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Religion, Miss America, and the Construction of Evangelical Womanhood

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Religion, Miss America, and the Construction of Evangelical Womanhood Religion, Miss America, and the Construction of Evangelical Womanhood by Mandy Ellene McMichael Graduate Program in Religion Duke University Date: April 8, 2014 Approved: ___________________________ Grant Wacker, Supervisor ___________________________ Mark Chaves ___________________________ Randy L. Maddox ___________________________ Thomas A. Tweed ___________________________ Timothy B. Tyson Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Program in Religion in the Graduate School of Duke University 2014 ABSTRACT Religion, Miss America, and the Construction of Evangelical Womanhood by Mandy Ellene McMichael Graduate Program in Religion Duke University Date: April 8, 2014 Approved: ___________________________ Grant Wacker, Supervisor ___________________________ Mark Chaves ___________________________ Randy L. Maddox ___________________________ Thomas A. Tweed ___________________________ Timothy B. Tyson An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Program in Religion in the Graduate School of Duke University 2014 Copyright by Mandy Ellene McMichael 2014 Abstract Christian engagement with beauty contests shifted dramatically between the initial Miss America pageant in 1921 and its 90 th anniversary in 2011. This dissertation explores how and why many Christians found the organization an institution worthy of partnership with the church. It examines three aspects of Christian involvement in the contest: the long history of beauty pageants, the persistent emphasis on individual physical attractiveness, and the idea of witness in southern evangelical culture. It argues that after 1965, at least two factors enabled the unlikely marriage of Christians and the Miss America Organization: the perceived threat of second-wave feminism and evangelicalism’s increasing desire to engage culture. In addition, Christian contestants gained rewards, both tangible and intangible, from their pageant participation. Most significant for some Christian women, the competition functioned as an arena in which women could serve as Christian evangelists. Pleasure, prizes, performance, and purpose: contestants found all these and more on the stage. The goal here is not to prove that the Miss America pageant is somehow inherently religious, but rather that the Christians who participated in the contest were dealing with multiple expectations from church and culture that dictated, influenced, and explained their experience. This dissertation describes the place Christian women found in the Miss America pageant for their religious self-understanding. By telling the story of Christian women in a gendered iv and sexualized arena, I hope to emphasize the flexibility of gender roles and religious mores inherent in Christian participation. v Dedication To Chad, for your unwavering support vi Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Statement of Problem and Argument .................................................................................. 5 Significance .............................................................................................................................. 6 Methods and Sources ............................................................................................................. 8 Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 13 Evangelicals ......................................................................................................................... 13 Cultural and Symbolic Capital ......................................................................................... 14 What’s in a name?................................................................................................................. 16 Summary of Chapters .......................................................................................................... 17 Final Note .............................................................................................................................. 21 1. Pageant Promises .................................................................................................................... 23 A Brief history of Pageants .................................................................................................. 24 Making Miss America possible .......................................................................................... 34 The quintessential pageant.................................................................................................. 37 1920s-1950s: From a Shaky Start to the Golden Years ..................................................... 38 1960s-1980s: Protests and Milestones ................................................................................ 46 1990s-2011: Professionalizing the Pageant ........................................................................ 53 The Road to Miss America: How does the Process Work? ............................................. 58 vii Miss America, the South, and American Evangelicalism ............................................... 62 Pageant Promises .................................................................................................................. 65 Beyond Miss America .......................................................................................................... 66 2. Pageants and Pulchritude ...................................................................................................... 69 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 69 Shifting Ideals and The Means to Achieve Them: Pursuing Beauty ............................. 75 Beauty as Cultural Currency in the 20 th and 21 st centuries – .......................................... 86 Christian teachings on beauty and the body .................................................................... 93 Perfectly Performed Beauty: Pageants as Sites for Determining Success ................... 101 Christians and the Miss America Pageant ...................................................................... 104 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 110 3. Purpose Driven Pageantry ................................................................................................... 113 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 113 Making Pageants Palatable: Miss America and Religion, 1921-1965 .......................... 115 An unlikely partnership: The Miss America Pageant and American Christians, 1965- 2011 ....................................................................................................................................... 127 Making Meaning: Religion in the Public Sphere Post-1965 .......................................... 147 Multiple Voices: A Test Case ............................................................................................ 150 For Such a Time as This: The Esther Narrative .............................................................. 156 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 158 4. Pageant Prayers ..................................................................................................................... 161 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 161 viii Christianity and “Our” Miss Americas ........................................................................... 167 Crisis and Call ..................................................................................................................... 173 Faith: Answering the Call, Committed to the Process .................................................. 180 Rewards: Of Crowns and Causes ..................................................................................... 189 Tests and Trials: .................................................................................................................. 197 Those that Lost and the Pattern ........................................................................................ 207 A Place to Belong: One among Many .............................................................................. 213 Other Voices ........................................................................................................................ 217 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 221 5. Pageant Preachers ................................................................................................................. 223 Introduction ........................................................................................................................
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