Atlante Geochimico-Ambientale D’Italia

BENEDETTO DE VIVO MARIA ANNA BOVE ANNAMARIA LIMA STEFANO ALBANESE DOMENICO CICCHELLA GIUSEPPE GREZZI PIETRO FRIZZO GIUSEPPE SABATINI ANTONELLO DI LELLA GIUSEPPE PROTANO LORENZO RACCAGNI FRANCESCO RICCOBONO

ATLANTE GEOCHIMICO-AMBIENTALE D’ITALIA

Geochemical Environmental Atlas of Italy

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ISBN 978–88–548–2282–5

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I edizione: gennaio 2009 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.Introduction………………………………….…………………………………………9

2.Italy...... …….11 2.1 Introduction………...... ……………………..……………..11 2.2 Climate and vegetation…...... 11 2.2.1 Climatic zones…………...... …………………….……………………11 2.2.2 Vegetation zones………...... …12 2.3 Geological framework………...... …12 2.3.1 Geology………...... …12 2.3.2 Lithological description of sampled GRN cells………...... …13 2.4 Mineralisation of Italian Territory...... …15 2.4.1 The mineralization of the Western Alps………...... …15 2.4.2 Mineralisation of the Central-Eastern Alps………...... …19 2.4.3 Mineralisation and industrial minerals of the Italian Apennines...... …22 2.4.4 Mineralisation of Central-Southern Italy...... …26 2.4.5 Mineralisation of Calabria...... 28 2.4.5 Mineralisation of Sicily...... 29 2.4.5 Mineralisation of Sardinia...... 31 2.5 Human activities...... …….33 2.5.1 Industry...... …….33 2.5.2 Agriculture...... …….34 2.5.3 Energy and mining resources...... …….34

3. Methodologies...... …….35 3.1 The FOREGS Program and the Environmental Geochemical Atlas of Italy...... …….35 3.2 Sampling and sample preparation...... …….37 3.3 Analysis...... …….37 3.4 Database management...... …….37 3.5 Map production...... …….37

4. Description of Sampling Cells...... …….45 N25E08...... …….46 N25E09...... …….48 N26E08...... …….50 N26E09...... …….53 N26E10...... …….57 N27E05...... …….59 N27E06...... …….61 N27E09...... …….62 N27E10...... …….65 N27E11...... …….69 N28E05...... …….70 3 N28E06...... …….72 N28E07...... …….74 N28E08...... …….76 N28E09...... …….83 N28E10...... …….90 N29E07...... …….92 N30E06...... …….99 N31E05...... …….106 N31E06...... …….113 N31E07...... …….120

5. Distribution of elements...... …….127 Ag-Silver...... …….127 Al -Aluminium...... …….127 As-Arsenic...... …….128 B-Boron...... …….128 Ba-Barium...... …….128 Be- Beryllium...... …….129 Bi-Bismuth...... …….129 Br- -Bromide...... …….130 C-Carbon (TOC)...... …….130 Ca-Calcium...... …….130 Cd-Cadmium...... …….131 Ce-Cerium...... …….131 Cl- -Chloride...... …….132 Co -Cobalt...... …….132 Cr.-Chromium...... …….132 Cs-Cesius...... …….133 Cu-Copper...... …….133 Dy-Dysprosium...... …….134 EC (Electrical Conductivity)...... …….134 Er-Erbium...... …….135 Eu-Europium...... …….135 F- -Fluoride...... …….135 Fe-Iron...... …….135 Ga-Gallium...... …….136 Gd-Gadolinium...... …….136 Ge-Germanium...... …….137 Grain Size...... …….137 - HCO 3 - Alkalinity...... …….138 Hf-Hafnium...... …….138 Hg-Mercury...... …….138 Ho-Holmium...... …….139 I-Iodine...... …….139 In-Indium...... …….139 K-Potassium...... …….140 La-Lanthanum...... …….140

4 Li-Lithium...... …….141 Lu-Lutetium...... …….141 Mg-Magnesium...... …….141 Mn-Manganese...... …….142 Mo-Molybdenum...... …….142 N-Nitrogen (Nitrate)...... …….143 Na-Sodium...... …….143 Nb-Niobium...... …….143 Nd-Neodymium...... …….144 Ni-Nickel...... …….144 P-Phosphorus...... …….145 Pb-Lead...... …….145 pH - Acidity...... …….146 Pr-Praseodymium...... …….146 Rb-Rubidium...... …….147 S-Sulphur...... …….147 Sb-Antimony...... …….148 Sc-Scandium...... …….148 Se-Selenium...... …….148 Si-Silicon...... …….148 Sm-Samarium...... …….149 Sn-Tin...... …….150 Sr-Strontium...... …….150 Ta-Tantalium...... …….150 Tb-Terbium...... …….151 Te-Tellurium...... …….151 Th-Thorium...... …….152 Ti-Titanium...... …….152 Tl-Thallium...... …….153 Tm-Thulium...... …….153 U-Uranium...... …….154 V-Vanadium...... …….154 W-Tungsten...... …….155 Y-Yttrium...... …….155 Yb-Ytterbium...... …….156 Zn-Zinc...... …….156 Zr-Zirconium...... …….157

6. Geochemical maps...... …….159 Ag-Silver...... …….161 Al -Aluminium...... …….163 As-Arsenic...... …….168 B-Boron...... …….177 Ba-Barium...... …….178 Be- Beryllium...... …….187 Bi-Bismuth...... …….192 Br- -Bromide...... …….195

5 C-Carbon (TOC)...... …….196 Ca-Calcium...... …….200 Cd-Cadmium...... …….205 Ce-Cerium...... …….210 Cl- -Chloride...... …….215 Co -Cobalt...... …….216 Cr.-Chromium...... …….225 Cs-Cesius...... …….234 Cu-Copper...... …….239 Dy-Dysprosium...... …….248 EC (Electrical Conductivity)...... …….253 Er-Erbium...... …….254 Eu-Europium...... …….259 F- -Fluoride...... …….264 Fe-Iron...... …….265 Ga-Gallium...... …….274 Gd-Gadolinium...... …….279 Ge-Germanium...... …….284 Grain Size...... …….285 - HCO 3 - Alkalinity...... …….293 Hf-Hafnium...... …….294 Hg-Mercury...... …….299 Ho-Holmium...... …….303 I-Iodine...... …….308 In-Indium...... ……...... 311 pH - Acidity...... …….313 K-Potassium...... …….316 La-Lanthanum...... …….321 Li-Lithium...... …….326 Lu-Lutetium...... …….329 Mg-Magnesium...... …….334 Mn-Manganese...... …….339 Mo-Molybdenum...... …….348 Na-Sodium...... …….353 Nb-Niobium...... …….358 Nd-Neodymium...... …….363 Ni-Nickel...... …….368 N-Nitrate...... …….377 P-Phosphorus...... …….378 Pb-Lead...... …….382 Pr-Praseodymium...... …….391 Rb-Rubidium...... …….396 S-Sulphur...... …….401 Sb-Antimony...... …….405 Sc-Scandium...... …….410 Se-Selenium...... …….412 Si-Silicon (Silicate)...... …….413

6 Sm-Samarium...... …….418 Sn-Tin...... …….423 Sulphate...... 427 Sr-Strontium...... …….428 Ta-Tantalium...... …….433 Tb-Terbium...... …….438 Te-Tellurium...... …….443 Th-Thorium...... …….446 Ti-Titanium...... …….451 Tl-Thallium...... …….456 Tm-Thulium...... …….461 U-Uranium...... …….466 V-Vanadium...... …….471 W-Tungsten...... …….480 Y-Yttrium...... …….485 Yb-Ytterbium...... …….490 Zn-Zinc...... …….495 Zr-Zirconium...... …….504

References...... …….509

7 8 1.INTRODUCTION

The Geochemical Atlas of Italy addresses the need of the Earth, according to the establishments of the for a large scale geochemical mapping based on Global Geochemical Baseline project (IGCP 360) FOREGS procedures. The aim of the Geochemical (Darnley et al., 1995). Atlas of Italy is to define background/baseline chemi- During field activities and sample preparation, cal element values on a national scale and it will help FOREGS procedures (Salminen et al., 1998) were government decision makers in defining trigger and strictly followed. The geochemical data used for action limits on a local scale, bearing in mind the com- the FOREGS project and the new data from sub- plex spatial variability of Italian geology. As regards cells of southern Italy have been processed using the Geochemical Atlas of Italy, data of Italian topsoil ArcView GIS™ and a new Multifractal IDW (T), subsoil (C), stream water (W), stream sediment method available in the software GeoDAS™ (S) and floodplain sediment (F), have been extracted (Cheng et al., 2003; Lima et al., 2003). Interpo- from the FOREGS database and supplemented with lated maps have been overlayed by dots and have new sampling data from 8 additional sites. been classified by statistic graphs, for a total pro- The italian territory has been divided into 27 sam- duction of 348 maps. Data show that, even, on a pling cells (Fig. 1.1) on the basis of the Global large scale, the distribution of elements reflects Terrestrial Network (GTN), a sampling grid of 160 the major geo-lithological Italy structures. km x 160 km cells which covers the entire surface

Landscape view of an area in the Cilento Natural Park ( Southern Italy - Cell N27E09)

