A Meditation on Archives and Their Importance for Autonomy

Annex

Thomas Ballhausen

Editor’s Note: In considering Europe’s autonomy in space, thoughts veer to how Europe’s path was impacted by its history and mosaicked culture. Undoubtedly, the early Soviet-Russian and US achievements in space would capture the attention of the world in the generations that followed. Nested between these two hegemons, Europe began developing its own capabilities, motivated by both its need for nondependence in space access and by its internal drive to introduce a European presence in the province of all mankind. In combining the specialisations of its growing number of member states, Europe incubated its own space industry, ranging from launch capabilities to astronaut training and trade restriction-free satellite development to compete on an international level. Whereas in the dawn of the space age Europe was at the mercy of its neighbours’ benevolence, today, it stands shoulder to shoulder as a formidable space actor. With this frame in mind, the author discusses autonomy from its roots, identifying how culture and the recording of history/experience (a cultural ‘archive’)—from both contemporary and hindsight perspectives—can inﬂuence the choices we make for the future. Karma police, arrest this man He talks in myths He buzzes like a fridge He’s like a detuned radio Radiohead: Karma Police §1 Let’s get physical. §2 Let’s get political. §3 Thinking about autonomy inevitably leads me—at least me—to questions of culture and the archive. I’m grateful for having been summoned to think about

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 173 C. Al-Ekabi (ed.), European Autonomy in Space, Studies in Space Policy 10, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11110-0 174 Annex autonomy, to rack or at least try to rack my proverbial brains over the political. In doing so, the archive is the result, the repetition, the repeat offence. §4 Autonomy is a deeply political term. Originally Greek, it is used to describe inner and outer freedom, with direct reference to independence and self- determination. But, not least in the field of culture, it is a category that draws a distinction and evokes the tension between existing laws and recourse to one’s own law. After serving as a watchword during the religious wars of the early modern age, the term finds itself anchored in the jurisprudence of the eighteenth century [15]. And this is when all those problems really start. §5 In Kant’s hands, the term undergoes systematic treatment for the first time. In a twofold reading, he wants it to be understood both as a general term for all philosophical efforts and for the realisation of a practical critique of reason. Two investigations are premised on this line of thought: on one hand, a close inspection of the recourse to tradition and existent authority and, on the other hand, the examination of individual proposals with respect to their suitability as universally valid—i.e. authoritative—concepts. Critical reflection here turns into philosophical practice. Contrary to Fichte, who is prepared to forsake the ‘I’ within the philosophical system for a science in disguise of theology, Kant always also emphasises the potential independence from authorities and the incessant revision of ideas and concepts. Following on from here, we find autonomy being used—by Hegel, for example—as an expression of self-determination and self-education. Autonomy thus understood results from a critical reflection and understanding of the universal laws under which we live and act [22]. §6 Certain issues remain problematic. It is not clear from where to derive the justifications for the respective—autonomous—criteria. Nor does autonomy admit binding obligations that go beyond the scope of individual insight. Insight, not position—this to me seems central. The understanding, the wanting to understand, is essential. Especially bearing in mind, as I would like to and have to do here, that autonomy as a category for political and aesthetic distinctions has historically also come to stand apart from an instrumental functionalism, or a postulated use value of culture [8]. Here too, there is a direct link to the archive [16]. §7 The archive—which is in equal measure a system of order and an actual collection, connected via a hinge of administrative, sub-medial processes that work to create difference—can be understood as a place of intellectual value creation, preconditioned by its heterogeneous contents [7]. The highly diverse types of holdings in an archive aren’t just signifiers in themselves but much rather also act positively as a framework for dealing with the material at hand—as well as establishing certain guidelines for discursive undertakings and approaches. This is a far call from the misguided interpretation of the archive as an end in itself. Rather, an ongoing reassessment of the archive leads to a better and more compre- hensive understanding of one’s own discipline and of recent developments and also serves to develop critical-analytical instruments capable of covering social processes in a wider sense. The archive is the cultural as well as European key concept, in which theory and practice interlock. Annex 175

§8 A persistent interrogation of the collection’s de facto holdings—whether something might still be used as an exhibit or is already to be considered part of and hence relevant to the discussion of a discipline’s history—therefore cannot (or, rather, can no longer) take place in the narrow and misguided sense of a herme- neutic claiming to be all encompassing and capable of delivering definite and eternally valid results. Rather, a serious study of memory and archive requires— in a poststructuralist vein—a chain of interrelated interpretations that also advance and enrich the history of one’s own field of work and study. There may at times be reason to be critical of this interpretational method’s outlook, yet it is still the most suitable means of uncovering and highlighting the changes in the importance of the material at hand, both in relation to a (disciplinary) history organised in narrative forms and with a view to contemporary questions [20, 21]. §9 The attribution of meaning within a discipline also needs to be considered here, within the framework of a twofold movement: the first of these movements is the emergence of the artefact at hand, the constitution of its value from an entropic state of disorder, of chaos and perhaps even of junk [17]. The second movement will usually follow the first: a circulation of semantic—and also mnemonically relevant—attributions, which occur in the context of studying a collection’s holdings and individual objects, as a discourse in the sense of an oscillation between two points of tension [18]. These intellectual-logistic efforts also comprise shifts of meaning and (re-)valuations. Seen in this context (amongst others), the analogue vs. digital debate reads as a bizarre reissue of the conflict Pagans vs. Neochristians. This is clearly a wrangling over the body—and there is a lot of wrangling in all sorts of places within the archival context—these are conflicting desires seized at the bodily level alone or, on the contrary, attempts to rid oneself completely of any form of physicality. Yet, as with many, if not most questions, this should not be an either-or matter. In this case, advanced European models already recognise two approaches that meaningfully complement each other, two ways of archiving and distributing that cannot just be seen from the perspective of generative wars of succession. Debating these issues is necessary, it lets us make the step from national treasures to a European cultural heritage and fuse past and present in view of a possible future. §10 Discourse of memory and archival system: these are the two faces of a Janus-headed child of modernity, which confront us as—in the best and most diverse sense—repositories of different, yet interrelated, functions and operational modes. The preoccupation with memory and remembering may already have a long tradition on the basis of antique sources, but significant changes only emerged— just like the archives, gradually divorced from their primal economic or legal surroundings—in the early twentieth century. As a result of historical breaks and technological developments, attention to these two areas is being renewed from a range of different scientific disciplines and areas within the humanities [5, 6]. This is not always a constructive process, oftentimes also characterised by difficult, though urgently required discussions of rather less appealing aspects within the history of science and the humanities: forgetting, suppression, distortion. 176 Annex

