Fisheries Management: An Historical Overview

CLINTON E. ATKINSON

Introduction lowed by most other countries: Here we diseases of fish" (Brice 1898:138). have always considered that manage­ Although much of our early informa­ At this 50th Anniversary of the Mont­ ment of fisheries was a state's right and tion on the fisheries of the Pacific coast lake Laboratory we have heard accounts the jurisdiction of the Federal govern­ came from the first surveys of the vari­ of its role in studies of the fisheries re­ ment has been generally limited to 0us salmon streams in a search for source and its environment, fishing and Territories, the high seas, and manage­ suitable locations for hatcheries, the fishing methods, and utilization of the ment under international treaty and/or Smithsonian Institution and the u.S. catch. Now we will explore the manage­ administration and, in the case of sal­ Commission of Fish and Fisheries un­ ment of the fishery and marine mam­ mon and certain other freshwater fishes, dertook a comprehensive survey of the mal resources. access and protection of fish in navig­ fish and fisheries of the United States, If we examine the history of these able waters. Needless to say, this frag­ directed by Congress as a part of the management practices, we can recog­ mentation of management authority over 10th census (1880). The series of reports nize at least three stages of development fish and fisheries that share the waters generated by the survey still provide a or goals: 1) To stop the decline and of the several states or go beyond their wealth of information on the histories simply maintain the existing level of coastal zones has been the source of in­ of the various fisheries, their records of yield, 2) to determine, theoretically or numerable conflicts between the states exploitation, and the early efforts at empirically at least, the maximum sus­ or between the states and the Federal management. tainable biological yield and, most re­ government. David Starr Jordon, who was then cently, 3) to extend the maximum bio­ The United States Commission of President of Indiana University, was logical yield to include the economic Fish and Fisheries was established by among the 19 scientists and experts and social benefits as well. Each of these law in 1871 with Spencer F. Baird of the chosen as associate authors for this SUf­ steps, in their time, were considered Smithsonian Institution as its first Com­ vey by Spencer Baird of the commission complex but are gradually being over­ missioner. By far, the greatest emphasis and George Goode of the Smithsonian: come through experience and the devel­ of the work of the Commission during These two and Jordan, along with opment of scientific knowledge. Yet to its first years was directed toward the ar­ Charles H. Gilbert, conducted the sur­ be resolved, however, are the added dif­ tificial propagation of food and game vey of "The Salmon Fishing and Can­ ficulties imposed by political pressure fish especially for the marine species ning Interests of the Pacific Coast" groups and legal decisions, all too fre­ along the New England coast. Billions (Jordan and Gilbert, 1887). Soon after­ quently divorced from scientific fact or of eggs were collected each year, incu­ wards, Leland Stanford University was reason, and now broadly included with­ bated, and the young released in an ef­ founded at Palo Alto, Calif., and David in the concept of "social benefits" of the fort to maintain the important fisheries Starr Jordan was appointed its first present goal of management. of the United States. There were mas­ President. For nearly the next 50 years, Management of fisheries in the United sive transplants made in those early the scientific investigations and the man­ States is quite different from that fol- years of American shad, Alosa sapidis­ agement activities of the U.S. Commis­ sima, and striped bass, Morone saxa­ sion of Fish and Fisheries (and later, the tiUs, from the Atlantic to the Pacific U.S. Bureau of Fisheries) on the Pacific Clinton E. Atkinson is a former Director, Seattle Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Commercial coasts and, conversely, Pacific salmon, coast centered around Jordan, his facul­ Fisheries, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; present Oncorhynchus spp., trout, Salmo spp., ty, and students at Stanford University. address: 4055 21st Ave. W., Seattle, WA 98199. from the west coast to the eastern The fishery research vessel Albatross This article was originally presented at the 50th Anniversary Symposium of the NMFS Northwest streams. The scientific work of the was built by the U.S. Commission of and Alaska Fisheries Center, Z725 Montlake Blvd. Commission at that time generally Fish and Fisheries in 1882 initially fOf E., Seattle, WA 98112, in October 1981. In previous years the Center has been referred to as the North­ centered around studies "to determine surveys along the Atlantic coast. In 1887 west Fisheries Center, Seattle Biological Labora­ the best methods to be pursued in fish­ it was transferred to the Pacific coast tory, or the "Montlake Laboratory." Views or opi­ culture, to ascertain the results of fish and, for the next 25 years, was engaged nions expressed or implied are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the position of propagation and to study the habits, in a wide variety of assignments extend­ the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. migrations, growth, food, enemies, and ing across the North Pacific Ocean from

50(4), 1988 111 California, Oregon, and Washington to Russian-American Company in Alaska, Pribilof Islands provides one of the the coasts of Japan and Russia and from but the annual yield of which was earliest examples of successful manage­ the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea to already showing signs of serious deple­ ment of an aquatic resource, especially the Hawaiian Islands. tion due to excessive kill. After about in international management. It is an ex­ It should be pointed out that the U.S. 2 years of private commercial sealing, tremely valuable resource, attracting the Commission of Fish and Fisheries (es­ the United States declared the Pribilof attention of the early explorers from tablished in 1871) had little time to be­ Islands a national preserve and the Russia, and the annual harvest provided come actively involved in the manage­ Federal Government assumed manage­ the chief source of revenue for the Rus­ ment of the fisheries of the States of ment of the fur seal resource in 1870. sian colonial government and the Rus­ California (granted statehood in 1850) The salmon fisheries began to show sian-American Company during the 18th and Oregon (granted statehood in 1859), depletion within 20 years of the estab­ and 19th centuries. but the situation in Washington (granted lishment of the first cannery in Alaska Its history provides many examples of statehood in 1889) was a little different: at Klawok (1877). The Pacific halibut, overkills and waste, the effects of severe The salmon fishery began in 1877 while Hippoglossus stenolepis, fisheries began environmental conditions (e.g., the ex­ Washington was still a Territory and to decline in the early 1900's and the tended ice conditions reported in 1834), almost from the very beginning of the herring, Clupea harengus pallasi, fish­ problems of pelagic sealing and attempts salmon fishery, there was conflict be­ eries in the 1930's. at protection of the fur seals and inter­ tween U.S. and Canadian fishermen These were the important fisheries of national arbitration and, finally, the first over the U.S. catch of sockeye salmon, Alaska until statehood in 1959, and all international fishery management treaty Oncorhynchus nerka, that passed have been the subject of a series of by the United States. The author has through U.S. waters on their way to studies and recommendations, first by taken the liberty of reprinting here, ver­ spawn in the Fraser River which is al­ select groups of scientists from Stanford batim, the excellent description of the most completely within the Province of University, then by the organized re­ history of fur sealing by Baker et al., British Columbia. search programs (such as the Pacific 1970: 2-4, 14-17). The first attempt to resolve the con­ Fishery Investigations) at Stanford Uni­ "In 1742 Georg Wilhelm Steller drew flict was through the International Joint versity and later at the Montlake labor­ up the first scientific description of the Commission (United States and Cana­ atory, by the state agencies and univer­ fur seal after he had survived the wreck da), and the U.S. Commission of Fish sities, and by international fishery of the vessel commanded by Vitus Ber­ and Fisheries was called upon to pro­ commissions. ing off what is now called Bering Island vide the Joint Commission with the ap­ Although the Federal government was in the Commander Islands, U.S.S.R. propriate background information and relieved of its fishery management re­ These islands are one of the three prin­ statistics. The U.S. Commission of Fish sponsibilities for Alaska and Hawaii in cipal breeding grounds of the northern and Fisheries and its subsequent U.S. 1959, the more recently enacted Marine fur seal. fishery agencies have continued to be Mammal Protection Act, the Endan­ "In 1783 Gerassim Pribilof, navigator plagued with the problems of interna­ gered Species Act, and the Magnuson in the service of Imperial Russia, joined tional management of salmon fisheries Fishery Management and Conservation the search for other breeding grounds for almost 100 years; and, although the Act of 1976 have placed broader and, in of the North Pacific fur seals. The Rus­ organization of the International Pacific many ways, more difficult responsibil­ sians originally came to this area in Salmon Fisheries Commission in 1937 ities within the Federal government's search of sea otters, and here they found took the pressure off the Fraser River fishery laboratories and management fur seals as well. Each spring the seals sockeye and pink salmon, o. gorbusca, organizations. It is the staff of the were seen to swim northward through fisheries, conflicts over the other salmon Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center, the pass of the Aleutian Islands and dis­ species and areas continue to be a sub­ with the heritage gained from the bio­ appear into the fog and mist of the Ber­ ject of negotiation between the two logical research conducted at the Seat­ ing Sea. In 1786, 3 years after his search countries even at the present time. tIe and Auke Bay Laboratories, that began, Pribilof came upon the islands Alaska was purchased from Russia in must now develop the scientific basis for that now bear his name and found fur 1867 and Hawaii was annexed in 1900. policy and plans in the management of seals along the beaches in seemingly un­ Both remained Territories until state­ the fisheries within the 200-mile fishery countable numbers. Almost immediate­ hood. While the coastal fisheries of conservation zones of the Pacific North­ ly the teeming rookeries became a Hawaii were of little importance, man­ west and Alaska, in other waters of the source of sealskins for the fur markets agement of the fisheries of Alaska, how­ United States, and far beyond in re­ of the world, at about the time the 13 ever, was a completely different story. sponse to international treaties and colonies on the Atlantic coast of North At the time of purchase, the United understandings. America were forming a new nation. States inherited a very rich and devel­ Today northern fur seals breed on the oped northern fur seal, Callorhinus ur­ Management of Fur Seals Pribilof Islands, S1. Paul and St. George, sinus, industry-a resource that had pro­ of the Pribilof Islands in the eastern Bering Sea, the Com­ vided the chief source of revenue to the The northern fur seal resource of the mander Islands, Bering and Tuyleni, in

