floor

Di use Bump Normal Bump

Ennis House Block Decora on

Di use Bump Normal Bump

Walls

Di use Bump

Roof

Di use 1 Di use 2

Marble Cover

Di use 1 Di use 2

Wood

Di use 1 Di use 2

Di use 3 Di use 4

Cloth Leather

Bump 1 Bump 2 Bump

Sofa Fabric Lamp Cover

Di use Bump Di use

Ceramic Metal Brushed

Bump Bump

With the textures done is possible now to create the material to be applied to the model.

Bathroom Floor Living Room Floor Kitchen Floor Lobby Floor

Bedroom Floor Balcony Floor Wall Ennis House Block

Bathroom Wall Bathroom Wallpaper Roof Lamp Cover

Marble 1 Marble 2 Leather Black Leather White

Wood 1 Wood 2 Wood 3 Wood 4

Sofa Fabric Ceramic White Ceramic Gray Ceramic Beige

Metal 1 Metal 2 Bed Cover Bed Sheets

Adding the material to de 3D model and lighting to have a final render.

Living Room:

Kitchen:

Bedroom:

Lobby:

With all the previous steps, 360 stereoscopic images can be created to be possible use them on a device, in this case an HMD, and have a VR experience.

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The former images are spherical renders with a POV of 360 degrees to be able to look around. Thanks to an HMD, the user can move their head and the system would track the movement to simulate and interact with the image.

In summary the Virtual System Architecture for this project is:

So ware Software & Databases: All the images, the plans, the materials and Databases textures that were created to conceive the virtual world.

VR Engine: For this exercise the virtual engine can be applications that can open 360 images, such as: Facebook, YouTube, Daydream, Google VR Engine Cardboard, VR Media Player etc.

I/O Device: The images can be seen in a computer with access to any browser, but for a better experience is recommended to use an HMD, I O Device a smartphone with google cardboard or LEEP lenses would be enough.

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4.2.2 Tyrell’s Office

The second space to recreate is the opposite of Deckard’s apartment considering the oppression and size. The office of the company’s head is based in a temple, equal as the apartment, but in a larger scale. Open spaces and emptiness surround the office, although it has vast windows, the atmosphere of the space is somber.

Figure 118 Tyrell's Office. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

Figure 119 Tyrell's Office. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

Figure 120 Tyrell's Office. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

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With the earlier info a 2D drawing can be generated.

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Then creating the 3D model.

View 1:

View 2:

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View 3:

View 4:

106

As before, textures and materials are needed to cover the 3D model.

Floor

Di use Re ect Bump Displacement

Concrete

Di use Bump Normal Bump

Tex le Chair Leather Marble

Bump Bump Di use

Plas c Chair

Di use Re ect

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Wood Wall

Di use 4 Displacement

Materials:

Floor Concrete Column Tex le Chair Plas c Chair

Copper Gold Leather Wood

Marble

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Finally, 3D renders can be produced to have the result to present in VR or AR.

View 1:

View 2:

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View 3:

View 4:

110

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4.3 Dystopian Scenery (Object Scanner)

A project of interaction with a real 3D object will be generated in this exercise, a landscape showing a future controlled by corporations and industries, the Hades landscape of Blade Runner. A physical model would be required for object scanning and a Virtual System Architecture too.

4.3.1 Hades Landscape

As well as before, references form Ridley Scotts’ Blade Runner will be taken. Being one of the last analogic movies, Blade Runner did have special effects generated by computer. In the case of the landscape, they created a system of engraving, where drawings were put on brass and then acid, the parts where there were no drawings, the acid consumed them to have in the end an engraved piece of the model.

Figure 121 Blade Runner Model Shop. Skyline Drawings. 1982.

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Figure 122 Blade Runner Model Shop. Landscape Model. 1982.

Figure 123 Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

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For the AR project, the creation of a physical model.is necessary for later scanning. A 2D drawing will be used as a reference to cut shape the physical model.

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Build of the physical model:

115

With the physical model done, a database is required to create of it. The scan is generated in a space with preferably gray background and the physical model is place over a tracking reference to establish the origin point and coordinates 0,0,0. For this exercise the tracking reference is from Vuforia.