9 Fig 1.1 Satellite view of Italy overlayed by the GTN reference grid (Darnley et al., 1995).

10 2. ITALY

2.1 INTRODUCTION nines (over 3,000 mm pa in the Apuan Alps). The The territory of the Italian Republic covers plains, however, including that of the Po, receive 301,278 sq km. It lies between the northern lati- scarce precipitation. Generally it is less than 800- tudes of 47º05’29'’ and 35º39’26'’, and the eastern 900 mm pa but in the southern regions of the penin- longitudes from Greenwich of 6º37’32'’ and sula (Apulia and southern Sicily) it falls below 600 18º31’13'’ mm pa. The great internal Alpine valleys and the coastal plains of the Tyrrhenian (Maremma) and 2.2 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION Sardinia also receive little rain. Altogether, six large climatic regions can be 2.2.1 CLIMATIC ZONE distinguished, mainly characterized by mountain in- Despite its geographical position at the centre fluence. of the temperate zone, Italy has variable climatic 1) The Alpine region (N30E04, N31E04, characteristics. This is due to the presence of both N31E05, N31E06) strongly influenced by altitude, the Mediterranean sea, whose warm waters miti- with long cold winters and short cool summers gate thermal extremes, and the Alpine arc, which with an elevated day-time temperature range; pre- forms a barrier against the cold north winds. Italy cipitation is more intense in the spring and autumn is also subject to both wet and moderate atmos- months, especially in the pre-Alpine belt. pheric currents from the Atlantic Ocean and dry 2) The Po plain region (N31E05, and cold ones from eastern Europe. The Apennine N31E06, N31E07, N30E06), with continental chain too, comparing the wet winds from the conditions, consisting of cold and sometimes Tyrrhenian sea, causes considerable climatic dif- snowy winters and warm and sultry summers. Pre- ferences between the opposite sides of the penin- cipitation is greatest in the spring and autumn sula. The differences in temperature between the months when the climate becomes milder. How- winter and summer months are more marked in the ever, around the pre-Alpine lakes fog is frequent northern regions than in the south and along the in the winter, due to the wetness of the land. coasts. The mean temperatures for the month of 3) The Adriatic region (N31E07, January in the Po Plain fluctuate around zero, while N30E07, N29E08). Because of the inability of in the Alpine valleys the thermometer can drop to - the Adriatic’s shallow waters to trap summer heat, 20º C and snow can remain on the ground for many the climate has a continental character, that is, weeks. In the southern regions, the mean tempera- winters dominated by cold north-east winds tures for January are around 10º C, with the excep- (bora). tion of the inland mountainous zones. Mean sum- 4) The Apennine region (N30E06, mer temperatures throughout the whole of Italy rise N29E06, N29E07, N28E08, N28E09), also to 24º-25º C for July, although they are lower in with continental tendencies and cold snowy the highest zones. Rainfall distribution also varies winters; precipitation is more intense on the considerably, due to the influence of both moun- Tyrrhenian slopes and is abundant in all sea- tains and prevailing winds. The highest values are sons apart from the summer. registered in the Alpine arc (over 3,000 mm pa in 5) The Ligurian-Tyrrhenian region the Lepontine and Julian Alps) and on the Apen- (N30E04, N30E05, N30E06, N29E06, 11 N28E07), with a maritime climate and heavy around the around the southern shores of the and frequent precipitation, lower in the sum- major Alpine lakes, and on the hills at the edges mer and distributed irregularly; the winters are of the Adige plain. cool and the annual temperature range narrow. 2) The Apennine region (N31E07, 6) The Mediterranean region (N28E05, N30E07, N30E06, N29E06, N29E07, N28E08, N28E06, N28E07, N28E08, N27E05, N27E06, N28E09), similar in character and sequence to N27E09, N27E10, N26E08, N26E09, N26E10, the Alpine but with the presence of temperate spe- N25E08, N25E09), also with a limited annual cies in the valley bottoms and a lesser spread of temperature range; precipitation is frequent, conifers in the upper levels. especially in winter, and the summers are hot 3) A Po region (N31E05, N31E06, and dry. The interior and the mountain zones of N31E07, N30E06), dominated by broad-leaved the islands and Calabria also have an Apennine trees (willows, alders, poplars and oaks), which type climate due to the altitude. still form small woods but only along the river banks, while on the upper plain there survive ex- 2.2.2 VEGETATION ZONE tensive stretches of the original heath with Ameri- Due to the thousands of years of intense exploi- can acacias, heathers and brooms and, along the tation by human beings the original vegetation cover Adriatic coast, some forests of maritime pine. has been greatly altered, as have been the high moun- 4) The Mediterranean region tain zones of the Alps and Apennines, which were sub- (N30E05, N30E06, N29E06, N28E05, ject to systematic deforestation until the end of the last N28E06, N28E07, N28E08, N27E05, N27E06, century. Despite attempts to protect the mountains, N27E09, N27E10, N26E08, N26E09, N26E10, which began at the beginning of this century, many of N25E08, N25E09), covering the Ligurian and Italy’s mountain regions still remain without tree cover Tyrrhenian coasts as well as those of the central and are therefore susceptible to hydrogeological dis- and southern Adriatic and the islands, dominated aster, especially in the zones with particularly unstable by a mixture of maritime pine and evergreen un- rock types. At the present time little more than a fifth dergrowth (with olives, cypresses, corks, etc.) (21.2%) of Italy is covered by trees, which altogether derived from the spoliation of the original ilex occupy an area of about 64 sq km. In the strictly floral groves. category, the Italian territory includes unites Mediter- ranean and central European species. When these are 2.3 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK combined with morphological and altimetrical influences there is a varied floral landscape, that is due to cli- 2.3.1 GEOLOGY matic conditions rather than soil types. Thus it is pos- The complexity of its geological history combined sible to identify at least four principal floral regions. with the wide variety of its substratum rock types, of- 1) The Alpine region (N30E04, ten dislocated by numerous fault-lines, folding and N31E04, N31E05, N31E06), divided into bands thrusting of the rocky Units by orogenic forces, have according to height, with oaks and other broad- contributed to Italy’s extremely diverse morphology. leaved trees prevailing in the lower areas and val- Less than a quarter (23%) of its total territory is formed ley bottoms, followed up to about 1,000 m by by plains, while mountainous areas occupy over a third chestnuts and then beeches followed still higher of its surface (35%). And, over two-fifths (42%) con- up, but not beyond 2,000 m., by a mixture of nee- sists of hill zones. Italy’s maximum height above sea dle-leaved trees (firs, larches and Scotch pines); level corresponds with the summit of Mont Bianco, the summit areas are dominated by meadows and 4,810 m., on the border with France. In the far east- pastures with shrub vegetation (rhododendrons and ern section of the Po valley there are some zones which dwarf pines) or, on the margins of permanent snow are slightly below the sea level and which are often (circa 2,400-2,800 m.), by Alpine tundra with subject to subsidence phenomena. However, physi- mosses and lichens. Olives and cypresses grow cally, the Italian territory, generally speaking, con- 12 sists can be considered to consist of the following From Triassic to Recent, several magmatic epi- regional units, characterized by a certain morpho- sodes with different geodynamic significance oc- logical and at times climatic similarity: the Alpine curred in Italy. The most significant are: the middle system and Po-Venetian Plain in the continental sec- Triassic calc-alkaline and the Eocene-Oligocene tion; the Apennine system and anti-Apennine re- riolitic-trachitic and basaltic, both effusive and sub- liefs in the peninsula section; and the large islands volcanic magmatisms of the Central-Eastern South- of Sicily and Sardinia. ern Alps; the Tertiary calc-alkalic magmatism, Italy is a country whose variegate characteris- which marked the Oligo-Miocene rifts in Sardinia; tics are strictly controlled by its peculiar geology the Plio-Quaternary volcanism with variable char- (Doglioni & Flores, 1997), whose main lineaments acter, occurring, in Sardinia, in several districts of reflect the constraints of the Alpidic structural set- Central and Southern Italy and in the Aeolian is- ting . From a geographical and geological point of lands. view it is useful to distinguish between former Eu- ropean basement (Sardinia), Alps (Northern & 2.3.2 LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLED GRN Southern), Apennines, bigger (Po plain, Tavoliere CELLS delle Puglie) and smaller plains, the variegated The evolution of the geology of Italy spans from volcanic districts, including also many islands the early Paleozoic orogens throughout the Mesozoic groups. opening of the Tethys oceans to the later closure of The Italian crust is continental, apart from in the these oceanic embayments during the Alpine and Tyrrhenian abyssal plain and the Ionian sea. Its maxi- Apenninic subductions. All these phenomena are mum thickness occurs in the Alpine chain (about 50÷60 reflected in the lithological characteristics of the km), and its minimum along the Tuscan and Latium different Italian regions. We will present here a short coastal belt. summary of these variable characteristics. The pre-Alpine Basement is well exposed in the Alps, in the island of Sardinia, and locally in Calabria The alpine regions, from Piedmont, Lombardy, and Sicily. It consists of variously metamorphosed sedi- Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto to Friuli, where the sam- mentary successions, associated to minor Caledonian ples of the N31 cells (E05-E06-E07) have been taken, and far more widespread Variscan magmatites. are characterized by a combination of lithologies com- Post-Variscan stratigraphy in Italy from the prising the metamorphic-magmatic rocks of the Permian to Cretaceous, exhibit the typical character- basaments of the different Alpine thrust sheets, the istics of a passive margin, reflecting the geodynamic extensive Permo-Triassic to Oligocene-Miocene sedi- evolution of the Central Mediterranean. Sedimentary mentary covers and the widespread sediments of the sequences both in the Alps and the Apennines record foreland plains (Po-Adige-Piave river plain). the rifting and drifting history of the Tethys margins. In Piedmont region the most northerly lithologies Italy was part of the passive margin of the western are the pre-Triassic crystalline rocks, and in part and northern Adriatic plate during the opening of the Mesozoic ophiolitic-sedimentary series, comprised in western Tethys. the Penninic tectonic Units, separated by the Canavese The inversion and relative motion between Eu- and Centovalli Lineaments (westernmost part of the rope and Adriatic plates began during Cretaceous and Insubric Line) from the southern Late- to post-Variscan generated compression at the western margin or dex- magmatites and associated calcareous-dolomitic and tral transpression at the northern margin of the Adri- terrigenous Anisian to Eocene sediments. More to the atic plate. south there are late orogenic molasses and the alluvial The spatial and temporal evolution of the Alps deposits of the Po plain. and later of Apennines during the Tertiary is recorded In the Liguria region the ophiolite deposits, asso- by clastic sediments, flysch and molasses which over- ciated to deep sea sediments, both of Jurassic age are laid the earlier passive margin sequences. common.

13 In the easternmost regions, from Lombardy to and the successions of terrains of the Tuscany thrust Friuli, the sub-latitudinal Tonale-Giudicarie- sheets. These consist of a carbonate platform as well Pusteria-Gail Lineament (easternmost part of the as of pelagic sediments, with their related flysch Insubric Line) separates, to the North, the rocky deposits. The deeper tectonic unit are the crystal- crystalline Units of the Austroalpine Complex, from line (parautocthonous) deposits of the Apuane meta- the sequences of the Southalpine Complex. The morphic carbonates. Austroalpine Units consist of various Paleozoic The same tectonic situation, but with strongly sedimentary and volcano sedimentary poly-meta- variable lithological types, is found in cell N29E07, morphosed series, locally with autochthonous strips comprising southern Tuscany and parts of the of Mesozoic sedimentary cover, that exhibits only Umbria-Marche-Latio-Abruzzo regions. Here the the effects of the Alpine tectono-metamorphic cy- pelagic successions of the Umbria-Marche domain cle. In the northernmost Lombardy and Trentino Alto are quite important and they are accompanied by Adige areas some strips of the Penninic Units out- their late-orogenic flysch deposits, grading toward crop in tectonic windows across the Austroalpine Abruzzi to carbonate platform deposits. Along the belt. Tyrrhenian coastal belt, there occur the thick vol- The Southalpine Complex includes: canic deposits of the Southern Tuscan-Roman prov- 1) a Variscan crystalline basement, mostly ince with high-K magmas, whose volcanoes were outcropping along the Insubric Line, made up of pre- emplaced along grabens with an Apenninic trend. vailing paragneisses in Lombardy and of phillites in Trentino–Alto Adige and Veneto, in both cases with Sardinia is composed of 4 cells, two in the north intercalated minor quartzites, porphyroid-gneiss and of the island (N28E05-N28E06), and two in the south metabasites; (N27E05-N27E06). In the island outcrop most of the 2) a wide sedimentary Permo-Miocene Paleozoic lithotypes recorded in Italy. In the north, unmetamorphosed sedimentary cover, several thou- high grade metamorphic rocks of Variscan age prevail sand meters thick, consisting of both shallow water (amphibolites and migmatites), associated to syn- to carbonates and basinal deposit, with major calcare- post-kynematic granites. Tertiary volcanites of calc- ous-dolomitic sequences in the Dolomites. alkalic character occur both in the north and in the Late- to post-Variscan granitic-granodioritic bod- south of the island, often in association with Tertiary ies are intruded along the Insubric Line, as well as in continental sediments. In the southern part of the is- the Southalpine crystalline basement (mainly in the land, the metamorphic character of the Paleozoic Thrust Trentino-Alto Adige region) as plutonic and epi-plu- Complexes is lower. In the South-West of the island, tonic masses; very large effusive, often ignimbritic de- the Cambrian and Ordovician platform carbonates of posits evolving from andesite-dacite to riolite the External Zones, hosted important base metal ores (Piattaforma Porfirica Atesina) are products of the resources. same magmatic event. Across the southern sedimentary covers are also widely present sub-volcanic and The central-southern cells N28E08-09-010, also effusive calc-alkaline to shoshonitic products of the share many common lithological characteristics. They Ladinian-Carnian magmatism. At the edge or in the comprise the Southern Latium-Campania and the up- near Po-Adige plain, outcrop abundant alkali-basaltic permost Apulia district. Common lithologies are the rocks (Lessini-Berici Mountains) and sub-volcanic widespread Mesozoic platform carbonates trachi-andesitic to riolitic bodies (Euganei Hills) of the (limestone>dolomite) and their associated silicoclastic Eocene-Oligocene age. flysch deposits. Upper Tertiary post-orogenic pelitic successions and marine to continental Pleistocene de- In the N30E06 cell, comprising almost the whole posits are also present, mostly in easternmost of the Tuscan region, there are quite distinct complexes, Campania and Abruzzi regions. In the southernmost which include both the Liguridi Units, consisting of Campania the pelagic deposits of the Lagonegro Units, flyschoid successions, often associated to ophiolites, mostly Mesozoic in age, start to occur. They consist

14 of pelagic carbonates with chert nodules, evolving 2.4 MINERALISATIONS OF ITALIAN TERRITORY to radiolarite sequences. Volcanic rocks with potassic character occur mostly in the Campania re- The ore mineralisation (Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, Sb, As, Ag, gion, forming the Roccamonfina, Vesuvius and Sn, W, Mo, Au, Ag, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr, Ti, PGM, REE Phlegrean Fields complexes. etc.) and the industrial minerals deposits (fluorite, barite, Another volcanic center is the Vulture com- feldspar, alkaline-magnesic salts, talc, asbestos, clays, plex, between Apulia and Lucania. coal, hydrocarbons, bitumen etc.), present in the lithosphere, generally constitute some small or tiny- The two cells N27E09 and N27E010 cover the sized geological bodies. Nonetheless, their geochemical terrains between southern Campania, Lucania, Ca- impact, besides the economic importance, is enormous: labria and the southernmost extremity of Apulia. In the in fact they are some “singular” and quite uncommon latter region carbonate sequences of foreland envi- rocks, characterized by very high concentrations of ronment prevail. In Campania-Lucania and northern elements that are normally accessory or traces in the Calabria the most characteristic deposits are Mesozoic common rocks of the earth’s crust. Their deposits carbonate platform sediments, with an age equivalent formed within specific “metallotects”, generated by to the basinal Lagonegro sequences. Tertiary flysch specific geodynamic or environmental contexts, ow- deposits are also present, some of which, the most ing to particular chemical-physical processes during internal, can be compared with those outcropping in magmatic, sedimentary or metamorphic events. De- the north-western Italian regions: the Liguridi flysch spite their small sizes, these mineralisation can deci- successions. In cell N27E010, the successions of the sively influence the geochemical landscape of the host Taranto gulf area correspond to thick silicoclastic region: this impact, when the mineralisation occurs in deposits belonging to post-orogenic foredeep accu- swarms across wide areas, is as accentuated and ex- mulations. treme as it gives rise to some real metallogenic provinces. In the next three cells N26E08-09-010 the The various types of industrial minerals and ore de- lithologies outcropping in southern Calabria and North- posits mark the territory with their geochemical signa- ern Sicily are given. In Southern Calabria occur mostly ture, determined by a natural spectrum of indicator heavy metamorphic and magmatic types, produced and pathfinder elements. It is a specific basic spec- through both Hercynian and Alpine orogenetic cycles. trum determining and characterizing the mineralisation The same lithologies have been recorded in the east- as well as the genetic context, the processes and the ernmost area of Sicily, the Peloritani Mountains. In formation environments. northern Sicily the successions are generally sedimen- The appearance of false geochemical spectra gener- tary, Mesozoic to Tertiary in age and similar to those ally indicates the presence or the overlapping of of the carbonate platforms of southern continental Italy. “ungeological” processes. Several flysch deposits also occur, among which the The potential of primary and secondary geochemical Numidian flysch, a very mature Tertiary sandstone. In dispersion characterizing the mineralisation can enlarge Eastern Sicily the most important volcanic complexes and extend, sometimes enormously, their impact on are related to the Aetna, whose basaltic effusions cover territory. The secondary dispersion processes, through a great part of the Catania province. Further north, the matched actions of weathering and of mechanical the Aeolian arc volcanism, mostly bearing a calc-al- and chemical dispersion can influence, sometimes very kaline character is present. extensively, the geochemistry of soils, stream sediments, stream water and floodplain sediments. In the southern cells of Sicily, N25E08-09 the The “Carta Mineraria d’Italia 1:1.000.000” of the most extensive formations consist again of carbonates Italian Geological Survey (Stampanoni, 1973) and and late-orogenic flysch deposits, as well as of the its explanatory notes (Castaldo and Stampanoni, Iblei basaltic rocks. The volcanic island of Pantelleria 1975) were the base for drafting the chapter and belongs to the same cells. the dressing of the Italian Territory Mineralisation