112 Marine Fisheries Review the western Bering Sea, and on Robben 1867, when Alaska was purchased, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Island off Sakhalin Island. Small col­ seal herd was reported to be thriving. "Early pelagic sealing had a devastat­ onies have become established in the ''After the purchase of Alaska by the ing effect upon the fur seal herd. Almost Kuril Islands between Kamchatka and United States, Congress passed legisla­ a million skins were taken on the high Hokkaido and on San Miguel Island off tion to protect the future seals of the seas from 1879 to 1909, and many of the California. Pribilof Islands from reckless slaughter. seals shot or speared in the open sea "Two years before the discovery of the A number of independent companies were not recovered. The effect on the Pribilof Islands, adventurous skippers had begun sealing on the islands and had Alaska herd was disastrous, because from New England and Europe had dis­ taken about 300,000 skins the first sea­ females made up 60 to 80 percent of the covered commercial possibilites in the son. To prevent this destruction, an Act pelagic catch. In 1912, when the first great herds of fur seals along South of Congress of Z7 July 1868 prohibited complete census was taken by David American coasts, in Antarctica and off the killing of fur seals, and on 3 March Starr Jordon and George A. Clark, South Africa. Even though the Span­ 1869 the islands were set aside by the 215,900 seals were counted or estimated iards expelled British sealers from the U.S. Government as a special reserva­ on the Pribilof Islands. Although scien­ Falkland Islands in 1770, the United tion for the protection of the animals. tists believe this estimate was too low, States' first experimental cargo of 13,000 Only local natives were allowed to kill the Pribilof herd had undoubtedly been pelts from the Southern Hemisphere ap­ fur seals, and then only for food. A year reduced severely, and the smaller herds pears to have been taken at the Falklands later the U.S. Treasury Department was off the Pacific Asian coast were faced in 1784 by the crew of the American authorized to lease exclusive rights to with extinction. vessel States from Boston. take seals on the islands, with the stipu­ ''After extended diplomatic negotia­ "In the 50 years that followed, the fur lation that no females were to be taken. tions and a long series of ineffectual seal rookeries on Islo Alejandro Selkirk Further legislation in 1874 authorized bilateral agreements, the United States, (formerly Mas Afuera), Juan Fernan­ the Secretary of the Treasury to establish Great Britain (for Canada), Japan, and dez, the South Shetlands, Prince Ed­ catch quotas and open seasons for the Russia concluded a Convention on 7 ward, the Antipodes, and many other lessee. July 1911, for the protection of the fur islands were destroyed as fast as they "Fur seals are vulnerable to capture seals of the North Pacific. Pelagic seal­ were discovered. Literally millions of while at sea as well as on land. Pelagic ing was prohibited except by aborigines pelts were taken to the Canton market sealing, or taking of fur seals at sea, with primitive weapons. Each country to trade for tea, silks, and other products began to develop on a comnlercial scale with fur seal rookeries agreed to share of China. The populations of fur seals about 1879. As practiced extensively by 30 percent of its annual take of seal­ south of the equator were rapidly deci­ American, Canadian, and Japanese seal­ skins-Canada and Japan each to re­ mated. Some herds survived, however, ers in the North Pacific, pelagic sealing ceive 15 percent of the sealskins from and still live off the coasts of South resulted in the indiscriminate killing of the Pribilof Islands and the 15 percent Africa, South America, Australia, New the seals, without regard to age, sex, or of those from the Commander Islands; Zealand, the Galapagos Islands, and the number taken. The pelagic take of and Canada, Russia, and the United some of the subantarctic islands. sealskins reached a peak of 61,838 in States each to receive 10 percent of the "The exploitation of the Alaska herd 1894. pelts from Robben Island. at first followed the same destructive "In 1870 the Alaska Commercial "Worldwide political events affected methods as those pursued by sealers in Company, composed of several sealing the international agreements protecting the southern seas. Twice during the Rus­ competitors who had compromised in the fur seals. The convention of 1911 sian administration the herd on the Pri­ 1868 to gain control of the resource, was provided for the first time a sound basis bilof Islands was threatened by annihi­ awarded the United States' first 20-year for the management of the North Pacific lation: First, through failure to restrict contract to seal on the Pribilof Islands. fur seals. It remained in force for 30 the numbers of seals killed, and later by Under the first 20-year lease, the Alas­ years, until terminated by Japan on 23 failure to give the females adequate pro­ ka Commercial Company took 1,977,377 October 1941. From 1942 to 1957 the tection. Russia forbade the killing of sealskins. Under a second 20-year lease Pribilof herd was protected by a provi­ females after 1834, but according to H. (to the North American Commercial sional agreement between Canada and W. Elliott the ruling was not enforced Company), only 342,651 sealskins were the United States, which reserved to until 1847. Elliott was told about a wall taken in the period ending in 1909. The Canada 20 percent of the skins taken of ice that prevented the females from leasing system was discontinued in 1910, each summer on the Pribilof Islands. As landing on St. Paul Island and forced and since then the Alaska fur seal herd a result of World War II, control of Rob­ them to bring forth their pups in the has been under the management of the ben Island and the Kuril Islands passed water of the storm-tossed surf, which Federal government, first by the Secre­ from Japan to the Soviet Union, giving killed many of the mothers and most of tary of Commerce through the former the pups. The truth about this catastro­ Bureau of Fisheries and now! by the IFur seals are now managed by the National phe and the condition of the seal popu­ Secretary of the Interior through the Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, U.S. Depart­ lation in 1836 cannot be verified. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of the ment of Commerce.