§11 The wish to enliven an inheritance, to enter a constructive relationship with the past in our (discursive) present and work towards an imagined future, is well worth supporting. This way of working was particularly significant for Aby War- burg, who together with Maurice Halbwachs can be considered one of the most important representatives of our present-day discourse of memory. Whereas the sociologist Halbwachs [9] placed the social conditions of collective memory at the centre of his thinking and writing on the discourse of memory, the art historian Warburg [19] endorsed the view of a culture and hence collective memory based on symbols, subject to changes and updates according to times and place. Warburg’s inductive approach, dictated by the material at hand, can be seen as a foreboding of postmodernity in the work of a thoroughly (and in every sense) modern thinker, who to this day serves as reference point for the newest theories of memory. What is particularly apparent in these cases is the interdisciplinary approach—it very clearly characterises both Halbwachs’s and Warburg’s methods and the relationship between the discourse of memory and the archival system. §12 The archive represents an ordered collection which, quite apart from the increasingly economic focus of the past decades, is increasingly envisaged and designed in constructive relationship with areas covered by the museum and the library. Apart from the practical benefits of such alliances, this is probably due to the fact that these institutional forms have usually also ended up creating internal archives, in order to adequately administer and work with the heterogeneous parts of their holdings. Apart from collections’ classic contents, such as the book medium (in the case of the library) or the more or less singular object (in the case of the museum), inheritances, unpublished material and much else besides have made its way into these institutions. The challenges of recording the data, preservation and expert treatment required and still require an archival approach within the afore- mentioned, specific structures of a collection. The conservation of holdings can likely be considered the most pressing task. This scientifically underpinned proce- dure of reclaiming what is past, forgotten and also suppressed can only be envisaged and practised as a balance between conserving the holdings and making them accessible, wherever their condition permits it. §13 The objects’ tissue, the tissue of potentiality and actuality, weaves itself into the voice of whatever is speaking. The tissue becomes part of the speaking but is still itself or on the way to becoming it. But what are the relations, what kind of politics can be learned here? This is the place where the war machine can enter the scene, a thought-apparatus capable of questioning, perhaps even annulling normed hierarchies [2, 11]. It is a turn towards a practical solidarity, a politics of friendship amongst equals [1, 3]. The European structure within which this thought instrument is unleashed and takes effect creates productive lines of flight, potentially capable of developing concepts, raising doubts and asking questions. The European archives could and can deliver all of this. §14 These lines of flight acknowledge utopia as the horizon into which a politics of friendship is inscribed [13]. They encourage a micropolitics whose constituent minorities are understood not in quantitative but qualitative terms and which are— and must be—based on mutual understanding [12]. Ground rules and mediation Annex 177 between the actors are urgently required, though the short-term call for strong leadership seems questionable and compromised not only in a historical sense [10]. As a place of intellectual and material value creation, the archive is an institution, a gesture and indeed an attitude of fraternite´. The balance between preserving its holdings and making them accessible requires archives to not only perform an incredible feat of logistics but also to clearly position themselves. What is needed is an autonomous, courageous position, capable of striking a balance between humbleness towards the material, its questions and challenges and the necessity of being a gatekeeper in the interest of both the material and the public. Preservation and access go hand in hand. §15 I would here like to point to the necessity of placing this line of thought in relation to the political and to the disputed notion of European-ness, manifest not least in terms of values. A cartography is needed, both of what is moveable and what is moving. §16 The politics of the archive and of autonomy are procedural. A politics which, akin to the politics of friendship, and following on from Schelling’s philosophy of nature [14] or Derrida’s later work [4], is always in the process of becoming. Two insights suggest themselves: First and perhaps foremost, an uninterrupted process of analysis and critique is an absolute necessity from the perspective of culture. On the other hand, there needs to be a vital connection between the political and all areas of human life, therefore also including culture, and this connection deserves to be recognised and strengthened. There needs to be an outspoken, expanded commitment to politics in a general sense, which factors in the interdependence of political practice, ethics and aesthetics. Within the context of a European culture and in terms of operating in a seemingly schizophrenic day- to-day reality, the archives make a significant contribution towards achieving this. §17 This is intended as a friendly assault; please get moving.

Consulted Literature [1] Aristoteles: Nikomachische Ethik. Auf der Grundlage der U¨ bersetzung von Eugen Rolfes herausgegeben von Gu¨nther Bien. Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag 1985 (Philosophische Bibliothek 5) [2] Gilles Deleuze & Fe´lix Guattari: Kapitalismus und Schizophrenie: Tausend Plateaus. Herausgegeben von Gu¨nther Ro¨sch. Berlin: Merve Verlag 1997 [3] Jacques Derrida: Politik der Freundschaft. Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp Verlag 2002 (stw 1608) [4] Jacques Derrida: Marx’ Gespenster. Der Staat der Schuld, die Trauerarbeit und die neue Internationale. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2004 (stw 1659) [5] Medien des kollektiven Geda¨chtnisses. Konstruktivita¨t – Historizita¨t– Kulturspeziﬁta¨t. Herausgegeben von Astrid Erll & Ansgar Nu¨nning unter Mitarbeit von Hanna Birk, Birgit Neumann & Patrick Schmidt. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 2004 (Media and Cultural Memory/Medien und kulturelle Erinnerung 1) 178 Annex