Scan the model to create an Object Data File through Vuforia Scan app. The camera needs to cover almost all the object to capture the vantage points by surfaces, the more surfaces and points scanned, the best.

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The application has a test to see if the scan was done correctly, a green rectangle will be appearing if is so and is necessary to try different surfaces to put the physical model.

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At the end the Database was created, and it must upload on a server, in Vuforia Developer Portal. Continuing with the Virtual System Architecture and AR interactions is paramount to make data to overlap with the real object. 3D models will be built to have this interaction.

Top view of 3D models taking as reference the physical model already done:

Lateral view:

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Aerial view:

Textures and materials are required but the detail for them is not vital because the sacel is too big and I will not be perceived correctly.

Metal 1 Metal 2

Di use Normal Bump Di use Normal Bump

Metal 3 Metal 4

Di use Normal Bump Di use Normal Bump

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Metal 5 Metal 6

Di use Normal Bump Di use Normal Bump

Materials done from the previous textures:

Metal 1 Metal 2 Metal 3

Metal 4 Metal 5 Metal 6

Implementing all previous steps an AR experience can be created superimposing and merging artificial objects with real ones.

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4.3.2 Tyrell Pyramid

Other landmark in Blade Runner is the omnipotent building of Tyrell’s corporation. During the film social class difference is notorious, and with the symbol of a pyramid, the corporation express its supremacy.

The building has influences of Futurist architecture, having vertical elements and elevators on the outside of the pyramid. Furthermore, it shows Teotihuacan references from the Pyramid of the Sun.

Figure 124 Tyrell's Building. Scene from Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

Figure 125 Tyrell's Building. Scene from Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

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Figure 126 Tyrell's Building. Model Shop. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982.

Figure 127 Pyramid of the Sun. Teotihuacán. Mexico.

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The same way as before, a physical model is required for this AR exercise.

Physical Model:

Preparing the background for the 3D scan:

123

Scanning model through Vuforia target and app:

124

Testing the scan, a translucid green rectangle will appear if the scan was done properly:

Now with the 3D scan done, a 3D model can be traced to superpose with information.

Top View:

Front View:

125

In the end, 3D elements are incorporated to the model to display with the application on the physical model. The display of the data will be performed by a smartphone for this exercise.

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127

Proceeding to add a texture for the 3D model:

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With these steps, the project is ready to be exported to a VR Engine and create the app.

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Conclusion

From a person who wrote a poem and wants to transmit their views and share their feelings, or in Cinema, the team in charge to make a film which describes the multisensorial scenario of the plot, immersion will be part of the goal of artist. Interaction is a perfect method to keep you focus and generate or impart knowledge. And Imagination will be required to surpass the usual and the day-to-day. For these 3 reasons, VR and AR will be other addition of expression ideas.

Is hard to imagine a film or a spatial art without architectural composition, considering that architecture is film’s predecessor, one discipline influencing the second one and both creating an aesthetic ecosystem. Would be interesting observe how more new disciplines coexist with architecture that nowadays technology can bring and join several things together and some of them are Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality.

While more companies and developers are looking into VR and AR and reshaping fields of marketing, education and entertainment, in architecture is starting to make new possibilities to understand and appreciate landscapes, cities, buildings, drawings, but without leaving aside the traditional ways, merging the conventional with the innovative, making a better experience to live the spaces before been created in the real world.

AR and VR will discover new ways to develop creativity and engagement. Furthermore, they will find a way to coexist with the actual tools, because is what they are, tools to create and to ease the experience.