50(4), 1988 113 the U.S.S.R. complete control of all fur in selecting seals to harvest. Harvesting peared in the daily drives on the islands seal rookeries off the Asian coast. of the seals is limited for the most part during the sealing season. From one­ "On 9 February 1957, a new interim to the 3- and 4-year-old males. In 1918, half to two-thirds of the aninlals in this North Pacific Fur Seal Convention was the U.S. Government determined age­ group are 3 years old, and most of the concluded by Canada, Japan, the Union length relation from measurements of remainder are 4 years old; a small num­ of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the seals of known age, branded as pups in ber of 2- and 5-year-old males are in­ United States, similar in form to the 1911 1912. Until recently this age-length rela­ cluded. The proportion of 3- and 4-year­ Convention. The new convention, as tion has served as the basis for select­ old animals taken depends on the amended by a protocol in 1963, has as ing animals that are now classified into relative survival of year classes. its principal objective the achievement age categories by counting the annular "In recent years Bureau of Commer­ of maximum sustainable yields of fur ridges on canine teeth from a 20- to cial Fisheries managers have adjusted seals in the North Pacific. It provides 30-percent sample. Also the overlap of the sealing season to the number of for a Fur Seal Commission comprised lengths between ages is better under­ young males that are available and to of representatives of the four Govern­ stood through extensive recent measure­ some extent to the age and size of seals ments to coordinate research and man­ ments of tagged seals. that they wish to harvest. Early seasons agement for the northern fur seal. It also "The number of seals killed each year produce a larger proportion of 4-year­ provides that Canada and Japan each has varied for a number of reasons. old seals and later seasons a larger pro­ shall receive 15 percent of the sealskins From 1911 to 1917, seals were killed only portion of 3-year-old seals, because the taken commercially by the United States by the residents of the Pribilof Islands older ones arrive earlier. The seasons and the U.S.S.R. to use as food. Commercial killing for for male seals now begins in late June "The Fur Seal Act of 1966 (Public skins was resumed in 1918 after the and ends on 31 July. Close cropping of Law 89-702) puts into effect domestical­ I-year cessation. From 1918 to 1922, 3-year-old seals during a late season ly the international convention. It pro­ harvests of seals were high in relation leaves relatively few 4-year-old males to vides for the conservation and protec­ to population size because of the accu­ be taken early in the following year. tion of the fur seal and sea otter and for mulation of males. The kill declined Forecasts of year class strength made the administration of the Pribilof Islands. after the excess males were removed, before the 3-year-old seals appear in the "Under international protection and but thereafter steadily increased until kill are still in the process of develop­ rational management, the Alaska fur 1940. From 1940 to 1955 it averaged ment. The forecasts are based largely on seal herd has increased from the low about 66,000 males annually. Since averages. They give usefully accurate in­ point of about 216,000 animals in 1912 then, the kill of males has varied from formation in an average year but have to its present level of over 1IA million a high of 96,000 in 1956 to a low of not been satisfactory on a very strong animals. From 1940 to 1967 the herd has 30,000 in 1959. Part of the difference or weak year class. provided an average 59,758 male seal­ between these extremes resulted from an "Biologists consider the number of skins. Since 1958, over 738,000 have extended season in 1956 which made males that have been escaping the kill been harvested or taken for research available a larger proportion of the more than adequate, and, as a result, the under management policies approved by 3-year-old group, but recent fluctuations upper size limit of harvestable male the North Pacific Fur Seal Commis­ are caused primarily by variations in seals has been increased recently. This sion." [Pages 2-4.] year class survival. change permits closer cropping by tak­ "Fur seal habits are such that a "In managing the fur seal herd, the ing animals that would have been re­ program of wise utilization is readily Federal Government has adhered to a jected solely because of size under the devised; however, the success of the pro­ policy of taking pelts from seals con­ former limit even though they had skins gram depends on international coopera­ sidered surplus to breeding require­ of good quality." [Pages 14-16.] tion because the seals live much of the ments. From 1923 to 1932, a minimum "On their respective islands the United time outside territorial waters. In Alas­ yearly breeding reserve of several thou­ States and the U.S.S.R. carry on research ka, with few exceptions, fur seals come sand bachelors was provided by mark­ programs that emphasize population ashore only on the Pribilof Islands, ing them with a brand or by shearing dynamics. Tagging, tag recovery, kill always about the same date each year. a patch of fur, then permitting them to records by age and sex, and studies of Because seals are highly polygamous return to sea. This precaution may not mortality and reproduction are all essen­ and the sexes are born in equal numbers, _ have been necessary but it ensured that tial for understanding fur seal popula­ it is possible to take many males with­ the number of males escaping the kill tions. In addition, research on growth, out adversely affecting the productivity would be adequate. pelage and other anatomical features, of the herd. The young males, whose "From 1932 to 1955, a sufficient breed­ behavior, and parasitism and other in­ pelts are most valuable, habitually haul ing stock was assured by limiting the fections are underway or completed. As out on the islands apart from the breed­ killing season each year to a period from knowledge of population dynamics ac­ ing animals in the harems, so they are about the middle of June to the end 'of cumulates, the probability increases that easily obtained. July. Only the male seals 41 to 45 inches we can successfully forecast year class "Seal measurements guide biologists (104-114 em) long were taken as they ap­ survival and the resulting harvest.

114 Marine Fisheries Review "Canada, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and Near the end of this period, we also fmd 150 Salmon the United States cooperate in a wide­ the beginning of the export trade in salt 125 .s:::. spread investigation of the ocean life of salmon from Sitka to Moscow and west­ $1100 ern Russia and From Fort Langley (Fras­ '0 fur seals. The distribution, ocean abun­ en c 75 dance, food habits, and intermingling of er River) and the San Juan Islands ~ 50 seals of different origins are studied. (Puget Sound) to the Hawaiian Islands ~ Most of the investigations aid manage­ and the growing imports of salt needed 25 ment; in addition, certain broad prin­ to process the fish. The Russian-Ameri­ 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 ciples of animal populations are being can Conlpany at Sitka also depended tested and zoological knowledge of ma­ upon fresh/salt herring and on halibut 100 rine mammals is being increased. as part of their subsistence diet. en Pacific halibut "'0c "Many seals are now held and studied Although fishing rights at certain :J 75 a.0 in captivity. Studies are expanding on favorite places were recognized and the '0 50 en specialized aspects of seal biology. Sci­ source of frequent intertribal conflict c ~ 25 entists not employed by the Federal during periods of scarcity (and there ~ ..,...... Government are expanding their speci­ were periods of scarcity of fish as well 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 alized studies on seals." [Pages 16-17.] as famine), management per se was not practiced during this early period. Management of the 300 Pacific herring Three Important Fisheries 1850-1880 U) "C § 200 Most of the history associated with Exploration of our fisheries was o a. the development of fishery management associated with the discovery of gold in '0 and research along the Pacific coast has California, the rapid growth of the U)c ~ 100 been confined to salmon, halibut, and population in California, Oregon, and ~ herring. In the very early years of the Washington and the purchase of Alaska

Pacific coast fisheries, Pacific cod, from Russia. To satisfy the demand for 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 Gadus macrocephalus, was probably food, numerous salteries for salmon and Year the target species that soon evolved into other fish were established along the Figure I.-Annual catch of salmon the halibut fishery. In more recent years, Pacific coast. The first salmon canner­ (Alaska only), Pacific halibut (United ies were started on the Sacremento States and Canada), and Pacific we have seen the development of very herring. important pink shrimp, Pandulus borea­ River in 1858, on the Columbia River lis; king crab, Paralithodes camtscha­ in 1866, and in southeastern Alaska in tica; and snow (Tanner) crab, Chionoe­ 1877 or 1878. The first U.S. deep-sea fornia. The laws also encouraged the cetes tanneri, fisheries in Alaska. There fishery in the North Pacific for cod and establishment of private hatcheries on are numerous local, coastal fisheries halibut began operating out of San Fran­ the Clackamas River (1877) and the which are important to certain commu­ cisco in 1857 and, at about the same Rogue River (1878); both were operated nities or to a state but lack either the time, the United States negotiated with originally by the Oregon-Washington history or the volume and value of Russia on its first international fishery Propagation Company under contract to salmon, halibut, and herring. Further­ treaty in the Pacific area which provided the Oregon Fish Commission. Some of more, the general pattern of develop­ for landing rights in the Aleutian Islands the first information on the salmon and ment of the salmon, halibut, and herring for its cod vessels and whalers operating other fisheries along the Pacific coast fisheries is similar and can be divided in the area. Attempts were also made was found in the reports of the early in­ into the four characteristic periods de­ during this period to ship fresh halibut vestigators searching for suitable hatch­ scribed below. from Victoria, B.C., to San Francisco ery sites in the various areas. (but this was not too successful). Pre-1850 California was granted statehood in 1880-1919 Subsistence fisheries, using primitive 1850 and Oregon in 1859. Soon there­ Exploitation of the salmon, halibut, methods of fishing and preservation after, the first legislation was passed by and herring fisheries along the Pacific were limited to certain rivers and streams these states to manage their fisheries, coast states and Alaska and the growth and to the immediate coastal waters. generally aimed at protecting the runs of these fisheries is illustrated in Figure During this period, we see the first of salmon during their migration up the 1. The beginning of this period is marked probes into the commercialization of the rivers and on the spawning grounds. by the first comprehensive survey of the fisheries: There was barter for salmon It was during this period that the fisheries of the United States as part of between the Indian nations and tribes United States established the Commis­ the 1880 census. The number of salmon and between the early trading posts and sion of Fish and Fisheries (1871) and, in canneries grew from about 40 canneries settlers along the Fraser, Columbia, and 1875, established the first Pacific salmon in 1880 to a near maximum number of other rivers in the Pacific Northwest. hatchery on the McCloud River in Cali­ 189 in 1919, and a maximum pack of