15 Iron, manganese, chromium, titanium. HOLOCENE-PLEISTOCENE-PLIOCENE: alluvial, glacial, lacus Mercury, antimony, arsenic. trine and marine detrital sediments. Pyrite, copper, gold, nickel, cobalt. UPPER MIOCENE: “Gessoso-solfifera” Formation. Lead, zinc, silver, fluorite, barite, celestine. Beryllium, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, uranium. MIOCENE: sandstones, claystones, marlstones, limestones. PALEOGENE: flysch; limestones, clayey-marlstones, calcarenites. Sulfur. CRETACEOUS-JURASSIC-TRIASSIC: cherty limestones; calcare Industrial minerals and rocks (feldspar, bauxite, ous platforms, marlstones, claystones; gypsum. quartz, talc, asbestos, kaolinite, bentonite etc.). ALPINE TRIASSIC: calcareous and dolomitic platform; volcanites; Halite, K-Mg salts. “Metallifero Bergamasco”. Coal, asphaltic and bituminous rocks; graphite. PERMIAN-CARBONIFEROUS: continental and marine sandstones, conglomerates; limestones, marlstones, clayey schists, gypsum. Geothermal energy. DEVONIAN-SILURIAN: clayey schists, limestones, metapelites, 76 75 marbles. 8081 74 92 8690 78 8789 CAMBRIAN: limestones and dolostones, clayey schists (Metallife 79 77 82 84 ro Sardo). 83 91 94 114 96 88 85 115 128 11 116 129 130 Alpine granitoids. 52 53 54 131 57 134 13 12 56 58 14 59 Variscan granitoids. 16 15 18 55 133 4 6 5 19 1 21 20 135 Alpine acidic volcanites. 118 132 136 2 117 Alpine basic volcanites. 98 106 119 6463 105 3 8 17 23 97 7 22 65 95 73 68 66 67 93 TRIESTE Undifferentiated Alpine volcanites. 28 25 26 60 109 9102427 69 61 62 121 103104 33 MILANO 70 29 7172 110 3435 30 99 101 124 VENEZIA Ophiolites and “Pietra verde”. 36 32 31 38 113 100 108 107 111 123125 102 122 127 39 TORINO 112 120 126 Variscan acidic volcanites. 40 41 37 42 43 Variscan basic volcanites. 44 45 48 Gneissess, micaschists, phyllites, quartzites. 46 BOLOGNA 143 Calcschists. 47 141 142 49 137 144 50 51 138 184 Diorites, kinzigites, granulites etc. 139 145 140 146 186 147 FIRENZE 185 148 187 149 ANCONA 150 188 151 152 189 153 156 154 155 157 190 159 158 160 161 162 163 195 164 165 170168 196 166 171 176 167 169 212 172 174 213 173 175 177 214 178 215 179 191 183 180 181 192 182193 216 217 194 200 197 198 199 203 201 ROMA 229 202204205 230 206 231 207 286 208 285 210 BARI 209 219 218 282 287 224 223 220 283 221 290 211 225 222 NAPOLI 284 226 291 227 288 228 289 292 232 293 294 TARANTO 296 295 297 298 299 300 301 306 303 234 309 305 304302 235 311 308 238 233 313 312 307 236 316 237 240 317 314 310 323 315 325 322 324 328 241 330 320 321 239 329 331 CAGLIARI 242 333 346 326 334 318319 243 336 339 340 337 327 338 245 335 332 341 345 347 247 342349 343348 244 344 350 248 246 249 250 251 254 256 252 261 257258 267 263 259 MESSINA 253 PALERMO

0 100 200 km 255

260 270 275 268 271 277 SIRACUSA 272 269 262 265 276 273 274278 281 264 266 279 280 Fig. 2.1 Mineralisation Map of the Italian Territory (after Castaldo and Stampanoni, 1975) 16 Map (Fig. 2.1). Refer to these Authors for major di Doccio, Locarno and Parone, Sella Bassa, Alpe information: the original numbering is reported on Cevia, Cravagliana, Meula) and in Strona Valley the deposits to facilitate the readers. A new con- (e.g., Alvani, Pennino Grande and Croso cise bibliography updated the metallogenic situa- dell’Acqua). La Balma, Campello Monti, Val tion of some areas with particular importance: e.g. Maggia, Fei di Doccio are PGE-bearing minerali- the scheelite deposits in the Alpine Arc and in the sation connected with cumulus ultramafic dykes. Calabrian-Peloritan Complex, the Au and different Some Fe-Cr spinel occurrences lie in peridotite ore mineralisation in Sardinia and in various other bodies (Balmuccia, Alpe Campo); titanomagnetite- areas. ilmenite ores occur at Meula; b) cupriferous mineralisation “Kieslager” 2.4.1 THE MINERALIZATION OF THE WESTERN A LPS type, with pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and minor pyrite, bravoite, galena, molibdenite, magnetite etc. Southalpine Complex are connected with the belt of metabasites, gnisseses I. The Strona Ceneri-Serie dei Laghi Zone is and quartzites (Kinzigite Fm), extended from Strona an Early Palaeozoic sequence of gneisses, biotite-mus- to Ossola Valleys: the main ore deposits are Nibbio, covite micaschists and quartzites with Late Variscan Migiandone [18] and Ornavasso (Ossola Valley), volcanic calcalkaline plutonic and effusive rocks. The Alpe Frera, Val di Mengo and Alpe Collo. The magmatic activity generated several pyrite, arsenopyrite Kinzigite Fm also includes some Fe, Cu, (Au) and Pb, Zn, Cu ± Ag sulphide veins, scattered be- stratiform ores, intercalated within pelitic rocks tween Orta Lake and Maggiore Lake (Di Colbertaldo, [e.g., Fonte Amara; Mn (carbonate and silicate) ± 1967). The Gignese-Motto Piombino [23], Nocco, Fe, Cu, (Au) mineralisation (e.g., Ravinella)] linked Brovello etc. are the main ore bodies, located within to a quartzite horizon; numerous occurrences of Fe the micaschists; easternmost, the polymetallic fluorite oxides and sulphides with barite, scattered along a and barite veins of Brusimpiano [63] and Valvassera 100 km level of marbles, outcrop from Ascona to [64] lie within the “Porfidi di Lugano”. Coggiola (e.g., Ascona, Porto Ronco, Gridone, Candoglia, Sambughetto etc.). II. The Ivrea-Verbano diorite-kinzigite Zone is a high-grade sequence including a Mafic com- III. Sedimentary cover. Some deposits of illitic- plex and a Kinzigite Fm (paragneisses, marbles, montmorillonitic clays (e.g. Zizzano [38]) occur in the amphibolites and granulitic peridotites). The Mafic Monferrato area; they are embedded within the complex hosts Ni, Cu, (± PGE), Fe-Cr and Fe-Ti “Calcari da Cemento” Fm (Middle Eocene). Various mineralisation. Different cupriferous, fireclays deposits (caolinite, halloisite, quartz, K-feld- manganesiferous and Fe-Ba occurences are related spar, Fe and Al hydroxides) are located within the Plio- to the Kinzigite Fm (Omenetto and Brigo, 1974; Pleistocene sediments of the piedmont zone of Vercelli Bigioggero et al., 1979): province: they originated by weathering, in a hot damp a) the ore deposits of the Mafic complex are climate, of Villafranchiano lagoonal and deltaic deposits mainly liquid-magmatic mineralisation of Cu, Ni, (sands, clays, conglomerates with clasts of Permian Co (and PGE) with nodules, veinlets and some- rhyolites and granitoids): the major deposits are S. times layered lenses of pyrrhotite, pentlandite, Grato-Boca [26], Lozzolo-Roasio [27] and Villa del chalcopyrite and minor pyrite, bravoite, sperrylite, Bosco [25]. chromite: they are linked to pre-Variscan basic and ultrabasic granulitic rocks (Ferrario et al., 1982). Austroalpine The most important mineralisation are Alvani- I. The Sesia-Lanzo Zone includes an Early Campello Monti [17], Gula-Fobello [22], Val Palaeozoic metasedimentary series (paragneisses, Barbina-Scopello [24], Cruvino-Bruzolo [36]: micaschists and marbles) and some granodiorite plu- other occurrences outcrop in Val Sesia and its tribu- tonic bodies (Vico and Traversella). Some pyro- tary valleys (e.g. Balmuccia, Vocca, Valmaggia, Fei metasomatic deposits, genetically connected with the

17 granodiorite intrusions, lie within the marbles lay- Pb, Zn, As, Bi sulphides and minerals of Ti, U, Nb, ers. The ferriferous and polymetallic characters Ta, REE etc.) occur in the Domodossola-Val prevail in the Traversella [30] and Montajeu-Gias Vigezzo area (e.g., Piano Lavonchio-Siauler-Eglio- del Gallo ore deposits (magnetite, pyrrhotite, py- Craveggia [12]); they are embedded in the rite with Cu, Zn, As, Sb, Bi sulphides and augengneisses sequence and in the contiguous sulphosalts, scheelite and sometimes uraninite). Py- “Orselina Series” (paragneisses, micaschists, rite, viceversa, dominates in Brosso, Baio and Bore amphybolites and calcschists). Similar pegmatitic [31] ore bodies (pyrite, hematite, Cu, Pb, As, Sb bodies occur in Antrona Valley (Alpe Mondei- sulphides and sulphosalts, fluorite and boron-sili- Montescheno [13]) within the Camughera- cates). Bariasso-Aquila [29] (Tavagnasco) is a hy- Moncucco Complex (paragneisses, micaschists and drothermal stockwork mineralisation with quartz, talc-steatitic amphybolites). Feldspar, quartz and siderite and Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu etc. sulphides. muscovite pegmatites outcrop in Sesia Valley (e.g., Mud di Mezzo [20] near Alagna). A widespread II. The Fobello and Rimella Schists includes scheelite metallogenesis occurs in the Sesia, phyllites, amphybolites and chlorite-epidote phyllonitic Quarazza, Anzasca, Sermenza, Ossola and Vigezzo gneisses, interested by an extensive shear zone. They Valleys, as well as in the Arcesa-Brusson Crystal- host various lenticular ore bodies produced by local line in Ayas Valley. The primary scheelite areas hydrothermal-geothermal concentrations of quartz, car- are strata-bound connected to a Pre-Ordovician bonates, auriferous pyrite and arsenopyrite, sphalerite, meta-volcano-sedimentary horizon (Omenetto and chalcopyrite, galena, scheelite and native gold (e.g., Brigo, 1981), in which the most of them occur scat- Val Toppa [15], Vogogna, Cortitti and Guia). tered in amphybolites and in quartz-calcsilicate fels with apatite, but also mobilized as veinlets, along Penninic Domain foliation planes, cracks and fissures of Alpine age, The metalliferous occurrences are widespread in within aplitic gneisses and augengneisses. The mo- the Pennine nappes. bilized scheelite reached sometimes the The Antigorio-Crodo Series (granitoid gneisses Calcschists-Ophiolites Complex (e.g., in Ayas Val- with micaschists and marbles of Lower Penninic) hosts ley) and locally produced massive concentrations numerous quartz veins with auriferous pyrite and with auriferous pyrite in chloritic-amphybolitic arsenopyrite and minor chalcopyrite, e.g., the group lenses at the tectonic contact belt between the Pen- of Maglioggio-Alfenza-Faella [11] in the Micascisti di nine Mt Rosa nappe and the Sesia-Lanzo Crodo. Austroalpine Complex (e.g., Rima, Carcoforo, The “Brianzonese Zone” hosts, within the Car- Bannio Anzino). boniferous phyllitic-arenaceous schists (Aosta Valley), Various auriferous mineralisation occurs in len- some polymetallic sulphide mineralisation (Promise [3]) ticular and vein bodies, sometimes conformable, within and some anthracite seams (e.g., La Thuile and Morgex the micaschists, paragneisses and quartzites and more [2]). The tuffitic metasediments of Upper Permian, frequently in veinlets filling the lithoclases in outcropping in the Cuneo province, contain various augengneisses: the ore minerals include auriferous py- lenses of sericite-graphite phyllites pechblende-rich, rite and arsenopyrite, minor galena, sphalerite, pyrite and minor Pb, Cu, Zn, As, Sb sulphides (e.g., chalcopyrite, argentiferous sulphosalts, native gold etc. Grange Serre [46] in Preit Valley, Rio Freddo [48] (Moroni, 1977), with an abundant gangue of quartz near Peveragno and Bric Colmé [50], south of and minor carbonates. The most important auriferous Mondovì). The Oligocene marly-arenaceous sequence deposits are situated in Anzasca Valley near Pestarena in Tanaro Valley hosts various seams of lignite (Cani, Agaré-Miretti) and Lavanchetto (Quarazzola- (Bagnasco [51]). Col Badile) [16], in Antrona Valley (Mottone-Mee In the Monte Rosa Nappe, numerous “complex” [14]), in Sesia Valley near Alagna (Kreas [19], Mud pegmatites (orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase, quartz, and Jazza) as well as in Ayas Valley (Arceza-Brusson micas, tourmaline, beryl, garnet, accessory Fe, Cu, [5], Arbaz-Orbeillaz, Targnod).