[6] Film und kulturelle Erinnerung. Plurimediale Konstellationen. Herausgegeben von Astrid Erll & Stephanie Wodianka unter Mitarbeit von Sandra Berger & Julia Schu¨tze. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 2008 (Media and Cultural Memory/Medien und kulturelle Erinnerung 9). [7] Wolfgang Ernst: Das Rumoren der Archive. Ordnung aus Unordnung. Berlin: Merve Verlag 2002 (Internationaler Merve-Diskurs 243) [8] Eran Guter: Aesthetics A – Z. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2010 (Philosophy A – Z Series) [9] Maurice Halbwachs: Das kollektive Geda¨chtnis. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag 1985 (Fischer Wissenschaft 7359) [10] Piers Ibbotson: The Illusion of Leadership. Directing Creativity in Business and the Arts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2008 [11] Christian Ja¨ger: Kriegsmaschinen. Zur politischen Theorie von Gilles Deleuze und Fe´lix Guattari. In: Krieg in den Medien. Herausgegeben von Hans-Peter Preusser. Amsterdam: Rodopi 2005 (Amsterdame Beitra¨ge zur neueren Germanistik 57), pp. 423–435 [12] Ralf Krause & Marc Ro¨lli: Mikropolitik. Eine Einfu¨hrung in die politische Philosophie von Gilles Deleuze und Fe´lix Guattari. Mit einem Essay von Manola Antonioli. Wien: Verlag Turia + Kant 2010 (Es kommt darauf an. Texte zur Theorie der politischen Praxis 10) [13] Didier Maleuvre: The Horizon. A History of Our Inﬁnite Longing. Berkeley: University of California Press 2011 [14] Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling: Schriften 1794–1800. Herausgegeben von Manfred Frank. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 1985 (stw 521; Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling Ausgewa¨hlte Schriften 1) [15] Oswald Schwemmer: Autonomie. In: Enzyklopa¨die Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie. Band 1: A – G. In Verbindung mit Gereon Wolters herausgegeben von Jo¨rg Mittelstraß. Stuttgart: Verlag J.B. Metzler 2004, pp. 232–234 [16] Sven Spieker: The Big Archive. Art from Bureaucracy. Cambridge, Ms: The MIT Press 2008 [17] Michael Thompson: Mu¨lltheorie. U¨ ber die Schaffung und Vernichtung von Werten. Neu herausgegeben von Michael Fehr. Essen: Klartext-Verlag 2003 [18] Frances A Yates: Geda¨chtnis und Erinnern. Mnemotechnik von Aristoteles bis Shakespeare. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften 1990 [19] Aby Warburg: Werke in einem Band. Auf der Grundlage der Manuskripte und Handexemplare herausgegeben und kommentiert von Martin Treml, Sigrid Weigel & Perdita Ladwig. Unter Mitarbeit von Susanne Hetzer, Herbert Kopp-Oberstebrink & Christina Oberstebrink. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2010 [20] Hayden White: The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality. In: Critical Inquiry No. 1 (Vol. 7) 1980, pp. 5–27 [21] Hayden White: The Question of Narrative in Contemporary Historical The- ory. In: History and Theory No. 1 (Vol. 23) 1984, pp. 1–33 Annex 179

[22] Friedrich Wolfzettel & Michael Einfalt: Autonomie. In: A¨ sthetische Grundbegriffe. Band 1. Absenz – Darstellung. Herausgegeben von Karlheinz Barck u.a. Stuttgart: Verlag J.B. Metzler 2000 (A¨ sthetische Grundbegriffe. Historisches Wo¨rterbuch in sieben Ba¨nden), pp. 432–458 [Wolfzettel], pp. 558–479 [Einfalt]

Recommended Further Literature

Walter Benjamin: Einbahnstrasse. Herausgegeben von Detlev Scho¨ttker unter Mitarbeit von Steffen Haug. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2009 (Walter Benjamin Werke und Nachlaß. Kritische Gesamtausgabe 8) Walter Benjamin: U¨ ber den Begriff der Geschichte. Herausgegeben von Ge´rard Raulet. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2010 (Walter Benjamin Werke und Nachlaß. Kritische Gesamtausgabe 19) Andrei Codrescu: The Posthuman DaDa Guide. Tzara & Lenin Play Chess. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2009 (The Public Square Book Series) Franc¸ois Dosse: Gilles Deleuze & Fe´lix Guattari. Intersecting Lives. New York: Columbia University Press 2010 (European Perspectives – A Series in Social Thought and Cultural Criticism) T.S. Eliot: Das o¨de Land. Englisch und deutsch. U¨ bertragen und mit einem Nachwort versehen von Norbert Hummelt. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2008 Tim Etchells: On Performance Writing. In: Tim Etchells: Certain Fragments. Contemporary Performance and Forced Entertainment. London: Routledge 2008, pp. 98–108 Rainald Goetz: Klage. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2008 Contemporary Debates in Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art. Edited by Matthew Kieran. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing 2006 (Contemporary Debates in Philosophy) Alan Liu: The Laws of Cool. Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 2004 Monika Schmitz-Emans: Gespenstische Rede. In: Gespenster. Erscheinungen – Medien – Theorien. Herausgegeben von Moritz Baßler, Bettina Gruber & Martina Wagner-Egelhaaf. Wu¨rzburg: Ko¨nigshausen & Neumann 2005, pp. 229–251 David Shields: Reality Hunger. A Manifesto. London: Penguin Books 2010 Susan Sontag: At the Same Time. Essays & Speeches. Edited by Paolo Dilonardo and Anne Jump. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux 2007 George Steiner: Im Raum der Stille: Lektu¨ren. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp Verlag 2011 About the Authors

