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Constructing the Masculine Woman in Medieval Christianity

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Constructing the Masculine Woman in Medieval Christianity University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History History, Department of Summer 7-29-2021 The Virago Paradigm of Female Sanctity: Constructing the Masculine Woman in Medieval Christianity Angela Bolen University of Nebraska-Lincoln Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historydiss Part of the Cultural History Commons, European History Commons, History of Gender Commons, History of Religion Commons, and the Medieval History Commons Bolen, Angela, "The Virago Paradigm of Female Sanctity: Constructing the Masculine Woman in Medieval Christianity" (2021). Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History. 98. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historydiss/98 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the History, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. THE VIRAGO PARADIGM OF FEMALE SANCTITY: CONSTRUCTING THE MASCULINE WOMAN IN MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY by Angela R. Bolen A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Major: History Under the Supervision of Professor Jessica Coope Lincoln, Nebraska July, 2021 THE VIRAGO PARADIGM OF FEMALE SANCTITY: CONSTRUCTING THE MASCULINE WOMAN IN MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY Angela R. Bolen, PhD University of Nebraska, 2021 Advisor: Jessica Coope The Latin word virago, in its simplest definition, means “a man-like, warrior woman.” For Christian men and women in the Patristic era and the central Middle Ages, the virago represented a woman who denied all biological characteristics of her womanhood, fiercely protected her virginity, and fully embodied the virtues of Christian masculinity. The virago paradigm of female sanctity, a creation of male writers, reconciled a pervasive fear of the female sex with an obvious admiration for holy women. Additionally, the virago model maintained the supremacy of masculine virtues, upheld a patriarchal hierarchy, and created a metaphorical space that validated women’s spiritual authority and activity. This dissertation identifies and explores the significance of the medieval construction and implementation of the virago paradigm of female sanctity in the central Middle Ages. The virago model of female sanctity emerges in the medieval creation of the legends of virgin martyrs and in a small corpus of letters influential men wrote to religious women. The virago paradigm also appears in striking detail in two medieval texts associated with the twelfth-century holy woman, Christina of Markyate. In constructing the narrative of Christina’s life, commonly referred to as Life of Christina of Markyate, the anonymous male author describes Christina’s transformation from a young girl into a heroic, wise, and fearless virago. The second text associated with Christina of Markyate, St. Albans Psalter, serves as a medieval guidebook or manual for the virago. The three major components of the Psalter, the cycle of miniatures, the story of St. Alexis, and the commentary on spiritual warfare provided the female reader with visual, allegorical, and scriptural representations of the virago. The culminating analysis of medieval hagiographies, letters written by men to women, and the St. Albans Psalter, demonstrates the presence of the virago paradigm of female sanctity in the central Middle Ages. iv Acknowledgements Completing this dissertation could not have happened without the unyielding support, encouragement, attention, love, and grace of my best friend and husband, Jonathan Bolen. Due equal credit is my incomparable child, Zoë Bolen. Their passion for knowledge, curiosity, and beauty inspired me every day and, in the end, their constant encouragement, understanding, and patience gave me the determination to finish this project. My sister, Melody Hayward, proved to be an indispensable and irreplaceable friend, listener, and sounding board throughout this entire process. She walked through every step of this journey with me and helped me realize the completion of this dissertation. Inarguably, I could not have started this journey had it not been for the desire for truth and understanding instilled in me by my parents, Lynne and Steve Groening. They never doubted me, they always listened to me, and they constantly reminded me why this work is so important. My gratitude for their support and love is beyond words. I would be remiss not to thank an incredible group of women I am beyond fortunate to call my dearest friends. They proved to be an endless source of encouragement, support, and love. Faith Harvey, Rebecca Atkins, Nichole Gulbranson, and Katie Jenkins, never failed to remind me how incredible this journey has been. They kept me grounded and energized and when I needed them the most, they were always there. Thank you also to my fellow graduate students at UNL who kept me on my toes, read drafts of my work, and listened when I needed an empathetic ear. I am supremely privileged to have had the opportunity to work with a supportive committee. My advisor Dr. Jessica Coope pushed me when I needed to be pushed, v encouraged me when I needed to be encouraged, and reassured me when I needed to be reassured. She painstakingly and tirelessly worked through this dissertation with me from concept to final draft, and I would not have been able to do any of this without her support and guidance. I owe a great deal of thanks to Dr. Amy Burnett. From the first class I took with her to the final page of this dissertation, she challenged me, guided me, and helped me become better writer, a better scholar, and a better academic. Thank you also to Dr. Stephen Lahey for sharing his wealth of knowledge and keen intelligence with me in the final stages of this project. An enormous thank you to my committee member, my mentor, and my good friend, Vanessa Gorman. I will never be able to articulate the myriad ways that you have helped me grow as an academic and an educator. Thank you. I owe an enormous amount of thanks to the faculty and graduate committee in the History Department at UNL. Thank you also to the generous donors whose financial support facilitated a great portion of the research included in this dissertation. I owe my gratitude to the donors who support the Maslowski Research Award, the James Arthur Fellowship, the John F. Stover Fellowship, the Gretchen B. Lee Fellowship, and the Paul Olsen International Travel Award. Without the financial support of these generous organizations, I would not have been able to investigate the manuscripts that serve as the foundation of this dissertation. vi List of Illustrations Figure 1 The “C” Initial page 182 Figure 2 “The Nativity” The St. Albans Psalter 186 Figure 3 “The Nativity” The Winchester Psalter 187 Figure 4 “The Nativity” Unnamed Psalter 187 Figure 5 “The Massacre of the Innocent” The St. Albans Psalter 188 Figure 6 “The Massacre of the Innocent” The Huth Psalter 189 Figure 7 “The Massacre of the Innocent” Unnamed Psalter 189 Figure 8 “The Massacre of the Innocent” The Oscott Psalter 190 Figure 9 “Descent from the Cross” The St. Albans Psalter 192 Figure 10 “The Ascension” The St. Albans Psalter 193 Figure 11 “Presentation at the Temple” The St. Albans Psalter 194 Figure 12 “The Pentecost” The St. Albans Psalter 195 Figure 13 Psychomachia 203 Figure 14 Psychomachia 203 Figure 15 Two Knights Fighting The St. Albans Psalter 206 vii Table of Contents Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter1: Patristic Creation of the Virago Paradigm ........................................................13 Chapter 2: The Construction of Virago Martyrs in the Middle Ages ................................45 Chapter 3: Evoking the Virago in Twelfth Century Letters to Women .............................93 Chapter 4: Christina of Markyate, a Virago for Medieval England ................................133 Chapter 5: The St. Albans Psalter, a Manual for the Virago ...........................................174 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................216 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................221 Manuscripts ..........................................................................................................221 Printed Primary Sources ......................................................................................221 Secondary Sources ...............................................................................................222 1 INTRODUCTION As long as woman is for birth and children, she is different from man as body is from soul. But when she wishes to serve Christ more than the world, then she will cease to be a woman and she will be called male.1 Why do you revere your female sex? Clothe yourself in a masculine soul and mount that horse like a man!2 These words, written by two different men eight centuries apart, convey a provocative idea regarding the intersection of gender, sex, and Christian ideology. In the fourth century, the theologian St. Jerome wrote a letter to his female protégé,
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