50(4), 1988 115 canned salmon of 8.5 million cases were the dumping of rocks from road and especially in Alaska, and 3) the deple­ filled in 1917. railroad construction into their channels. tion of the halibut stocks in the coastal The commercial halibut fishery began Salmon were rarely considered in the waters. The year 1910 is generally rec­ about 1888 with three boats and in­ development of the various water-use ognized as the birthdate of the deep-sea creased to a maximum nurnber of 18 projects-after all, what's one stream halibut fishery (Thompson and Free­ "steamers" by 1913, then declined to 9 among the hundreds that were available man, 1930). in 1919; the catch reached a peak of to salmon at that time-yet now, when The early herring fishery employed 68.8 million pounds in 1915 (U.S. and you add them all up, the cumulative a Norwegian method of seining from Canadian vessels) and fell to 38.0 and losses must have caused a very serious oar-propelled seine boats, but in the 40.5 million pounds in 1918 and 1919, reduction in the salmon fisheries in early 1900's, the western-style purse respectively. these states. seine was first used in the herring fish­ The first information on the extent of There was considerable destruction of ery and gradually replaced the Norwe­ the commercial herring fisheries along the herring runs in California, Oregon, gian-style gear, totaling 6 or 8 vessels the Pacific coast appeared in 1882, and Washington due to the loss of spawn­ in southeastern Alaska by 1919 and about amounting to a little more than 3 mil­ ing beaches but fortunately in Alaska, 10 vessels in Prince William Sound. The lion pounds for that year, increasing to both the salmon and herring fisheries growth of the herring fishery in Alaska and fluctuating between about 6 and 32 generally escaped the effects of industry is due to the European demand for edi­ million pounds, until the development and population growth during this ble herring during World War I and the of the popular "scotch cure" method of period. Halibut, of course, live in the introduction of the "salt cure" method preservation in 1917. There was an in­ ocean far from shore and would not be of processing to meet that demand (note crease in landings to 48 and 38 million affected by these kinds of land-based that in 1917, the U.S. Bureau of Fisher­ pounds in 1918 and 1919, respectively, activities. ies sent Aug. H. D. Klie and several and rapid rise in catches in the years There was little change during this assistants (including Clarence Ander­ thereafter. period in the methods used to fish for son) to Alaska to introduce the Scottish The rapid development of the fisher­ salmon. The fishery in the Sacramento method of curing herring) (Rounsefell, ies during this period is related to: 1) River used gill nets fishing from sailor 1931; Rousefell and Dahlgren, 1932). The growth in population along the row boats: It is interesting to note that The first efforts at the management of Pacific coast and 2) the introduction of the salmon fishery of Bristol Bay, Alas­ the fisheries occurred during this period. a nUlIlber of technological improve­ ka, depended for many years upon fish­ First, of course, Oregon and California ments into the fishing industry. For ex­ ermen from the San Francisco area and were already states and, in 1889, state­ ample, in the State of Washington the the same type of fishery was used up un­ hood was granted to Washington; appro­ population grew from about 75,000 in til the middle or late 1950's. Pile-driven priate agencies were later established in 1880 to about 1,400,000 in 1920-a traps were introduced into the Colum­ the state governments to manage their twentyfold increase in the 40-year bia River and Puget Sound salmon fish­ fisheries. period. Much of the growth in popula­ eries in 1879-80; soon afterwards, in In 1888, U.S. legislation was enacted tion and the resulting commerce was 1885, pile-driven traps were introduced providing for the U.S. Commissioner of associated with the completion of the into Cook Inlet, Alaska-followed in Fish and Fisheries to be a salaried offi­ transcontinental railroads: The Cana­ 1907 by the development of a floating cer (instead of on-loan from the Smith­ dian pacific in 1885, the Northern Pacif­ trap. Both the pile-driven and floating sonian Institution) and restating the ic in 1887/1888, the Great Northern in traps were found to be efficient types of duties of the Commission, namely: Sur­ 1893, and other railroads that followed. gear and remained the dominant fishery vey the aquatic resources of the United Gold was discovered in Alaska in 1889, throughout this period. States, describe and develop methods of firmly establishing Seattle as the "Gate­ Halibut were taken by baited long­ fishing, collect statistics of the fisheries, way to Alaska;' and many businesses op­ line, setting the gear from dories-a and engage in artificial propagation fish erating in Alaska worked out of Seattle. method introduced from the east coast. to maintain the fishery resources. With the growth in population came However, in 1889 the first halibut was In the next year (1889), the Alaska the effects of industrialization, especial­ shipped to the east coast by rail and as Salmon Fisheries Act was passed to pro­ ly upon the salmon streams of Califor­ the market developed and the demand tect the salmon fisheries of Alaska. At nia, Oregon, and Washington. Many of grew, the fishery, which was originally that time, a favorite method of taking the runs were destroyed by destructive confined to the coastal and inside waters salmon in Alaska was to place a weir logging and mining practices, frequently of British Columbia and southeastern or other barricade in the stream (a blocking the migration of salmon by Alaska, began to gradually expand far­ method ommonly used by the Indians) dams along with the scouring or silting ther offshore. The extension of the fish­ which prevented the salmon from reach­ of the spawning areas. Similarly, the ery was closely associated with: 1) A ing their spawning grounds. The Act first hydroelectric and irrigation projects shift from the sailing schooners to specifically prohibited the erection of were completed during this period and "steamers," 2) the availability of ice and dams or other obstructions on salmon many streams were further blocked by cold storage plants (1892 to about 1905), streams and directed the Commission to

116 Marine Fisheries Review further investigate the salmon fisheries Bay (McDonald Lake) in southeastern Chamberlain, a similar marking study of Alaska. Alaska, and in 1907 a second hatchery was made at Klawak cannery/hatchery As a result of the investigations, the began operating near Litnik Bay on in 1907, at Quadra Hatchery in 1911, and Act was amended in 1896 and again in Afognak Island. In addition to these two no doubt there were others. A notice 1900, prohibiting fishing in streams Federal hatcheries, six private hatcher­ was issued in 1908 requiring written above tidewater and providing for closed ies operated in Alaska, and 44 operated permission of the U.s. Commissioner areas, fishing seasons, and gear restric­ in California, Oregon, Washington, and of Fish and Fisheries or his agent in tions (but only after public hearings) and Alaska. By 1915, the total number of Alaska before a company release marked provided for fines or other penalties for salmon hatcheries along the Pacific salmon from their hatcheries. violations. coast (including Alaska) was 62. The scientists who were engaged in In 1900, the Act of 1896 was further The report sparked several other ac­ the studies and management of the Alas­ amended to require that each sockeye tions by Congress. The Alaska Salmon kan salmon fisheries were soon to rec­ salmon cannery in Alaska establish and Fisheries Act of 1906 established the ognize the need to know the desired ratio operate a salmon hatchery, releasing first license tax on salmon landings but, between catch and escapement, Le., how each year four times the number of perhaps more important, the Act also many salmon should be reserved from young as were taken as adults from the provided for a tax rebate to those com­ the run to assure that the future runs of stream the previous year, i.e., brood panies operating salmon hatcheries and, salmon might be maintained and ex­ year. The law was a disaster in many if anything, only aggravated the damage panded. In 1908, the Wood and Nusha­ ways: There was no effective way to en­ that was already being inflicted upon the gak Rivers were closed to commercial force the law nor to verify the accuracy salmon nlns where hatcheries had been fisheries and a joint investigation was of the "plants" made by most of the can­ established by the local canneries. Other begun by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, neries. But, perhaps most tragic was that legislation was enacted to prohibit aliens the Alaska Packers Association, and the most of the young sockeye salmon were from fishing in Alaska; this was the Alaska-Portland Packers Association generally released directly into the salt­ aftermath of an attempt by a Japanese with a controlled catch and a weir to water bays or lagoons when the life company to establish salmon salteries on count the number of sockeye salmon es­ history of the species (unknown at the Attu or Agattu Islands in the early 1900's. caping into the Wood River system and time) required that all juveniles spend As we review the history of fishery to get estimates of the numbers of sal­ at least 1 year in a freshwater lake before management during this period, we are mon that entered the Snake and Igushik migrating to sea. Thus, even for those impressed by the direction of the work Rivers. canneries that were trying to satisfy the by some of the most qualified people of The results of these studies indicated law (such as the one at Karluk) the re­ that time-scientists like Baird, Goode, that in the Nushagak, at least, the fish­ turns were nil. and Bean from the Smithsonian or the ery normally took an average of 69 In 1903, the Department of Commerce National Museum; Jordan, Gilbert, Ev­ percent of the total run (range, 64-75 was established and the functions of the ermann, and Snyder from Stanford Uni­ percent). Thus, an escapement of 50 U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries versity; and Cobb, who later established percent of the run to the spawning areas were transferred from the Treasury De­ the College of Fisheries at the Univer­ should be reasonably sufficient to rebuild partment to the Bureau of Fisheries. sity of Washington-but their recommen­ the depleted salmon runs and to main­ Shortly before this reorganization, how­ dations and decisions were generally tain them. This was the concept later ever, a Special Commission was ap­ based upon "common sense" theory and adopted in the White Act (1924). pointed by President Theodore Roose­ not fact and were frequently marked by These studies were continued until velt to investigate the condition of the disaster because of the lack of knowl­ 1919 when Charles H. Gilbert, who had Alaska salmon fisheries and to make ap­ ege. The scientists knew this, and thus, been in charge of the Alaskan studies propriate recommendations for manage­ in the early 1900's, we find the begin­ since about 1909, decided that additional ment of the fisheries. David Starr Jor­ ning of biological studies directly related information would be desirable from dan was appointed to head this study. to problems of management. other areas, and the work was trans­ The recommendations from the Spe­ Fred Chamberlain of the Bureau of ferred to Chignik and Karluk. cial Commission only reiterated the Fisheries undertook the first marking The other important series of studies position of the Commission of Fish and experiments on salmon in 1903 in south­ begun during this period was the deter­ Fisheries which was adopted almost at eastern Alaska. Here, both ventral fins mination of the age of salmon by Gilbert the time of its inception in 1871: Name­ were removed in order to determine the (1913), who first used the scales of fish ly, the need for artificial propagation as age and place of return of the marked collected from the Columbia and Fraser the primary means of maintaining the fish. Most of the fish came back at ages Rivers. Within the next few years he and various fisheries of the United States. 4, 5, and 6, but some returns were re­ his assistants expanded the collections Thus, an Act was approved in March ported from Karluk and other distant to include the various runs of sockeye 1905 establishing one or more Federal areas, apparently from fish with "natur­ salmon in Alaska as well. The age deter­ salmon hatcheries in Alaska: A hatchery ally" missing fins. mination techniques developed by Gil­ was established that same year at Yes In addition to the initial studies by bert were soon adopted by other scien­