18 In the Gran Paradiso Massif numerous veins II. exhalative-sedimentary cupriferous depos- and lenses of quartz ± siderite, sulphides, sulphosalts its with pyrite and chalcopyrite and accessory mag- and native gold intersect the augengneisses and the netite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, bornite, linneite etc. paragneisses in Locana Valley (Bellagarda and are frequent between the Pinerolo area and the Sesia Cuccagna). Various outcrops with primary and mo- Valley. They are lenticular ore bodies, embedded bilized scheelite occur within a lithostratigraphic in amphybolites, metagabbros and prasinites, highly context like the Mt Rosa nappe (mainly in Locana, deformed during the tectonic-metamorphic Alpine Noaschetta, Col Nivolet, Savaranche, Nontey, cycle. Lots of them occur in the Aosta Valley as Valleille Valleys). Some strata-bound mineralisa- Preslong-Ollomont [1], Hérin-Champdepraz [6], tion with Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb sulphides (e.g., La Chuc and Servette (St. Marcel), Efra, Fenis, Petit Reale [28] and Rio del Rancio near Campiglia Monde (Torgnon), Salsa-Schelbete (Gressoney). Soana) is indicated in the “Scisti grafitosi del Some others occur in upper Chisone Valley (Beth- Pessinetto”. Ghinivert [40]), in Lanzo Valley (Fragné- The Dora Maira Massif hosts numerous talc and Chialamberto [33]), in Susa Valley (Salbertrand), graphite deposits; some little outcrops with scheelite in Soana Valley (Caramia) and in Valsesia near in amphybolites occur in Germanasca Valley. Many Alagna (T. Otro [21]); white talc deposits (with magnetite, dolomite, quartz and silicates) are connected to hydrothermal III. Ni, Fe, Co sulphur-arsenide veinlets metasomatism of carbonatic layers, interbedded in the (smaltite, safflorite, rammelsbergite and other sulphides Permian-Carboniferous Dronero Complex and sulphosalts with gangue of quartz, siderite, cal- (paragneisses with micaschists, prasinites and marbles). cite): they locally intersect the metabasites near Cruvino The main deposits are: Grange Martinetto and Ro- [36] in Susa Valley, Bessanetto and Punta Corna, be- lando in Sangone Valley; La Roussa [39] in Chisone tween the Lanzo and the upper Ala Valleys; Valley; Malzas-Sapatlé [42] and Fontane-Crosetto [41] in Germanasca Valley (Biasio et al., 1995); Grange IV.manganesiferous lenses (braunite ± Subiaschi in Pellice Valley. Some graphite deposits hematite): they are located at the transition between (e.g., Icla-Brutta Comba [43]) are interbedded in the quartz prasinites-serpentineschists and calcschists (e.g., “Pinerolo graphitic micaschists” (Carboniferous). Praborna [4] (Aosta Valley), Alagna-Otro (Sesia Val- In the Gran S. Bernardo Crystalline Nappe ley) and Ceres (Lanzo Valley); various scheelite occurrences are present, both disseminated in aplitic gneisses and mobilized in veinlets V. asbestiferous mineralisation con- in the augengneisses (Bognanco, Brevettola-Antrona nected with serpentinized ultramaphitic bodies Valleys); in Valdivedro the mobilized scheelite reaches (Belluso et al., 1995): they are frequent in Aosta, the Calcschists-Ophiolitic Nappe. Soana and Lanzo Valleys. The asbestiferous bod- The “Calcschists Ophiolitic Nappe” (Jurassic- ies, rising from the serpentinites transformation, are Cretaceous) includes different ore bodies, hosted in located along Alpine shear zones. The asbestos is the basic and ultrabasic lithotypes in which magnetite, accompanied by minor magnetite, carbonates, gar- chromite and Fe sulphides are commonly disseminated. nets and accessory nickeliferous minerals The most interesting areas are: (pentlandite, heazlewoodite, josephinite, native Fe- Ni) with about 0.2% of Ni (Rossetti and Zucchetti, I. bodies and lenses of magnetite and minor 1988). The major deposit is S. Vittore-Balangero hematite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, occurring in [35], characterized by a thick swarm of the serpentinite outcrops of Aosta Valley: the main ore asbestiferous lenses within the ultrabasic Lanza deposit is Cogne [7]; minor bodies occur isolated or massif; some other important deposits are Settarme in swarms in Mt Avic area [8] (e.g., Lago Gelato, Chassant [10], in the left side of Aosta Valley, and Valmeriana, Ponton, Bella Lana etc.); Auriol-Sampeyre [44] in Varaita Valley;

VI. grey-greenish talc mineralisation, due 19 to the Alpine geothermal-hydrothermal metasedimentary series with acidic and basic metasomatism on serpentinites (Sandrone, 1995), metavolcanites with a Variscan metamorphic over- is generally of small entity but numerous. Mure et print of variable grade; II) a Late Variscan Mt. Blanc-Issogne [9] in Aosta Valley, Viù and calcalkaline volcano-plutonic complex; III) a thick Cantoira [34] in Valle Grande di Lanzo, Prazzo and Permian-Caenozoic cover including carbonatic Canosio [45] in Maira Valley, are the most impor- and p.p. terrigenous sediments, and the products of tant deposits. The talc quality is poor owing to the the Middle Trias and Eocene-Oligocene igneous presence of serpentine, chlorite and amphiboles; events. I. The metamorphic basement outcropping in VII. microcrystalline magnesite with opal, Trentino-Veneto area (“Agordino-Valsuganese dolomite, quartz and clayey minerals; it occurs as belt” - Frizzo, 2004) hosts some important stockwork of veinlets due to weathering on exhalative-sedimentary deposits, embedded in the serpentinized ultrabasites. The major occurrences Ordovician-Silurian sequence of quartz phyllites are Mt. Calvo-Caselette [37] and Valdellatorre– with minor porphyroid-genisses, prasinites and Givoletto in Susa Valley and Torre Cives-Bettolino chloritoschists. The lenticular ore bodies of mas- [32] near Baldissero (Canavese). sive sulphides (pyrite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, Bi, Sb, Ag Helvetic Domain sulfosalts with accessory stannite, cassiterite, gold) The Malinvern-Argentera Complex (Marittime are kilometric in extent. Vetriolo [110], Calceranica Alps) includes an Early Palaeozoic sequence with [112] and Sella Valley in Valsugana, Terre Rosse paragneisses and granitoid gneisses, anatexites, biotite- in Val Cismon, Valle Imperina [119] in the Agordino, amphibolite paragneisses and Late Variscan granitic are the most important. Northernmost, within the plutons. Many scheelite, sulphides, barite and fluorite Bressanone Quartz Phyllites Fm, sporadic occur- veins occurrences are hosted in this Complex. The rences of disseminated Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn sulphides ± scheelite (Brigo and Frizzo, 1976) mostly occurs ilmenite (Brigo, 1971) are present, linked to a disseminated in the metabasites outcropping in dif- graphitic phyllite horizon outcropping among the ferent areas (Stura Valley-Vinadio-Colle della Funes Valley, Luson and Dobbiaco. Disseminated Lombarda, Mollières Valley, Upper Gesso and polymetallic sulphide ores occur also within a Rovine Valleys), but sometimes it appears mobi- chloritoschist horizon, interbedded in the quartz lized as metamorphic veinlets with Fe, Cu, As sul- phyllites in Sarentino area. Similar stratiform min- phides (Baraccone). The polymetallic veins (Fe, eralisation are present in the Edolo Schists (Upper Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Sb, Bi etc. sulphides with barite Camonica Valley), e.g., Buca dell’Oro, sometimes and fluorite gangue), are connected to the Late accompanied by mobilized Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Sb, As- Variscan magmatic activity. Fluorite and barite pre- bearing veins (Carona, Berzo-Demo, Forno dominate in Pietraporzio (barite) and in Rio d’Allione etc. - Frizzo and Omenetto, 1974). Ciardola (fluorite) veins. The sulphides are wide- The Paleocarnic Range hosts two different strata- spread in other ore bodies (e.g., Ruà-Vinadio Terme bound mineralisation: the older are stratiform oolitic [47], Ferriere Valley, Palla Valley, Bergemoletto, ferrous-manganesiferous (± Ba, Cu) deposits within Terme di Valdieri etc.). the carbonate-terrigenous sequence of “Kokkalke- Eisenkalke” (Lower Silurian), outcropping from Mt. 2.4.2 MINERALISATION OF THE CENTRAL-EASTERN Cocco [131], in the Fella Valley, to Mt. Croce Carnico ALPS Pass, in the Austrian side. The others are polymetallic cupriferous ores (Cu-tetraedrite, Zn, Hg, Sb, Pb, Ag, Southalpine Complex Ni etc., with calcite, quartz, barite and fluorite gangue) The Southalpine Complex of the Central-Eastern within the Middle-Upper Devonian carbonatic plat- Alps includes: I) a metamorphic basement, mainly form stretching about a hundred kilometres between constituted by an Early Palaeozoic terrigenous the Visdende Valley and the Tarvisio area. The ore

20 deposits are characterized by veinlets, lenses and Variscan magmatic activities: e.g., Giustino [96] in columnar bodies: Mt. Avanza [128], Comeglians Rendena Valley and some others scattered along [129], Timau, Mt. Cavallo are the main. the northern edge of the Southalpine basement (e.g., Baitello in Upper Camonica Valley, Val Caldenave II. The Late Variscan calcalkaline vol- [103], Val Varrone etc.). cano-plutonic complex generated lots of ore de- The uraniferous deposits of Novazza [57] in posits. Various hydrothermal polymetallic veins are Goglio Valley (Bergamo) and of Vedello Valley connected to granitic-granodioritic intrusions. Some (Sondrio) are also related to the Late Variscan mag- of these are cupriferous; others are characterized matic event (Omenetto and Brigo, 1974). by Zn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Sb, As, Bi sulphides, Au with III. The Permian-Caenozoic cover in- quartz, fluorite and barite gangue. In the northern cludes various types of mineralisation. sector of the basement the “Diorite di Chiusa” in- Some uraniferous deposits (uraninite, pyrite, trusive complex generated, between Isarco and galena, sphalerite etc.) are connected with some lenses Sarentino Valleys, the ore deposits of Corvara [79], of grey carbonaceous sandstones of the Arenarie di Rio Danza [80], Mt. Fondoli [81], Terlano [84], Val Gardena Fm (Middle-Upper Permian), espe- the magnetite-pyrrhotite mineralisation of Maso del cially in Rendena Valley (e.g., Bocenago-Palastro Nido and numerous polymetallic veinlets scattered [99], Daone and Dalgone Valleys); significant con- between the Rio Sega and the Pennes Valley. Some centrations of U are present elsewhere in Trentino of minor polymetallic veins, scattered between the and in the Vicentinian Alps. Some Pb-Zn minerali- Sarentino and lower Pusteria Valley, are linked to sation, also lie within the Arenarie di Val Gardena the granitic pluton of Bressanone. Sourhernmost, Fm, for instance between Andriano and Nalles in in Valsugana, the Cima d’Asta-Roncegno plutonic- Alto Adige (Rio del Bavaro). epiplutonic complex produced an extensive swarm The manganesiferous siderite ± barite ore de- of cupriferous and polymetallic ore deposits: e.g., posits of the Lombardy Valleys (Cortecci and Nogarè-Quadrate [101], Valar-Pergine [108], Frizzo, 1993) are particularly numerous and im- Vignola [111], Cinquevalli, Palù del Fersina, portant. They are both metasomatic-stratiform de- Caoria [104], the magnetite-pyrrhotite deposit of posits, settled in the lower and middle carbonatic Pamera [109] and the quartz ± pyrite vein with base units of the Servino Fm (Scitian), and subvertical metal sulphides and gold of Cima d’Orno [102]. veins crossing the below Verrucano Lombardo Fm The thick volcanic sequence of the Piattaforma and crystalline basement. They occur in two char- Porfirica Atesina hosts: the Pb, Zn, Ag stratiform de- acteristic Fe-Mn-Ba sublatitudinal belts: the north- posit of Tregiovo [86], linked to a lens of lacustrine ern belt hosts the stratiform mineralisation of sediments interbedded in the upper rhyolitic-ignimbritic Manina [58], Barisella-Fondi [59], Meraldo- units; the Hg (cinnabar, pyrite, marcasite) ore deposit Vivione [60], Gardena [61], M. Elto [62], Lava of Vallalta-Sagron Mis [106] (Gosaldo), linked to etc. and the veins of Ruola Faedo-Faidallo-Baitello ignimbrites and tuffites; some veins of barite, e.g., Mt. [56], Scaletta, Inferno, Masoni-Poblino, M. Lorio, Zaccon in Valsugana. Some barite veins are also hosted etc. The southern belt hosts the stratiform deposits in the volcano-sedimentary succession of the Collio of Pisogne (e.g., Fusio, Fura, Gottardo-Rizzolo [70], Basin in Rendena (Marigole-Pice [113]) and Lower Gale etc.) and of the Trompia Valley (Pezzaze, Camonica Valleys. The numerous veins of fluorite, Alfredo-S.Aloisio [72]), as well as the veins of barite and Pb, Zn, Ag sulphides, e.g., Vallarsa [89], Vivazzo, Regina, Pineto, etc. Some mineralisation Castelvecchio [90], Case a Prato [91], Prestavel [93], with manganesiferous siderite ± barite also lie crossing the Piattaforma Porfirica Atesina, are prob- within the basal units of the Werfen Fm in Trentino ably due (Bakos et al., 1972) to the Middle Triassic and in Bellunese region; in comparison with those hydrothermal event. of Lombardy they are richer of Pb, Zn, Ag sul- Various metasomatic albitite bodies, hosted in phides and sulfosalts ± stibnite etc. (e.g., Faedo the metamorphic basement, are coeval to Late- [97], Agli Orti [98], Doss delle Grave [100] and