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Table of Figures

Figure 1 Giacomo Balla. Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash. 1912. Oil on canvas. Albright–Knox Art Gallery, New York...... 10 Figure 2 Giacomo Balla. Street Lamp. 1909. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York...... 10 Figure 3 Luigi Russolo. Music. 1911. Oil on canvas. Estorick Collection of Modern Italian Art, London. ... 11 Figure 4 Carlo Carrà. Funeral of the Anarchist Galli. 1910-11. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York...... 12 Figure 5 Umberto Boccioni. The City Rises. 1910-11. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York...... 12 Figure 6 Giacomo Balla. Abstract Speed and Sound. 1913. Oil on canvas. Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice...... 13 Figure 7 Giacomo Balla. Mercury Passing Before the Sun as Seen Through a Telescope. 1914. Oil on canvas. Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice...... 13 Figure 8 Umberto Boccioni. Materia. 1912. Oil on canvas. Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice...... 14 Figure 9 Umberto Boccioni. Unique Forms of Continuity in Space. 1913. Sculpture in bronze. Museum of Contemporary Art, São Paulo...... 15 Figure 10 Mario Chiattone. Bridge and Study of Volumes. 1914. Ink and watercolor...... 16 Figure 11 Antonio Sant'Elia. Station for Trains and Airplanes. 1914. Pencil and ink...... 17 Figure 12 Top. Antonio Sant’Elia The New City. 1914. Ink...... 18 Figure 13 Bottom left. Antonio Sant'Elia. The New Station for Milan. Ink...... 18 Figure 14 Bottom right. Antonio Sant'Elia. Dirigible Hangar. 1913. Ink...... 18 Figure 15 Marcel Duchamp. L.H.O.O. 1919. Color reproduction of Mona Lisa altered with pencil. First published in 391 magazine...... 20 Figure 16 Picture of premiere of Apollinaire's Mamelles de Tiresias and drawings of Serge Férat, June 24, 1917...... 21 Figure 17 Jacques Vaché, Jan 1, 1915 ...... 21 Figure 18 Francis Picabia. Portrait of Cézanne. 1920. Whereabouts unknown, recreated in cannibale, Paris...... 22 Figure 19 Marcel Duchamp. Nude Descending a Staircase. 1912. Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia...... 23 Figure 20 Marcel Duchamp. The Passage from Virgin to Bride. 1912. Oil on canvas. MoMA, New York. . 24 Figure 21 Marcel Duchamp. Chocolate Grinder. 1913. Oil on canvas. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia...... 24 Figure 22 Marcel Duchamp. Bicycle Wheel. Replica MoMA New York, original lost in 1913...... 25 Figure 23 Marcel Duchamp. Tu m'. 1918. Oil & graphite in canvas, safety pins, nut and bolt. Yale University Art Gallery, Connecticut...... 26 Figure 24 Francis Picabia. Edtaonisl. 1913. Oil on canvas. Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois...... 27 Figure 25 Francias Picabia. lei, C'est Ici Stieglitz. 1915 Pen and red and black inks. Published in 291 magazine, New York...... 28 Figure 26 Man Ray. The Rope Dancer Accompanies Herself with Her Shadows. 1916. Oil on canvas. MoMA online Collection...... 29 Figure 27 Man Ray the Enigma of Isidore Ducasse. 1920. Cloth and rope over sewing machine. Reconstructed, National Gallery of Austria, Austria...... 29 Figure 28 Marcel Janco. Wood Relief. 1917. Wood. Private Collection...... 30