50(4), 1988 117 tists working on Pacific salmon and of the halibut fisheries. The agreement number of vessels operating in the fish­ provided an understanding of the cyclic was terminated in 1921. ery increased during this period from patterns of the returns of salmon and a about 16 in 1921-22 to 80 in 1927, then major advance in the management of the 1920-1945 declined to only 15 in 1942 (the early fisheries. In this period, the following events years of World War IT), and subsequent­ There was little interest by the govern­ took place: Expansion of the salmon and ly recovered to 38 in 1945. Much of the ment agencies either in the management herring fisheries and all-time record fluctuation in catch is believed to be due or research on the herring fisheries of catches of 1936 and subsequent declines, to the wide variation in survival of her­ Alaska and probably elsewhere along recovery of the halibut fisheries under ring, especially in the earlier stages of the Pacific coast as well. The story was international management, elimination life, and not closely related to fishing different, however, for the halibut fish­ of salmon traps on the Columbia River effort. eries. In 1915, W. F. Thompson, one of and in Puget Sound, initiation of the The most significant change in the Jordan's students from Stanford Univer­ comprehensive water development pro­ method of fishing for salmon occurred sity, began his investigations of the jects on the Columbia and Sacramento in 1935 with the passage of Initiative 77 halibut fisheries of the North Pacific Reivers, establishment of fishery re­ by the Washington State Legislature (Thompson, 1916a, b; 1917); one of his search programs and initiation of fishery which eliminated all fixed gear, i.e., reports dealt with the life history of the management programs based on the traps and set nets, from state waters and halibut, one with the statistics of the results of research, boom years of the divided the Puget Sound fishing area fishery, and the third with protective 1920's, Depression of the 1930's, and into two areas-an inner area mainly re­ measures needed to maintain the fish­ World War II. served for gill nets and the outer area eries. During this period, the catch of sal­ for all remaining legal gear, i.e., purse Although there had been previous in­ mon in the Pacific coast states an Alas­ seines, etc. Shortly thereafter, the ex­ vestigations of the salmon fisheries of ka increased from about 50 million fish pected happened: The number of both Alaska and the Pacific coast, these stud­ in 1921, to a peak of 139 million in 1936, gill nets and purse seines immediately ies on the halibut were, in many ways, and subsequently declined to a level of increased as a replacement for the traps. the first scientific studies made on a 75-90 million fish during the war years The herring fishery remained predom­ Pacific coast fisheries aimed at manage­ of 1942-45. Over 90 percent of the catch inantly purse seine and the halibut fish­ ment of the fisheries. They showed quite was made in Alaska: During the same ery, set line. This period is also marked conclusively that there was a serious period, the number of canneries in­ by a rapid expansion of the motoriza­ decline in the abundance of halibut with creased from about 127 in 1921 to a peak tion of the fleets. For example, diesel a shift in the fisheries away from the of 202 in Alaska, Puget Sound, and the power which was introduced into the coastal areas to maintain their catches. Colulnbia River in 1929, and then de­ fishing fleet near the end of the previ­ The studies supported the efforts by the clined to an average of 109 during the 0us period had not been very successful, industry for a 3-month closure of the war years of 1942-45. and it was not until after World War II fishery in winter during the spawning The halibut landings increased from that diesel engines became common in period and pointed out that such a 46.9 million pounds in 1920 to a peak the various fishing fleets, providing the closure was not really sufficient to stop of 56.9 million pounds in the "crash" necessary power for the large herring the decline and other conservation mea­ year of 1929 followed by a sharp decline purse seiners and the range and effici­ sures were necessary (Thompson and to 44.2 million pounds as the fishery ency necessary for the distant-water Freeman, 1930). came under international regulation and halibut fishery. There followed the introduction of a gradual recovery to some 53.9 million Although there had been a number of U.S. legislation providing for both the pounds in 1945; the first accurate infor­ attempts towards management of the closed season and for a nursery area, to mation on the number of regular halibut fisheries along the Pacific coast, these become effective upon similar action by vessels fishing appeared in 1930 with a efforts were generally not as successful; the Canadian Government. It failed to total of 378 vessels plus 100 to 125 this was attributed to the lack of know1­ pass the House. "small" boats. By 1945, the number had edge about the life histories of the fish Shortly thereafter (in 1918), the prob­ increased to 591 regular vessels and and the relative abundance of the vari­ lems of international management of the about 400 to 500 "small" boats. ous stocks of those fish. However, at the halibut fisheries (along with similar The catch from the herring fishery beginning of this period, the research problems of management of the Fraser increased from a low of 37.7 million that had been started some 10 or 15 years River sockeye salmon fisheries in Puget pounds in 1921 to 263.2 million pounds earlier began to mature and provide a Sound/Gulf of Georgia) were submitted in 1937. It then declined to only 46.3 basis for what we might now call "sci­ to a joint commission. The action, taken million pounds in 1942 and recovered entific fishery management." as a wartime agreement, facilitated the to 153.7 million pounds in 1945-again, In 1922, action was taken by Presi­ entry of United States and Canadian ves­ similar to the salmon fisheries; almost dential Executive Order to create fishery sels into the ports of both countries, but all of the herring was taken in Alaska, reservations on the Alaska Peninsula offered no provisions for conservation mainly southeastern and central. The and in southwestern Alaska, to define