21 Roncogno [107] in the argentiferous complex of Mercanti [121], Pozzani [123]). Mt. Calisio-Trento and easternmost, Transacqua The volcano-plutonic complex of Predazzo- [105], Valle del Mis, Colle S. Lucia-Fursil- Monzoni produced some magnetite deposits (S. Belluno). Maria di Viezzena [94]), stockwork with The “Alpine type” Pb-Zn deposits (Pb, Zn, chalcopyrite, scheelite and molybdenite (Bedovina- Cd, Ag with Sb, Mo etc.) characteristic of the Mt. Mulat [95]), as well as, in relation with gra- Anisian and Ladinian-Carnian calcareous-dolomitic nitic bodies, some minor Sn, Cu, As, Au ores and platforms are connected with paleogeographic and Pb, Zn, Ag veins. Widespread polymetallic anoma- paleogeodynamic events and sometimes with the lies characterize the Ladinian volcanites of the Middle Triassic magmatism. In the Varese region Belluno and Friuli regions (Pietra Verde and Porfidi the Pb-Zn mineralisation of Besano-La Nave are di Rio Freddo Formations). hosted within dolomicrites and bituminous marls The fluorite mineralisation of Camissinone of the Anisian “Scisti di Besano”. In the Alps of the [68], hosted in fractures of Dolomia Principale Bergamo province (Omenetto, 1966) Paglio (Norian), is the only one subsequent the Middle Pignolino-Dossena [65], Gorno [66], Presolana Trias. [67] etc. are very important ore deposits within the The Tertiary granitoid plutonism (Adamello and Lower Middle Carnian Metallifero Bergamasco Vedrette di Ries) and the Eocene-Oligocene rhyolitic and Breno Formation. In the Belluno and Carnia to trachy-andesitic and alkalibasaltic volcanism- areas (Di Colbertaldo, 1968; Brigo et al., 1977; subvolcanism (Euganei-Lessini-Berici region) did not Köppel, 1983; Frizzo et al., 1999) the ore depos- produce ore deposits. Various bentonitic deposits its of Salafossa [116], Grigna-Ferrera-Pian da (e.g., Vegri-Campotamaso [125], Schiavi-S. Urbano Barco [114], Argentiera [115], Col Piombin-Passo [126] etc.) and numerous high geochemical anomalies Giau [117], M. Rite-Valle Inferna [118], Val d’Aupa of Ti, Ni, Co, V, Cr in the soils and alluvial sediments [133] and Raibl [134] are linked to platforms rang- are connected with the alkalibasalts. ing from Anisian to Carnian. Lots of bitumen, ichthyolitic schists and coal The products of the Ladinian-Carnian deposits are present in the sedimentary series of east- calcalkaline magmatism are widespread within the ern Alps. Here we remember a layer of “boghead” Central-Eastern Alps. They include lavas, ignimbrites, interbedded in the lower Dolomia Principale of Mt. tuffites from rhyolites-rhyodacites to latiandesites- Plauris (Carnia) near Resartico-Resiutta [135]; latibasalts and monzonites, and locally (Vicentinian ichthyolitic bituminous marls (with Pb-Zn occurrences) Alps and Predazzo-Monzoni) subvolcanic and plu- within the Scisti di Besano Fm (Anisian) near Besano tonic bodies. Between the Camonica and Trompia and Bisuschio (VA); ichthyolitic schists (Mollaro [92] Valleys the Arenarie di Val Sabbia and the Metallifero with Fe sulphides and minor Cu, V etc.) in the Scisti di Bergamasco Formations, heteropic with the volcanites, Mollaro (Cenomanian-Albian) in Val di Non; in show high geochemical concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cu, Carnia, bituminous limestones (Cretaceous) near Nimis Sb, Ni, Co, Ba, F etc. but only few poor mineraliza- [136] and various coal deposits as anthracite (Car- tion. A Middle Triassic granitoid deep plutonism pro- boniferous) at Cason di Lanza-Mt. Corona [130], duced the imposing veins cluster of fluorite ± Pb, Zn, northern Pontebba, and bituminous coal (Raiblian) Ag of Torgola [71] and Pezzaze-Stese (Frizzo, between Tolmezzo and Ovaro, e.g., Claudinico- 1997). The Middle Triassic magmatism of the Corodonis [132]; lignite in Vicenza region (Eocene- Vicentinian Alps generated most of the polymetallic Oligocene), e.g., Mt. Pulli [124], Monteviale, veins and pyrometasomatic ores (Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu, Zovencedo, and in Valsugana (Tortonian), e.g., Coalba Ag sulphides and traces of Bi, Au, johannsenite, and Bronzale; lacustrine lignite (Villafranchian) at ilvaite, barite, as Mt. Civillina, Valle dei Mercanti, Valgandino-Leffe [69] (Bergamo). Mt. Castello [122]), as well as lots of caolinitic (e.g., Colle Xomo, Pianegonda) and illitic-smectitic Austroalpine deposits (e.g., Zanconi [120], Riolo-Valle dei The ore mineralisation of Austroalpine Com

22 plex involves only the metamorphic basement, characterized by an Ordovician-Silurian metavolcanic- Penninic Domain sedimentary sequence (garnet-biotitie-muscovite Lots of mineralisation are connected with the paragneisses, micaschists, porfiroid gneisses, ophiolites outcropping in Malenco Valley (Lombardy) amphybolites and marbles), with a and in the Tauri Window (Alto Adige). They are polymetamorphic Variscan and Alpine overprint. mainly exhalative-sedimentary pyritic-cupriferous The stratiform massive sulphides deposits (Fe, Zn, deposits, generally of little importance. The major Pb, Cd, Ag, Cu, Sb, As, Ni, Co, Bi) of the S. Martino deposits occur in Val di Vizze and especially in di Monteneve [76] and Fleres [75] Groups, Valle Aurina: S. Valentino di Predoi [74] is the most outcropping between the Passiria Valley and the important, characterized by conformable lenses of Brennero Pass, are particularly important. Similar pyrite and chalcopyrite with magnetite, pyrrhotite, mineralisation (Lasa, Annaberg, Jennewand) occurs bornite, cubanite, sphalerite, molibdenite, millerite in the Venosta Valley basement. Minor cupriferous etc., within the metamorphosed ophiolites. stratiform deposits (e.g., Rifugio Borromeo) occur The talc and asbestos deposits are common in a phyllites with cloritoschists sequence. in Val Malenco. Talc occurs both in subvertical Numerous feldspar-bearing pegmatoid ore veins, crossing the serpentinites and sometimes the bodies occur from Martello to Racines Valley (e.g., dolomitic marbles or gneisses, and as lenticular Martello Valley [83], Le Lame [85]), sometimes bodies along the Pennidic-Austroalpine overthrust with beryl, tourmaline and micas, e.g., Rio Masul plane. The veins are numerous and sometimes ex- [78] and in Giovo Valley. tend several kilometres. The most important are the Tungsten strata-bound occurrences (scheelite steatite vein of Ponticelli di Riva [52], hosted in with As ± Au disseminated or in veinlets) locally the serpentinites, and the two veins of white talc of outcrop from Valtellina (Bormio) to upper Pusteria Bagnada, within dolomitic marbles. Some minor Valley (Dobbiaco-S. Candido). The scheelite talc mineralisation are present also in the prevalently occurs in metabasites, marbles or serpentinites of the Vizze Valley (Bolzano). paragneisses with carbonatic metablastesys, within Various lenticular bodies of chrysotile occur in the sequences of dominant quartz phyllites or serpentinites in the upper Malenco Valley, e.g., at Val paragneisses. The most interesting occurrences out- Brutta-Dossi Franscia-Bocchetta [53]. crop in the upper Venosta/Vintschgau (Lasa, Solda, Peder, Martello, Ultimo Valleys) and upper Pusteria 2.4.3 MINERALISATION AND INDUSTRIAL MINERALS OF right side (Riomolino, Anterselva-Vedrette di Ries, THE ITALIAN A PENNINES Casies, Croda Rossa and Thurntaler - Frizzo, 1981; Brigo and Omenetto, 1983). The scheelite of the Ore deposits of Ligurian-Emilian Apennines Thurntaler [77] lies within some lenses of prasinites The most important ore deposits of the Ligurian- and chlorite amphybolites interbedded in the quartz Emilian Apennines are connected with the “Argilloscisti phyllites; it is moreover mobilized in Alpine veins con ofioliti” Complex (Jurassic-Cretaceous) including stockworks with Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu, As sulphides and some strips of oceanic crust (pillow lavas and diabases) Au. and of the mantle (peridotites, lherzolites, dunites, lay- In Peio Valley some magnetite-pyrrhotite ore bod- ered gabbros, ultramafites etc.) and a sedimentary ies [88] occur, within layers of marbles with silicates, sequence of tuffites, clayey schists and limestones with interbedded in a sequence of paragneisses, quartz chert and jaspers. In the hinterland, between Chiavari amphybolites and orthogneisses. and La Spezia, pillow lavas and diabases host numer- Alpine veins of arsenopyrite and quartz, with mi- ous massive cupriferous sulphides deposits with py- nor Pb, Zn, Cu sulphides and native Au, are frequent rite and chalcopyrite, accessory sphalerite and in various areas of Austroalpine basement; sometimes pyrrhotite and sometimes magnetite, e.g., Libiola the veins reach the basal layers of the Permian- [138], Gallinaria, Bardeneto, M. Loreto, Casali, Carboniferous cover. Le Cascine. Similar ore deposits (Vigonzano [141])

23 occur in serpentinites, prasinites and talc bodies ore bodies, including pyrite, polymetallic sulphides, (Mt. Albareto [142], Groppallo, Bolgheri, Forno Fe oxides, fluorite, barite etc., hosted in a specific di sotto) in the Apennines of Piacenza. South of Late Ladinian-Carnian “Metalliferous horizon”, un- Bologna the cupriferous mineralisation of Bisano derlaying the calcareous platform of Norian- [143], Sassonero and Gurlano are connected to cha- Rhaetian Grezzoni Fm. In the Metamorphic Nucleus otic breccias of ophiolites and clayey schists. and in the Fornovolasco Unit, the Metalliferous Chromite mineralisation with accessory magnetite horizon is mainly constituted by quartz-sericite- (Ziona [139]) occurs between serpentinites and albite sometimes tourmaline phyllites: it represents gabbros near Bracco. Manganesiferous ore bod- the transgressive cover on the Variscan basement, ies (braunite, rhodochrosite, rhodonite, pyrolusite) including sericite-albite phyllites, quartzites, are linked to the Malm-Tithonian jaspers overlap- porphyritic schists and Silurian dolomitic lenses. ping the ophiolites: the greatest ones are Gambatesa- Lots of ore deposits (pyrite, polymetallic sul- Tre Monti [137], Cassagna, Mt. Porcile and south- phides and/or Fe oxides, barite etc.), like Bottino ern-easternmost, near La Spezia, Cerchiara [140], di Serravezza [147], M. Ornato, S. Barbara, Mt. Amola, Baccano, Mt. Sorbolo, Gaggiola. Tambura, Argentiera, Gallena, Canale dell’Angina, Some minor mineralisation with polymetallic Valdicastello-Pollone, are linked to tourmaline phyllites: sulphides occur in Savona and Imperia provinces the mineral paragenesis includes argentiferous galena, and in the Apennines of Parma and Piacenza. Here sphalerite, minor chalcopyrite, abundant Cu, Ag, Bi some albitite bodies are also present near Varviaro etc. sulphosalts, quartz, carbonate and sometimes, and Menta in Taro Valley. abundant pyrite and fluorite (e.g., Valdicastello- Pollone). Several exhalative-sedimentary deposits Ore deposits of Tuscany with pyrite, barite, magnetite, hematite, minor Numerous ore deposits are present in Tuscany siderite, rare sulphosalts, traces of V and W min- (Tanelli, 1983; Ciarapica et al., 1985), distrib- erals (e.g., Buca della Vena [148], M. Arsiccio, uted in the deepest structural units, both autoch- Canale della Radice, Fornovolasco, etc.) occur at thonous (“Apuan Metamorphic Nucleus”) and the top of Metalliferous horizon, underneath the parautochthonous (Fornovolasco-Panie Unit and “Grezzoni” Fm. The protolites and the ore depos- Massa-Punta Bianca Unit) as well as in the overlap- its show an Alpine low grade metamorphic over- ping allochthonous Units or rather the northern and print (27÷11 My). The stratiform mineralisation are southern Tuscan Nappes and the Ligurian Nappes. intensely folded, fractured and resealed; it fre- The Tuscan Nappes, constituted by quently show extensive mobilizations with growth unmetamorphosed litotypes of “Tuscany series”, widely of nodules and veinlets of argentiferous galena, outcrop up to northern Latium: the Norian-Rhaetian sphalerite, abundant sulphosalts and sometimes native calcareous-dolomitic with evaporites successions Au with quartz, barite and fluorite gangue. The Metal- (“Calcare Cavernoso Fm”) have a considerable ex- liferous horizon of the Massa Punta Bianca Unit tent and continuity. The Ligurian Nappes are charac- (terrigenous-carbonatic and sometimes evaporitic terized by ophiolitic bodies with clayeys, limestones, metasediments with occasional alkali-basalt marls and sandstones. metavolcanites) contains strata-bound ore deposits The Tuscany mineralisation was produced by three with manganesiferous siderite, Fe and Mn oxides, metallogenic main cycles, respectively: a) Middle chalcopyrite and minor polymetallic sulphides (Frigido, Triassic; b) Jurassic; c) Late Alpine (Late Miocene- Strettoia, Bocca di Magra, Mt. Brugiana, P.ta Bianca Pleistocene). etc.). a)Middle Triassic mineralisation b)Mineralisation in the Ophiolites Several ore mineralisation occurs within the A strip of ophiolites and clayey schists (Late “Apuanidi” (Apuan Metamorphic Nucleus and Jurassic – Early Cretaceous) hosts the cupriferous Fornovolasco-Panie Unit) and “Spezidi” (Massa-Punta pyrite deposits of Montecatini-Val di Cecina [151]. Bianca Units). They are stratiform and strata-bound They consist of a “primary” mineralisation, constituted 24 by some irregular bodies and veins of pyrite, ilvaite, garnet, epidote, calcite, fluorite, quartz. chalcopyrite, bornite etc., within pillow lavas, Niccioleta [160] includes different bodies of py- serpentinites and gabbros, and a “supergenic” very rite with minor magnetite and Zn, Pb, Cu, Sb sul- rich mineralisation, within two large clayey lenses con- phides: the mineralisation lies within wide silicate taining centi-decimetric nodules of chalcocite, bornite skarns developed on anhydritic lenses embedded and native Cu. in the Calcare Cavernoso Fm and in the lower Filladi di Boccheggiano Fm. Similar contexts host other c)Late Alpine mineralisation important bodies of pyrite with minor base metals The Late Alpine extensional tectonic event, that sulphides: Gavorrano-Rigoloccio-Ravi- followed the contractional orogenetic phase, gener- Montecatini-Valmaggiore [164], Boccheggiano ated, during the Miocene-Quaternary, a horst and [162a], Campiano [161] as well as the deposits of graben system with Apennine direction. It enabled the Isola del Giglio [179] and Mt. Argentario [180]. the intrusion of granite plutonic bodies (e.g., Isola Some large quartz veins with pyrite and d’Elba) and of some subvolcanic domes as well as polymetallic sulphides follow, sometimes kilome- the eruption of ignimbrites (e.g., Mt. Amiata). The tres long, some stretching faults with Apennine di- magmatism produced lots of pyrometasomatic and rection crossing the Filladi di Boccheggiano Fm, hydrothermal ore deposits crossing the whole sys- the Calcare Cavernoso and the Flysch of the tem of Nappes and lithostratigraphic Units of Tus- Ligurian nappe: the most important are the cany. Moreover, some gypsum, salt and lignite de- cupriferous deposit of Boccheggiano [162b], the posits are connected with the terrigenous sediments pyrite and polymetallic argentiferous sulphides filling the graben. veins of Fenice Capanne-Accesa-Serrabottini [163] The ferriferous deposit of Isola d’Elba are in and some minor mineralisation south of Massa relation with the Miocene quartz-monzonite intru- Marittima (e.g., Montieri, Bruscoline, Podere Altini sion: hematite and minor magnetite with pyrite and etc.). accessory galena, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, The Hg and Sb deposits of the Tuscany are re- chalcopyrite, bismutinite of Rio Marina [166] and cent and often occur near the actual thermal springs

