Biological Conservation 82 (1997) 31-39 © 1997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain PII: S0006-3207(97)00004-9 0006-3207/97 $17.00 + 0.00 ELSEVIER

ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF THE JACUTINGA Pipile jacutinga IN THE OF BRAZIL

Mauro Galetti," Paulo Martuscelli, b Ffibio Olmos c & Alexandre Aleixo d

a Wildlife Research Group, Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3D Y, UK bCP194, Peru[be, Sdo Paulo, 11750-970, Sfo Paulo, Brazil ¢Se¢~o de Animais Silvestres, IF, CP 1322, 01509-970, Sdo Paulo, SP, Brazil dDepartamento de Zoologia, UNICAMP, CP 6109, 13083-970 Campinas, Sdo Paulo, Brazil

(Received 28 February 1996; revised version received 2 November 1996; accepted 8 November 1996)

Abstract from the Neotropics (Silva & Strahl, 1991; Thiollay, The jacutinga Pipile jacutinga was formerly one of the 1994). most abundant game cracids in the Atlantic forest of The black-fronted piping- or jacutinga Pipile Brazil. Nowadays this is vulnerable to jacutinga is a medium-sized (up to 1.5 kg) cracid known due to hunting and habitat loss. The ecology of the jacu- from the moist forests of coastal Brazil, the Atlantic tinga was studied at Parque Estadual lntervales, Sdo forest, from southern Bahia to , and Paulo, Brazil from October 1993 to December 1995 and adjacent areas of Paraguay and Argentina (Delacour & in adjacent areas. Jacutingas were observed to feed Amadon, 1973; Sick, 1993). The species was extremely mainly on the sugar-rich fruit of 41 species. We recorded common in parts of its range until the 1940s and 1950s, a low index of abundance for the jacutinga (0.018) or when thousands could be killed over a short period c.1.7 /km 2 at Intervales, one of the best protected (Sick, 1993). Today this species is considered as vulner- areas within their range. Surveys carried out in the able and is listed in CITES Appendix I (Collar et al., Atlantic forest of Sdo Paulo found jacutinga populations 1994). The jacutinga's range is one of the areas in South in 14 localities. Probably < 1500 birds survive in the best America worst hit by deforestation, with only 5% (c. protected areas. The species' stronghold in southeastern 60 000 km 2) of the forest remaining today, mainly in the Brazil is in the mountains of Serra de Paranapiacaba, an states of S~.o Paulo, Parami and (SOS area protected by several parks suffering from hunting Mata Atl~ntica & INPE, 1992). This region also holds and palm heart harvesting and threatened by a hydro- 43% of the Brazilian human population and its fastest- electric project. © 1997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd growing cities (Fonseca, 1985). Despite being one of the largest, most conspicuous Keywords: Atlantic forest, Brazil, , diet, con- and endangered birds of the Atlantic forest, scientific servation, frugivory. information on the jacutinga's ecology, vital to its con- servation, is almost entirely lacking, what exists being "We all know that no one turns down jacutinga mainly anecdotal (see Collar et al., 1992; Sick, 1993; with rice." -- Frederico Lane, hunter, 1928. Pacagnella et al., 1994). This paper describes the results of a 26-month study on the jacutinga's ecology and a six year survey of the extant INTRODUCTION populations from the Atlantic forest of S5o Paulo state.

Cracids (guans, chachalacas and curassows) are med- ium-sized to large, predominantly arboreal, gallinaceous STUDY SITE birds. The family has 50 species distributed in the Neo- tropical region and extreme south Nearctic (del Hoyo et Jacutingas were searched for in several localities in the al., 1994). Cracids are among the most important game Atlantic forest of S~o Paulo (Fig. I) during faunal sur- birds in Latin America, but are extremely sensitive to veys in existing and proposed state parks and reserves habitat disturbance and overhunting (Silva & Strahl, from 1989 to 1995. As the main aim in these surveys was 1991; Strahl & Grajal, 1991). This group also contri- simply to locate the birds, density estimates are avail- butes to most of the avian biomass harvested by hunters able for only a few localities. An ecological study of jacutingas was carried out at Correspondence to: M. Galetti, Departmento de Botanica, the Parque Estadual Intervales, a 490km 2 reserve of C.P.199, UNESP, 13506-900 Rio Claro, S~o Paulo, Brazil Atlantic forest in the Paranapiacaba range of southern 31 32 M. Galetti et al.

