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Studies in Disarmament and Conflicts: THE DYNAMICS OF THE ARMS RACE INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM AND WORLD SECURITY ARMS CONTROL AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION CONTEMPORARY TERROR: Studies in Sub-state Violence THE HAZARDS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ENERGY CRISIS THE ARMS RACE IN THE 1980s SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE AFTER TITO: A Powder-keg for the 1980s? REASSESSING ARMS CONTROL THE ARMS RACE IN THE ERA OF STAR WARS PERSPECTIVES ON THE ARMS RACE THE ARMS RACE IN AN ERA OF NEGOTIATIONS SPACE AND NUCLEAR WEAPONRY IN THE 1990s CONTROLLING THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER OF WEAPONRY AND RELATED TECHNOLOGY RISING TENSION IN EASTERN EUROPE AND THE FORMER SOVIET UNION 23 M Racism, Xenophobia and Ethnic Conflict Edited by Simon Bekker and David Carlton 1 INSTITUTE J OF | DEVELOPMENT I STUDIES | LIBRARY Indicator Press November 1996 © Indicator Press, 1996 Editors: Simon Bekker and David Carlton Layout/Production: Rob Evans Proofreading: David Carlton, Simon Bekker Administration: PatFismer Printing: Creda Press (Natal) Indicator South Africa University of Natal Private Bag X10 Dalbrldge 4014 Durban, South Africa ISBN: 1-86840-211-8 CONTENT^^^JTAM A MmdJL I MtS %J* Preface by Carlo Schaerf i List ojAbbreviations il Notes on Contributors iii Introduction by Simon Bekker iv Part One Identity, ethnicity, conflict 1 Hakan Wiberg Violent and peaceful settlements of ethnic conflicts: Some Theses on the Determinants 21 Klaus Gottstein Are nations natural economic units? 31 Carl Kaysen Military intervention in intrastate and ethnic conflict 49 George W. Rathjens Part Two Security, identity and the peace process in Northern Ireland ... 63 Bill McSweeriey Conflict, ethnicity and democratisation in contemporary South Africa 77 Simon Bekker Racism, xenophobia and the extreme right: A Five-Country Assessment 97 Christopher T. Husbands Part Three Genetic variation -within and among human groups 119 Guido Barbujani The old and the new concept of race 139 Guido Modiano Index 158 PREFACE The chapters in this volume were presented to 17th summer course of the International School on Disarmament and Research on Conflicts (ISODARCO) held at the Certosa di Pontignano (Siena), Italy, between 10 and 20 August 1995. The realization of the School was made possible by financial contributions from a number organisations and the generous collaboration of several individuals. Without these, the course would not have been possible. Our deepest gratitude goes to: <«•• The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation; Ms Annamarie von Hammerstein, Prof. Guido Modiano and Prof. Pietro Omodeo, Directors of the Course: "»• Prof. Simon Bekker and Dr. David Carlton, editors of the book; <-* The Physics Department of the University of Rome "Tor Vergata"; »«+ Prof. Maria Vegni, of the Biology Department of the University of Siena; -f The Regional Council of the Toscana Region; Ms Isabella Colace of the ISODARCO office in Rome. For their hospitality, we are indebted to Mr. Andrea Machetti and all the personnel of the Certosa di Pontignano. All opinions expressed in the chapters of this book are of a purely personal nature and do not necessarily represent the offical view of either the organisers of the School or of the organisations to which the writers may be affiliated. Carlo Schaerf (President of ISODARCO and Director of the School) ii Racism, Xenophobia and Ethnic Conflict iii List of Abbreviations ANC African National Congress BC Black Consciousness Movement BPN Burgerpartij Nederland CDs Centrumdemocraten CP Centrum Partij CSMHI Center for the Study of Mind and Human Interaction DVU Deutsche Volksunion FN Front National Fs Die Freiheitlichen FPO Freiheitliche Partei Osterreichs GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product GNU Government of National Unity IFP Inkatha Freedom Party IRA Irish Republican Army NB Nederlands Blok NF National Front NIPO Nederlandse Instituut voor de Publieke Opinie NP National Party NPD Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands ONUC UN Operation in the Congo PAC Pan-Afrlcanist Congress REPs Die Republikaner SDLP Social Democratic and Labour Party UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNITAF Unified Task Force UNOSOM United Nations Operation in Somalia UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia US United States VB Vlaams Blok ii Racism, Xenophobia and Ethnic Conflict iii Notes on Contributors CiUIDO BARBUJANI Guido Barbujani (Italian) is an Associate Professor in Population Genetics at the University of Bologna. SIMON BEKKER Simon Bekker (South African) is Professor of Sociology at the University of Stellenbosch. DAVID CARLTON David Carlton (British) is Lecturer in International Studies at the University of