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Figure 29 Hugo Ball at Cabaret Voltaire. Zurich. 1916. By unknow photographer, public domain...... 30 Figure 30 Jean Arp. Egg Board. 1922. Painted Wood Relief. Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, Germany...... 31 Figure 31 Raoul Hausmann. Head. 1923. Collage. National Museum of Art, Washington...... 31 Figure 32 Raoul Hausmann. Tatlin at Home. 1920. Pasted papers and gouache. Moderna Museet, Stockholm...... 32 Figure 33 Hannah Höch. Cut with the Kitchen Knife. 1919, Collage of pasted papers. Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany ...... 32 Figure 34 Paul Citroen. Metropolis. 1923. Collage of photographs, post cards and prints. Thomas Walther Collection. Gift of Thomas Walther ...... 33 Figure 35 Photo: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Berlin. 1920...... 34 Figure 36 Max Ernst. The Hat Makes the Man. 1920. Gouche, pencil, oil and ink on cut-and-pasted paper. MoMA, New York ...... 35 Figure 37 Max Ernst. Démonstration Hydrométrique à Tuer par la Température. 1920. Collage of pasted papers...... 35 Figure 38 Kurt Schwitters. Merzbau. 1924-1933. Photo: Wilhelm Redemann, 1933...... 36 Figure 39 Ludwig Meidner. I and the City. 1913. Oil on canvas. Museum for German and Austrian Art, New York...... 39 Figure 40 Ludwig Meidner. Subway Construction in Berlin. 1910. Oil on canvas. Museum Ludwig, Cologne...... 40 Figure 41 Ludwig Meidner. Gas Tank in Berlin-Schöneberg. 1911. Oil on canvas. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Germany...... 40 Figure 42 Hieronymus Bosch. The Garden of Earthly Delights. 1503-4. Oil on oak panels. Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid...... 41 Figure 43 Ludwig Meidner. The Burned-Out (Homeless Ones). 1912. Oil on canvas. Museum Folkwang, Germany...... 42 Figure 44 Ludwig Meidner. Apocalyptic Vision. 1912. Oil on canvas. Museum Judengasse, Germany. .... 42 Figure 45 Ludwig Meidner. Wannsee Railroad Station. 1913. Ink. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, California...... 43 Figure 46 left above, Edvard Munch. Train Smoke. 1900. Oil pm canvas. The Munch Museum, Oslo...... 44 Figure 47 right above, Ludwig Meidner. Landscape. 1913. Oil on canvas. Marvin and Janet Fishman Collection, Milwaukee...... 44 Figure 48 left below, Edvard Munch. Evening on Karl Johan Street. 1982. Oil on canvas. Rasmus Meyer Collection, Norway...... 44 Figure 49 right below, Ludwig Meidner. Street in Wilmersdorf. 1912. Drypoint. Collection of the Grunwald Center, California...... 44 Figure 50 Franz Marc. Fate of the Animals. 1913. Oil on canvas. Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland...... 45 Figure 51 Wassily Kandinsky. Horsemen of the Apocalypse I. 1911. Oil paint behind glass. Lenbachhaus, Munich...... 45 Figure 52 Max Beckmann. Scene from Destruction of Messina. 1909. Oil on canvas. Saint Louis Art Museum, United States...... 46 Figure 53 Max Beckmann. The Sinking of the Titanic. 1912. Oil on canvas. Saint Louis Art Museum, United States...... 46 Figure 54 Ludwig Meidner. Apocalyptic Landscape. 1916. Oil on canvas. Ostdeusche Galerie, Germany.47

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Figure 55 Ludwig Meidner. The Last Day. 1916. Oil on canvas. Berlinische Galerie, Berlin...... 47 Figure 56 Light Pen. Computer History Museum. 1996...... 49 Figure 57 The SAGE Blockhouse. Peace Museum. 2013...... 49 Figure 58 IBM Punched Card. 1928...... 50 Figure 59 DAC drawing. Video presentation. 1964 ...... 50 Figure 60 Ivan Sutherland demonstrating Sketchpad. From a video presentation in Lincoln Labs. 1963. 51 Figure 61 Graphical representation of drawing and constraints. Ivan Sutherland's thesis. 1963 ...... 52 Figure 62 CATIA, firsts versions. Dassault Systemes. 2019...... 53 Figure 63 The three I of virtual reality. Burdea C. Grigore. Virtual Reality Technology. 1993...... 56 Figure 64 A comparison of HCI. Improved from The World Through the Computer by Jun Rekimoto and Katashi Nagao. 1995...... 57 Figure 65 VR modeling cycle. Adapted from Burdea and Coiffet Virtual Reality Technology. 1993 ...... 58 Figure 66 Stereoscope. Charles Wheatstone. 1838 ...... 59 Figure 67 Brewster's Stereoscope. David Brewster. 1849 ...... 60 Figure 68 Brewster's Stereoscope. Jules Duboscq. 1851...... 60 Figure 69 Sketch of Stereoscope 3D Film. IGN Article. 2010...... 60 Figure 70 Anaglyph 3D glasses. 1952...... 61 Figure 71 Polarized 3D glasses. RealD. 2015...... 61 Figure 72 Sensorama. Morton Heilig. The Cinema of the Future. 1955...... 61 Figure 73 Telesphere Mask. Morton Heilig. Credit of Picture: Marianne Heilig ...... 62 Figure 74 Telesphere Mask. Morton Heilig. Patent 2,955,156 page 3. 1960...... 62 Figure 75 Link Trainer. Patent 1,825,462 page 1. 1931...... 63 Figure 76 Link Trainer. Canada Aviation Museum. Public Domain. 2010...... 63 Figure 77 The Parts of the Three-Dimensional Display System. Ivan Sutherland. 1968...... 64 Figure 78 A head-mounted three-dimensional display. Fall Joint Computer Conference. 1968...... 64 Figure 79 First LEEP Photograph. Eric Howlett. 1979...... 65 Figure 80 FoV of LEEP. Design by Eric Howlett. 1979...... 65 Figure 81 Data Glove. Thomas G. Zimmerman. Patent 4,988,981 page 2. 1991...... 66 Figure 82 Power Glove. Nintendo. 1989...... 66 Figure 83 VIVED. NASA. 1983...... 66 Figure 84 VIEW with Data Glove and Data Suite. Picture from www.nasa.gov. 2019...... 66 Figure 85 Reality-Virtuality Continuum. Reference to "A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual Displays" by P. Milgram and A. F. Kishino. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems. 1994...... 68 Figure 86 Display Taxonomy. Bimber, O. & Raskar R. Spatial augmented reality: merging real and virtual worlds. CRC Press. 2005...... 68 Figure 87 Pepper's Ghost. The World of Wonders. 1865. Archive Photos...... 70 Figure 88 Camera Oscura Principle. Artist Unknow. 1600s ...... 70 Figure 89 HUD. From a co-pilot. Telstar Logistics. 2005...... 70 Figure 90 Diagram of Grubb’s reflector sight prototype. Howard Grubb. 1900...... 70 Figure 91 The Super Cockpit. Thomas Furness III. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. Vol 30 No 1. SAGE Publications. 1986...... 71 Figure 92 Videoplace. Myron Krueger. Permanent Exhibition State Museum of Natural History at the University of Connecticut. 1994...... 71