S~o Paulo, from October 1993 to December 1995. 1970). The point counts (IPA or 'stations d'6coute') Jacutingas were studied in the Base do Saibadela were placed along eight trails of 1 km each. On each (24°14'08"S, 48°04'42"W), Sete Barras, Sgo Paulo. Ele- trail, five 'point counts' were spaced 200 m apart. At vation varied from 70 to 300m above sea level. The these points all birds heard or seen during a 20 min annual rainfall in 1994 and 1995 was 4244mm and period were recorded. At least three trails (or 15 points), 3958 mm, respectively, (with a temperature maximum of randomly chosen, were sampled each month. The index 41-42°C and minimum of 3-1 I°C). of point abundance (IPA) was calculated by dividing the The area is covered mainly by primary forest where number of contacts by the total number of points sam- the canopy can reach 35m. The most common pied. Transect counts were carried out from sunrise to families are Myrtaceae, and Rubiaceae 1100 h and any individual or flock ofjacutinga heard or (Almeida-Scabbia, 1996). The area is well protected seen was recorded as one contact. from poachers and some threatened species such as the The other method used to estimate jacutinga density blue-bellied parrot Triclaria malachitacea and the muri- (D) was a modification of the variable-length transect of qui Brachyteles arachnoides are relatively common (M. King (see Silva & Strahl, 1991): Galetti, unpublished data). There are c. 350 bird species in the reserve (see Aleixo & Galetti, in press), but only D=Z/2,W, EL two cracid species, the jacutinga and the dusky-legged guan obscura. Palm heart (the edible apical meristem) harvesting of Euterpe edulis, whose fruits are where Z = the total number of individuals ofjacutingas considered the main staple food ofjacutingas (Collar et observed on all transects, W -- the width of the transect al., 1992), is not known to have taken place and the and ~ L is the sum of the lengths of the transects. local density of E. edulis is about 500 palms/ha (Ribeiro The trails were walked in the morning and, because et al., 1993; but see Galetti & Chivers, 1995). the visibility of each area is different, the strip width was taken to be 10m on each side in Intervales (lowland primary forest), 20 m in Ilhabela (montane secondary- METHODS primary forest) and 50m in Carlos Botelho (montane primary forest, valleys and foothill). Jacutingas are Jacutingas are difficult to follow in the field, because of the relatively tame and quiet cracids (unlike Penelope spp.) rugged topography, so their abundance was estimated and it is assumed that the width established in each site based on unlimited distance point counts (Blondel et al., is reliable for detecting most of the birds.

'k.N. ~./.~ ~-,- .---° ,.-,,-. 1 o.t..,,.j .r \~..

' "~""2"' "~'r" ' . ~"'" I

S~o Paulo

12 7 9.

N t 1 25~

0 4o "" f I I~n

49' ° 48' ° 47' ° A° Fig. I. Localities in S~o Paulo state where Jacutinga still occurs: l, Ilha do Cardoso; 2, Canan6ia-Serra do Cadeado; 3, Jacupir- anga; 4, Alto Ribeira; 5, Intervales; 6, Carlos Botelho; 7, Pilar do Sul; 8, Jurupar~; 9, Tapiral; 10, Jur6ia; 1 l, Serra do Mar-Mon- gagub.; 12, Borac6ia; 13, Serra do Mar-Santa Virginia; 14, Ilhabela; 15, Serra do Mar-Ubatuba. Conservation of the jacutinga 33