Ortano constitute a swarm of metasomatic ore bod- and gas leaks (H2S, CO2 etc.). Sb and Hg occur in ies and irregular veins within the Verrucano and different ore bodies, or in mineralisation characterized the Calcare Cavernoso Fm. Magnetite-hematite by the absolute prevalence of one of the two elements. with minor pyrite bodies are connected to The antimoniferous deposits usually occur at the tec- pyrometasomatic calksilicate rocks at Capo tonic or stratigraphic contact between limestones (usu- Calamita [167] and Ginevro within the dolomitic ally the Calcare Cavernoso) and an impermeable limestones and the schists of the “Verrucano” Fm. clayey cover (frequently the Ligurian Flysch). The min- Stanniferous nodules and veinlets of cassiterite, eralisation with predominant Hg lies within rocks of tourmaline and hematite occur at Mt.Valerio [159] different ages: from schists of Apuan Metamorphic within the Lias-Dogger silicified limestones at the con- Nucleus (Levigliani) or the schists of the Massa Unit tact with the granite of Botro: a hydrothermal (Ripa), to Mio-Pliocene sediments (e.g., Selvena- paragenesis with pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, ga- Morone and Cerreto Piano). Among the lena, calcite, siderite and pyrolusite adds to the Sn antimoniferous deposits (stibnite, pyrite and marca- mineralisation. site, minor sphalerite and galena, sometimes cinnabar, Some large deposits of pyrite within minor and quartz, calcite, barite, celestine and fluorite gangue) polymetallic sulphides are linked to some wide skarn the most important are: Tafone [181] and the near clus- and hornfels zones, commonly near granitoid domes. ter of mineralisation of Càpita [182] (Montaùto, The Campiglia Marittima-Temperino-Valle S. Silvestro Macchia Casella); Cetine di Cotorniano [154]; [158] ore deposits are a stockwork of veins and nod- Spannocchia-Camporedaldi [155]; Casal di Pari ules of pyrite with pyrrhotite, magnetite and minor base [170]; Pereta o Zolfiere [178b]. metal sulphides within extensive skarn on Liassic lime- Among the important mercuriferous minerali- stones with hedembergite, joahnnsenite, rhodonite, sation (veins and disseminated cynnabar) there are: 25 Ripa and Levigliani, Bagni di S. Filippo [168], piroxenes, amphiboles, ilmenite, zircon; while within Rhaetian dolomitic limestone; Abbadia S. quartz-feldspathic sands predominate toward the Salvatore [169], Bàgnore [171] and Selvena- inland. Morone [177], within marly limestones and evaporites underlaying an “impermeable” cover, 2.4.4 MINERALISATION OF THE CENTRAL-SOUTHERN as the Scisti Policromi Fm, the quartz-latite ITALY ignimbrites of Mt. Amiata, the Pietraforte Fm and Several ore and industrial minerals, linked to the Flysch of Ligurian Units; Mt. Labbro [174], Triassic-Quaternary sedimentary and volcanic se- hosted within fractured jaspers (Malm of Tuscany quences, characterize the Central-Southern Italy. The Serie), covered by clays and marls of the Maiolica principal deposits are bauxite and sulphur, polymetallic Fm (Cretaceous); Carpine, Solforate, Siele, Abetina veins, uranium occurrences and leucite, clay, carbon [175], a swarm of stockwork occurrences within and bitumen. the Pietraforte Fm; Cerreto Piano [178a], two cinnabar mineralisation hosted respectively in the a)Bauxite in calcareous platforms Calcare Cavernoso and within the sandy Pliocene Numerous bauxite deposits are connected with sedimentary series. The Hg mineralisation extends the Upper Triassic-Miocene calcareous platforms up to northern Latium, e.g., Castagneto della Trinità outcropping along wide areas of the Central-South- [198] within the Tolfa trachytes. ern Appennine and Apulia. The bauxite ore bodies The geothermal fields, characterizing the prov- deposed during Albian-Turonian age on karstic inces of Pisa and Grosseto, are due to the thermal paleosurfaces originated during the Upper-Middle flows generated by granitoids domes. The convective Cretacic emersion or, as in Salento area, between circuits, involving meteoric waters deeply infiltrating Upper Cretaceous and Neogene. The paleokarstic and warming, reascend carrying away gas, steams surfaces developed on the Giurassic and Cretaceous and geothermal flows, rich of boric acid and vari- calcareous platforms. They are overlapped by trans- ous elements. The Late Triassic evaporites, cov- gressive limestones, locally alternating with lenses and ered by impermeable lithotypes, are usually the layers of marls, clays and sometimes conglomerates. “reservoir rocks”. The high temperature hydrother- A lot of oolitic-pisolitic bauxite ± Ti oxides bodies occur: mal fluids of the geothermal fields of Larderello in Lazio, Colle Carovenzi-Pescosolido [208] in Liri and Mt. Amiata (Mt. Gabbro-Lago di Travale [156], Valley, near Sora; in Abruzzo, Casamaina-Puzzilli [213] Larderello- Castelnuovo-Rio Secco-M. Lago [157], (L’Aquila) and Mandrilli [215] (Marsica); in Campania, Bàgnore-S. Fiora [172], Piancastagnaio [173]) are Bocca della Selva [220] and Pecorareccia-Regia used for electric energy production. Piana [221] (Matese), Mt. Maggiore-Caiazzo-Mt. Evaporitic gypsum and salt deposits Fosco [224], Castello di Dragoni [225] and Mt. (Buriano–Saline di Volterra [153] and Ponte Ginori Grande [226] (Caserta); in Apulia, the wide bauxite [152]) intercalate within the lagoon sands, deposit of S. Giovanni Rotondo [229] (Gargano), marlstones, clays and limestones, deposited in the Cavone-Spinazzola [231] (Murge) and various Up- Neogene grabens. Similar sedimentary series host per Cretaceous-Neogene clay deposits with bauxite, seams of lignite, e.g., Ribolla [165], Baccinello- pisolites, oolites and Ti oxides (e.g., Palmariggi [232], Cana [176] within the Upper Miocene sediments, Poggiardo [233] and Otranto [234]) overlapped by and Mugello [149], Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni [150] Miocene limestones. etc. in the Pleistocene “clayey-lignite Complex”. Ferriferous submarine placers characterize the b)Sulphur deposits sediments of depth in front of the mining area of Rio The Gessoso-Solfifera Fm (Upper Miocene), Marina. The coastal sandy bars between Ansedonia outcropping along the entire Appennine ridge, hosts and Burano-Foce del Chiarone [183] are rich of Fe lots of sulphur deposits. At the border of Emilia- oxides and heavy minerals, derived by the weathering Marche there are the important deposits of Perticara- and erosion of volcanites: magnetite (up to 25%) Marazzano [184] and Cabernardi [185] is mainly concentrate toward the shoreline, with (Montefeltro). Southernmost, in Val Cesano, some 26 stratiform and lenticular sulphur bodies, alternat- (fluorite) in the surroundings of the Tolfa. Some ing with gypsums and limestones, occur. Several other mineralisation are hosted within the important sulphur deposits are also present in volcanites, e.g., Castagneto della Trinità-Allumière Campania, especially in Irpinia, as Isca della [198] (cinnabar) and the lenticular bodies of alunite Palata-Stretto di Barba [227] and Bosco della and caolinite of La Provvidenza-La Bianca [199] Palata [228]. and Fosso Eri-Sasso [202] produced by the hydrothermal weathering of rhyolitic ignimbrites. c)Polymetallic sulphides; fluorite and barite; man- Quaternary exhalative-sedimentary mineralisation ganese (marcasite, pyrite and sulphur of solfatara) are Numerous polymetallic sulphide, uranium, fluorite, common in the Cimini-Volsini-Vico Complex (e.g., barite, clays etc. mineralization are connected with the Rovine di Ferento Sud-Macchia Grande [194], magmatism characteristic of the coastal belt between Ceriti-Manziana [201], Latera etc) and in the Albani Southern Tuscany and Vulture region. The calcalkaline Hills (e.g., Quarto della Solforatella [206]). Tuscan-Latial magmatism (ignimbrites, lavas and Numerous fluorite with Ba and Sr carbonates and domes from rhyolite to quartz-latite), started in sulphates and sometimes apatite deposits occur Paleocene, is typical of the Tolfa and Cimini between Rome and the Bolsena and Bracciano Mountains. Afterwards, the alkaline-potassic Lakes. They are often stratiform-lacustrine deposits, magmatism of Latium produced, southward: the alternating within the Plio-Pleistocene pyroclastites lavas and the leucite pyroclastites of Volsini and/or tuffites: e.g., S. Maria di Sala-Acquaforte Mountains (Bolsena); the tephrite-leucite lavas and [192], Lago di Mezzano (fluorite and alunite), Pian the phonolite-tephrite ignimbrites of Sabatini Aùta, Pianciano [204], Castel Giuliano, Cornazzano Mountains (Bracciano); the leucitic-tephrites and and Villa Santa, Farnesina-M. Mario. Lenses and the tephrite-phonolite ignimbrites of the Vico thin layers of Fe and Mn oxides (mainly pyrolusite), volcanic edifice; the sequence of leucite-nepheline usually alternate with clayey pyroclastites and lavas, pyroclastites, tuffites and pozzolanas of the travertine deposits, particularly frequent soutward Albani Hills complex. The petrologic and eastward of Bolsena Lake and westward of characteristics of Campania magmatism delineate Bracciano Lake, e.g., Tardane, La Mola, C. Pigotti with the Roccamonfina volcanic complex latites, [193]. trachyte-phonolites, trachybasalts, leucobasanites (Campi Flegrei, neighbouring Islands and Vesuvio). d)Uraniferous occurrences Pleistocene trachytic lavas and pyroclastites, The geochemical concentration of uranium are com- hauynites-phonolites and basalts characterize the monly high within the volcanites of Volsini-Cimini-Vico Vulture. complex. Enrichments up to 800 ppm of U occur in The calcalkaline Tuscan-Latial magmatism and the various lacustrine sediments and around the hydro- alkaline-potassic magmatism of Latium are particularly thermal springs and volcanic gas emissions, like productive from the metallogenic point of view. Macchia Grande [194], Legarelle, La Carbonara, Widespread thermomineral springs rich in F as well as Pantane, Poggio di Campo, Perello (Viterbo prov- several small Quaternary base metals sulphides ince). occurrences with fluorite, minor stibnite, cinnabar and pyrolusite, characterize the Upper Latium volcanites. e)Industrial minerals Fe, Pb, Zn, Ag, Sb, Hg etc. veins are frequent in Tolfa- The leucite, typical of lavas, ignimbrites and Cimini area, often hosted within Trias-Oligocene tuffites of the Volsini, Cimini, Sabatini Mountains, sedimentary sequences: Ponte S. Pietro [191] (Fiora Vico and Roccamonfina, locally reaches sometimes Valley, in the Verrucano phyllites); Roccaccia-Pian interesting concentrations higher than 20÷25%, like Ceraso [200], Edificio del Piombo and Casa Grande at Prataroni-Case Ciotti [196] (Viterbo) and (polymetallic sulphides and fluorite), Pian Roccamonfina [223]. dell’Organo-Sacromonte [197] (barite and Kaolinite deposits, due to hydrothermal and/ celestine), Monte delle Fate-Prato del Casone [203] or fumarole weathering of volcanites, occur at 27 Casale di Mezzano (Viterbo), Pantano Fragneto rope verging domain (Cetraro-Cosenza-Catanzaro [219] (Caserta) and Pozzuoli. Some bentonite and belt - M. Gariglione Unit) and a wider Africa verg- perlite deposits are in Ponza Island (Le Forna [211]) ing chain (Longobucco - p.p. Sila Units and the rest and at Capo Bianco (perlite). of Calabrian-Peloritan Arc, south of Catanzaro Bentonite and smectite layers lie within the Daunia plain). The Africa verging chain is constituted by a Fm, like at Colle Pagliarone [216] and Masseria Ianiri metamorphic basement overthrust and overturned [217] (Molise) and Vignali-Macchia di Lenza- on its Palaeozoic volcano-sedimentary cover. The Vetrucco [230] (Foggia). piling up of the Africa verging tectonic Units shall Bituminous-asphaltic residues often fill the in- be pre-Variscan (Ferla et al., 1982-83) or Alpine tensely fractured Triassic-Miocene carbonatic and cal- (Bonardi et al., 1982). careous-marly rocks: those of S. Domenico-Le The Late Variscan granitoid magmatism shows Fornaci [207] (Frosinone), M. Coliuccio, Filettino, widespread intrusions in Calabria and only small