Integrated Ocean Management - Fisheries, Oil, Gas and Seabed Mining
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GLOBEFISH RESEARCH PROGRAMME Integrated ocean management - Fisheries, oil, gas and seabed mining Volume 122 FAO GLOBEFISH RESEARCH PROGRAMME VOL. 122 Integrated ocean management - Fisheries, oil, gas and seabed mining by Melanie Torrie FAO Consultant Products, Trade and Marketing Branch Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy and Resources Division Rome, Italy FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2016 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-109382-5 © FAO, 2016 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to [email protected]. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through [email protected]. FAO. September 2016. Integrated ocean management - Fisheries, oil, gas and seabed mining, by Melanie Torrie. Globefish Research Programme Volume 122. Rome, Italy. ABSTRACT This report explores the principles and application of integrated ocean management (IOM) concepts from a policy perspective through the use of four case studies: Norway, Namibia, Angola and Indonesia. This report is very timely in light of the recent inclusion of IOM, both in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), in the discussions of the marine sector. Layout: Gloria Loriente Cover photograph: FreeImages.com/QR9iudjz0 iii CONTENTS Abbreviations and acronyms v Executive summary vi 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4 3. METHODOLOGY 6 4. CASE STUDIES 7 4.1. NORWAY 8 4.1.1. Marine industries 9 4.1.2. Policies and regulations 10 4.1.3. SWOT analysis 12 4.1.4. Lessons learned 13 4.2. NAMIBIA 13 4.2.1. Marine industries 15 4.2.2. Policies and regulations 16 4.2.3. SWOT analysis 18 4.2.4. Lessons learned 19 4.3. ANGOLA 19 4.3.1. Marine industries 20 4.3.2. Policies and regulations 21 4.3.3. SWOT analysis 22 4.3.4. Lessons learned 23 4.4. INDONESIA 23 4.4.1. Marine industries 25 4.4.2. Policies and regulations 25 4.4.3. SWOT Analysis 26 4.4.4. Lessons learned 27 5. CONCLUSION 28 6. REFERENCES 29 APPENDICES 1 MARINE POLICY DEVELOPMENT METHODS 32 2 LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 35 3 IMPACT OF PETROLEUM ON FISH 36 4 IMPACT OF SEABED MINING ON FISH 37 iv ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ABNJ Areas beyond national jurisdiction BCC Benguela Current Commission EEZ Exclusive economic zone EIA Environmental impact assessment EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP Gross domestic product HDI Human Development Index IOM Integrated ocean management ISA International Seabed Authority ITQ Individual transferable quota LME Large Marine Ecosystem MPA Marine Protected Area MSP Marine spatial planning OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OfD Oil for Development SEAFO South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization TAC Total allowable catch UN United Nations WGI World Governance Indicators v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Oceans cover around 70 percent of the earth, hold 97 percent of the earth’s water, produce more than half of the atmosphere’s oxygen, and sequester large quantities of carbon. This report looks at the policy interactions between the fishery, oil and gas, and seabed-mining sectors through a policy review of four case study countries – Norway, Namibia, Angola and Indonesia. Through the case studies, challenges and lessons are identified on the development and implementation of ocean management. The case studies presented demonstrate both the successes and challenges a country faces when developing an integrated ocean management (IOM) policy. The historical and cultural contexts play a role in how governments are able to create and implement policies. In Norway, the Government is able to draft, pass and enforce laws in a relatively short time, whereas in Indonesia, the planning and coordination process may take much longer. Namibia’s cultural heritage has given the country strong governance, which it has used to create vibrant ocean industries. And yet, countries are not trapped by their histories; for example, despite Angola’s devastating past, it remains committed to the Benguela Current Commission (BCC) and thus the responsible use of their oceans. The relative power of each marine industry in each case seems may have some bearing on the resulting marine management plans. In Norway, the fishing industry is quite powerful because of the long history, and the management plans aim to maintain the health of the fish stocks and ecosystems. However, in Indonesia, fisheries have relatively less power, and thus do not have a strong voice in policy-making. It is important for each country to consider the relative power of each industry during the stakeholder consultation process while moving towards equal representation. vi 1. INTRODUCTION Oceans cover around 70 percent of the earth, hold 97 percent of the earth’s water, produce more than half of the atmosphere’s oxygen, and sequester large quantities of carbon; and more than half of the world’s population lives in coastal zones. Were it a country, the ocean economy would rank as the seventh largest economy in the world, with a GDP of US$2.5 trillion. The oceans are essential to life, and have long been considered an unlimited resource. However, over the past several decades, it has been observed that the ocean resources are limited. Fish stocks have been overexploited, with some stocks collapsing (e.g. Canadian cod); garbage islands and microplastics threaten the health of the ocean ecosystems; and changing chemistry as a result of climate change impacts life in the seas. Despite the harm that mankind has caused, the seas contain unknown riches in terms of aquatic life, metals, rare earth minerals and potential scientific discoveries. With land-based resources becoming more difficult to find and extract, attention is turned to the rich deposits in the oceans. The global shift to ocean extraction of petroleum, gas and other minerals has highlighted the need for IOM,1 i.e. how to maximize benefits while minimizing negative impacts. IOM is crucial when looking at the interactions between and importance of the major marine sectors (fishing, aquaculture, petroleum extraction, and mining). Its importance is highlighted by the shift towards “blue growth”, i.e. increasing economic growth through marine industries. Many international organizations and governments have created blue growth policies towards increasing economic independence. FAO’s Blue Growth Initiative is focused on food security, fisheries management and ecosystem services. Offshore petroleum and seabed mining both impact the health and operations of the marine environment, and thus can impact food security worldwide. The issue of IOM is an important component of FAO’s Blue Growth Initiative as well as the global movement towards economic growth through the ocean economy (FAO, 2014). This report discusses the issues of IOM through four case studies focused on the interaction between fisheries, petroleum and seabed mining. Fisheries and aquaculture have a long history and are crucial to food security worldwide. With the ongoing efforts of the international community to promote sustainable, responsible fisheries, this resource can be potentially renewable in perpetuity. However, the ongoing productivity of the world’s fish stocks is also impacted by other important marine sectors. There have been many studies on the impacts of offshore petroleum operations (from exploration to exploitation) on fish and marine mammals (see Appendix 3 for more details). With the emergence of deep sea or seabed mining as an upcoming industry, many scientists and organizations are now focusing on studying the impacts of these operations on the environment and marine ecosystems (see Appendix 4 for more details). 1 For the purposes of this paper, the term “integrated ocean management” (IOM) is used, whereas in other projects, the term used is “ecosystem-based management” (EBM). At the writing of this paper, FAO had not identified a preferred term; hence these two terms are used interchangeably. 1 Offshore petroleum activities started in 1896, with the first marine well drilled in California. Since then, the offshore petroleum industry has spread throughout the world, and technologies have become increasingly developed. Petroleum is a highly valuable non-renewable resource; the impacts of offshore extraction on fisheries and the marine environment can be devastating (oil spills), or relatively localized and benign (ongoing operations). The petroleum industry is highly lucrative, and high oil prices have made offshore reserves economical in recent years. As the industry has developed, the regulations and standards to which companies are subject have become increasingly strict, yet the level of regulations and enforcement vary around the world.