The diet of cracids is usually assessed from stomach birds were recorded (density 1.7 individuals/km2). The and gizzard contents (Th+ry et al., 1992; Caziani & density of jacutingas in the lowlands was slightly less Protomastro, 1994), but as jacutingas are highly threa- than in the highlands of Intervales Park (2-1 individuals/ tened (Collar et al., 1992), diet was determined from km 2) (Mafiosa et al., 1995). At Ilhabela, 215km were feeding bouts in this study. Each bout is an observation walked from 1992 to 1994 and only eight birds were of a jacutinga or a flock eating in a fruiting tree and if recorded (0.93 individuals/km2); at Carlos Botelho the birds moved to another food source a new bout was 151 km were walked and 48 birds were observed (3.17 recorded (Galetti, 1993). Chemical analyses of 15 spe- individuals/km2). At Ilha do Cardoso, during a five- cies of fruit eaten by jacutingas (percentage of water, year study, only two jacutinga groups were observed protein, lipids, and sugar) followed Bligh and Dyer (seven and four birds). Although no census was car- (1959) and Horwitz (1975) and were carried out at the ried out in the park, the density of jacutingas there is Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade likely to be 0.11 individuals/km 2, based on the island's Estadual de Campinas. area. The availability of E. edulis fruit was based on the counting of fruits of 41 tagged trees in the lowland Diet (Saibadela station) every month (M. Galetti, unpub- Jacutingas were observed eating 41 fruit species, 23 lished data). The palms were chosen from 201 random species at Intervales and another 18 in other areas points along nine trails. At each point the four nearest (Table 1). Some fruit species, such as Virola gardneri trees within four marked quadrants were tagged and Cryptocarya moschata, occur mainly in prima;y (Almeida-Scabbia, 1996). unlogged areas, while others are typical of disturbed forests (Cecropia glaziovii and Cytharexyllum myrian- thum). Fruits eaten by this cracid ranged from tiny RESULTS drupes (e.g. 0.4 mm diameter) to large arilate ones (e.g. Virola gardneri, 25 ram). Chemical analyses of the fruits Habitat sampled indicate that most fruit species eaten by jacu- Jacutingas were recorded in 14 localities in the coastal tingas are poor in lipids (10.7% of the feeding bouts are Atlantic forest of Silo Paulo (Fig. 1). This cracid was on fruits with more than 50% of lipid), except the two observed mainly on the slopes of the coastal mountains, Virola species and Cupania oblongifolia. Most of the diet being extremely rare in the lowland forests ('restingas') was on fruit species rich in carbohydrates (89-3% of growing on sandy soils. Only twice were jacutingas feeding bouts are on fruits with ~> 50% carbohydrates, observed at sea level. In Ilhabela State Park, jacutingas Table 2). There was no correlation between the diet of were observed in old (ca. 30 years) secondary forest the jacutinga and the main chemical components of the dominated by deciduous legume trees Piptadenia fruits (protein, r =-0.04, p = 0-88; carbohydrates, gonoacantha while, in Jur6ia Ecological Station, this r = 0.47, p = 0-11), but it was marginally significant to species was observed breeding in very young forest low-lipid fruits ( r = -0.53, p = 0-07). dominated by Cecropia spp., Rapanea spp., banana Most species eaten by jacutingas have large fruit trees and vines. At Carlos Botelho State Park, a female crops predictably distributed in time. Fruit selection is with three chicks was seen in a monoculture of pine similar to that made by some primates (Garber, 1993) trees. Nevertheless, in all these instances there was with regular travel routes which are checked for the mature forest surrounding the area. availability of fruiting trees. Two adult jacutingas were observed for 10 consecutive days in April 1994 feeding Abundance on four fruiting trees of Cordia sylvestris, Ceeropia gla- The point count method showed a low index of abun- ziovii, Chrysophyllum flexuosum and Meliosma sinuata. dance of jacutingas at Intervales. Of 113 point counts, They then moved only 50 m and remained another four only two jacutinga contacts were recorded (IPA = 0.018). days in another clump of Cordia fruits. Apparently the The index of point abundance for the dusky-legged guan same individuals used the same fruiting trees in March was also low at 0.035. 1995 during one week. Four jacutingas stayed for three In 68 point counts carried out in a logged forest consecutive days feeding on an catharinensis tree ca.l-5km from Intervales, only one jacutinga was at Carlos Botelho. These observations suggest that recorded. The IPA of the jacutinga in unlogged and jacutingas 'know' specifically in space and time the logged forests were slightly different (0.018 and 0.015, ripening of their fruit sources. respectively). The same pattern was obtained in transect contacts (0.036 contact/h of field work in unharvested Movements against 0-017 contact/h in harvested). Jacutingas are considered the only cracid that makes The density ofjacutingas was measured in Intervales, 'true' migrations following the ripeness of Euterpe fruits Ilhabela, Carlos Botelho and Ilha do Cardoso state (Collar et al., 1992; del Hoyo et aL, 1994). However at parks. At Intervales (Saibadela base), 236km were Intervales, no correlation was found between the jacu- walked from October 1993 to December 1995 and eight tinga contacts and number of ripe Euterpe fruits 34 M. Galetti et al.