118 Marine Fisheries Review districts and zones within these reser­ missioner of Fisheries resigned. The lems at Grand Coulee Dam were equal­ vations and to issue permits to operate Bureau of Fisheries was transferred to ly difficult: The dam would be about with limitations on the size and mesh of the Department of the Interior and 350 feet in height and believed to be too the gear operated, the number of oper­ merged with the Biological Survey to high to even consider ways to pass sal­ ations, and the size of the pack. Steven form the Fish and Wildlife Service. mon over the dam, and thus the very ex­ Pennoyer points out that this action was All of the salmon management prob­ tensive "up-river runs" that were blocked strongly opposed by the Alaskan resi­ lems, however, were not confined to by the dam had to be collected and dents as the salmon fisheries at that time Alaska. Since the late 1800's, there had transplanted to new "home streams" were basically controlled by the canner­ been a series of disputes between U.S. below the dam Both of these projects ies (with their own boats and permits) and Canadian fishermen over the regu­ were firsts in the management of the and the only way in which an "outsider" lation of the catch of sockeye salmon salmon fisheries and placed new and could enter the fishery was to become returning to the Fraser River of British important responsibilities on the state a tenant of the cannery (Pennoyer, 1979). Columbia by the fisheries in Puget and Federal management agencies. The White Act of 1924 (an Act for the Sound and the Gulf of Georgia. This If we examine the management of Protection of the Fisheries of Alaska, was an international problem which in­ fisheries (excluding fur seals as a differ­ and for Other Purposes (6 June 1924» volved a decrease in the production ent type of management problem), the was perhaps the most significant devel­ from this run of some 2.4 million sock­ first and probably the best example of opment in the management of the eye salmon in 1913 to only 0.2 million marine fishery management by any salmon fisheries of Alaska during this salmon in the cycle year of 1933. agency is found in the work of the Inter­ period. This Act provided, in part that: A Treaty was negotiated between national Fisheries Commission (later, 1) All salmon streams in Alaska would Canada and the United States in 1930 the International Pacific Halibut Com­ be weired, or adapted by some other but was not ratified by the two countries mission). There was, of course, a de­ means, in such a manner that the num­ until 1937. The Treaty provided for an cline in the fishery throughout the early ber of salmon migrating upstream could international scientific staff to make the 1900's and a growing concern for the be counted with accuracy and that an necessary studies and 8 years of investi­ fishery by U.S. and Canadian fishermen escapement of at least 50 percent of the gation before the Commission could who shared the remaining profitable total run must be attained, 2) no salmon begin regulation of the fishery. It is of fishing grounds in the more and more would be taken by the conlmercial fish­ interest to note that the Commission distant waters from port. Key elements, eries during a 36-hour weekend closure soon found that the cause of decline was however, in the eventual management of (except for personal use), 3) violators not overfishing but an obstruction caused the fishery, as pointed out in the previ­ of this Act or of the Act of 1906 would by the residue from a massive rock slide ous section, were the results of the early be punished by a fine not exceeding at Hell's Gate in the Fraser River can­ studies by W. F. Thompson-one of Jor­ $5,000 or jailed for 90 days, or both, and yon during construction of the Canadian dan's students from Stanford University. 4) that designated employees of the National Railroad in 1911. The first efforts at international con­ Bureau of Fisheries enforce the provi­ A similar crisis arose in the salmon trol in 1919 failed to be approved by the sions of the Act, in addition to the U.S. fisheries of the Columbia River from the two countries, but in 1922 a second Marshalls. construction of the Rock Island Dam draft, which confined the work of the Although the prescribed escapements near Wenatchee by a private utility com­ Commission to investigations and limited were based upon the recommendations pany (fishways completed in 1932) and regulation of the halibut fisheries, was of Gilbert's experiences at the Wood from the development of plans by the finally ratified in October 1923. It pro­ River weir site and the Act did provide U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for the vided for the formation of a Commis­ for greater means of enforcement and construction of 10 multipurpose dams sion with a Director of Investigations heavier penalties, it was soon found that on the river that were presented in their and an international scientific staff as the Act was impossible to enforce, espe­ "308 Report" (1932). These were the well as regulation of a 3-month winter cially the necessary escapement counts Depression years and the first two dams, closure and incidental catch taken by to define the 50 percent level. Neverthe­ at Bonneville and Grand Coulee, were other fisheries during this closed season. less, this policy remained basically in started late in 1933 as Public Works Ad­ The permanent and continuing pro­ effect until statehood in 1959. ministration projects and completed in grams of research and biological studies Even though the total catch of salmon about 1938. that related to management of the salmon continued to increase until after the peak In one sense, Bonneville Dam was fisheries began in about 1908-09 at Stan­ of 1936, it became increasingly apparent most critical since it was the first ma­ ford University and started to mature that many of the individual stocks were jor obstruction to the passage of salmon soon after the end of World War I (be­ disappearing because of overfishing or on the Columbia River, and ways had ginning of this period). Because of the other causes and there was increasing to be found to successfully pass salmon previous studies by Gilbert on Bristol pressure from the industry for more over the dam or the very valuable sal­ Bay's Wood River and the subsequent effective management of the salmon mon fisheries of the Columbia would be provisions of the White Act, one weir fisheries in Alaska. In 1939, the Com­ virtually lost. In other ways, the prob­ was established and operated at Karluk

50(4), 1988 119 in 1921, and other weirs were operated tional Fisheries Commission beginning ditions in the nursery areas of the young at Karluk and Chignik in 1922. Four about 1923. It was here that the concept halibut. weirs were used in Alaska in 1923 and of the theory of fishing was refined and The catch of herring also suffered a the numbers increased until they reached developed, based on theory advanced by severe decline during this period, de­ a peak of 28 in 1931; they then declined the Russian scientist Fedor I. Baranov creasing from about 218.2 million pounds to seven in 1945. These weirs provided in 1918, and applied to the successful in 1946 to about 12.8 million pounds in a series of sites for extensive research management of the halibut fisheries. 1968 with a recovery to about 36 million into the life histories and survival of the The International Fisheries Commission pounds in 1976. The increased catches various species of salmon, although they was also a part of the Montlake Labor­ in 1974, 1975, and 1976 were due to a were never quite adequate enough to atory from 1931 to 1936 and an integral growing demand for herring and herring fulfill the intent of the White Act. part of its heritage. roe in Japan and the curtailment of the Other studies were made on the Cop­ foreign fisheries for herring in the east­ per River, in southeastern Alaska and ern Bering Sea. elsewhere; beginning in 1922, there was 1946-1976 The salmon fishery in Bristol Bay has a series of tagging experiments which Notable during this period were: Post­ an interesting history. The fishery has continued through 1930 and after in World War II adjustment in the fisheries traditional been by gill nets operated Bristol Bay, along the Alaskan Penin­ with declines in the yield, effect of for­ from a sailboat-a type of fishery that sula, around Kodiak Island, in Cook In­ eign fisheries and some recovery, state­ was common in the San Francisco Bay let, in Prince William Sound, and in hood for Alaska and transfer of man­ area, and many of the fishermen still southeastern Alaska. agement authority from the Federal come from that area. For many years, The description of the life history of government, elimination of fish traps in this was the only type of gear allowed the sockeye salmon at Karluk Lake was Alaska and shift from sailing gillnet to fish in the Bay. The boats were diffi­ published by Gilbert and Rich (1927), boats to power in Bristol Bay, develop­ cult to operate and the cause of many and a limnological study was conducted ment of the quantitative sciences and deaths due to sudden storms, and were as part of the Karluk studies, by Juday, their application to fishery management, about as inefficient as any gear used in Rich, Kemmerer, and Mann between and studies on the effect of the ocean the salmon fisheries. In 1952, in re­ 1926 and 1930, Juday et al., 1932). It environment regarding the distribution sponse to growing pressure from the was also during the mid-1920's that stud­ and survival of salmon and other fish. fishermen and the industry, the regula­ ies of the herring fisheries of Alaska During this period the catch of salmon tions were modified to allow motor were begun with considerable attention decreased from about 17.8 and 26.4 mil­ boats to replace sailboats. given to the identification and interrela­ lion fish in 1946 and 1947, respective­ In 1959, with the granting of statehood tion of the various stocks of herring in ly, to 10.8 and 18.2 million fish in 1951 in Alaska, action was taken by the state southeastern Alaska and Prince William and 1952, respectively, followed by a to eliminate traps in the salmon fishery Sound. further decline to an all-time low of 7.1 that had traditionally operated in south­ All ofthe above research was initiated million fish in 1973. The Japanese high­ eastern Alaska, Prince William Sound, by the V.S. Bureau of Fisheries research seas salmon fishery, operating west of Cook Inlet, Kodiak Island, and along unit stationed at Stanford V niversity and 155°W and which during some years the Alaskan Peninsula-a total of about reflected the role of that V niversity in took as many as one-third of the total 250 floating and pile-driven traps. Only the development of fishery management run of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon, was those on the Metlakatla Indian Reserve in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska in a major factor contributing to the lower in southeastern Alaska were allowed to those early years. In 1931, the Bureau's catches between 1952 and the early continue fishing. As would be expected, research was transferred to the newly 1970's. The catch by the sport fisheries there was almost an immediate increase completed fishery laboratory on Mont­ (especially in Washington, Oregon, and in both gillnet and purse-seine vessels lake Boulevard in Seattle where the California) increased markedly during in the fishery. work in southeastern Alaska and in this same period-from about 300,000 There were also a number of improve­ Bristol Bay was expanded considerably salmon in 1946 to 1.6 million in 1976. ments in fishing gear and technology to obtain a better understanding of the The halibut catch averaged about 56 that appeared after World War II. Per­ life histories and survival of salmon and million pounds in 1945-49, increased to haps most revolutionary was the intro­ herring in Alaska and contributed much more than 70 million pounds in 1962, duction of synthetic (nylon) netting to the management of fisheries during and then fell to less than 25 million (lighter and stronger than the traditional this period. (Detail of this work is given pounds by 1974. The decline has been natural fiber nets) and development at in Atkinson (1988) and is not reviewed attributed to the following three factors: about the same time of the power block further here.) 1) An increase in the effectiveness of the by Mario Puretic and the Marco! com­ Of even greater significance at the setline gear, 2) an increase in the inci­ time were the studies on the life history, dental catches of halibut by the trawl 2Mention of trade names or commercial fmns does movements, and abundance of halibut fisheries-both domestic and foreign, not imply endorsement by the National Marine conducted by the staff of the Interna­ and 3) unfavorable environmental con­ Fisheries Service, NOAA.