Cenan Al-Ekabi joined the European Space Policy Institute in Vienna in 2011, functioning as a project manager from 2012 and a Resident Fellow from 2013. Prior to that, he obtained two advanced studies LL.M. degrees in Air and Space Law and in European and International Business Law from Leiden University in the Neth- erlands. He also holds a US JD with concentration in studies in International Law from the Thomas M. Cooley Law School and a bachelor’s degree in Political Science from McMaster University in Canada. Franco Algieri studied Political Science and Sinology in Freiburg, Taipei and Tu¨bingen and graduated from the Eberhard Karls Universita¨tTu¨bingen with the Magister Artium. He received his doctoral degree from the Universita¨tTu¨bingen for his studies on the Politics on China by the EU. During postgraduate studies at the College of Europe in Brugge, Belgium, he received his diploma of Advanced European Studies. Franco Algieri has been Research Director at the Austria Insti- tute for European and Security Policy (Austria Institut fu¨r Europa und Sicherheit- spolitik, AIES) in Maria Enzersdorf close to Vienna since April 2008. From 1991 until 1994 Franco Algieri carried out his research at the Institute for European Politics (Institut fu¨r Europaïsche Politik, IEP) in Bonn and from 1994 until 2008 at the Center for Applied Political Research (Centrum fu¨r angewandte Politikforschung, C·A·P) in Munich. His research activities are reflected in publications covering the development of European integration; the foreign, security and defence policy of the EU; the EU as global actor and the relation between the EU and Asia, especially China. Frank Asbeck has been Principle Adviser for Security Policy, first at the European Commission (DG RELEX) and currently at the European External Action Service (EEAS), since January 2010, dealing with matters such as space policy and cyber security. Previously, Mr. Asbeck served as Director of the European Union Satellite Centre (EU SatCen) in Torrejon, Spain, from 2005 to 2010 and Deputy Director of the former Western European Union Satellite Centre from 1996 to 2000. Since 2001, he held various posts at the European Commission, including as Director of then newly established Security Directorate. Prior to

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 181 C. Al-Ekabi (ed.), European Autonomy in Space, Studies in Space Policy 10, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11110-0 182 About the Authors joining the European Union, Mr. Asbeck worked in the German public service in charge of arms control, CBRN proliferation and East-West technology transfer and was also posted at the German Embassy in Brussels. He began his career at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, dealing with military use of space and arms control. Mr. Asbeck studied Physics, Law and Political Science in Germany and war studies in London. Thomas Ballhausen has been a Key Researcher at the Filmarchiv Austria since the year 2000. He teaches at the University of Vienna Comparative Literature and Film Studies and has been Associated Fellow at ESPI since the beginning of 2010. His research centres on intermediality, film history and media theory. Thomas Ballhausen has published several literary and scientific books. To name just two examples, his collection of essays ‘Delirium und Ekstase. Die Aktualita¨t des Monstro¨sen’ (Delirium and Ecstasy. On the Actuality of Monstrosity) was published in 2008, and his book ‘Bewegungen des Schreckens’ was published in 2010. Roger M. Bonnet was born in 1937. He is an Astrophysicist by training and graduated from the University of Paris, where he obtained his Doctorate in 1968. He started his research observing in the ultraviolet, the spectrum and the disc of the Sun from space-borne instruments that he himself designed. In 1977, he became Direc- tor of Research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research. He was also Director of the Laboratoire de Physique Stellaire et Plane´taire (LPSP) at Verrie`res- le-Buisson (1969–1983). In April 1983 he was appointed Director of the Scientific Programme of the European Space Agency. As an instrumentalist he was in charge of constructing the telescope of the camera that took pictures of Halley’s comet nucleus on board the European Giotto spacecraft. He has promoted the new field of helioseismology in the European space programme and also promoted the tech- niques of interferometry from space. He established the first long-term plan for Space Science called ‘Space Science – Horizon 2000’. This plan is now considered as a central reference for the different member states, as well as other countries such as the US, Russia and Japan. Prof. Bonnet was until recently the President of COSPAR (Committee on Space Research) and since January 2003 has been the Executive Director of the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern. Frank De Winne was born on 25 April 1961, just 2 weeks after the first flight of a human being into space. He graduated from the Royal School of Cadets, Lier, in 1979 and received a master’s degree in telecommunications and civil engineering from the Royal Military Academy, Brussels, in 1984. In 1992, he graduated from the Empire Test Pilots’ School (ETPS) in Boscombe Down, UK, where he was awarded the McKenna Trophy. After a distinguished career in the Belgian Air Force, Frank joined the European Astronaut Corps in 2000. Within less than 3 years, he performed his first space flight, an 11-day mission to the ISS. During this mission he was the flight engineer on the first flight of the upgraded Soyuz TMA spacecraft during the ascent flight phase. In 2009 Frank performed his second space flight during which he spent more than 6 months aboard the ISS. During the second part of the mission, he became the first European Commander of the ISS, the first time that this function was entrusted to a non-American astronaut or About the Authors 183 non-Russian cosmonaut. After his space flight Frank was appointed to chair the technical committee of the second EU-ESA Space Exploration Conference that took place in Brussels in October 2010. In addition to his professional activities, Frank serves also as Goodwill Ambassador for UNICEF Belgium (amongst several other organisations). At the time of the ESPI conference on European Autonomy in Space, Frank De Winne was a member of the European Astronaut Corps and involved with the preparation of the 7th Space Council, which was held in Brussels on 25 November 2010 during the Belgian EU Council Presidency. Rolf Densing completed his studies at the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy and Bonn University, thereafter beginning his scientific career at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, on the east coast of the United States. From 1992 to 1995, he worked as a project manager for the space science programme of the former DARA, the German Space Agency, which is now the DLR Space Administration. Amongst other things, he worked on a series of scientific missions with the German Astro-SPAS platform, which flew on the Space Shuttle missions STS-51 (1993), STS-66 (1994), STS-80 (1996) and STS-85 (1997). In 1999, he went on to take on a managerial role. After 3 years of work at DLR’s Washington office, he moved to DLR headquarters in Cologne as Head of the Executive Office. From 2003 onwards, the leisure sports enthusiast headed the ESA Affairs Department at the DLR Space Administration until the DLR Senate appointed him Director of Programmes in 2009. Marcel Dickow is by education a physicist and received his PhD from the Technical University of Berlin for his work on Molecular and Environmental Physics 2005. In 2005–2006 he completed his Master of Peace and Security Studies at the University of Hamburg, Institute for Peace Studies and Security Policy (Institut fu¨r Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik, IFSH). In 2006 he was Scientific Advisor in the Foreign Ministry and in 2007 Visiting Researcher at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI), Vienna. From 2007 to 2009 he received a grant from the German Volkswagenstiftung for European Foreign and Security Policy Studies at IFSH. In 2008 he worked in Space Policy Coordination at the European Commission, DG Enterprise and Industry. Since 2009 Marcel Dickow has been Senior Associate at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs (Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP) in Berlin ([email protected]) Rik Hansen is a PhD Candidate in Law, at the Leuven Centre of Global Governance Studies (KU Leuven). As a legal researcher, he had worked on an EU FP7 research project dealing with space procurement. Therein, along with fellow researchers from Cologne and Prague, he attempted an approach at harmonising the respective procurement rules of the EU and ESA. His wider interests include European Competition Law, International Trade Law (including WTO) and Political Economy. Panos Mastorakis joined ESPI as a Research Intern in July 2013. Prior to that, he studied Communication and Media Studies at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and holds a Master of European Studies (MES) from the University of Vienna. The topic of his master’s thesis was the ‘European Space 184 About the Authors