Table 1. Fruit species consumed by jacutingas Pipile jacutinga in southeastern Brazil Part eaten: Ar, aril; Pu, pulp. Site: IB, Ilhabela State Park; FI, Fazenda Intervales reserve; IC, Ilha do Cardoso State Park; CB, Carlos Botelho State Park; PT, Petar State Park.

Family/species Part eaten Site Months Number feeding bouts a % diet a

Annonaceae Xylopia brasiliensis Ar PT Oct -- -- Anarcadiaeeae Tapirira guianensis Pu PT Feb -- -- Boraginaceae Cordia sylvestris Pu FI Apr 3 10.71 Burseraceae Protium widgrenii* Ar FI Dec-Jan -- Canellaceae Capsicodedron dinizii Pu FI Apr 1 3-57 Cecropiaceae Cecropia glaziovii Pu FI Mar-Apr 4 14-28 Cecropia pachystachia Pu IC Dec-Jan -- -- Coussapoa microcarpa* Pu CB,FI Feb -- -- Pouroma guianensis* Pu FI Feb -- -- Clusiaceae Rheedia gardneriana Pu IC Jan-Feb -- -- Euphorbiaceae Hyeronima alchorneoides* Pu FI Jan-Mar -- -- taaraceae Cryptocarya moschata Pu FI,IC,CB Apr-May 2 7.14 Endlisheria paniculata Pu FI Sep -- -- Ocotea catharinensis Pu CB Aug -- -- Persea atba Pu IC May-Apr -- -- Nectandra megapotamica Pu FI Oct 1 3.57 Malpighiaceae Byrsonima ligustrifolia Pu IB May -- -- Melastomataceae Miconia cabucu Pu IC Dec -- -- Meliaceae Guarea macrophylla Ar IC,PT Sep-Oct -- -- Moraceae Ficus enormis Pu FI Jan 2 7-14 Sorocea bonplandii* Pu FI Apr -- -- Myrtaceae Campomanesia xanthocarpa Pu IC Nov -- -- Eugenia brasiliensis Pu IC Jan -- -- Eugenia involucrata Pu CB Dec-Jan -- -- Eugenia sp. Pu IC Oct -- -- Myrcia. sp. Pu CB Apr -- -- Myristiceae Virola gardneri Ar FI Nov I 3.57 Virola oleifera Ar FI,IC Aug 1 3-57 Myrsinaceae Rapanea umbellata Pu IC Oct-Dec -- -- Rapanea ferruginea* Pu FI Dec -- -- Palmae Euterpe edulis Pu FI, CB, IC Apr 3 10-71 Phytolacaceae Phytolacca dioica Pu FI Apr 1 3.57 Podocarpaceae Podocarpus sellowii Pu IC Dec-Jan -- -- Quiinaceae Quiina glazioi Pu FI Jan 1 3.57 Rubiaceae Chomelia catharinae Pu CB Apr-May -- -- Sabiaceae Meliosma sinuata Pu FI Apr 2 7.14 Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum ftexuosum Pu FI Apr 1 3- 57 Sapindaceae Allophylus edulis Ar IB Nov -- -- Cupania oblongata Ar FI Nov 1 3-57 Matayba oleaginoides Ar FI Feb 1 3.57 Verbenaceae Cytharexyllum myrianthum Pu FI Feb-Mar 3 10-7 l