bod- Veroli and Civitella Roveto are the most interesting in ies (Capo Rasocolmo and Capo d’Orlando) in the Latium, while, among S.Valentino, Lettomanoppello Peloritani Mountains. and Pratedonica [214] (Abruzzo), the most impor- The Volcano-Sedimentary Paleozoic series tant bituminous asphaltic deposits occur in the (Cambrian-Ordovician to Devonian-Carboniferous Miocene marly limestones of Maiella. terrigenous-carbonaceous metasediments with inter- Numerous and sometimes important lignitiferous calated metavolcanites) characterizes the southern belt deposits alternate within the Plio-Pleistocene of the Peloritan Mountains and wide areas of the Ca- terrigenous sediments (e.g., Gubbio [186], Pietrafitta- labria: the Bocchigliero Unit (underlying the Val Nestore [187], Torgiano [188], Bastardo-Giano Mandatoriccio tectonic Unit), the Sila-Longobucco [189], Morgnano-Spoleto [190]) in Umbria; Ruscio- range and the Stilo Unit of the Serre (Bivongi) and the Leonessa [195] in Latium; Aterno [212] in Abruzzo; Aspromonte areas. Morcone [222] in Tammaro Valley, in Campania; The Calabria hosts some minor polymetallic W, Mercure [235], in Lucania). Mo occurrences linked to the Late Variscan granitoid plutonism and rare mineralization connected with f)Coastal placers the matamorphic basement and local limbs of Sands with abundant heavy minerals, mainly origi- ophiolites. Some sulphur, clayey and coal deposits nated from the volcanites of Latium inland, involve long are registered in the Miocene-Oligocene sedimen- strips of the Tyrrenian coast: e.g., between Tarquinina tary cover. and Ladispoli [205] (magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, pyroxenes, amphyboles, zircon, rutile, thorite etc. de- I. Mineralisation linked to Late Variscan rived from Sabatini Mountains); between Nettuno and granitoids Torre Astura [210] (magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, rutile, Some albite deposits are linked to the southern zircon, monazite, thorite, uranothorite, gold, garnets, Calabria plutons: Gabrielli [248] and Petti dell’Arena corundum, chromite, cassiterite, anphyboles, [249] hosted in the granites of Mt. Poro-Capo pyroxenes etc., especially from Albani Hills); between Vaticano; Fosso dell’Arena [250] in the high Torre del Fico and Torre S. Limato [218], near the aluminiferous granodiorites of Mt. Pecoraro-Serra S. Garigliano mouth (magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, Bruno; others near Luzzi, Acri and S. Domenico amphibole, pyroxene, garnet, olivine, staurolite, tour- (Sorbo). maline). Disseminated scheelite-molibdenite occur within granodiorites and microgranites near Bivongi 2.4.5 MINERALISATION OF CALABRIA [251] and in S. Todaro-Calatria area within the phyllites at the eastern border of Mt. Pecoraro-Serra The Calabrian-Peloritan Arc S. Bruno pluton. The metamorphic-magmatic Calabrian- Lenses and irregular bodies of pyrrhotite and/or Peloritan Arc (Censi and Ferla, 1982-83; Ferla, magnetite with sphalerite, minor chalcopyrite, galena 1982-83; Bonardi et al., 1982) includes an Eu- and fluorite gangue (S. Roberto d’Aspromonte [254] 28 and Cartegì) occur at the north-western slopes of also occur within the Tortonian clayey-arenaceous the Aspromonte, at the contact between the granites sequence. and the gneisses, amphibolites and marbles. The Gessoso Solfifera Fm (Messinian - Upper The Sila pluton generated various sphalerite, ga- Miocene) includes, from the bottom to the top, “tripoli”, lena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, marcasite veins with calcite, limestones and evaporites. The evaporites contain vari- quartz, fluorite and barite gangue (e.g., Longobucco ous sulphur and salt mineralisation. The main sulphur [240]). The fluorite (Cerenzia [243]) or the barite deposit is Comero-Strongoli [241], that exploited a (Fiumarella-Mastricarro [244]) predominate in some calc-sulphur stratified body embedded between veins. “tripoli” and marls. Among the most interesting salt Skarn type scheelite mineralisation are linked to deposits there are Lungro [237], a salt and clay alter- the contact aureole between the granodiorites and the nated layers SW of Castrovillari, and Timpa del Salto Bocchigliero and Mandatoriccio Units rocks, as well [242], a deposit 300 m thick in Neto Valley (Crotone). as in southern Aspromonte within the Aspromonte The beach sands of the coastal shores of the Ionian Nappe. Some pneumatholitic hydrothermal stockwork and Tyrrhenian Seas are frequently rich of heavy veins of Zn, Pb, fluorite, scheelite are sometimes minerals, particularly Fe and Ti oxides. The most present within similar contexts. important placers are Rossano-Corigliano [238], at the mouth of the Crati, Cetraro [239], S. Eufemia II. Mineralisation of the Ophiolite Unitis [245] and Soverato [246]. The sequences of argillites, siltites and calcariferous schists with pillow metabasalts, serpentinites and 2.4.6 MINERALISATION OF SICILY metaultrabasites (Sinni Valley) overlapped by graded The metalliferous and industrial mineral deposits sandstones and conglomerates (north-eastern Pollino) of the Sicily are hosted: I) in the Peloritani metamor- constitute local tongues of the ophiolitiferous unit. It phic basement; II) in the Gessoso Solfifera Fm hosts various minor cupriferous and some magnetite (Messinian), widely outcropping in the Sicily Central and/or chromite mineralisation linked to metabasites: Basin; III) in the porous and cataclastic rocks of the the most interesting ore is the manganesiferous de- Ragusa Fm (Lower Miocene-Oligocene) and the posit of Mormanno [236] (pyrolusite and braunite, Tellaro Fm (Upper/Middle Miocene) in the Fe oxides and chert/quartz), linked to a limb of clay Hyblean Mountains. schists and polychrome jaspers. Some small occurrences of Fe-Cu sulphides (Sangineto, Malvito, I. The Peloritan metamorphic basement rep- S. Agata, Cerzeto etc.) are linked to the ophiolitic resents the southward prosecution of the Aspromonte tongues outcropping in the Diamante, Terranova, basement. The Palaeozoic Volcano-Sedimentary Se- Gimigliano and Malvito areas. ries represents the southern belt of the Peloritani Moun- tains. It hosts only small mineralisation: the most inter- III.Mineralisation of the sedimentary cover esting are pyrite (+ Cu, Zn, Pb) occurrences, linked The sedimentary cover includes Lower-Middle to Silurian-Devonian black schists, and some Pb, Sb, Triassic to Plio-Quaternary sedimentary series. Cu, Ag, (Hg?) sulphides-bearing veinlets skattered Some ferriferous lenses (goethite and hematite with within the phyllite rocks. relict pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena) oc- The Mandanici Unit is typical of the Peloritani cur at the transgressive contact between the phyllitic Mountains; it also outcrops in Calabrian Arc but basement and the Mesozoic limestones at Pazzano- with only small tongues, in the Cardeto Window. It Stilo [252]: this is probably a weathered deposit includes a sequence of quartz-carbonate phyllites of pyrite with minor base metal sulphides. with alternated tuffitic and transitional-toleiitic Some lignite seams (e.g., Agnana-Antonimina metabasalts: three marble horizons mark the se- [253], Locri hinterland) intercalate within the Oligocene quence. sequence of sandstones and clayschists, overlapping The Aspromonte Nappe, overlapping the the crystalline basement. Lignitiferous seams (e.g., Mandanici Unit, is a thick sequence of high grade Conidoni-Briatico- Zungri [247], Vibo Valentia) 29 paragneisses, including a “variegated” alternance pegmatitic bodies of feldspar (e.g., Mongiove of marbles, Ca-silicate fels, mafic and acidic [256]) occur within the high grade metamorphic metavolcanites and minor augengneisses. The phyllite- Unit, near Patti. metavolcanite zones of the Mandanici Unit are highly metalliferous (Omenetto et al., 1988). Numerous II. The Gessoso Solfifera Fm of the Central Sic- green tourmaline-scheelite stratiform, folded and/ ily Basin is characterized by sedimentary and p.p. or mobilized ores are connected with sericite- magmatic series deposited after the Tortonian tectonic chlorite, quartzite and quartz-phyllite horizons. phase. Limestones, marlstones, clays, sandstones and Accessory apatite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, conglomerates predominate at the base (Upper tethraedrite, stibnite, fluorite, rutile etc. accompany Tortonian – Lower Messinian), followed by marlstones the tourmaline-scheelite, frequently mobilized in with tripoli, evaporitic limestones, laminar and selenitic veinlets and stockwork, e.g., Tripi and Giampilieri; gypsum, salts (Gessi di Cattolica). The salt deposits Vacco and Migliuso in Fiumedinisi area. High grade are cut by an unconformity, overlapped by the sequence scheelite (wolframite) ores bodies, with ankerite of laminate gypsum and selenite (Gessi di Pasquasia), and quartz gangue, lie with the transition graphite covered by terrigenous deposits, gypsarenites, schists-paragonite marbles: the enrichment of marlstones, limestones (Upper Messinian). Salt and scheelite occurs in breccias in the Tripi and south sulphur deposits abound in the “Central Basin”. Fiumedinisi areas. Coarse grained scheelite ores Most of salt deposits occurs within a 20 km wide occur along the shear-zone at the tectonic contact belt, extending from Porto Empedocle to Nicosia; some Mandanici Unit-Aspromonte Nappe in the North of them touch thickness of hundreds of meters due to Fiumedinisi and Gioiosa areas. refolding. They generally include salt layers with inter- Skarn and skarnoid scheelite mineralisation are calate anhydrite, followed upward by halite and also connected with perianathectic, magmatic and ret- polihalite, K-Mg salts and clays bands on top. The rograde metamorphism within the Aspromonte Nappe main deposits are Petralia [257], Coffari-Muti [260], both in the north-eastern Peloritan Mountains and Ranieri [267], Cattolica [270], Realmonte [275], southern Aspromonte (Omenetto et al., 1988). Racalmuto-Montedoro [272]. The K-Mg salts The Mandanici Unit also includes: some (kainite, carnallite and sylvite) characterize the stratiform magnetite-pyrrhotite (± Cu, Zn sulphides) Pasquasia [265], S. Cataldo [269], Racalmuto- ore bodies, linked to a chlorite-phyllite horizon Montedoro [272], Corvillo [258], S. Caterina [261] below the Upper marbles; many stratiform, veinlet etc. deposits. and irregular bodies of Fe, Cu, As, Zn, Pb, Sb sul- The sulphur deposits, due to the bacterial-gyp- phides and sulphosalts, native Au and Ag with sum-hydrocarbon interaction, are usually connected quartz, calcite and chlorite gangue, are embedded with gypsiferous vacuolated limestones (“Perciuliato”). within the phyllites of the Mandanici Unit, particu- The sulphur mineralisation are very numerous below larly in the Fiumedinisi, Nizza di Sicilia and Alì the main gypsum horizons, especially along the synclinal areas. Among the most important are those of Bafia, and/or anticlinal structures. The most important are outcropping between Pomia and Carbone Valleys, Zimbalio-Giangagliano [259], Gessolungo-Juncio and of Tripi [255]; some quartz and fluorite veins [262], Trabonella [263], Giummentaro [264], with abundant sphalerite and argentiferous galena; Floristella [266], Cozzodisi [268], Stretto Cuvello minor Fe-Mn carbonates and oxides, barite and [271], Gibellini [273], La Grasta [274], Ciavolotta accessories polymetallic sulphides and sulphosalts, [276], Lucia [277], Muculufa [278]. frequent at the top of the lower marble horizon. The metamorphic basement also hosts several III.The Ragusa Fm, outcropping in the Hyblean mineralisation produced by hydrothermal and region (Siracusa-Ragusa), includes calcareous arenites thermometamorphic Late Variscan magmatism and marlstones at the base (Oligocene-Lower outcropping with small bodies at Capo Rasocolmo Miocene); marlstones and marly limestones with in- and Capo d’Orlando. Various vein and lenticular tercalated volcanites on top (Middle-Upper Miocene).