Agency: From the Cold War’s Margins to an Era of Multipolarity’. He is currently a PhD Candidate at the Department of Political Science of the University of Vienna. Niklas Reinke was born in 1973 in Du¨sseldorf, Germany, and studied Political Sciences, Economic Policy and Contemporary and Medieval History at the Uni- versity of Bonn. After his studies he worked as a freelancer for the Deutsche Gesellschaft fu¨r Auswa¨rtige Politik (German Society for Foreign Policy). His interest in space made him move to the German Aerospace Center, where he eventually became Head of Communications for the German Space Management. In 2009 Niklas Reinke took the position of Head of Press Office (‘Pressereferat der Staatskanzlei und Chef vom Dienst’) of the Federal State Government of North Rhine-Westphalia. In 2010 he returned to DLR where at the time of the ESPI European Autonomy in Space Conference, in January 2011, he worked in the Space Strategy and Program Division of Space Management. Amongst his publications is a reference book on the ‘History of German Space Flight Policy’. He now heads the DLR Tokyo Office, in Tokyo, Japan. Jana Robinson has been a Space Policy Officer at the European External Action Service (EEAS) since July 2013. From December 2009 to June 2013, Ms. Robinson worked as a Resident Fellow at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI), seconded from the European Space Agency (ESA), leading the Institute’s Space Security Research Programme. She has published some 23 articles on space security and space policy in various journals. Prior to joining ESPI, she served as Development Director for the Prague Security Studies Institute (PSSI) from 2005 to 2009, a leading, Prague-based, non-profit public policy organisation focused on security policy and studies. She likewise provided key support in the corporate establishment of PSSI Washington, a non-profit organisation in Washington, DC, closely affiliated with PSSI Prague. Previously, she held positions consistent with her academic background in Asian Studies. She holds an MA in Asian Studies from George Washington University’s Elliott School of International Affairs, in Washington, DC, specialising in Asia-Pacific security issues and space policy, and an MA in Chinese Studies from Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. She received scholarships to attend the International Space University (ISU) 2009 Space Studies Program (SSP09), the 2008 Summer Mandarin Training Course at the Mandarin Training Center of the National Taiwan Normal University in Taipei, and Shanghai University in 1999–2000. Samuel R. Schubert graduated from the George Washington University with a degree in Political Science. He has worked for the United Nations and think tanks in Washington and conducted studies for the European Parliament. He joined Webster University Vienna in 2007 as a Research Fellow and became a member of the research faculty team in 2009. He completed a PhD at the University of Vienna, writing on the feedback loop between national energy policies and international cooperation and conflict. Finally Mr. Schubert is also working on the two additional topics of federalism and representation and the perception of the EU in international negotiations. In addition to his immediate academic activities, Mr. Schubert is also an active member of the American Political Science Association and works closely About the Authors 185 with an international community of scholars on the protection of cultural property in times of conflict. Jean-Jacques Tortora is an engineer by education and in 1984 received his diploma from the ećole d’ingeńieurs en ae´ronautique in Toulouse. During his professional career he has held numerous posts in various capacities: from 1990 to 1996 he was based in Kourou, French Guiana, as head of the Arianespace Operations Quality Division. From 1998 until 2000 Jean-Jacques Tortora was advisor to the French Ministry of Research for Industrial Policy Management. He became Deputy Director for Strategy and Programs and was responsible for the industrial strategy of CNES in 2002, and he served as Attache for Space and Aeronautics at the Embassy of France in Washington and as CNES representative for North America. Today he is the Secretary General of Eurospace of the association of European Space Industry. Jan Wouters gained a bachelor’s degree in philosophy from Antwerp Univer- sity in 1984. He received the Masters of Law from Yale University in 1990. Until 1991 he was a visiting researcher at the Harvard Law School. In 1996 he received his PhD in Law from the Catholic University of Leuven. During his scientific career he was a Lecturer and Senior Lecturer in International and European Law at Maastricht University and Antwerp University. He served amongst others as Legal Secretary in the Court of Justice of the European Communities in Luxem- bourg. Today Jan Wouters holds the Jean Monnet Chair as Professor of Interna- tional Law and International Organizations. He is Director at the Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies—Institute for International Law, University of Leuven. Prof. Wouters has published books and articles on Public International and EU Law and on National, Comparative and European Company and Financial Law. 186 About the Authors

Authors and contributors during the conference ‘European Autonomy in Space’ held on 17– 18 January 2011 in Vienna. From left to right: Gerhard Thiele, Alfredo Roma, Marcel Dickow, Kai-Uwe Schrogl, Elo˝d Both, Rik Hansen, Samuel R. Schubert, Nicolas Warinsko, Roger-Maurice Bonnet, Frank De Winne, Geraldine Naja, Jean Bruston, Alain Gaubert, Jan Wouters, Niklas Reinke, Michel Doubovick and Christophe Venet List of Acronyms

A AENA Aeropuertos Espan˜oles y Navegacion Ae´rea (Spanish Airports and Air Navigation authority) AFET Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs AIES Austria Institut fu¨r Europa- und Sicherheitspolitik (Austrian Institute for European and Security Policy) ARD Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator ASI Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (Italian Space Agency) ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle

C CAP Common Agricultural Policy CCP Common Commercial Policy CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites CFSP Common Foreign Security Policy CNES Centre national d’e´tudes spatiales (French Space Agency) COSPAR Committee on Space Research CRV Crew Return Vehicle CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy CSG Guiana Space Center CSTS Crew Space Transportation System

D DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DLR Deutsche Zentrum fu¨r Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Space Center) DMS-R Data Management System DoD Department of Defense

E EADS European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company EC European Commission ECU European Currency Unit EDA European Defence Agency EDRS European Data Relay Satellite EDTIB European Defence Technological and Industrial Base EEA European Environmental Agency EEAS European External Action Service EEC European Economic Community EGAS European Guaranteed Access to Space EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service EIDHR European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights ELDO European Launcher Development Organisation ENP European Neighbourhood Policy ENVISAT ENVIronmental SATellite EPC European Political Cooperation ERS European Remote Sensing ERTS Earth Resources Technology Satellite ESA European Space Agency ESDP European Security and Defence Policy ESO European Southern Observatory ESP European Space Policy ESPI European Space Policy Institute ESRO European Space Research Organisation ESS European Security Strategy ESSP European Satellite Services Provider ETPS Empire Test Pilots School EU European Union EUMC European Union Military Committee EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites EUMS European Union Military Staff EUROCONTROL European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation

F FLPP Future Launcher Preparatory Programme FOC Full Operational Capability List of Acronyms 189

G GAGAN GPS and GEO-Augmented Navigation GEO Geostationary Orbit GEO Group on Earth Observation GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems GJU Galileo Joint Undertaking GLONASS Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema GMES Global Monitoring for Environment and Security GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System GPS Global Positioning System GSLV Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GTO Geostationary Transfer Orbit

H HiROS Unconﬁrmed US-German Cooperation on Optical Satellite Reconnaissance

I IACG Inter-Agency Consultative Group IAU International Astronomical Union ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile IEP Institut fu¨r Europaïsche Politik (Institute for European Politics) Ifri Institut Français des Relations Internationales (French Institute of International Relations) IfS Instrument for Stability IFSH Institut fu¨r Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik (Institute for Peace Studies and Security Policy) IKI Russian Space Research Institute ILS International Launch Services IOC Initial Operational Capacity IOV In-Orbit Validation IRBM Intermediate-range ballistic missile ISECG International Space Exploration Coordination Group ISPM International Solar Polar Mission ISS International Space Station ISSI International Space Science Institute ISU International Space University ITAR International Traffic in Arms Regulations 190 List of Acronyms

J JUICE Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer JWST James Web Space Telescope

K KAL007 Korean Air Lines Flight 007

L L3S Third-Generation Substitution Launcher LCT Laser Communication Terminal LEO Low Earth Orbit LPAC Launching Programme Advisory Committee LPSP Laboratoire de Physique Stellaire et Plane´taire LST Large Space Telescope

M MCO Maintien en Conditions Ope´rationnelles (Maintenance and Operational Readiness) ME Midlife Evolution MES Master of European Studies MFG Meteosat First Generation MGIMO Moscow State Institute of International Relations MISI Mutually Intended Strategic Interdependence MOU Memorandum of Understanding MSAS Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System MSG Meteosat Second Generation MSS Multi-spectral Scanner MTG Meteosat Third Generation

N NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NAVSTAR Navigation System for Timing and Ranging NEO Near-Earth Orbit NEOs Near-Earth Objects NGL Next-Generation Launcher List of Acronyms 191

O ORFEO Optical and Radar Federation for Earth Observation Programme OS Open Service

P PPP Public–Private Partnership PRS Public-Regulated Service PSC Political and Security Committee PSSI Prague Security Studies Institute

R RTD Research and Technological Development RTG Radioisotopic Thermal Generator R&D Research and Development

S SAR Search and Rescue SatCen EU Satellite Centre SBAS Satellite-Based Augmentation System SEDE Subcommittee on Security and Defence SEPS Solar-Electric Propulsion System SME Small-and-Medium Enterprises SitCen Situation Centre SoL Safety-of-Life Service SPOT Satellite Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre SSA Space Situation Awareness SSN Space Surveillance Network SSO Sun-Synchronous Orbit SSP09 ISU 2009 Space Studies Program SST Space Surveillance and Tracking SSTC Belgian Scientiﬁc, Technical and Cultural Services SSTL Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. SWP Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (German Institute for International and Security Affairs)

T TCBM Transparency and Conﬁdence-Building Measures TEU Treaty on European Union 192 List of Acronyms

TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union TRIOS-1 Television and Infrared Observation Meteorological Satellite TRL Technology Readiness Level

U UAS Unmanned Aerial Systems US United States of America USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

V VERTA Vega Research and Technology Accompaniment

W WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System WEU Western European Union WTO World Trade Organization Index

A reorganisation of European launch sector, Aerial photograph, 14 147–149 Air Force plans, 90 strategic enablers, 138–139 Al-Ekabi, C., 1–45, 118, 137–155 strong support by European institutional Algieri, F., 93–101 actors, 143–147 Apollo program, 87–89 sustainable commercial strategy, 149–151 Ariane Blue Streak programme, 4–5 ELDO, 6 B failure of Europa, 6–9 Baranes, B., 118 IRBM, 3 Barroso, J.M., 26 L3S, 10–11 Barrot, J., 39 missile, 2–3 Baudoin, A., 18 propulsion system test, 11–12 Bayh, E., 79 Spacelab and Marots, 10–11 Beer, T., 25 Symphonie project, 10 BeiDou navigation systems, 132 Ariane 5 Midlife Evolution (Ariane 5 ME), Bigot, B., 139–141, 143, 146, 148, 150–153 129, 144 Big science. See Space sciences Asbeck, F., 105–112 Bleeker, J., 70 Aschbacher, J., 21, 23 Blue Streak programme, 4–5 Astrium Space Transportation (Astrium ST), Bohi, D.R., 79 147 Bonnet, R.-M., 63–75 Astronet infrastructure road map, 74 Boussarie, E., 18 Autarky, 51 Brachet, G., 16, 17, 20, 22 Autonomous access to space Brune, S.-C., 117 central pillar of ESP, 139 Bush, G.W., 100 complete launcher family, 151–152 conditions and criteria, 141–143 deﬁnition, 142 C economic risk, 140 Caltarigone, F., 18 framework conditions in upstream sector, Carpenter, T.G., 52 139–141 Charbonnel, J., 10 human space ﬂight, 160, 161 Cherdron, T., 135 next generation launcher, 152–154 Ciccolella, A., 25