*Recorded by local people at Fazenda Intervales. aBased on 28 feeding bouts at Fazenda Intervales. Conservation of the jacutinga 35

(Spearman rank correlation, ~ = 0.25, p = 0.40; Fig. 2). Reproduction and group size The occurrence of jacutingas showed a bimodal distri- Flight displays or 'wing-drumming' (indicating repro- bution disappearing during the winter when Euterpe ductive season, Sick, 1993) have been observed in fruiting was at a peak (Fig. 2), exactly the opposite of August, September and November (Intervales), October what was expected. (Ilha do Cardoso and Intervales) and December (Santa At the other sites, the records ofjacutingas and palm Virginia, Intervales and Ilhabela), while chicks have fruits follow the same pattern as at Intervales. At Carlos been found only in December (three records each from Botelho State Park, jacutingas were detected only at Jur6ia, Carlos Botelho and Ilha do Cardoso). This per- 100 m asl while palm fruits were ripe at 800 m. The same iod coincides with the main reproductive season of birds has also been observed at Ilha do Cardoso. Newly hat- in southeastern Brazil (Davis, 1945). ched chicks were observed at the same time both at high Clutch sizes varied from two to four chicks. A nest elevations (ca. 800 m) and in the lowlands, suggesting with an adult incubating and three eggs was observed that jacutingas are resident in the same area throughout on 24 October 1994 at Ilhabela. It was located 1.7m the year, although a displacement of part of the popu- high on a branched shrub in stunted forest growing lation remains a possibility. Moreover, jacutingas were on a ridge 500m asl. Flock size ranged from two to detected in Ilhabela State Park, an island where Euterpe 11 birds (mean = 3-19, SD = 1-85; n = 37 flocks), but palms do not exist naturally. solitary individuals are quite common.

Table 2. Chemical composition of fruits (dry wt) eaten by the jacutinga Plant species Water (%) Lipids (%) Proteins (%) Carbohydrates (%) kj/g Capsicodendron dinisii 75-16 15.54 9-3 70.33 4-76 Cecropia pachystachia 83-19 4.46 11-67 77.62 2.79 Chrysophyllumflexuosum 83.27 3-53 9-62 82. i 3 3.33 Cytharexyllum myrianthum 81.4 6.34 6.83 82.74 3.23 Cordia sylvestris 81.03 1.58 7.75 83.87 3-02 Cryptocarya moschata 84-89 4-17 8-01 84-05 2-57 Cupania oblongifolia 55.97 62-59 11.04 24.62 13.01 Euterpe edulis 69-22 19.66 7.5 69.88 6.26 Ficus enormis 79-52 5.42 3.47 79-59 3-26 Phytolacca dioica 66.87 5-89 15-76 71.05 5.77 Protium widgrenii 58.38 2.65 6.63 88.08 6.86 Quiina glaziovii 87-03 8.02 2-93 69-47 1.96 Sorocea bonplandii 77.08 5.02 10-25 81-11 3.94 Virola gardneri 72.29 88-78 4-87 5.3 9.74 Virola oleifera 62.68 61.84 4.61 32.13 10.99

0.25 8000

~o 0"2 1 6000 .~

o ~0 0.15

4000 ~I O L) ..- 0.1 %. o ,.0 2000 0.05 Z

T J FMAMJ J AS OND J FMAMJ J AS OND 1994 o'ry season 1995 ury~-'season Month Fig. 2. Number of contacts/h of field work ofjacutinga (lines) and number of ripe Euterpe edulis fruits/ha (bars) in the lowland of Parque Estadual Intervales, Sgo Paulo, Brazil. 36 M. Galetti et al.