30 The northern slopes of Hyblean Mountains are con- Sa Gruxi [337], Corona Sa Craba-Barbusi-Sa Punta stituted by biocalcarenites (Palazzolo Fm) and Etna’s Peppixedda [341], Mont’Ega [344], Giuenni- volcanic products (Pliocene-Holocene). Lots of Concas de Sinui-Orbai-P. Filippeddu [342; 343] asphaltiferous-bituminous impregnate deposits lo- and Su Benatzu [349]. Barite with minor galena, cally occur within the porous sedimentary rocks of sphalerite and hematite (e.g., Arenas-Tiny [328]), Ragusa Fm and of Tellaro Fm. They represent the re- fills some paleokarstic structures of the Cambrian- sidual products of hydrocarbons risen from the deep Ordovican unconformity. oilfields, well-known in the Hyblean area along the After the Caledonian orogenic phase and the fractures and faults system and porous rocks. The main Upper Silurian erosion, limestones, sandstones, asphaltiferous-bituminous deposits are those of claystones, acidic and basic volcanites deposited dur- Streppenosa-Castelluccio [279], Tabuna [280], Vizzini ing the Devonian-Carboniferous. Sb and W bearing and Licodia Eubea area. mineralisation (southern Sardinia) and some ferrifer- Some wide clay deposits also occur in Sicily: ce- ous deposits (Nura, NW Sardinia) occur within this ramic clays near Termini Imerese (Palermo), bentonite sequence. near Racalbuto (Enna), caolinite in the Lipari Is- II. Mineralisation connected with the land (Messina). Late Variscan magmatism. Carbon dioxide exhalations occur near the Naftia An imposing granitoid magmatism (286 ± 2 Lake (Catania). Ma - Dini et al., 2005) involved various wide Sardinia areas at the end of the Variscan tectonic 2.4.7 MINERALISATION OF SARDINIA metamorphic event, producing lots of important ore Many ore and industrial mineral deposits occur deposits. within the Cambrian-Holocene Sardinia rocks. Several feldspatic pegmatitic bodies occur in Nuorese (Valle S. Marco-Liscoi) and in Sulcis I. Mineralisation linked to the Cambrian (Capoterra and Sarroch). Units Pneumatolitic Mo, W, Sn, Ni, Co deposits: The Cambrian is characterized by shallow sea and molibdenite and quartz deposits are Su Seinargiu [348] partly lagoon sediments in SW Sardinia. They include (Sulcis), Perd‘e Pibera-Perda Lada [326] (Arburese), the “Arenarie F.”, arenaceous-clayey rocks with al- Oschiri [286] and Monti [287] (Logudoro); ternate limestones; the “Metallifero Fm”, a some- scheelite and wolframite occur within the Quirra- times heteropic sequence of grey “dolomie rigate” Perda Maiori [315] deposit (Arburese); the and “calcari ceroidi”, alternating with calcariferous stanniferous deposits of Perdu Cara-M. Mannu schists and tuffites; the “Scisti di Cabitza Fm”, with [332] and various occurrences with Ni, Co predominant clayey schists. The Cambrian Units solfoarsenides, arsenopyrite and Pb, Zn, Cu, Ag host different stratabound ore deposits. Highly oxi- sulphides are characteristic of the Arburese– dized pyritic-zinciferous, with minor Pb deposits Fluminese region. (Fe-ochres and calamine products) occur below the Pyrometasomatic deposits, sometimes with “Metallifero Fm” and within the “Dolomia rigata”: scheelite and Fe oxides and sulphides, are frequent in e.g., Campo Pisano-Funtana Perda-Seddas Sulcis and Gerrei region. Ferriferous Moddizzis group [336] (Iglesiente); Candiazzus thermomethamorphic deposits (magnetite, carbonates, [329] and Antas (Fluminese). Pb and Ag are richer silicates and sometimes sulphides) occur in Silurian in the upper part of the sequences, as at Monteponi- schists, e.g., in Nurra area (Canaglia [282]), in S.Giovanni-M.Agruxau [336], Nebida-Masua- Barbagia (Giacurru-Roccia Perdabila [304] etc.) Acquaresi [334], Buggerru [330], Marganai [331]. and in Sulcis region (S. Leone [347]). The talc and Significant concentrations of Cu mark the Zn, Pb, steatite deposits in Nuorese (Sa Matta-S. Ag deposits of the Sulcis: e.g., Rosas-Truba Niedda- Francesco-Predas Biancas [299]) are probably due Sa Marchesa [345] and Teulada [350]. Several to the thermomethamorphic and hydrothermal al- bodies of barite with minor fluorite and galena oc- terations on Paleozoic rocks. cur in Sulcis-Iglesiente areas: e.g., Barega–Arcu 31 Various irregular ore bodies set at the contact veinlets, ~260 Ma dating, are hosted within Late between granite plutons and wall rocks. The main Variscan fractures, coeval with the calcalkaline basal- are Sa Lilla-Parredis [321] in Gerrei, Correboi tic dikes. The same meta-volcanosedimentary series [301] in Barbagia region, Perda S’Oliu [324] in hosts some Sb and sometimes W (scheelite) Fluminese and Arzana [305] in Ogliastra; their typi- stratabound and vein type deposits, e.g. Genna Ureu cal paragenesis includes galena, sphalerite, [313] and Ballao-Su Suergiu [320]. chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrothite and Fe oxides; also abundant arsenopyrite occurs sometimes (e.g., III.Mineralisation of the cover sequences Baccu Locci [322] in Gerrei and Scivu [323] in Several minor uraniferous occurrences are Fluminese), or fluorite (e.g., S. Lucia [325], Su skattered in Sulcis (Capoterra). Zurfuru-Perda Niedda-Is Murvonis [335]). Mainly The post Variscan erosional phase was interrupted cupriferous deposits (chalcopyrite, sphalerite, ga- by the Late Carboniferous-Permian continental depo- lena, magnetite etc) are Funtana Raminosa [307], sition of clastic sediments, acidic volcanites and at the contact between Silurian metamorphic rocks lacustrine pelites with some coal seams (e.g., anthra- and Late Variscan porphyritic domes and dykes, cite of Corongiu [308] in Barbagia). and Talana [302], with granites. The marine sedimentation started in Nurra re- Hydrothermal vein type, lenticular or epige- gion, during the Trias, with limestones, marlstones netic “columnar” mineralisation are abundant and and evaporites, and spread to the rest of Sardinia, often very important within the Devonian-Silurian during the Jurassic. The “Serie dei Tacchi” marks and sometimes Cambrian formations. They are gen- the transgression in the Barbagia and Sarcidano: erally constituted by Ag-galena, Cd-sphalerite and this is constituted by a conglomeratic-clayey unit pyrite with quartz, siderite, ankerite, minor fluorite with underside hematite-goethite lenses and layers and barite gangue. The wide Montevecchio- (“Ferro dei Tacchi”) and upward bentonite, Ingurtosu-Gennamari [316] swarm of veins extends kaolinite and refractory clays, exploited near NW of the Arburese pluton. Similar deposits are Laconi and Nurallo (e.g., Funtana Mela-Corona Sos Enattos and Guzzurra [295] in Nuorese, Su Elzu Arrubia [309]). Some Pb, Zn stratabound occur- [292] in Logudoro, Argentiera [283] in Nurra, rences (e.g., Nurai-M. Albo and Bosano) lie within S’Ortu Becciu [327] in Sarrabus and Genna Olidoni the Dogger calcareous-dolomitic sequence in the [303] in Ogliastra. The veins are sometimes char- Nuoro province. acterized by dominant fluorite, barite and minor Pb, After the Middle Cretaceous uplift and the Zn, Ag, etc. sulphides: e.g., in Gerrei (Silius-Bruncu carbonatic platform erosion, some bauxite (e.g., Mannu-Genna Tres Montis [319]), in Campidano Olmedo [284] in Nurra) and ferruginous deposits (Sardara [312]), in Sarrabus (“Argentifero” [333], (eastern Sardinia) filled the karst cavities. Burcei [338], M. Arbu [339]), in Sulcis (M. Wide lignite seams of “Bacino del Sulcis” [340], Calcinaio), in Barbagia (Correboi and Gennarule Cixerri Valley and Narcao lie within the Eocene [301]), in Logudoro (Punta Lanzinosa), in Sarcidano lacustrine and shallow sea sediments. region (Castello Medusa [306]), Bruncu Molentinu The Oligocene-Pleistocene Alpine extensional tec- (Sarrabus), Santoru [314], Gianna Aidu Entu [291] tonics promoted the eruption of abundant trachy- in Baronia, Tsurufusu [311] in Arburese and, also andesitic and basaltic volcanites (NW Sardinia). In with chalcopyrite, Talentinu [310] in Quirra. A vein the central belt of the island trachy-andesitic lavas with dominant siderite occurs at Salaponi [317], in alternate with continental terrigenous deposits, Arburese. overlapped by Miocene transgressive marlstones, Some swarms of auriferous veinlets sandstones, organogenous limestones and tuffites, fol- (arsenopyrite with minor pyrite, galena, stibnite and lowed by Pliocene coastal and terrigenous lagoon de- gold) cut the Silurian meta-volcanosedimentary series posits. in M. Ollasteddu, Flumineddu, Baccu Locci, The Tertiary volcanites generated some Baccheruta etc. areas, Northern of Villasalto – S. Vito cupriferous (± Pb, Zn etc.) deposits (Calabona [293] in SE Sardinia (Dini et al., 2005). The auriferous in Logudoro area, Torpè-Canale Barisone [290] and 32 Capo Marargiu-Bosano [297] in Alghero area) and it spreads over the whole region, scattered through- various manganesiferous mineralisation at out the network of valleys. Industry in Latium and Chiaramonti [285], Padru [289], Montresta [296], Abruzzo (N29E08, N28E07)is concentrated in the Tres Nuraghes [298], Isole S. Pietro [346] and S. intermontane valleys and along the coasts as well Antioco. A hematite vein with quartz occurs in M. as round the main cities. The distribution of indus- Ferru [300]. try in Southern Italy, however, follows an irregular The pervasive hydrothermal-geothermal convec- pattern, with excessive concentration in certain tive cells within the Tertiary volcanites produced sev- coastal zones (such as the Caserta-Naples-Caserta eral large bentonite clays deposits (e.g., Pedra de Fogu belt) (N28E08) or in a number of geographically [288], Meilogu and Mt. Oliena in Sulcis) and kaolinite favorable positions (the Bari-Taranto-Brindisi tri- (e.g., Castello di Bonvei-Rio Badu de Ludu [294], angle) (N28E09, N28E10, N27E10, N27E11). In- Serrenti-Furtei in Campidano, Mt. Porceddu [318] dustrial areas on the two main islands of Sicily and etc.). The kaolinite bodies are characterized by wide- Sardinia are generally peripheral and close to spread disseminated pyrite grains and by local harbors. silicification pipes, rich in pyrite, sulphides and The structure of industrial production and the sulphosalts of Cu, As, Sb, Zn etc., sometimes highly service industries is characterized by the preva- auriferous and argentiferous (e.g., Furtei). lence of small and medium-sized companies, em- An important perlite deposit lie witihin the Mt. ploying, however, only 70% of the workforce, 30% Arci volcanic complex (Oristano area). being monopolized by large companies. The Quaternary sediments filling the Fossa del The country’s economic revival in the immediate Campidano host some eluvial barite deposits and vari- post-war period was essentially sustained by the de- ous magnetite, ilmenite, cassiterite etc. placers. velopment and expansion of the basic industries, particularly the steel industry, itself conditioned by the 2.5 HUMAN ACTIVITIES importation of raw materials such as ores, scrap iron and coal. 2.5.1 INDUSTRY Mechanical engineering production is ex- Initially concentrated in the vicinity of large cities, tremely varied and includes car-manufacture, ship- busy ports or sources of energy and raw materials, building, aerospace, as well as the manufacturers with the declining importance of agriculture, industry of simple tools. Component manufacturing is also moved nearer smaller centers with adequate infrastruc- well developed and closely linked to companies tures, before spreading right into the country compet- producing durable goods not easily classified in ing with agriculture for land and changing the face any one sector (for example, non-metallic materi- of the countryside. als used in the car industry: rubber, glass, plastics However this is not the case in every part of etc). the country, and in fact in both the North and South The chemical industry is closely linked to min- the most highly industrialized and urbanized areas ing and quarrying and uses prevalently liquid (oil) are mainly in the densely populated regions. The and gaseous hydrocarbons (methane) from which traditional industrial triangle (Lombardy-Liguria- an immense range of materials is produced (rub- Piedmont) has now spread to include practically ber, plastics, synthetic resins, synthetic fibres, fer- the whole of the Po Valley (N31E04, N31E05, tilizers etc.), apart from traditional utilization like N31E06, N31E07, N30E04, N30E05, N30E06, heating fuel, engine fuel etc.). N30E07), with highest concentrations along the foot Textiles are the oldest Italian industry, widespread of the Prealps, Preapennines and the Adriatic coast throughout the peninsula and frequently linked to the (Trieste, Marghera, Ravenna etc.) as well as the rural community which provided plentiful low cost large alpine valleys (Adige, Valcamonica). Indus- labor. try in Tuscany and Umbria (N29E06, N29E07, Other specific sectors include the food indus- N29E08), is concentrated on the plains near the try, the building industry, the manufacture of paper Arno and Tiber river basins; in the Marche region and allied materials, tobacco (utilizing some na- 33 tional raw materials), footwear, leather and rubber Pig breeding and poultry are presently expanding articles, while jewellery and hand-crafted prod- but the once large number of horses and other pack ucts such as pottery, glass, wood and wrought-iron, animals has dropped sharply. Quality animal prod- provide employment for large numbers, with a gen- ucts are salami and cheese, though imported raw erally standardized output for the tourist trade. materials are also utilized in their production. In spite of the extensive coastlines and ancient tradi- 2.5.2 AGRICULTURE tions, the fishing industry in Italy is of relatively In spite of the variety of morphological condi minor importance. tions and the extent of mountainous terrain, only 12% of Italian territory (buildings, roads, waste- 2.5.3 ENERGY AND MINING RESOURCES land, waters etc.) is actually unproductive. Apart With a few exceptions the geological charac- from the large extent of forest (c. 21%), abandoned teristics of Italian territory do not comprise high and rough ground and service areas (c. 9%), the deposits of industrially useful mineral resources, surface effectively destined for annual or stable and only four regions (Sardinia, Tuscany, Sicily and permanent cultivation amounts to little more than Trentino-Alto Adige) (N31E07, N27E05, N27E06, 58% of the entire country. N26E09) have a mineral content of any interest. The variety of climatic and morphological con- The only fuel found in any quantity particularly in ditions together with the heterogeneous nature of the Po Valley and in the nearly Adriatic off shore, the soil are factors which have mainly influenced, is natural gas (methane) though there is consistent together with the force of tradition, agriculture in exploitation of geothermal resources. There is wide- Italy. Wheat and maize are the major cereal crops spread extraction of lithoids and incohesive though barley is now increasingly grown, while rice sediments (gravel, sand and clay) from alluvial is a specialized crop exported in large quantities. plains; numerous quarries are scattered throughout Olives and citrus tree fruits are the commonest and the country, sometimes responsible for ruining the best known which, together with vineyards, make landscape and disturbing the stability of sloping the country a leader in this sector in the Mediterra- ground. Considerable use is also made of under- nean and in Europe. Other fruit is also important, ground waters, both thermal and mineral. particularly apples and peaches, and sugar beet is The lack of fossil coal led to the building of a a crop for industrial utilization, supplying the sugar number of hydroelectric power stations last century, refining industry. Horticultural produce, most im- mainly in alpine valleys, though also in several sites in portantly tomatoes, is widely cultivated. Floricul- the Apennines. More power stations were later built ture is now expanding rapidly, favored by the mild in various other regions. After the last war, however, climate and widespread greenhouse cultivation. industrial expansion had to utilize power generated by Certain other characteristic products, e.g. mush- coal or hydrocarbon power stations. At present a quar- rooms and truffles, are found in significant quanti- ter of the electricity produced is obtained from water ties, as well as wild strawberries, raspberries and resources and three quarters from thermal sources. the like, now also grown under cover. Of localized The few nuclear power plants in the Po plain and importance is the product of certain trees such as Latium, were closed several years ago. chestnut and hazel, whose fruits are utilized princi- What is certain, however, is that present en- pally by the confectionery and bakery industries. ergy production cannot cover domestic require- Livestock breeding is a traditional agricultural ments, and it is necessary to import electricity di- activity. Methods are somewhat backward except rectly from transalpine countries. in the Po Valley, and the contribution to national For energy purposes, Italy is obliged to sup- demand for meat is insufficient. Certain old cus- plement its shortage of hydrocarbons by large-scale toms, such as transhumance in the Apennines, are importation to supply the numerous refining cen- now dying out. However, in the North, high alti- tres sited generally close to the principal ports. tude alpine pastures are still grazed in the summer. Hydrocarbon supplies are also channeled by oil and gas pipelines from Europe, Russia and Africa. 34