Collective governance system, 95 space security Collet-Billon, L., 139–141, 144, 146, 148, dichotomy, 114 150–153 earth observation, monitoring and Comet Halley, 68–69 surveillance, 120–121 Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), 74 navigation, positioning and timing, Common agricultural policy (CAP), 54–55 121–122 Common commercial policy (CCP), 55 surveillance, 122–123 Common Foreign Security Policy (CFSP), 57, telecommunication, 118–120 95, 96 Densing, R., 127–135 Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), d’Escatha, Y., 139–141, 144, 146, 148, 95, 96 150–153 Copernicus Di Bondone, G., 69 earth observation, 120–121 Diamant launcher programme, 6 COSMO-SkyMed, 18–19 Dickow, M., 113–123 DLR, 18 Dinesh Varma, M., 150 EUMETSAT, 16–17 DOE energy technology R&D program, 87, 88 European Space Agency, 20 Duncan, F., 86 Meteosat project, 16 Pleíades programme, 19 SPOT programme, 17 E in financial crisis, 25–27 Earth observation GMES concept, 21–22 Copernicus, 120–121 operational phase, 27–28 COSMO-SkyMed, 18–19 pre-operational phase, 23–25 DLR, 18 remote sensing, 14–16 EUMETSAT, 16–17 service component, 24 European Space Agency, 20 in situ component, 24 Meteosat project, 16 space component, 24 Pleíades programme, 19 Cordes, R., 33, 37 SPOT programme, 17 COSMO-SkyMed, 18–19 space applications, 130–131 Covello, F., 19 Economic independence, 51 Ehricke, U., 56 Energy policy D independence aspects, 56–57 Damilano, P., 18 vs. space policies, 83–85 Danchik, R.J., 30 ENVIronmental SATellite (ENVISAT), 20 Dasgupta, P., 78 Europa 2, 9 Data Management System (DMS-R), 158–159 Europa launcher programme, 6–9 De Gaulle, C., 2, 4, 5, 9 European Data Relay Satellite (EDRS), 133 De Selding, P., 13, 17–19, 25–27, 42–45, 122, European External Action Service (EEAS), 140, 142, 145, 147, 148, 151–154 97, 107 De Winne, F., 157–163 European Galileo navigation system Defence policy civilian use, 32–33 autonomy, 94–95 deployment/development phase, 38 decision-making and shaping, 97 EGNOS, 33–36 European Council in December 2013, EUROCONTROL, 35 99–100 GJU, 38–40 financing system, 98 initiation, 37–38 historical and institutional settings, 95–99 in-orbit validation, 43–45 Lisbon Treaty, 97, 98 resurrection, 40–42 restricted actor in global context, 100–101 satellite navigation, 29–32 satellite reconnaissance systems, 120, 121 European geostationary navigation overlay sovereignty and interdependence, 94–95 service (EGNOS), 33–36, 122 Index 195

European guaranteed access to space Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya (EGAS), 145 Sistema (GLONASS), 31–32 European integration project, 53 Global Positioning System (GPS), 30–31 European Launcher Development Organisation G-MOSAIC, 120 (ELDO), 6 Gray, L.C., 78 European launch sector, reorganisation of, Griffin, J.M., 79 147–149 Guiana Space Centre (CSG), 145, 146 European Organisation for Exploitation of Gupta, E., 79 Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), 16–17 European Organization for Safety of Air H Navigation (EUROCONTROL), 35 Hackla¨nder, D., 56 European Southern Observatory (ESO), 63 Halley’s Comet, 68–69 European Space Agency (ESA), 13, 20, 107 Hansen, R., 39, 41, 49–61, 129 European space exploration programme, 160 Harris, R., 15 European Union Military Committee Harvey, B., 2–4, 6–11, 31 (EUMC), 97 Heal, G., 78 External trade policy, 55–56 Hertz, H., 133 Hewlett, R.G., 86 Hill, C., 95 F Hulsroj, P., 118 Foreign policy Human space flight autonomy, 94–95 access to space, 160–162 defence policy (see defence policy) advantage, 160 security policy (see Security policy) astronauts into space, 162 sovereignty of state, 94 common space transportation policy, 160 France’s Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales DMS-R, 158–159 (CNES), 6 drawbacks, 160 Future Launcher Preparatory Programme European role in, 161–163 (FLPP), 152 European space exploration programme, 160 ISS framework, 163 G low earth orbits, 157, 162 Galileo joint undertaking (GJU), 38–40 Space Council resolution, 158 Galileo project civilian use, 32–33 deployment/development phase, 38 I EGNOS, 33–36, 122 In-orbit validation (IOV), 43–45 EUROCONTROL, 35 Institutional actors, political/financial support, GJU, 38–40 143–147 initiation, 37–38 Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), 3, 4 in-orbit validation, 43–45 Intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM), resurrection, 40–42 3, 4 satellite navigation, 29–32 International Astronomical Union (IAU), 74 space applications, 132 International Code of Conduct for Outer Space space security, 121–122 Activities, 106, 110 George, A.L., 84 International Traffic in Arms Regulations Gerard, B., 17 (ITAR), 127 German Aerospace Centre (DLR), 18 Gilbert, R.J., 78 Giotto mission, 68–70 J Global Monitoring for Environment and James Web Space Telescope (JWST), 73 Security (GMES), 21–22, 115, 131 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 67 196 Index