120 Marine Fisheries Review pany, which completely changed the referendum (20,500 to 5,500) to request were considered, as well as the various purse-seine fisheries. The seine and gill­ Congress to give them control over their environmental factors that affected their net drum method of fishing also ap­ fisheries. This growing opposition was survival in fresh water, in estuaries, and peared during this period and there were sparked by the desire of many Alaskans at sea. Steps were initiated that would a number of minor modifications in for future statehood; provisions were restore once productive but now barren fishing, such as increasing the distance generated within the Fish and Wildlife salmon spawning and nursery areas. between hooks in the halibut set line. Act of 1956 for reorganization of the ad­ Management of the pink salmon fish­ Also, there was the gradual introduction ministration of Alaska's fisheries. eries of the Fraser River was added in of various new sonic and radar instru­ An Office of the Administrator of a new Convention in 1957. The success ments, all of which made fishing safer Fisheries was established in Juneau with of the Commission's program is found and more profitable. All in all, the increased authority over the manage­ in the history of the sockeye catches: A greatest changes in fishing and fishing ment of the fisheries of Alaska, and all low of 443,000 in 1947 reached a peak technology in the Pacific coast fisheries research relating to the Alaskan fisher­ of 10.5 million fish in 1958 and averaged occurred during this period. ies (except the research being conducted about 2.0 million fish in the 4-year cycle On 30 June 1940, in accordance with for the International North Pacific Com­ of 1973-76. The Commission, however, the President's Reorganization Plan No. mission) was transferred from the Mont­ would be the first to point out the need III, the Bureau of Fisheries and the Bio­ lake laboratory to Alaska. At that time for additional biological studies and in­ logical Survey were merged to form the or shortly thereafter, one of the primary formation. There is growing political Fish and Wildlife Service in the Depart­ functions of the Administrator of Fisher­ pressure between U.S. and Canadian in­ ment of the Interior; and reorganization ies was to prepare for the orderly trans­ terests and between the Indian and the also provided for the establishment of fer of management functions of the Fed­ non-Indian fishermen-the job of the five Regional Offices in the various sec­ eral government to the State of Alaska. Commission has not been an easy one. tions of the United States. Statehood was granted to Alaska in A valuable lesson was also learned It was not until 1950 that the sixth 1959; in 1960, management of Alaska's from the experience of management of Regional Office was established in Alas­ commercial fisheries was turned over to the halibut fisheries by the International ka with a primary function of facilitat­ the Alaska Board of Fish and Game and Pacific Halibut Commission. From the ing the administration of Alaska's fish­ to the Alaska Department of Fish and time of the beginning of regulation in eries. At this time, the installation and Game. Although three have been good about 1932, the catch and catch per unit operation of weirs and other similar ac­ years and bad, the state has been able effort of the halibut fisheries had in­ tivities were made the responsibility of to stabilize the catches of salmon dur­ creased rather consistent!y from year to the Regional Office under "manage­ ing the following years, and now, after year, with over 90 percent of the catch ment biology," which separated them three-quarters of a century of effort to being taken by the regular longline fleet from the research programs originally maintain and rebuild the salmon fisher­ and with little change in the fishing developed at Stanford and later at the ies of Alaska, the state, with its flexibil­ methods or in the vessels. Montlake laboratory in Seattle. Although ity of regulations based on an accumula­ As noted by the International Pacific there was close cooperation between the tion of scientific fact and experience, has Halibut Commission (1978: 41), "Since two units, repetitive questions arose as been able to restore the yields from this 1960, important changes have occurred to what is "fishery research" and "man­ very important resource. including increases in: 1) The effec­ agement biology" and there was some The role of the International Pacific tiveness of the set line gear, 2) the pro­ fragmentation of effort. Salmon Fisheries Commission served as portion of the catch taken by small, set In the meantime, the salmon fisheries an example of good salmon fishery line vessels and salmon trollers, par­ of Alaska continued to decline. Increas­ management practice. The Commission ticularly in British Columbia and south­ ing pressure and criticism was leveled was established by treaty between the eastern Alaska, 3) the incidental catch against the Fish and Wildlife Service by United States and Canada in 1937, and in domestic (and Canada) trawl and pot the fishing industry, and a virtual rebel­ after establishing and remedying the fisheries, and 4) the incidental catch by lion occurred among many of the fish­ cause of decline in the salmon fisheries foreign vessels (Japan, Korea, and ermen making enforcement difficult. It at Hell's Gate in the Fraser River Can­ USSR). Further, environmental factors was during this same period, with con­ yon, began to manage the sockeye sal­ apparently have contributed to the de­ cern for the resource and a desire for mon fisheries in 1946. cline in abundance of young halibut." local control of fisheries, that the Alaska Not only did their program include The precipitous decline appears to Fisheries Board and the Department of the voluminous collections of statistics have been stopped in the early 1970's and Fisheries were formed in 1949 as well on catch and escapement, but they un­ now begins the task of once again re­ as the establishment earlier of the Insti­ dertook studies of the movement of the building the stocks of halibut to the esti­ tute of Fisheries Research at the Univer­ sockeye salmon through the fisheries and mated level of maximum sustainable sity of Washington under contracts with on upstream to their spawning grounds. yield-a combined total of 70 million the Alaska salmon industry. In addition, the hydrological conditions fish for Areas 2 and 3. Finally, in 1952, Alaskans voted in a that affected the migration of the salmon The herring fisheries posed quite a dif­