DISCUSSION fruits are much more common, both numerically and temporally, than lipid-rich fruits (Galetti, 1996), there- Habitat fore jacutingas are feeding on what clumped resource is The Pipile is usually associated with riverine for- available at any time. In fact, Myrtaceae and Rubia- ests (Silva & Strahl, 1991; del Hoyo et al., 1994) and ceae, both bearing water- and sugar-rich fruit, are Pipile jacutinga has been seen frequently along rivers in dominant in the Atlantic forest both in number of spe- Misiones, Argentina (Chebez, 1994; Benstead & Hearn, cies and individuals (Silva & Leit~o-Filho, 1982). On the 1994). The optimum habitat (i.e. where most records other hand, lipid-rich fruit borne by a smaller num- were made) was the broken terrain of steep hills alter- ber of species (usually Myristicaceae and Meliaceae) nating with deep valleys where the forest is structurally are found over shorter periods of time, but become a mosaic of habitats. an important food resource when available. The As large frugivores, jacutingas wander over wide exception is Euterpe edulis which is one of the most areas while searching for fruits and may be recorded in calorific in the whole plant community and bears rich second-growth vegetation especially when trees such as fruit (mainly carbohydrates) over five months Cecropia spp. display ripe fruits. It seems that in very (Galetti, 1996). seasonal habitats (such as semi-deciduous forests in Cracids play an important role as seed dispersers Brazil or south Atlantic forest in Paraguay and Argen- (Th~ry et al., 1992; Gonzales-Garcia, 1994; Peres & van tina) they forage along riverine vegetation looking for Roosmalen, 1996). Jacutingas are clearly seed dispersers fruits and molluscs (Benstead & Hearn, 1994), while in of Cordia sylvestris and Meliosma sinuata, as seeds extremely wet areas that have constant fruit availability found in their faeces germinated (M. Galetti, unpub- (coastal Atlantic forest) they can be observed far from lished data). The effectiveness (sensu Shupp, 1993) is rivers or creeks. dependent on the species consumed. Jacutingas remain long periods (up to 10 days) in large fruiting trees and Abundance most seeds are defecated below the parent plant. The abundance and density of cracids in tropical There are few year-round studies on the diet of cracids in forests are rarely documented (Stralh & Silva, 1991; the wild, and the importance of fruits varies for each genus. Thiollay, 1994), but in general this group is not It seems that small cracids (Ortalis) are more folivorous abundant. Terborgh et al. (1990) found densities for than large species (Penelope, Pipile and Oreophasis). The Trinidad piping-guan Pipile pipile and Spix's guan genus Crax is considered mainly a seed eater (Erard et al., Penelope jacquacu of about five and two birds/km 2, 1991), and it has been suggested that it disperses some respectively, in the unhunted Manu National Park, hard seeds in Amazonian forests (Peres & van Roos- Peru. Thiollay (1994) found six Marail guan Penelope malen, 1996). Invertebrates have been recorded in crop marail per km 2 in French Guyana. Silva and Strahl contents (Erard et al., 1991; Th6ry et al., 1992; Cazianai (1991) compared the density of 14 species of cracids in & Protomastro, 1994) but the proportion is very small Venezuela and observed that Pipile pipile is among the compared to fruits. rarest cracids in Venezuela (c. 1 individual/km2). The densities of jacutinga in the areas studied varied Movements from 0-11 individual/kma to 3-17 individuals/km2. The Sick (1993) suggests that the species makes altitudinal best protected reserves (Intervales and Carlos Botelho) migrations following the ripening of the palm fruits, have the higher densities of jacutingas while in the two which occurs earlier in the lowlands (M. Galetti & R. islands (Ilhabela and Ilha do Cardoso) the density is Laps, unpublished data). Jacutingas were absent in the low, indicative of overhunting. Silva and Strahl (1991) winter in the lowlands of Intervales, suggesting altitudi- also found that the density of cracids decline drastically nal migration, but it is noteworthly that resident (breed- in hunted areas in Venezuela. ing) birds occur in all altitudinal sites sampled. To determine the area necessary to protect the populations, Diet it is paramount to know whether the disappearance of The diet of cracids is poorly documented. Schubart et jacutingas over winter is due to long altitudinal migra- al. (1965) recorded jacutingas eating Psidium, Euterpe tion or if they tildeply use large home ranges (see Powell edulis, Geonoma, Eugenia and Byrsonima. Teixeira and & Bjork, 1995). Because of the drastic reduction in their Antas (1981) observed them eating Siparuna, Myrceu- numbers, the massive migrations of jacutingas reported genia, Erythroxyllum, Croton and Byrsonima. Pacagnella by early naturalists (see Sick, 1993) are no longer seen. et al. (1994) listed only Eugenia sp. (60% of feeding observations; n = 23 bouts), Euterpe edulis (17%) and Status and distribution Psychotria sp. (13%) as species consumed by jacutingas Unlike Penelope spp., jacutingas do not persist in forest during an 11-month study at Carlos Botelho Park. fragments < 15 km 2 (Johns, 1991; pers. obs.). Wege and The diet of jacutingas at Intervales showed a gener- Long (1995) listed 17 localities in Brazil, four in Argen- alist pattern, consuming mainly sugar-rich fruits. A tina and eight in Paraguay where jacutingas were phenological study of the area showed that lipid-poor observed, but most are old historical records. Conservation of the jacutinga 37