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Figure 93 Experimental Setup for Telepresence Performance Assessment showing operator and workspace. 1992...... 72 Figure 94 VR Infrastructure. Tipatat The VR Fund. 2018...... 73 Figure 95 Blade Runner Movie Poster. From the U.S Theatrical Version. 1982...... 75 Figure 96 Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Philip K. Dick. Published by Doubleday. United States. 1968...... 76 Figure 97 Making the Spinner. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982...... 77 Figure 98 Spinner. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982...... 77 Figure 99 Making the Blimp. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982 ...... 77 Figure 100 Blimp. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982...... 77 Figure 101 Building Models. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982...... 77 Figure 102 Miniatures Cars. Blade Runner Model Shop. 1982...... 77 Figure 103 Matte Painting Exposure. Matthew Yuricich. From Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner. 2007...... 78 Figure 104 City Landscape. Syd Mead. Blade Runner. 1982...... 79 Figure 105 Taxi design with context. Syd Mead. Blade Runner. 1982...... 79 Figure 106 Metropolis. Movie Poster. Boris Konstantinovitch Bilinsky. 1927...... 80 Figure 107 Rotwang's Hut. Metropolis. 1927...... 81 Figure 108 Sebastian's house. Blade Runner. 1982...... 81 Figure 109 Akira. Katsuhiro Otomo. 1988...... 81 Figure 110 Ennis House exterior. Frank Lloyd Wright. Ennis House gallery. 2019...... 83 Figure 111 Ennis House interior. Frank Lloyd Wright. Ennis House Gallery. 2019...... 83 Figure 112 Deckard’s Apartment Living Area. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 84 Figure 113 Deckard’s Apartment Bedroom. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 84 Figure 114 Deckard’s Apartment Lobby. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982 ...... 84 Figure 115 Deckard’s Apartment Kitchen. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982 ...... 85 Figure 116 Deckard’s Apartment Bathroom. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982 ...... 85 Figure 117 Deckard's Kitchen. Syd Mead. 1982...... 85 Figure 118 Tyrell's Office. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 103 Figure 119 Tyrell's Office. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 103 Figure 120 Tyrell's Office. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 103 Figure 121 Blade Runner Model Shop. Skyline Drawings. 1982...... 112 Figure 122 Blade Runner Model Shop. Landscape Model. 1982...... 113 Figure 123 Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 113 Figure 124 Tyrell's Building. Scene from Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 121 Figure 125 Tyrell's Building. Scene from Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 121 Figure 126 Tyrell's Building. Model Shop. Blade Runner. Ridley Scott. 1982...... 122 Figure 127 Pyramid of the Sun. Teotihuacán. Mexico...... 122

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