50(4), 1988 121 ferent management problem. Although multistate fisheries. The Commission Also important to fishery manage­ there were brief peaks in the catches of has not been particularly effective in the ment was the creation of the Fisheries herring after World War II (1946-50) and development of uniform regulations for Research Institute at the University of again in 1957-60, the general trend of the management. Washington, financed initially by con­ catches has been downward, reaching a There were a number of other coor­ tract with the Alaska salmon industry. low of about 5,800 metric tons (t) in dinating groups established during this Its work, beginning with a series of 1968. From the evidence available, this period, mainly to determine the needs comprehensive studies on salmon in decline was not due to overfishing but of the fishery management agencies and Alaska, has expanded into almost every to: 1) The depressed market conditions to plan and to review the results of re­ area of fisheries science-most, if not for herring products, i.e., economic search. Some examples are the Techni­ all, have been directly applicable to conditions, and 2) strong political pres­ cal Committee of the U.s. Army Corps management problems. sure to reserve the herring as a food of Engineers, the Inter-Agency Fishery The contributions to fishery manage­ organism for other fish, mainly salmon. Research Coordinating Committee, the ment made by the several universities The analysis required by the Interna­ First and Second Governor's Confer­ along the Pacific coast should also be tional North Pacific Fisheries Commis­ ences, and others. recognized. Soon after the end of World sion, for herring to qualify for abstension Research and investigations in fishery War II, perhaps in the early 1950's, the from the Japanese high-seas fisheries, management continued to expand dur­ universities offering curricula in fisher­ failed to show that these stocks were ing this period. (The biological research ies added courses in population dynam­ either being fully utilized or being man­ programs conducted at the Montlake ics of fishery stocks with direct applica­ aged to obtain the maximum sustainable Laboratory are also described in some tion to management problems, and those yield. Thus, this species was removed detail in Atkinson, 1988.) Most signifi­ courses were generally made a required from the list of abstention species. cant, however, were their accomplish­ part of a student's training program. The conditions changed suddenly in ments in the studies of freshwater sur­ As we review the events in fishery 1974 with an increased demand for her­ vival of salmon in the Sacramento and management that have occurred since ring roe in Japan, and the U.S. catch Columbia Rivers and in Alaska, the out­ World War II, we cannot help but be im­ jumped to about 17,000 t; this amount standing work on passage and guidance pressed by the increasing dependence of more than tripled in 1978 after the enact­ of salmon at dams, on separation of the fishery agencies on the results of re­ ment of the Magnuson Fishery Manage­ Asian and North American salmon in search and scientific analysis as a basis ment and Conservation Act of 1976 and the high-seas catches of the Japanese, for their regulations. There have been the establishment of the 200-mile fish­ and on the life history and populations successes and failures as well as mis­ ery conservation zone. of king crab in the eastern Bering Sea. takes in judgment, the misapplication This period is also marked by the Of direct application to management, of theory, and the continuing need for trend toward greater cooperation be­ however, were the studies undertaken at new information and study; but the tween the various fishery agencies of the the Montlake Laboratory for the Inter­ success-the results of work by the In­ States and between the states and the national North Pacific Fisheries Com­ ternational Pacific Halibut Commission, Federal government. In 1947, an inter­ mission applying to the criteria estab­ the International Pacific Salmon Fish­ state compact was approved by the states lished by the treaty for Japanese (and in eries Commission, the Alaska salmon and the Federal government, creating some cases, Canadian) abstention from story, and other examples-well demon­ the Pacific Marine Fisheries Commis­ fishing our stocks of salmon, halibut, strate that the modern principles of fish­ sion for the purpose of: 1) Conserving and herring. The major requirement was ery management can work when based the coastal-offshore fisheries of interest proof that the stocks were being fully upon the collection of adequate obser­ to the citizens of the Pacific coast states, utilized by our fisheries and, perhaps vations and data and an understanding 2) agreeing upon uniform regulations more difficult, that these stocks were of the biology and environment of the for such conservation, 3) agreeing upon being managed to provide the maximum particular species. uniform legislation (if required) to be sustainable yield from the resources. presented to each legislature for such Although, conceptually, the fishery regulation, 4) agreeing upon means of management agencies were attempting 1977-1985 enforcing uniform regulations, and 5) to obtain the maximum sustainable yield This period has included enactment developing a program on the various from their fisheries-to prove that to the of the M~gnuson Fishery Conservation species of marine life and deciding how Commission was another story. The and Management Act of 1976 and juris­ such a program should be carried out. cases that were prepared by the scien­ diction over fisheries within the 200­ The Commission has served as an in­ tists at the Montlake Laboratory, the In­ mile fishery conservation zone, joint valuable medium for the discussion and ternational Pacific Halibut Commission, state-federal management of the fisher­ evaluation of the current fishery devel­ and in other agencies very pointedly ies within the 200-mile zone by regional opments along the Pacific coast and the demonstrated a general lack of adequate fishery management councils, develop­ planning and coordination of a number and sufficiently precise information for ment of coordinated management re­ of research programs dealing with "scientific" fisheries management. search programs, and regulation of do-

122 Marine Fisheries Review mestic and foreign fisheries based on the ment Council, which controls the fish­ Fish Commission from December 1, 1896, to determination of the maximum sustain­ eries in the 200-mile zone off Alaska, November 3, 1897. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm., 1897, 17: 135-139. able biological yield, the optimum yield, has been greatly assisted by the experi­ Gilbert, C. H. 1913. The salmon of Swiftsure and similar population parameters. ence gained by the programs of the Bank and the Fraser River sockeye run of 1912. Provo Brit. Col., Rep. Comm. Fish., 1912, p. The enactment of the Magnuson Fish­ International Pacific Salmon Fisheries 14-24. ery Conservation and Management Act Commission, the International Pacific ___ and W. H. Rich. 1927, Investigations of 1976 has established a completely new Halibut Commission, and the Interna­ concerning the red-salmon runs to the Karluk River, Alaska. Bull. Bur. Fish. 43: 1-69. Doc. organizational structure for the manage­ tional North Pacific Fisheries Commis­ 1022. ment of the offshore marine and anad­ sion-all of which are aimed at man­ International Pacific Halibut Commission. 1978. romous fisheries and has overcome the agement of the several fisheries by The Pacific halibut: Biology, fishery, and management. Int. Pac. Halibut Comm., Seattle, previous difficulties and political resist­ determining the levels of maximum sus­ Wash., Tech. Rep. 16, 56 p. ance in regulating both the "interstate" tainable yield. Many of the fisheries, Jordan, D. S., and C. H. Gilbert. 1887. The salmon fishing and canning interests of the fisheries and the foreign fisheries off the e.g., the groundfish fisheries, lacked Pacific coast. In G. B. Goode et al., The fish­ coasts of the United States. The Act this background of information and ex­ eries and fishery industries of the United States, established six regions to be adminis­ perience and have required much effort Sect. V, vol. 1, p. 729-753. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C. tered by regional councils composed of to be able to provide even approximate Juday, C., W. H. Rich, G. I. Kemmerer, andA. representatives of state and federal fish­ levels of catch and of population. Mann. 1932. Limnological studies of Karluk ery agencies, the industry, and the pub­ Although it is still too early to try to Lake, Alaska, 1926-1930. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 47:407-436. FB 12. lic. The councils in turn, appoint vari­ evaluate the success of management of Pennoyer, S. 1979. Development of management ous advisory and scientific committees the resources within the 2OQ-mile fish­ of Alaska's fisheries. In B. R. Melteff (editor), to assist in developing the various man­ ery conservation zone, the administra­ Alaska fisheries: 200 years and 200 miles of change, Proceedings ofthe 29th Alaska Science agement programs and in determining tion to date by the North Pacific Fishery Conference, p. 17-25. Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks, the conditions of the various stocks of Management Council, although at times Alaska Sea Grant Rep. 79-6. Rounsefell, G. A. 1931. Fluctuations in the supply fish and the appropriate levels of catch cumbersome, is working and there is of herring (Clupea pallasii) in southeastern that should be allowed. The councils every indication their efforts will be a Alaska. Bull. (U.S.) Bur. Fish. 47: 15-56. provide for extensive hearing schedules success. ___ and E. H. Dalhgren. 1932. Fluctua­ tions in the supply of herring, Clupea palasii, to allow for the expression of opinion in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Bull. (U.S.) from the industry, fishermen, and the Literature Cited Bur. Fish. 47:263-291. public; and, they coordinate many of Thompson, W. F. 1916a. The problem of the Atkinson, C. E. 1988. The Montlake Laboratory halibut. Prov. Brit. Col., Rep. Comm. Fish., their regulations with those of the state of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and its 1915, p. 130-140. agencies responsible for the fisheries in biological research, 1931-81. Mar. Fish. Rev. ___ . 1916b. Statistics of the halibut fish­ 50(4):97-110. ery in the Pacific: Their bearing on the biology the coastal areas. The councils take Baker, R. C., F. Wilke, and C. H. Baltzo. 1970. of the species and the conditions of the banks. necessary action to protect the operation The northern fur seal. U.S. Dep. Int., Fish Provo Brit. Col., Rep. Comm. Fish., 1915, p. and development of the U.S. fisheries Wildl. Serv., Circ. 336, 19 p. 16-126. Baranov, F. I. 1918. On the question of the bio­ ____ . 1917. The regulation of the halibut within the 200-mile zone and give par­ logical basis of fisheries. [In Russ.] Izv. fishery of the Pacific. Prov. Brit. Col., Rep. ticular attention to the effect of the for­ Nauchno. Issled. Ikhtiol. Inst., Izv. Otd. Comm. Fish., 1916, p. 28-34. eign fisheries on the domestic catch. Ryboved. Nauchnopromysl. Issled. 1(1):81­ ____ and N. L. Freeman. 1930. History 128. of the Pacific halibut fishery. Rep. Int. Fish. The North Pacific Fishery Manage­ Brice, J. J. 1898. The work of the United States Comm. 5, 61 p.

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