Warwick. KLAUS GOTTSTEIN Klaus Gottstein (German) is Emeritus Professor of Physics and Director of the Research Unit on Problems of Science and Society within the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft in Munich. CI IRISTOPHER T HUSBANDS Christopher Husbands (British) is Reader in Sociology and consultant to Teaching Quality Assurance Office, London School of Economics and Political Science. CARL KAYSEN Carl Kaysen (US) is David W Skinner Professor of Political Economy, Emeritus Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a Senior Lecturer in the Defense and Arms Control Studies Programme, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. BILL McSWEENEY Bill McSweeney (Irish) is Director of the Centre for Peace Studies at the Irish School of Ecumenics in Dublin. GUIDO MODIANO Guido Modiano (Italian) is Professor in Biology at the University of Rome. GEORGE W RATHJENS George Rathjens (US) is Professor of Political Science within the Defense and Arms Control Studies Program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. HAKEN WIBERG H&ken Wiberg (Swedish) is Director of the Centre for Peace and Conflict Research, Copenhagen, Denmark. ii Racism, Xenophobia and Ethnic Conflict iii INTRODUCTION Simon Bekker After the Second World War, the globe became divided into two alternatives, capitalism and socialism, Washington and Moscow, the first and the second worlds. The idea of the Third World - developed in the early 1950s - offered a third alternative, a new way for the numerous newly-independent countries of the globe. General disillusionment with this third way developed rapidly as strategies of modernisation and economic development in developing countries failed to live up to their promise. A prime reason for this Third World failure was deemed to be ethnic conflict in these heterogeneous societies. Ethnic conflicts, accordingly, during this Cold War era, were perceived to be problems of the developing world. With the end of the Cold War all this has changed. Nation-states react defensively as local politics and global politics increasingly lead to the articulation of similar demands, for human and cultural rights and for equity in access to resources. These demands act as incentives for emergent groups - no longer confined within either the Western or the Eastern bloc - to assert their differences, to assert the uniqueness they experience, often in contradistinction to other groups within the same society. Such processes are apparent in Eastern Europe and other parts of what used to be the Soviet empire, in Western Europe and the Middle East, in the former first, second and third worlds. These processes have become universal. Racism and ethnic conflict, accordingly, allied as they are to these processes, have become global problems today. Part One of this book raises these issues at a general analytic level. Its four chapters select a number of ideas which underpin violent conflicts of this nature: «»• identity territory »-*• language nation •<-* state «•+ intervention. ii Racism, Xenophobia and Ethnic Conflict iii The authors apply these ideas to a number of carefully selected historical examples to show how and why they are key elements in analyses of racism, xenophobia and ethnic conflict. Subsequently, while sharing this common framework of ideas, each author develops a particular theme. H&ken Wiberg introduces his theme by beginning with the 'identity budget' of an individual. Items in this budget typically include belonging to a family, to wider kin relations, to a language and religious grouping, to a nationality, and to a state. These items, he insists, are neither fixed nor given but are social constructions. Accordingly, heterogeneous societies find themselves in great danger when one item of the identity budgets of their members becomes predominant, for example when nationalist or state ideologies take hold. The chapter concludes with an analysis of Western and Eastern European societies in such straits. Klaus Gottstein addresses the same theme of ethnic conflicts in heterogeneous societies. His focus is on conditions for sustained conflict regulation and, in particular, on the environment within which ethnic protagonists face each other. Particular attention is given to the presence or absence of a common danger to both protagonists and the role that this common danger plays in conflict regulation. Numerous historical examples are cited as illustrations. Carl Kaysen seeks to uncover relations between nation, state and economy; between culture, order, and production in a single society. Modern economies improve under conditions of unrestrained factor mobility, skilled labour, and stable markets. Accordingly, those states which have succeeded in improving transportation and organisation (through technological development) and education (through nation-building) within
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