Most of the localities where the species is presently 10 years since heavy hunting still persists. In April 1996, known to occur are in the existing parks and reserves in a group of eight jacutingas were shot in this area, and S~o Paulo state. This is a direct consequence of the state many more are likely to be hunted since the park does harbouring the largest surviving remnant of the Atlantic not offer any protection. The only well protected parks forest and protecting it in a network of parks and in the entire stronghold of the jacutingas are Intervales reserves. A maximum of 154 jacutingas (some observa- and Carlos Botelho (both with a population estimate of tions may be of the same individuals) were recorded in 1892 birds). However, after our census, the state govern- 14 localities, all of them in the coastal mountain chain ment dismissed several rangers in Intervales park and, not of the Serra do Mar. The stronghold of the species is a by coincidence, the study group at Saibadela was killed at forest tract with about 1587 km 2 comprised of Jurria the edge of the reserve. It is possible that ca. 1000-1500 Ecological Station, Carlos Botelho, and Intervales State birds still remain in these two areas. Population surveys in Parks, all run by the state government (Table 3). Jacu- other state parks indicate they are too small to maintain a tingas are extinct in semi-deciduous forest in the interior viable population (except Jurria Ecological Station). of Silo Paulo mainly due to hunting, forest fragmenta- tion and destruction of riverine forests that were con- Threats and conservation sidered refuges during critical food periods (Willis, Today, the main threats to the jacutinga are hunting 1979; J. C. R. Magalh~es, pers. comm.). and habitat loss. Hunting is widespread and still occurs Because the Atlantic forest is in fact an altitudinal in all visited reserves which, as a rule, are severely mosaic of different habitats and hunting is still wide- understaffed and poorly equipped. Jacutingas are spread, it is extremely difficult to estimate the size of the among the first game species to disappear from hunted jacutinga population in these 14 areas. Based on the areas due to the ease with which they are shot. Interviews density at Intervales, Carlos Botelho, Ilhabela and Ilha with Indians in Ilha do Cardoso showed that they prefer do Cardoso, it is suggested that a maximum of 2200 to hunt jacutingas, guans Penelope spp., white-lipped birds live in these four areas. However, both island peccaries Tayassu pecari and howler monkeys Alouatta populations are prone to extinction. No jacutingas were fusca, in that order. Therefore, it is no coincidence that observed at Ilha do Cardoso in 1994-1995 and it is the best jacutinga populations occur in reserves where likely that this population is extinct. Also it is possible poachers and palm heart robbers are rare and where no that the Ilhabela population will be extinct in less than traditional people have lived for the last 50 years.