Johnston, J., 14, 15 O Jones, R.A., 52 Obama, B.H., 90 Juste retour principle, 39 OHB system, 43–44 Out-of-Ecliptic mission, 66–67

K Kennedy, J.F., 86 P Kinnock, N., 37 Pagkratis, S., 40 Kneese, A.V., 78 Paliouras, E., 25 Koehane, R., 84 Parus navigation system, 31 Krasner, S.D., 94 Plattard, S., 39, 41 Krige, J., 2–5, 7–11 Ple´iades programme, 19 Kyoto protocol, 21 Political and Security Committee (PSC), 97 Political independence, 50, 53 Prasad, R., 33, 35 L Project independence, 87, 91 Lahcen, A., 118 Public-regulated service (PRS), 121–122 Landsat, 15–16 Laser communication terminal (LCT), 133 Lauer, D.T., 17 R Launching Programme Advisory Committee Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (LPAC), 65 (RTG), 68 Launch sector, reorganisation of, 147–149 Rao, G.S., 30 Le Gall, J.-Y., 145 Reinke, N., 127–135 Lisbon Treaty, 97, 98 Revnivjkh, S.G., 33 Living planet, 71 Robinson, J., 105–112 Low earth orbits (LEO), 157 Ruello, A., 142, 145, 148–150 Lundestad, G., 4, 5, 9 Ruggieri, M., 33, 35 Lu¨st, R., 65 Rum, G., 18 Russo, A., 2–5, 7–11

M Manhattan project, 86–89 S Mastorakis, P., 1–45 Sagdeev, R., 69 Mautz, R., 132 Salomonson, V.V., 17 McDougall, W.A., 2, 4–6 Sarkozy, N., 146, 148 McMahon, J.A., 55 Satellite Centre (SatCen), 109–110 Meteosat project, 16 Satellite communication, 132–134 Milagro, P.M., 25 Satellite navigation system, 131–132 Milagro-Perez, M.P., 21, 23, 24, 28 Satellite Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre Mo¨lling, C., 117 (SPOT), 17–18 Morain, S.A., 17 Satellite reconnaissance systems, 120, 121 Musis project, 120 Schmitt, H., 87 Mutually Intended Strategic Interdependence Schubert, S.R., 77–91 (MISI), 116–117 Sebesta, L., 9–11 Security policy autonomy, 94–95 N decision-making and shaping, 97 Next generation launcher (NGL), 129, 152–154 European Council in December 2013, Nico, F., 116 99–100 Nondependence ﬁnancing system, 98 political concern, 171 historical and institutional settings, 95–99 scope, 169–171 Lisbon Treaty, 97, 98 Index 197

restricted actor in global context, 100–101 framework, 107–108 sovereignty and interdependence, 94–95 Galileo global navigation satellite system, Sentinel mission, 27–28 108 Sheehan, M., 4, 9, 139 hegemon, 116 Sounding rocket programme, 65 industrial dimension of autonomy, 117–118 Sovereignty, 94–95 Japan-EU Space Dialogue, 111 Soyuz in Kourou, 151 MISI, 116–117 Spaak, P.-H., 54 requirements, 110–111 Space applications strategic partnership, 115–116 challenges, 128–129 Space situational awareness (SSA), 108–109, earth observation, 130–131 123–124, 134–135 independence and cooperation, 135 Space surveillance and tracking (SST), 109 launcher, 129–130 Space surveillance network (SSN), 108 navigation systems, 131–132 States’ pursuit of energy autonomy requirements, 127 Air Force plans, 90 satellite communication, 132–134 energy vs. space, 83–85 space situational awareness, 134–135 political autonomy strategic impacts of, 127–128 diagrammatic representation, 82, 83 Space policy in energy context, 78–83 conceptual exploration high oil price and durations, 81–82 economic (in)dependence, 51 mission independence, 78 political (in)dependence, 50 role, 79 strategic (in)dependence, 51–52 project independence, 87, 88 dependence and independence, 60–61 space policy, 89–91 CFSP, 57 success and failures, 85–89 common agricultural policy, 54–55 US space mission, 91 energy, 56–57 Steele, H., 79 European integration project, 53 Stefan, B., 25 external trade policy, 55–56 Stephan, B., 21 space, 58–60 Stiglitz, J.E., 78 Space sciences Stine, D.D., 86 design-to-cost approach, 71 Sweeney, J.L., 78 ESRO launching programme, 64–66 Symphonie project, 10 evolution, 73–75 Giotto mission, 68–70 global cooperation and universal T dependence, 73–75 TanDEM-X, 18, 130–131 Horizon 2000, 70–73 Technological dependence ISPM crisis, 66–68 causes, 168 Tempel-2/Halley, 69 effects, 166–168 Space security industry, 172 autonomy for, 113–114 nondependence, 169–171 Copernicus, 108 priority level, 165–166 and defence R&D investment, 169 dichotomy, 114 space faring nation, 172 earth observation, monitoring and Telecommunication, 118–120 surveillance, 120–121 TerraSAR-X, 18 navigation, positioning and timing, Third-gener-ation substitution launcher (L3S), 121–122 10–11 surveillance, 122–123 Toman, M.A., 79 telecommunication, 118–120 Tortora, J.-J., 165–172 dimensions of space, 108–110 Tournachon, G.F., 14 EU-US Dialogue, 111 TRANSIT satellite navigation project, 30 198 Index

Transparency and conﬁdence-building measure V-2 rocket, 2–3 (TCBM), 110 Treaty on Functioning of European Union (TFEU), 55 W Tsikada navigation system, 31 Walls, M.A., 79 Ward, S., 15 Weimar Triangle, 99 U Wendt, A., 84 Ulysses, 68 Wirt, U., 135 World Trade Organisation (WTO), 55 Wouters, J., 39, 41, 49–61, 129 V Vega programme, 129, 151 VEga Research and Technology Y Accompaniment (VERTA), 152 Yergin, D., 79 Vega small-satellite launcher, 13 Venet, C., 129, 146 Vogel, T., 26, 27 Z von Braun, W., 2 Zak, A., 2