Table 3. Localities where jacutingas have been observed since 1978 in southeastern Brazil Site Area Threats Density or maximum number of birds (kin 2) observed State Desengano 224 Hunting Recorded by Vaz (unpubl. data) Itatiaia 300 Fire, hunting Last seen in 1978 Serra dos Org~os 110 Fire, hunting Last seen in 1980 Serra da Bocaina 1200 Heavy hunting, logging and palm harvesting Rare or extinct S~o Paulo State Ilha do Cardoso 165 Hunting, palm harvesting 0.11 individual/km 2 (11 birds seen) Jacupiranga 1100 Dams, hunting, palm harvesting 5 birds Alto do Ribeira 377 Palm harvesting Unknown Intervales 410 Occasional palm harvesting~ 1-7 individuals/km 2 (56 birds seen c) Carlos Botelho 377 Palm harvesting, occasional hunting 3.17 individuals/km 2 (48 birds seen) Jurria 800 Palm harvesting, hunting 13 birds Caraguatatuba 137 Hunting Unknown Mongagu~i 300 Hunting 2 birds killed in 1995 Boracria 164 Hunting 1 bird a Santa Virginia 38 Palm harvesting One bird heard in 1993 Ilhabela 270 Hunting 0.93 individual km 2 Ubatuba 137 Hunting, palm harvesting 5 birds Ariri b 2028 Hunting, palm harvesting, logging, squatters 5 birds Pilar do Sul b 200 Hunting, palm harvesting, logging 1 bird Paran~ State Guaragueqaba e 2915 Palm harvesting Unknown Iguazfi 1700 Hunting Last seen in 1980 Total protected area: 12-952 km 2 Minimum population: 154 aln June 1995 illegal palm harvesting started occurring throughout the park. bproposed parks. qncluding unpublished data of M. A. Pizo and R. Laps in the highlands of the park. aObserved by D. Stotz. eMost of the park is mangrove vegetation where jacutingas do not occur. 38 M. Galetti et al.

Several plant species used by jacutingas are valuable to their reserves and for logistical support. To R. timber trees (mostly Lauraceae) or have other economic Almeida-Scabbia and P. Morellato for plant identification, value (palm heart). The harvesting of those resources V. Zipparo, M. Paschoal, J. Vieira and Mr Lauro for field both by commercial enterprises and the 'traditional' assistance, D. J. Chivers, M. Rodrigues, M. M. Morales, communities pose an ever-growing threat to what is left A. D. Cuar6n, N. Collar and one anonymous referee for of the Atlantic forest. In fact, several projects aimed at comments on the manuscript. Financial support was pro- the sustainable use of these resources, mainly palm vided by the Wildlife Conservation Society, World Wild- hearts, have been implemented without studying the life Fund, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur impact on large frugivore communities and their role in Foundation (through Fundag~o O Boticfirio de Proteg~o seed dispersal. a Natureza), US Fish and Wildlife Service (through In the Serra do Mar (particularly in Serra de Parana- ICBP- PACS), and FMB. Mr B. Vieira and F. Pires piacaba) habitat loss and hunting have been alarmingly facilitated our work in Carlos Botelho and Jurria. The high since the early 1930s (Luederwaldt, 1929; Lane, Departamento de Bot~nica at UNESP-Rio Claro 1990), and these threats are still present despite the official through Dr L. P. C. Morellato gave permission to use protection of the Atlantic forest. One of the worst threats their facilities. M. Galetti received a fellowship from the is a proposal to build a series of four dams in the Rio Brazilian Science Council (CNPq) and A. Aleixo from Ribeira do Iguape, the heart of the j acutinga's stronghold, FAPESP. This paper is dedicated to the memory of the which will flood extensive areas of mature forest and dis- botanist Herm6genes de Freitas Leitao-Filho, who con- place about 3000 people (Galetti & Chivers, 1995). tributed to plant identifications. There are large tracts of forest in the jacutinga strong- hold that could be transformed into reserves, such as Fazenda Aliperti (c. 350 km 2) and a pool of eight private REFERENCES properties in Pilar do Sul (c. 200 km2). Such a step, already proposed to the state government, would be very Aleixo, A. and Galetti, M. (in press) Conservation of the avi- important for the conservation of jacutinga and several fauna in a lowland Atlantic forest in south-east Brazil. Bird Conserv. Intern. endangered birds, such as the blue-bellied parrot Tri- Almeida-Scabbia, R. (1996) Fitosociologia de um trecho de claria malachitacea, the vinaceous amazon Amazona Mata Atlfintica no sudeste do Brasil. 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